658 | COMBINED MASTER DECK W/REPEATS

Reticular formation:

Reticular formation: a structure in the brain stem that maintains alertness and consciousness. pg.218

policies for older adults

SS benefits, medicare (rarely adequate)

Bayley Scales of Infant Development

Scales developed by Nancy Bayley that are widely used to assess infant development. The current version has three components: a mental scale, a motor scale, and an infant behavior profile.

short-term memory store

Second part of Human Information Processing System. Retain attended-to information briefly so we can actively "work on" it to reach our goals

parallel play

Second step in 3-Step sequence of social development in which a child plays near other children with similar materials but does not try to influence their behavior.

5-HTTLPR

Serotonin transporter that has been implicated with depression in stress situations but lower levels of depression w/o stress

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory - Stage 4 Industry vs Inferiority (Competence) Middle Childhood

Stage 4 Industry vs Inferiority (Competence) Middle Childhood - 5-12 years - Neighbors, Schools, Organizations Industry versus inferiority: At school, children learn to work and cooperate with others. Inferiority develops when negative experiences at home, at school, or with peers lead to feelings of incompetence.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory - Stage 8 Ego Integrity vs Despair Late Adulthood

Stage 8 Ego Integrity vs Despair Late Adulthood - 65-Death - Existential Crisis or Spiritual Reconciliation Integrity versus despair: Integrity results from feeling that life was worth living as it happened. Older people who are dissatisfied with their lives fear death.

TV time during toddler stage

TV and Video Deficit Effect Toddlers demonstrate poorer performance after viewing a video than viewing a live demonstration. Increased TV watching is associated with negative language progress, attention, memory, and reading difficulties in early school years TV and videos that are effective teaching tools have closeup to characters who look directly at camera, address questions to viewers, and pause for response. research shows a correlation between excessive television viewing and overweight in older children, parents should limit the time very young children spend in front of the TV.

intermodal perception

The ability to relate and integrate information from two or more sensory modalities, such as vision and hearing.

Empathy

The ability to understand another's emotional state and feel with that person, or respond emotionally in a similar way. p208

What does the evidence say about children who are unhappy with their natal sex?

The are not pretending or confused.

insecure-avoidant attachment

The attachment pattern characterizing infants who seem unresponsive to the parent when she is present, are usually not distressed by parental separation, and avoid or are slow to greet the parent when she returns.

secure attachment

The attachment pattern characterizing infants who use the parent as a secure base from which to explore, may be distressed by parental separation, but actively seek contact and are easily comforted by the parent when she returns.

Secure Attachment

The attachment pattern characterizing infants who use the parent as a secure base from which to explore. They may be distressed by parental separation, but convey clear pleasure and are easily comforted when the parent returns. Distinguished from insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant and disorganized/disoriented attachment. p198

prenatal development

The baby's development during a pregnancy 1. the germinal period 2. the period of the embryo 3. the period of the fetus

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. page 33

Menarche

The first menstrual period. p371

attachment in the making phase

The second phase in the development of attachment, occurring at 3 or 4 months of age and characterized by preference for familiar figures

sensitive periods

Times when a person is especially ready for or responsive to certain experiences.

Tobacco and pregnancy

Tobacco smoke pass from the mother to the developing baby. Following effects on the unborn child increased heart rate, reduces oxygen supply, slows cell growth in low birth weight, can cause a miscarriage.

Behaviorism (lecture and book)

Traditional behaviorism Classical conditioning associations (Pavlov's dogs) Operant conditioning: positive/negative reinforcement & punishment (Skinner) Social learning theory - Observational learning/imitation (Bandura) Behaviorism and social learning theory Continuous: Development involves an increase in learned behaviors. Many possible courses: Behaviors reinforced and modeled may vary from person to person. Emphasis on nurture: Development is the result of conditioning and modeling. Both early and later experiences are important According to behaviorism, directly observable events— stimuli and responses—are the appropriate focus of study. North American behaviorism began in the early twentieth century with the work of John Watson (1878-1958), who wanted to create an objective science of psychology. Traditional Behaviorism. Watson was inspired by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov's studies of animal learning. Pavlov knew that dogs release saliva as an innate reflex when they are given food. But he noticed that his dogs were salivating before they tasted any food—when they saw the trainer who usually fed them. The dogs, Pavlov reasoned, must have learned to associate a neutral stimulus (the trainer) with another stimulus (food) that produces a reflexive response (salivation). Because of this association, the neutral stimulus alone could bring about a response resembling the reflex. Eager to test this idea, Pavlov successfully taught dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell by pairing it with the presentation of food. He had discovered classical conditioning. Watson wanted to find out if classical conditioning could be applied to children's behavior. In a historic experiment, he taught Albert, an 11-month-old infant, to fear a neutral stimulus—a soft white rat—by presenting it several times with a sharp, loud sound, which naturally scared the baby. Little Albert, who at first had reached out eagerly to touch the furry rat, began to cry and retreat at the sight of it (Watson & Raynor, 1920). In fact, Albert's fear was so intense that researchers eventually challenged the ethics of studies like this one. Watson concluded that environment is the supreme force in development and that adults can mold children's behavior by carefully controlling stimulus- response associations. He viewed development as continuous—a gradual increase with age in the number and strength of these associations. Another form of behaviorism was B. F. Skinner's (1904- 1990) operant conditioning theory. According to Skinner, the frequency of a behavior can be increased by following it with a wide variety of reinforcers, such as food, praise, or a friendly smile, or decreased through punishment, such as disapproval or withdrawal of privileges. As a result of Skinner's work, operant conditioning became a broadly applied learning principle. Several kinds of social learning theory emerged. The most influential, devised by Albert Bandura (1925- ), emphasizes modeling, also known as imitation or observational learning, as a powerful source of development. The baby who claps her hands after her mother does so, the child who angrily hits a playmate in the same way that he has been punished at home, and the teenager who wears the same clothes and hairstyle as her friends at school are all displaying observational learning. In his early work, Bandura found that diverse factors affect children's motivation to imitate: their own history of reinforcement or punishment for the behavior, the promise of future reinforcement or punishment, and even observations of the model being reinforced or punished.

Diversity and inequality in middle childhood In-group vs out-group biases

Understanding Diversity and Inequality By the early school years, children absorb prevailing societal attitudes, associating power and privilege with white people and poverty and inferior status with people of color. They do not necessarily acquire these views directly from parents or friends, whose attitudes often differ from their own. Rather, children seem to pick up mainstream beliefs from implicit messages in the media and elsewhere in their environments. Powerful sources include social contexts that present a world sorted into groups, such as racial and ethnic segregation in schools and communities. In-Group and Out-Group Biases: Development of Prejudice. Studies in diverse Western nations confirm that by age 5 to 6, white children generally evaluate their own racial group favorably and other racial groups less favorably or negatively. In-group favoritism emerges first; children simply prefer their own group, generalizing from self to similar others. The ease with which a trivial group label supplied by an adult can induce ingroup favoritism is striking. In one study, European American 5yearolds were told that they were members of a group based on T-shirt color. Although no information was provided about group status and the children never met any group members, they still displayed vigorous ingroup favoritism (Dunham, Baron, & Carey, 2011). When shown photos of unfamiliar agemates wearing either an ingroup or an outgroup shirt, the children claimed to like members of their own group better, gave them more resources, and engaged in positively biased recall of group members' behavior. Out-group prejudice requires a more challenging social comparison between ingroup and outgroup. But it does not take long for white children to acquire negative attitudes toward ethnic minority outgroups when such attitudes are encouraged by circumstances in their environments. When white Canadian 4 to 7yearolds living in a white community and attending nearly all white schools sorted positive and negative adjectives into boxes labeled as belonging to a white child and a black child, outgroup prejudice emerged at age 5. Unfortunately, many minority children show a reverse pattern: out-group favoritism, in which they assign positive characteristics to the privileged white majority and negative characteristics to their own group. But recall that with age, children pay more attention to inner traits. The capacity to classify the social world in multiple ways enables school-age children to understand that people can be both "the same" and "different"—those who look different need not think, feel, or act differently. Consequently, voicing of nega tive attitudes toward minorities declines after age 7 or 8. Around this time, both majority and minority children express in-group favoritism, and white children's prejudice against out-group members often weakens. Yet even in children aware of the injustice of discrimination, prejudice often operates unintentionally and without awareness— as it does in many adults. Consider a study in which U.S. children and adults were shown pictures of computer-generated racially ambiguous faces dis playing happy and angry expressions and asked to classify them by race. White participants more often categorized happy faces as white and angry faces as African American or Asian. These implicit biases were evident across all ages tested—as early as 3 or 4. In contrast, African American participants did not show any racial biases in their responses. The absence of any ingroup favoritism (classifying happy faces as black) suggests an early emerging, implicit sensitivity to prevailing racial attitudes among African Americans. These findings raise the question of whether the decline in white children's explicit racial bias during middle childhood is a true decrease or whether it reflects their growing awareness of widely held standards that deem prejudice to be inappropriate— or both. Around age 10, white children start to avoid talking about race in order to appear unbiased, just as many adults do. At least to some degree, then, older school-age children's desire to present themselves in a socially

sociocultural theory

Vygotsky's theory of how culture - the values, beliefs, customs and skills of a social group - is transmitted to the next generation

fine motor development in middle childhood

Writing: Mastery of uppercase letters, then lowercase Increased legibility Drawing: Dramatic gains in organization, detail, representation of depth Ability to copy two-dimensional shapes Ability to relate objects to one another as part of an organized whole

Should women exercise during pregnancy?

YES! Mother's fitness is related to improved fetal cardiovascular functioning, higher birth weight, lower risk of maternal diabetes and premature birth. page 88

episodic memory

Your memory for everyday experiences- what researchers call episodic memory page 240

Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) Sleep

a "regular" sleep state in which the body is almost motionless and heart rate, breathing, and brain-wave activity are slow and even

rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to open the mouth and search for the nipple

methylation

a biochemical process that influences behavior by suppressing gene activity and expression. page 70

Guided participation

a broader concept than scaffolding. It refers to shared endeavors between more expert and less expert participants, without specifying the precise features of communication page 236

Disequilibrium

a child understands the world in one particular way and then sees something happen that can't fit into that understanding *children are in cognitive discomfort

Traditional Classroom

a classroom in which the teacher is the sole authority for knowledge, rules, and decision making. Students are relatively passive learners whose progress is evaluated by how well they keep pace with a uniform set of standards for their grade. Distinguished from constructivist and social-constructivist classrooms. p324

genetic counseling

a communication process designed to help couples assess their chances of giving birth to a baby with a hereditary disorder and choose the best course of action in view of risks and family goals

genetic counseling

a communication process designed to help couples assess their chances of giving birth to a baby with a hereditary disorder and choose the best course of action in view of risks and family goals *as maternal age rises beyond 35 the rates of Down syndrome and other chromosomal abnormalities increase, older paternal age present a heightened risk of DNA mutations, after age 40 it is associated with increased incidence of several serious psychological disorders: autism, schizophrenia, bipolar.

Down Syndrome

a condition of retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one's genetic makeup chromosomal disorder that results from a failure of the twenty first pair of chromosomes to separate during meiosis so the individual receives 3 of these chromosomes rather than the normal 2--trisomy 21

Cooley's anemia

a condition that affects the body's ability to produce fully developed hemoglobin and red blood cells; thalassemia major -Recessive 1/500

PKU (phenylketonuria)

a condition that makes it impossible for babies to metabolize certain proteins -Recessive 1/10000-20000

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

placebo

a fake drug used in the testing of medication

blended or reconstituted family

a family structure formed through cohabitation or remarriage that includes parent, child, and steprelatives

developmental science

a field of study devoted to understanding constancy and change throughout the lifespan

Developmental science

a field of study devoted to understanding constancy and change throughout the lifespan single goal: to identify those factors that influence consistencies and transformations in people from conception to death

infant-directed speech (IDS)

a form of communication made up of short sentences with high-pitched, exaggerated expression, clear pronunciation, distinct pauses between speech segments, clear gestures to support verbal meaning, and repetition of new words in a variety of contexts

coregulation

a form of supervision in which parents exercise general oversight while letting children take charge of moment-by-moment decision making

Strange Situation

a laboratory procedure used to assess the quality of attachment between 1 and 2 years of age by observing the baby's response to eight short episodes involving brief separations from and reunions with the caregiver in an unfamiliar playroom. p197

a malnourished body protects itself by establishing?

a low basal metabolism rate, which may endure after nutrition improves, also malnutrition may disrupt appetite control centers in the brain, causing the child to overeat when food becomes plentiful. *learning and behavior can be seriously affected

skeletal age

a measure of physical maturation based on the child's level of skeletal development *it is determined by x-raying the long bones of the body to see the extent to which soft, pliable cartilage has hardened into bone--gradual process that is completed in adolescence

cognitive maps

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

structured observation

a method that involves presenting an identical situation to each child and recording the child's behavior

stepping reflex

a neonatal reflex in which an infant lifts first one leg and then the other in a coordinated pattern like walking

recovery

a new stimulus- a change in the environment- causes responsiveness to return to a high level

organization

a process that occurs internally... page 150

structured interview

a research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions in the same way Strengths: permits comparisons of participants responses and efficient data collection. researchers can specify answer alternatives that participants might not think of in open-ended interview Limitations: does not yield same depth of info as clinical interview. responses still subject to inaccurate reporting

Ethnic Identity

a sense of ethnic group membership and attitudes, beliefs and feelings associated with that membership; as an enduring aspect of the self. p412

Theoretical Hypothesis

a theoretical concept that is untested or extremely tentative

foundations of morality and aggression

all theories of moral development recognize that conscience begins to take shape in early childhood and most agree that at first childs morality is externally controlled by adults. truly moral individuals do not do the right thing just to conform to other expectations, rather they have developed compassionate concerns and principles of good conduct

gender identity

an image of oneself as relatively masculine or feminine in characteristics

Gender Identity

an image of oneself as relatively masculine or feminine in characteristics. p279

Irreversibility

an inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse direction, returning to the starting point page 230

Teratogen

any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period

small-for-date infants

are below their expected weight considering length of the pregnancy. page 98

events of the first two weeks

are delicate and uncertain, as many as 30% of zygotes do not survive this period. In some the sperm and ovum do not join properly in others cell duplication never begins

cooing stage

at about 2 months the infant begins to make vowel-like sounds

scale errors

attempting to do things that their body size makes impossible. page 207

preeclampsia (toxemia)

blood pressure increases sharply and the face, hands and feet swell in the last half of the pregnancy. page 91

make believe play

children act out everyday and imaginary activities page 153

organization (memory strategy)

grouping related items together

nature

hereditary information we receive from our parents at the moment of conception

carriers

heterozygotes that transmit the recessive allele to their offspring page 46

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

intelligence quotient (IQ)

indicates the extent to which the raw score (number of items passed) deviates from the typical performance of same-age individuals

intelligence quotient (IQ)

indicates the extent to which the raw score deviates from the typical performance of same-age. page 169

5-Httlpr

interferes with functioning of the inhibitory neurotransmitter serotonin. page 194

adaptation

involves building schemes through direct interaction with the environment. page 150

Brain organization

is greatly influenced by early experiences

Prenatal malnutrition can cause

lifelong health problems, can distort the structure of the liver, kidney, pancreas, and other organs

glial cells

make up about half of the brains volume responsible for myelination

prenatal diagnostic methods

medical procedures that permit detection of developmental problems before birth. page 53

episodic memory

memory of everyday experiences, recalled in context - linked to a particular time, place or person

Convergent Thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

cohort effect

observed group differences based on the era when people were born and grew up, exposing them to particular experiences that may affect the results of cross-sectional studies most widely discussed threat to accuracy of longitudinal findings

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation Strengths: Reflects participants everyday lives Limitations: Cannot control conditions of observation

states of arousal

of degrees of sleep and wakefulness page 104

extended-family household

parent and child live with one or more adult relatives. page 62

inhibited or shy, children

react negatively to and withdraw from novel stimuli . page 191

cross-sectional design

research design that examines people of different ages at a single point in time. page 36

Proteomics

scientist modify gene-specified proteins involved in biological aging and disease

niche-picking

tendency to actively choose environments that complement our heredity

depth perception

the ability to perceive the world in three dimensionspage 140

Creativity

the ability to produce work that is original yet appropriate - something others have not thought of that is useful in some way

executive function

the cognitive ability to organize and prioritize the many thoughts that arise from the various parts of the brain, allowing the person to anticipate, strategize, and plan behavior

preattachment phase

the first phase of John Bowlby's developmental attachment sequence, during the first three months of life, when infants show no visible signs of attachment

prefrontal cortex

the frontmost portion of the frontal lobes, especially prominent in humans; responsible for complex thought; in particular, consciousness and various "executive processes, including inhibition of impulses, integration of information, memory, reasoning, planning and problem solving.

Divergent Thinking

the generation of multiple and unusual possibilities when faced with a task or problem

Ethnography

the method by which researchers attempt to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside, without imposing any preconceived notions they might have through participant observations

neural tube

the primitive spinal cord that develops from the ectoderm and becomes the central nervous system

media violence and aggression

tv violence increased the likelihood of hostile thoughts and emotions and of verbally, physically, and relationally aggressive behavior.

monozygotic twins

twins who are genetically identical, created from one ova; identical twins. page 46

budding selfhood

want to decide for themselves. page 184

accommodation

we create new schemes or adjust old ones after noticing that our current ways of thinking do not capture the environment completely. page 150

intermodal perception

we make sense of these running streams of light, sound, tactile, order, and taste information page 143

The Difficult Child

(10%) is irregular in daily routines, is slow to accept new experiences, and tends to react negatively and intensely

four basic motor capacities

*greater flexibility *improved balance *better agility *greater fone (strength)

Importance of prenatal care

*medical care received during pregnancy before the baby is born increases the chances of having a healthy baby

reasons mothers don't seek prenatal health care

1. financial hardship 2. situational barriers: difficulty finding a doctor, getting appt.) 3. personal barriers (psychological stress, demands of other children... etc)

when can the sex of the fetus be detected?

12th week of pregnancy with ultrasound page 79

Early adulthood (ages)

18-40 yrs (developmental period)

Preoperational Stage

2-7yrs | Children undergo an extraordinary increase in representational, or symbolic, activity, although thought is not yet logical. p18

social smile

6 and 10 weeks that parents communication evokes a broad grin. page 185

Middle childhood (ages)

6-11 yrs (developmental period)

Late adulthood (ages)

65 yrs-death (developmental period)

baby fat peaks at

9 months *helps the small infant maintain a constant body temperature. in the second year most toddlers slim down--continues into middle childhood. Muscle tissue will then increase very slowly during infancy and peak during adolescences

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. page 44

self-conscious emotions

A second, higher-order set of feelings, including guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, and pride. Each involves injury to or enhancement of our sense of self

Gene

A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait

spatial intelligence

Ability to perceive the visual- spatial world accurately, to perform transformations on those perceptions, and to recreate aspects of visual experience in the absence of relevant stimuli (sculptor, navigator)

Scaffolding

Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance

Attachment Q-Sort

An alternative method, the Attachment Q-Sort, suitable for children between 1 and 5 years, depends on home observation (Waters et al., 1995). Either the parent or a highly trained observer sorts 90 behaviors—such as "Child greets mother with a big smile when she enters the room," "If mother moves very far, child follows along," and "Child uses mother's facial expressions as a good source of information when something looks risky or threatening"—into nine categories ranging from "highly descriptive" to "not at all descriptive" of the child. Then a score, ranging from high to low in security, is computed.

homozygous

An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait page 46

habituation

An organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it page 131

genotype

An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.

genotype

An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations. page 43

phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or directly observable traits. page 43

developmental quotient (DQ)

An overall score that combines subscores in motor, language, adaptive, and personal-social domains in the Gesell assessment of infants. *because most infants test scores to not tap the same dimensions of intelligence assessed in older children, they usually are conservatively tabled DQ rather than IQ's

Basic-level categories

Basic-level categories- ones that are at intermediate level of generality page 232

friendships in middle childhood

Become more complex and psychologically based Trust is the defining feature of friendship Friendships are more selective and stable -provide emotional support and help handle stress -teach emotional management and control -teach about communication with others -foster intellectual growth -allow practice of relationship skills

insecure avoidant attachment

Before separation from caregiver, these babies are indifferent to caregiver, and at reunion, they avoid the caregiver or are slow to greet them, are not clingy. 15% of North American infants in middle-SES families show this pattern. page 198

John Watson

Behaviorism Theory - emphasizes external behaviors of people and their reactions in a given situation Famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat. p16

sex differences in motor skills

Boys excel in gross motor skills, girls excel in fine motor skills Boys are encouraged to develop gross motor skills

Meiosis

Cell division that halves the number of chromosomes normally present in body cells to produce reproductive cells (gametes) in sexually reproducing organisms

meiosis

Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms. page 45

glial cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. Myelin is a type of glial cell. page 118

Controversial Children

Children who receive many votes, both positive and negative, on self-report measures of peer acceptance, indicating that they are both liked and disliked. Distinguished from other categories of Peer Acceptance: Popular, Neglected, Rejected and Average Children. p347

Fears and Anxieties in Middle Childhood

Common fears include poor academic performance peer rejection personal harm threats to parents' health frightening media events School phobia: 5-7 years: maternal separation 11-13: particular aspects of school Harsh living conditions promote severe anxieties

Body Image

Conception of and attitude toward one's physical appearance. p377

Stability of Temperament

Develops with age Low to moderate stability Better indicator after age 3

event-related potential (ERP)

Electrical changes in the brain that correspond to the brain's response to a specific event; measured with EEG.

sensory register

First part of Human Information Processing System. A memory system that momentarily preserves extremely accurate images of sensory information (sights and sounds)

zone of proximal development

In Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they receive proper guidance and instruction

discovery learning

In a Piagetian classroom, children are encouraged to discover for themselves through spontaneous interaction with the environment. Instead of presenting ready-made knowledge verbally, teachers provide a rich variety to actives designed to promote exploration and discovery, including art, puzzles, table games, dress-up clothing, building blocks, books, etc.

sensitivity to children's readiness to learn

In a Piagetian classroom, teachers introduce activities that build one the children's current thinking, challenging their incorrect ways of viewing the world. But they do not try to speed up development by imposing nee skills before the children indicate that they are interested and ready.

unconditioned response

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

cognitive equilibrium

In cognitive theory, a state of mental balance in which people are not confused because they can use their existing thought processes to understand current experiences and ideas.

socioeconomic status (SES)

Index which combines three related, but not completely overlapping, variables 1. years of education 2. prestige of one's job and the skill it requires, both of which measure social status 3. income, which measures economic status

neurons

Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information. *the human brain has 100-200 billion that store and transmit information. They are not tightly packed together

rejected-aggressive children

Largest sub type, show high rates of conflict, physical and relational aggression, and hyperactive, inattentive, and impulsive behavior. Usually deficient in perspective taking, misinterpreting the innocent behaviors of peers as hostile and blaming others for their social difficulties.

How do infant mortality rates in the U.S. compare to other industrialized nations?

Last; The U.S. has the highest levels of infant mortality among developed nations. page 64

operant conditioning

Learning based on the consequences of responding. page 131

In the U.S., the second leading cause of neonatal mortality is

Low birth weight, which is mostly preventable

Middle adulthood (40-65 years)

Many people are at the height of their careers and attain leadership positions. They must also help their children begin independent lives and their parents adapt to aging. They become more aware of their own mortality.

Strange Situation

Mary Ainsworth and he colleagues reasoned that securely attached infants and toddlers should use the parent as a secure base... page 197

How does affluence (wealth) influence parenting?

May be less involved, less emotionally close, and yet demanding of high achievement. page 60

amnion

Membrane that encloses the embryo in protective amniotic fluid

automatic processes

Mental activities that are so well-learned that they require no space in working memory and, therefore, permit us to focus on other information while performing them

Project Head Start (1965)

Most extensive federal intervention program for low-SES preschoolers, initiated in an effort to address learning problems prior to school entry. Provides children with a year or two of preschool, along with nutritional and health services. Parent involvement is central to Head Start philosophy

systematic observation (2 Types)

Naturalistic Observation and Structured Observation

BF Skinner

Operant Conditioning Theory - A form of learning in which spontaneous behavior is followed by a stimulus that changes the probability that the behavior will occur again. p131

chorion

Outermost layer of the two membranes surrounding the embryo; it forms the fetal part of the placenta. *surrounds the amnion, and from the chorion tiny fingerlike villi (or blood vessels) emerge.

Ethnography

Participant observation of a culture or distance social group. by making extensive field notes, the researcher tries to capture the culture's unique values and social process Strength: provides a more complete description that can be derived from single observational visit, interview or questionnaire Limitation: may be biased by researcher's values and theoretical preferences. findings cannot be applied to individuals and settings other than the ones studied

Late adulthood (65 years-death)

People adjust to retirement, to decreased physical strength and health, and often to the death of an intimate partner. They reflect on the meaning of their lives.

moral development in middle childhood

Pick up information about group status from implicit messages in their surroundings

process praise

Praise that emphasizes behavior and effort, such as "You figured it out!" Process praise - consistent with a mastery orientation - implies that competence develops through effort. Children feel less shame following failure if they previously received process praise

Goodness-of-Fit Model (Thomas & Chess)

Proposed by Thomas and Chess to explain how temperament and environment can together produce favorable outcomes. Goodness of fit involves creating child-rearing environments that recognize each child's temperament while simultaneously encouraging more adaptive functioning.

familiarity preference

Recovery to the familiar stimulus assesses remote memory

babinski reflex

Reflex in which a newborn fans out the toes when the sole of the foot is touched

Rooting

Reflex in which a newborn in which it turns its head in response to a gentle stimulus on its cheek

Moro reflex

Reflex in which a newborn strectches out the arms and legs and cries in response to a loud noise or an abrupt change in the environment

sucking reflex

Reflex that causes a newborn to make sucking motions when a finger or nipple if placed in the mouth

6 Substages of Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development

Reflexive Schemes Primary Circular Reactions Secondary Circular Reactions Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions Tertiary Circular Reactions Mental Representations

The Easy Child

(40%) quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, is generally cheerful, and adapts easily to new experiences

biological influences on gender typing

-evolutionary adaptiveness of male and female traits -effects of prenatal hormones *research confirms the preschoolers are drawn to peers who engage in similar levels of gender typed activities but they also like to spend time with same sex peers regardless of type of activity

how big is an embryo one month into prenatal development?

1 inch long

tertiary circular reactions

12-18 months- exploration of the properties of objects by acting on them in novel ways, imitation of novel behaviors, ability to search in several locations for a hidden object (accurate A-B search)

when can the sex of the baby be detected with ultrasound?

12th week page 79

ordinality,

14 and 16 months, toddlers display a beginning grasp of ordinality, or older relationships between quantitiespage 244

categorical self

18-30 months, children classify themselves and others on the basis of age... page 208

Trimesters of pregnancy

1st: 1-12 weeks 2nd: 13-24 weeks 3rd: 25-38 weeks

By the end of the first year of life an infant's birthweigth should_______.

22 pounds

How many sperm cells does a male produce per day?

300 million

when can infants distinguish positive and negative emotion in voices?

4 to 5 months. page 188

Middle adulthood (ages)

40-65 yrs (developmental period)

coordination of secondary circular reactions

8-12 months- intentional or goal-directed behavior, ability to find a hidden object in the first location in which it is hidden (object permanence), improved anticipation of events, imitation of behaviors slightly different from those the infant usually performs

fetus stage

9th week to end of pregnancy, longest prenatal period. Growth and finishing phase Rapid increase in size

Authoritative Parenting

A child rearing style that is high in acceptance and involvement, adaptive control techniques and appropriate autonomy granting. Distinguished from authoritarian, permissive and uninvolved child-rearing styles. p282

cystic fibrosis

A genetic disorder that is present at birth and affects both the respiratory and digestive systems. -Recessive 1/2000- 2500

Obesity

A greater than 20% increase over a healthy weight. Based on BMI - a ratio of weight to height associated with body fat. p295

gene

A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait Page 44

interactionist perspective

A sociological approach that generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction in order to explain society as a whole.

Apgar scale

A standardized system used to quickly assess a newborn's physical condition based on 5 characteristics (heart rate, respiratory effort, reflex irritability, muscle tone, color). A score of 0,1 or 2 is given at 1 minute and again at 5 minutes. Score of 7 or better = good physical condition Score b/t 4 & 6 = baby needs assistance Score 3 or below = infant in serious danger/emergency medical attention needed

Scaffolding

Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance *when the child has little notion of how to proceed, the adult uses direct instruction, breaking the task into manageable units, suggesting strategies and offering rationales for using them.

phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.

secure attachment

Attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy; caregiver is a secure base

self esteem in middle childhood

Differentiates and adjusts to more realistic level Becomes hierarchically structured

Self Conscious Emotions

Emotions involving injury to or enhancement of the sense of self; including guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, and pride. p188

The most effective interventions for childhood obesity are...?

Family based

Ovaries

Female gonads that produce ova (egg cells) and hormones

lifespan perspective

Four assumptions make up this broader view: that development is (1) lifelong, (2) multidimensional and multidirectional, (3) highly plastic, (4) affected by multiple, interacting forces.

Developmental Sequence of Cognitive Play Categories

Functional Play Constructive Play Make-Believe Play

differential susceptibility

Genetic factors that make individuals more or less responsive to environmental experiences.

Schemes

In Piaget's theory, actions or mental representations that organize knowledge as a way to make sense of experience

Semantic memory

Information removed from the context in which it was first learned that has become part of your general knowledge base. page 240

Folic acid deficiency

Macrocytic, megaloblastic anemia; no neurologic Sx (as opposed to vitamin B12 deficiency). Most common vitamin deficiency in the USA. Seen in alcoholism and pregnancy.

Egocentrism (Piaget)

Most fundamental deficiency of preoperational thinking. Failure to distinguish others' symbolic viewpoints from one's own.

formal operational stage

Piaget's last stage of cognitive development, in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking

disorganized/disoriented attachment

The attachment pattern reflecting the greatest insecurity, characterizing infants who show confused, contradictory responses when reunited with the parent after a separation.

Bicultural Identity

The identity constructed by exploring and adopting values from both the individual's subculture and dominant culture. p412

Age of Viability

The point at which the baby can first survive if born early, occurring sometime between 22 & 26 weeks. p80

Ethology

The scientific study of how animals and humans behave, particularly in natural environments. page 21

dizygotic twins

Twins that originate as two different fertilized ova and that are thus not identical; fraternal twins. page 45

Rh factor incompatibility

a condition that arises when the Rh protein is present in the fetus's blood but not in the mother's, causing the mother to build up antibodies. If these enter the fetus's system, they destroy red blood cells, reducing the oxygen supply to organs and tissues.

referential style

a style of language use in which language is used primarily to label objects

oral rehydration therapy

a treatment involving the administration of a salt and sugar solution to a child who is dehydrated from diarrhea

Accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

Teratogens

any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period. p81

core knowledge perspective

babies are born with a set of innate knowledge system. page 158

gene-environment interaction

because of their genetic makeup, individuals differ in their responsiveness to qualities of the environment

separation anxiety

becoming upset when their trusted caregiver leaves. page 197

Placenta

by bringing mother's blood close together, the placenta permits food and oxygen to reach the developing organism and waste products to be carried away

sociodramatic play

children combine schemes with peers by the end of the 2nd yr

neurobioological research

children who fall out opposite extremes of the positive-affects and fearful-distresses. page 191

inhibited, or shy, child (temperament)

children who react negatively to and withdraw from novel stimuli

Average Children (Peer Acceptance)

children who receive average numbers of positive and negative votes and account for about 1/3 of children in a typical elementary school classroom

self-care children

children who regularly look after themselves for some period of time during after-school hours

dominant-recessive inheritance

chromosome pair in which only one (dominant) allele affects inheritance and phenotype. The recessive allele has no effect. page 46

child-rearing styles

combinations of parenting behaviors that occur over a wide range of situations, creating an enduring child-rearing climate

the sickle cell trait

disorder in which individuals show signs of mild anemia only when they are seriously deprived of oxygen; occurs in individuals who have one dominant allele for normal blood cells and one recessive sickle-cell allele *common in Africans

amnion

encloses the developing organism in amniotic fluid. page 77

28th week of pregnancy

fetuses are awake about 11% of the time, a giro that rises to 16% just before birth.

preterm infants

infants born several weeks or more before their due date

secure attachment

infants use the parent as secure base. 60% of North American infants in middle-SES families show this pattern. page 198

small for date infants

infants whose birth weight is below their expected weight considering the length of the pregnancy

marasmus

is a wasted condition of the body caused by a diet low in essential nutrients. page 129

Gardener's Multiple Intelligences

linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalist, interpersonal, intrapersonal

hearing

newborn infants can hear a wide variety of sounds--sensitivity that improves greatly over time.

polygenic inheritance

occurs when multiple genes determine the phenotype of a trait

dominant-recessive inheritance

only one allele affects the child's characteristics. It is called dominant: the second allele which has no effect is called recessive

internal working model

set of exceptions about the availability of attachment figures and their likelihood of providing support during times of stress. the internal working model becomes a vital part of personality serving as a guide for all future close relationships. page 197

Research Methods

specific strategies or techniques for systematically conducting research

Animistic thinking

the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities page 229

nurture

the complex forces of the physical and social world that influence our biological makeup and psychological experiences before and after birth

brain plasticity

the degree to which the brain can be altered by experience, is much greater early in life page 121

Endoderm

the inner germ layer that develops into the lining of the digestive, urinary tract, and respiratory systems

cerebral cortex

the seat of human intelligence enlarges during the third trimester.

proteins

trigger chemical reactions throughout the body, form the foundation for all of our characteristics

early printing

when preschoolers first try to write, they scribble, making no distinction between writing and drawing.

basic trust versus mistrust

when the balance of care is sympathetic and loving, the psychological conflict of the first year-- is resolved on the positive side. page 184

sensory register

where sights and sounds are represented directly and stored briefly. page 160

genomwide testing methods

which look for genetic markers, enable genetic counselor to estimate risk for certain conditions

The Slow-to-Warm-up Child

(15%) is inactive, shows mild, low-key reactions to environmental stimuli, is negative in mood, and adjusts slowly to new experiences

mental representation

(18 months-2 years) internal depictions of objects and events, as indicated by sudden solutions to problems; ability to find an object that has been moved while out of sight (invisible displacement); deferred imitation, and make-believe play

Is development continuous or discontinuous?

(a) Some theorists believe that development is a smooth, continuous process. Individuals gradually add more of the same types of skills. (b) Other theorists think that development takes place in discontinuous stages. People change rapidly as they step up to a new level and then change very little for a while. With each new step, the person interprets and responds to the world in a reorganized, qualitatively different way. Other theorists believe that development is characterized by both continuous and discontinuous change.

effects of punishment

(effectiveness limited) punishment doesn't teach desired behavior // must be delivered immediately and consistently to be effective // negative feeling accompanying punishment may be associated with punisher // may only temporarily suppress a behavior

Fostering a Mastery-Oriented Approach

*Attribution retraining*: -Teaches children to attribute success to effort and strategy use. -Encourages children to focus on individual improvement more than grades. -Is best begun in middle childhood. *Prevention of learned helplessness*: -Provision of meaningful tasks -Parent and teacher encouragement -Private performance evaluations, providing constructive feedback -Small classes, providing individualized support for mastery and accommodation for differences in learning styles

skeletal growth

- the amount of growth spurts you have (speeds up/slows down) during early childhood *between ages 2-6 approximately 45 new ephysqs (growth centers) in which cartilage hardens into bone, emerge in various parts of the skeleton *x rays of these growth centers enable doctors to estimate children skeletal age/physical maturity process

divorce mediation, joint custody, and child support

--aimed at reducing family conflict, including legal battlers over property division and custory mediation increased out of court settlement, cooperation and involve of both parents in child rearing. ---which grantees parents equal say in importance decisions about childs upbringing is increasingly common ---can ease the financial instability

gender-stereotyped beliefs and behavior

-Genetic (hormones) & environmental influences (family, peers) -In early childhood, toys, clothing, games, etc. are divided by -One-sided judgements are joint product of gender stereotyping in environment and

Soothing a crying baby

-Hold on shoulder, rock or walk -Swaddle -Offer pacifier -Massage baby's body -Talk softly or play rhythmic sounds -Combine methods

individual differences in mental development

-Home environment -Preschool, kindergarten & child care -Educational media

Defining and Measuring Intelligence

-IQ becomes more stable around age 6 and can predict: school performance, educational attainment -IQ tests provide a general score that represents general intelligence and reasoning ability: but not all types of intelligence are measured on current tests, test designers use factor analysis

preventing childhood injuries

-Laws prevent many injuries (car safety seats, child-resistant caps, flameproof clothing). -Many parents and children behave in ways that compromise safety: - Safety seats: 27% of U.S. parents don't use them; of those who do, 40% to 84% use them incorrectly. - Parents overestimate children's knowledge of safety rules, rather than monitoring and controlling access to hazards

Obesity stereotypes

-Placing blame on the individual Lack of self-control Lack of personal will Lazy -Obesity is rising across the world not just the United States (in 73% of countries obesity kills more citizens than malnutrition)

characteristics of abusers and victims

-Typical abuser: male whom victim knows but may be anyone Siblings and mothers -People at all levels of society -80% adults, 20% male adolescents

Evaluation of Vygotsky's Theory

-Vygotsky's theory created more awareness -Importance of immediate social contexts -New ways to assess cognitive potential -Importance of culture and ethnic traditions -Importance of role played by thinking "tools" -Emphasizing microgenetic change over time -Offering more potential for future research

consequences of child sexual abuse

-adjustment: anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, anger/hostility -behavior: sleep difficulties, loss of appetite, suicidal reactions, substance abuse, delinquency

examples of dominant and recessive diseases

-cooleys anemia -cystic fibrosis -phenylktonuria (PKU) -sickle cell anemia - tay- sachs disease -huntington disease -marfan syndrome -X related diseases * duchenne musclear dystrophy *hemophilia * diabetes insipidus ****for recessive disorders, carrier status can be detected in prospective parents through a blood test or genetic analysis. For all disorders listed, prenatal diagnosis is available

reducing gender stereotyping in young children

-delay exposure to gender-stereotyping -model nontraditional roles -encourage mixed-gender activities -point out exceptions

cultural variations in motor development

-rates and patterns of development affected by: -early movement opportunities -environmental stimulation -child-rearing practices ex: mothers in rural nor'easter china place infants on their backs in bags of sand (think kitty litter), and babies are greatly delayed in sitting and walking.

breast feeding disadvantages

-sore nipples -let down at inappropriate times -no place to sit in ladies room -not much bonding for father -may be lacking in F and vitamin D

what are the self conscious emotions, and what role do they play?

1. guilt: when we have harmed someone and want to correct the wrongdoing 2. shame/ embarrassment: have negative feelings about our behavior, and we want to retreat so others will no longer notice our feelings. 4. envy: we desire something that another possesses, so we try to restore our sense of self-worth by securing that possession 5. pride: reflects delight in the self's achievements, and we are inclined to tell others what we have accomplished and take further challenges. each involves injury to or enhancement of our scene of self. page 188

sensorimotor stage summary

1. reflexive schemes (birth-1 month) 2. primary circular reactions (1-4 month) 3. secondary circular reactions (4-8 month) 4. coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12 months) 5. tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months) 6. mental representations (18 months- 2years)

What are the ways to support early language learning?

1. respond to coos and babbles with sounds and words; 2. establish joint attention, comment on what child sees; 3. play social games like pat a cake; 4. make believe play; 5. engage in frequent conversations; 6. READ often, engage child in dialog about the story and the pictures in books.

drawing progression in children

1. scribbles: children's gestures rather than the resulting scribbles contain the intended representation 2. first representational forms: around age 3 children scribbles start to become pictures. Often children make a gesture with the crayon, notice the they have drawn a recognizable shape and then level it. 3-4 years old use lines to represent boundaries of objects enabling them to draw their first person. 3. more realistic drawings: 5-6 year olds create more complex drawings, the free depiction of reality makes their artwork look fanciful and inventive.

information-processing researchers believe that several aspects of the cognitive system improve during childhood and adolescences:

1. the basic capacity of its stores, especially working memory 2. the speed with which information is worked on 3. the functioning of the central executive.

slow-to-warm-up child

15% of the sample: is inactive, slow mild, low-key reactions to environmental stimuli, is negative in mood, and adjusts slowly to new experiences. page 190

formation of reciprocal relationship phase

18 months to 2 years and on, by the end of the second year, rapid growth in representation and language enables toddlers to understand some of the factors that influence the parents coming and going and to predict her return. As a result, separation protest declines. Now children negotiate with the caregiver, using request and persuasion to alter her goals

Milestones in language development

2 mos: cooing, pleasant vowel sounds 4 mos: active observation of others' interactions 6 mos: babbling, adding consonant sounds to vowel sounds, comprehend some words 8-12 mos: joint attention, use of pre-verbal gestures, can use sign language if taught 12 mos: first word 18-24 mos: vocabulary expands to 250 words, begin to make two words utterances page 175

Bowlby's Ethological 4 phases of attachment 2. "Attachment-in-the-making" phase (6 weeks to 6-8 months)

2. "Attachment-in-the-making" phase (6 weeks to 6-8 months). During this phase, infants respond differently to a familiar caregiver than to a stranger. For example, at 4 months, Timmy smiled, laughed, and babbled more freely when interacting with his mother and quieted more quickly when she picked him up. As infants learn that their own actions affect the behavior of those around them, they begin to develop a sense of trust—the expectation that the caregiver will respond when signaled—but they still do not protest when separated from her.

Age of viability

22-26 weeks page 80

reaching and grasping

3-4 months *reaching may play the greatest role in infant cognitive development. by grasping things, turning them over, and seeing what happens when they are released, infants learn a great deal about sights, sounds, and feel of objects.

Bowlby's Ethological 4 phases of attachment 3. "Clear-cut" attachment phase (6-8 months to 18 months- 2 years)

3. "Clear-cut" attachment phase (6-8 months to 18 months- 2 years). Now attachment to the familiar caregiver is evident. Babies display separation anxiety, becoming upset when their trusted caregiver leaves. Like stranger anxiety (see page 186), separation anxiety does not always occur; it depends on infant temperament and the current situation. But in many cultures, separation anxiety increases between 6 and 15 months. Besides protesting the parent's departure, older infants and toddlers try hard to maintain her presence. They approach, follow, and climb on her in preference to others. And they use the familiar caregiver as a secure base from which to explore

secondary circular reactions

4-8 months; actions aimed at repeating interesting effects in the surrounding world; imitation of familiar behaviors

Bowlby's Ethological 4 phases of attachment 4. Formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months to 2 years & on).

4. Formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months to 2 years and on). By the end of the second year, rapid growth in representation and language enables toddlers to understand some of the factors that influence the parent's coming and going and to predict her return. As a result, separation pro- test declines. Now children negotiate with the caregiver, using requests and persuasion to alter her goals. For example, at age 2, Caitlin asked Carolyn and David to read her a story before leaving her with a babysitter. The extra time with her parents, along with a better understanding of where they were going ("to have dinner with Uncle Sean") and when they would be back ("right after you go to sleep"), helped Caitlin withstand her parents' absence. According to Bowlby(1980),out of their experiences during these four phases, children construct an enduring affectionate tie to the caregiver that they can use as a secure base in the parents' absence. This image serves as an internal working model, or set of expectations about the availability of attachment figures and their likelihood of providing support during times of stress. The internal working model becomes a vital part of personality serving as a guide for all future close relationships

easy child

40% of the sample: quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, is generally cheerful and adapts easily to new experiences. page 190

NEWBORN BEHAVIORS - 5 States of Arousal

5 States of arousal Regular sleep Irregular sleep Drowsiness Quiet alertness Waking activity Regular, or NREM, sleep: The infant is at full rest and shows little or no body activity. The eyelids are closed, no eye movements occur, the face is relaxed, and breathing is slow and regular. 8-9 hours Irregular, or REM, sleep: Gentle limb movements, occasional stirring, and facial grimacing occur. Although the eyelids are closed, occasional rapid eye movements can be seen beneath them. Breathing is irregular. 8-9 hours Drowsiness: The infant is either falling asleep or waking up. Body is less active than in irregular sleep but more active than in regular sleep. The eyes open and close; when open, they have a glazed look. Breathing is even but somewhat faster than in regular sleep. duration Varies Quiet alertness: The infant's body is relatively inactive, with eyes open and attentive. Breathing is even. 2-3 hours Waking activity and crying: The infant shows frequent bursts of uncoordinated body activity. Breathing is very irregular. Face may be relaxed or tense and wrinkled. Crying may occur. 1-4 hours

Concrete Operational Stage

7-11yrs | Thought becomes logical, flexible and organized n its application to concrete information, but the capacity for abstract thinking is not yet present. p18

guided participation

A broader concept than scaffolding, suggested to account for children's different ways of learning through involvement with others. It refers to shared endeavors between more expert and less expert participants, without specifying the precise features of communication

permissive child-rearing style

A child-rearing style that is high in acceptance but overindulging or inattentive, low in control, and lenient rather than appropriate in autonomy granting (allow children to make many of their ow decisions at an age when they are not yet capable of doing so).

Turner Syndrome

A chromosomal disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing, making the person XO instead of XX, or part of one X chromosome is deleted. -trouble with spatial relationships (drawing pictures, telling right from left, following travel directions, and noticing changes facial expressions).

control condition

A condition in which subjects receive a zero value of the independent variable.

experimental design

A design in which researchers manipulate an independent variable and examines its effect on a dependent variable Strength: permits inferences about cause/effect relationships Limitation: When conducted in lab, findings may not generalize to real world. In field experiments, control over treatment is usually weaker than in lab. In natural, lack of random assignment decreases precision

Pedigree

A diagram that shows the occurrence of a genetic trait in several generations of a family.

time out

A disciplinary technique which involves removing children from the immediate setting until they are ready to act properly

infectious disease

A disease that is caused by a pathogen and that can be spread from one individual to another. *in well nourished children, ordinary childhood illnesses have no effect on physical growth. but when undernourished, disease interacts with malnutrition in a vicious spiral, with potentially severe consequences

lifespan perspective

A dynamic systems approach to development that assumes development is lifelong, multidimensional and multidirectional, highly plastic, and affected by multiple interacting forces

Relational Aggression

A form of aggression that damages another's peer relationships through social exclusion, malicious gossip or friendship manipulation. Distinguished from physical aggression and verbal aggression. p272

interactional synchrony

A form of communication in which the caregiver responds to infant signals in a well-timed, rhythmic, appropriate fashion and both partners match emotional states, especially positive ones.

Infant Directed Speech

A form of communication used by adults to speak to infants and toddlers; consisting of short sentences with high-pitched voice, exaggerated expression, clear pronunciation, distinct pauses between speech segments and repetition of new words in a variety of contexts. p179

Parallel Play

A form of limited social participation in which a child plays near other children with similar materials but does not try to influence their behavior. Distinguished from nonsocial activity, associative play and cooperative play. p263

recursive thought

A form of perspective taking that requires the ability to view a situation from at least two perspectives - that is, to reason simultaneously about what two or more people are thinking.

normal distribution

A function that represents the distribution of variables as a symmetrical bell-shaped graph - in which most scores cluster around the mean, or average, with progressively fewer falling toward the extremes.

Contrast Sensitivity

A general principle accounting for early pattern preferences, which states that if babies can detect a difference in contrast between two or more patterns, they will prefer the one with more contrast. p141

Down syndrome

A genetic chromosome 21 disorder causing developmental and intellectual delays (trisomy 21) page 50

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

A group of industrial compounds used to manufacture plastics and insulate electrical transformers, and responsible for many environmental problems. *low birth weight, discolored skin, deformities of the gums and nails, brain-wave abnormalities, delayed cognitive development

Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)

A hemodynamic method that measures blood oxygenation, normally in one brain region

brain plasticity

A highly plastic cerebral cortex, in which many areas are not yet committed to specific functions, has a high capacity for learning. And if a part of the cortex is damaged, other parts can take over the tasks it would have handled.

Blastocyst

A hollow fluid-filled ball of cells, created with 60-70 duplicated cells from the fertilized egg that implants itself into the uterus lining. page 77

Duchenne muscular dystrophy

A human genetic disease caused by a sex-linked recessive allele; characterized by progressive weakening and a loss of muscle tissue. x linked recessive 1/3000-5000 male births

Synapse

A junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to the next. page 117

lifespan perspective of development

A leading systems approach is the lifespan perspective. Four assumptions make up this broader view: that development is: (1) lifelong (2) multidimensional and multidirectional (3) highly plastic (4) affected by multiple, interacting forces Development is lifelong. Lifespan theorists believe that development is life-long, and change is apparent across the lifespan. No single age period is more crucial, characterizes, or dominates human development. Consequently, the term lifespan development will be used throughout the textbook. Development is multidirectional. Humans change in many directions. We may show gains in some areas of development, while showing losses in other areas. Every change, whether it is finishing high school, getting married, or becoming a parent, entails both growth and loss. Development is multidimensional. We change across three general domains/dimensions; physical, cognitive, and psychosocial. The physical domain includes changes in height and weight, sensory capabilities, the nervous system, as well as the propensity for disease and illness. The cognitive domain encompasses the changes in intelligence, wisdom, perception, problem- solving, memory, and language. The psychosocial domain focuses on changes in emotion, self- perception and interpersonal relationships with families, peers, and friends. All three domains influence each other. It is also important to note that a change in one domain may cascade and prompt changes in the other domains. For instance, an infant who has started to crawl or walk will encounter more objects and people, thus fostering developmental change in the child's understanding of the physical and social world. Development is multidisciplinary. As mentioned at the start of the chapter, human development is such a vast topic of study that it requires the theories, research methods, and knowledge base of many academic disciplines. Development is characterized by plasticity. Plasticity is all about our ability to change and that many of our characteristics are malleable. For instance, plasticity is illustrated in the brain's ability to learn from experience and how it can recover from injury. Development is multicontextual. Development occurs in many contexts. Baltes (1987) identified three specific contextual influences.

critical period

A limited time span during which the individual is biologically prepared to acquire certain adaptive behaviors but needs the support of an appropriately stimulating environment

DNA

A long, double-stranded complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Socioeconomic Status

A measure of an individual's or a family's social position and economic well-being that combines three related, but not completely overlapping variables: Years of Education Prestige of One's Job Skill it Requires Income p58

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

Thalidomide

A mild tranquilizer that, taken early in pregnancy, can produce a variety of malformations of the limbs, eyes, ears, and heart.

survival of the fittest

A natural process resulting in the evolution of organisms best adapted to the environment.

development quotient (DQ)

A numerical measure of an infant's performance on a developmental test relative to the performance of other infants the same age.

Fallopian Tubes

A pair of tubes with fingerlike projections that draw in the ovum, and where fertilization takes place. page 76

Breech Position

A position of the baby in the uterus that would cause the buttocks or feet to be delivered first. p96

natural selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

correlational design

A research design in which the investigator gathers information on individuals without altering their experiences and then examines relationships between participants' characteristics and their behavior or development. Look at relationships b/t participants' characteristics ad their behavior or development Strength: Permits study of relationships b/t variables Limitation: Does not permit inferences about cause and effect relationships

clinical or case study method

A research method in which the aim is to obtain as complete a picture as possible of one individual's psychological functioning by bringing together interview data, observations, and sometimes test scores Strength: provides rich descriptive insights into factors that might affect development Limitations: may be biased by researcher's theoretical preferences. findings cannot be applied to individuals other than the participant

self-conscious emotions

A second, higher-order set of feelings, including guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, and pride. Each involves injury to or enhancement of our sense of self *they appears in the middle of the second year, as 10-24 month olds become firmly aware of the self as a separate unique individual

Joint Attention

A state in which the child attends to the same object or event as the caregiver, who often labels it. Contributes to early language development. p176

Flynn effect

A steady generational increase in IQ scores among 30 nations over the last several decades, ranging from 3-6+ points per decade depending on extent of societal modernization

placenta

A structure that allows an embryo to be nourished with food and oxygen, and waste products to be carried away. page 78

fMRI

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. *does not depend on x ray pathography, rather the individual is exposed to a stimulus and the FMRI détentes change in blood flow and oxygen metabolism throughout the brain magnetically, yielding a colorful moving picture of parts of the brain used to perform a given activity

amniocentesis

A technique of prenatal diagnosis in which amniotic fluid, obtained by aspiration from a needle inserted into the uterus, is analyzed to detect certain genetic and congenital defects in the fetus.

The strange situation

A widely used laboratory procedure for assessing the quality of attachment between 1 and 2 years of age is the Strange Situation. In designing it, Mary Ainsworth and her colleagues reasoned that securely attached infants and toddlers should use the parent as a secure base from which to explore in an unfamiliar playroom. In addition, when the parent leaves, an unfamiliar adult should be less comforting than the parent. The Strange Situation takes the baby through eight short episodes in which brief separations from and reunions with the parent occur. 1. researcher introduces parent and baby to playroom and then leaves. 2. parent is seated while baby plays with toys. parent as a secure base 3. stranger enters, is seated, and talks to parent. reaction to unfamiliar adult 4.parent leaves room. stranger responds to baby and offers comfort if baby is upset. separation anxiety 5. parent returns, greets baby, and offers comfort if necessary. stranger leaves room. reaction to reunion 6. parent leaves room. separation anxiety 7. stranger enters room and offers comfort. ability to be soothed by stranger 8. parent returns, greets baby, offers comfort if necessary, and tries to reinterest baby in toys. reaction to reunion

Influences on development: (class lecture) history-graded vs. age-graded vs nonnormative

AGE GRADED INFLUENCE: Biological HISTORY GRADED INFLUENCE: Major Life events NON NORMATIVE INFLUENCES: Unique positive or negative experiences 1.You have a client who is a 15 years old girl who is anorexic. How might you consider this an age graded influence 2. You have a client who lived with his mother before she died. She was 85 years old when he moved in with her to take care of her which was 4 years ago. He came to you because she was a hoarder, and he is trying to find out why? How might you utilize history graded influences in your discussion with your client 3.You have a client who shares she is overly anxious because of COVID. She tells you she is drinking more and is becoming more angry by the day. How could you use a non normative influence explanation with her?

Symbol-Real-World Relations

Ability to view an object as it is, but also as a symbol *a picture, model, or map corresponds to something specific in everyday life to understand objects unfamiliar with

Bowlby's Ethological 4 phases of attachment 1. Preattachment phase (birth to 6 weeks)

According to Bowlby, the infant's relationship with the parent begins as a set of innate signals that call the adult to the baby's side. Over time, a true affectionate bond forms, supported by new cognitive and emotional capacities as well as by a history of warm, sensitive care. Attachment develops in four phases: 1. Preattachment phase (birth to 6 weeks). Built-in signals— grasping, smiling, crying, and gazing into the adult's eyes— help bring newborn babies into close contact with other humans, who comfort them. Newborns prefer their own mother's smell, voice, and face (see Chapters 3 and 4). But they are not yet attached to her, since they do not mind being left with an unfamiliar adult.

Scaffolding

Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the learner's current level of performance. As competence increases, support is gradually and sensitively withdrawn; turning responsibility over to the learner. p235

Nonnormative Influences (book)

Age-graded and history graded influences are normative—meaning typical, or average—because each affects large numbers of people in a similar way. Nonnormative influences are events that are irregular: They happen to just one person or a few people and do not follow a predictable timetable. Consequently, they enhance the multidirectionality of development. Nonnormative influences that had a major impact on the direction of Sofie's life included piano lessons in childhood with an inspiring teacher; delayed marriage, parenthood, and career entry; and a battle with cancer. Because they occur irregularly, nonnormative events are difficult for researchers to capture and study. Yet, as each of us can attest from our own experiences, they can affect us in powerful ways. Nonnormative influences: have become more powerful and age-graded influences less so in contemporary adult development. Compared with Sofie's era, much greater diversity exists today in the ages at which people finish their education, enter careers, marry, have children, and retire. Indeed, Sofie's "off-time" accomplishments would have been less unusual had she been born two generations later. Age remains a powerful organizer of everyday experiences, and age-related expectations have certainly not disappeared. But age markers have blurred, and they vary across ethnic groups and cultures. The increasing role of nonnormative events in the life course adds to the fluid nature of lifespan development.

Difference in play between mothers and fathers

Also, mothers and fathers tend to play differently. Mothers more often provide toys, talk to infants, and gently play conventional games like pat-a-cake and peekaboo. In contrast, fathers— especially with their infant sons—tend to engage in highly stimulating physical play with bursts of excitement that increase as play progresses. As long as fathers are also sensitive, this stimulating, startling play style helps babies regulate emotion in intensely arousing situations and may prepare them to venture confidently into active, unpredictable contexts, including novel physical environments and play with peers. In a German study, fathers' sensitive, challenging play with preschoolers predicted favorable emotional and social adjustment from kindergarten to early adulthood. Play is a vital context in which fathers build secure attachments. It may be especially influential in cultures where long work hours prevent most fathers from sharing in infant caregiving, such as Japan. In many Western nations, however, a strict division of parental roles—mother as caregiver, father as playmate—has changed over the past several decades in response to women's workforce participation and to cultural valuing of gender equality. Mothers, Fathers, Siblings Contribute • Mothers tend to play by providing toys, talking to infant, and conventional games. • Fathers tend to play more physical games with bursts of excitement. • Both styles can help infants learn to regulate emotions and develop confidence. • Siblings may show affection, resentment, concern, comfort; parental warmth toward all the children is important.

Konrad Lorenz

An ethologist, studied imprinting in birds, developed idea of critical periods in development

field experiment

An experiment set up in the real world, usually with participants who are not aware that they are in a study of any kind.

interpretive play

An improvisational mode of reading that ignores dominant interpretive codes in favor of pursuing immediate bodily desires.

Reflex

An inborn, automatic response to a particular form of stimulation. p101

FREUD'S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES - Anal (2-3 years)

Anal (2-3 years) - Anal region - Independence - Expelling - Task toilet training Anal: Toddlers and preschoolers enjoy holding and releasing urine and feces. If parents toilet train before children are ready or make too few demands, conflicts about anal control may appear in the form of extreme orderliness or disorder. Erotic Focus: Anus - retaining poo or pooing poo Key Tasks & experiences: toilet training

Teratogens

Any environmental agent that may cause damage to during the prenatal period page 81.

overregularization

Applying a grammatical rule too widely and thereby creating incorrect forms. (My toy car breaked)

Piaget's preoperational stage

As children move from the sensorimotor to the preoperational stage, which spans the years 2 to 7, the most obvious change is an extraordinary increase in representational, or symbolic, activity. Infants and toddlers' mental representations are impressive, but in early childhood, these capacities blossom. Advances in Mental Representation Piaget acknowledged that language is our most flexible means of mental representation. By detaching thought from action, it permits far more efficient thinking than was possible earlier. When we think in words, we overcome the limits of our momentary experiences. We can deal with past, present, and future at once and combine concepts in unique ways, as when we imagine a hungry caterpillar eating bananas or monsters flying through the forest at night. But Piaget did not regard language as the primary ingredient in childhood cognitive change. Instead, he believed that sensorimotor activity leads to internal images of experience, which children then label with words (Piaget, 1936/1952). In support of Piaget's view, recall from Chapter 5 that children's first words have a strong sensorimotor basis. And toddlers acquire an impressive range of categories long before they use words to label them (see page 165). But as we will see, Piaget underestimated the power of language to spur children's cognition. Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory • Children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate the world • Adaption—mind adjusts to fit environment Piaget's Preoperational Stage • Advances in mental representation • More advanced sociodramatic play • Dual representation—models, drawings, and maps have meaning in the real world • Preoperational limitations—egocentrism, centration (focus on one aspect of a situation), irreversibility (difficulty reversing steps) • Challenges with conservation (certain characteristics remain the same even when appearance changes) and hierarchical classification (organizing by similarities and differences)

insecure-resistant attachment

Attachment that characterizes children who seek closeness to their caregivers but resist this closeness at the same time.

Multiple attachments

Attachments to two or more people. Most babies appear to develop multiple attachments once they have formed one true attachment to a main carer.

psychological control

Authoritarian parents attempt to take advantage of children's psychological needs by intruding on and manipulating their verbal expressions, individuality, and attachments to parents.

insecure-resistant attachment

Before separation, these infants seek closeness to the parent and often fail to explore. When the parent leaves, they are usually distressed, and on her return they combine clinginess with angry, resistive behavior (struggling when held, hitting and pushing). Many continue to cry after being picked up and cannot be com- forted easily. About 10 percent of North American infants in middle-SES families show this pattern.

Maternal Employment and Child Development

Benefits: higher self-esteem positive family and peer relations fewer gender stereotypes better grades more father involvement Drawbacks: heavy employment demands associated with ineffective parenting

gross motor development in middle childhood

Better balance, strength, coordination, agility and reaction time Physical fitness positively correlated with cognitive development

Bowlby's Ethological Theory of Attachment & attachment styles (strange situation)

Bowlby's Ethological Theory Today, ethological theory of attachment, which recognizes the infant's emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival, is the most widely accepted view. John Bowlby (1969), who first applied this perspective to the infant- caregiver bond, retained the psychoanalytic idea that quality of attachment to the caregiver has profound implications for the child's feelings of security and capacity to form trusting relationships. At the same time, Bowlby was inspired by Konrad Lorenz's studies of imprinting (see Chapter 1). Bowlby believed that the human infant, like the young of other animal species, is endowed with a set of built-in behaviors that help keep the parent nearby to protect the infant from danger and to provide support for exploring and mastering the environment. Contact with the parent also ensures that the baby will be fed, but Bowlby pointed out that feeding is not the basis for attachment. Rather, attachment can best be understood in an evolutionary context in which survival of the species—through ensuring both safety and competence—is of utmost importance.

Bioecological Model of Development

Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model proposes that a child's biologically influenced dispositions interact with complex systems of bidirectional relationships. Microsystem—interactions with the immediate environment (child with parents, including how parents interact with each other) Mesosystem—interaction between microsystems (family, school) Exosystem—do not contain developing persons but affect their experiences in the immediate setting (parent's workplace, extended family, neighbors) Macrosystem—cultural values, laws, customs, and resources Ecological systems theory Continuous or Discontinuous? Not specified. Many possible courses: Biologically influenced dispositions join with environmental forces at multiple levels to mold development in unique ways. Both nature and nurture: The individual's characteristics and the reactions of others affect each other in a bidirectional fashion. Both early and later experiences are important.

Bullying

Bullying • Peer victimization—verbal and physical abuse • Traditional and cyberbullying • More often in schools where teachers are seen as unfair and uncaring • Victims are usually more passive and physically frail; also over-controlling parents, low self esteem, dependence, and a fearful demeanor • Consequences—low self esteem, school avoidance, depression, suicidal thoughts • Interventions often aimed at victims becoming more responsive and gaining friends; more effective to promote more prosocial behavior in the environment

Nature vs. Nurture on development (book)

By nature, we mean the hereditary information we receive from our parents at the moment of conception. By nurture, we mean the complex forces of the physical and social world that influence our biological makeup and psychological experiences before and after birth. Although all theories grant roles to both nature and nurture, they vary in emphasis. A theory's position on the roles of nature and nurture affects how it explains individual differences.

Prader-Willi Syndrome

Caused by a lack of genetic material in the 15 pair of chromosomes. Usually inherited from the father. The leading genetic cause of obesity. The degree of mental retardation varies, but is usually in the mild range. Students with Prader-Willi syndrome can be rigid and oppositional. They do not respond well to sudden changes in their routine. It can also result in low muscle tone, short stature, incomplete sexual development, cognitive disabilities, problem behaviors, and a chronic feeling of hunger that can lead to excessive eating and life-threatening obesity.

Meiosis

Cell division that halves the number of chromosomes normally present in body cells to produce reproductive cells (gametes) in sexually reproducing organisms *in the male, four sperm are produced when meiosis is complete. the cells from which sperm arise are produced continuously throughout life *in the female meiosis results in just one ovum, the female is born with a bank of ova already present in her ovaries

associative play

Children engage in separate activities but exchange toys and comment on one another's behavior Highest level of 3-Step Sequence of social development (along with cooperative play)

Academic learned helplessness vs mastery-oriented

Children who hold mastery-oriented attributions believe ability can be improved by trying hard and attribute failure to controllable factors, such as insufficient effort. In contrast, children who receive negative feedback about their ability are likely to develop learned helplessness, attributing success to external factors, such as luck, and failure to low ability. Achievement-Related Attributions. Attributions are our common, everyday explanations for the causes of behavior. Notice how Joey, in talking about the spelling bee at the begin ning of this chapter, attributes his disappointing performance to luck (Belinda got all the easy words) and his usual success to ability (he knows he's a better speller than Belinda). Joey also appreciates that effort matters: "I knocked myself out studying those spelling lists." The combination of improved reasoning skills and frequent evaluative feedback permits 10 to 12yearolds to separate all these variables in explaining performance. Those who are high in academic self-esteem and motivation make mastery-oriented attributions, crediting their successes to ability—a characteristic they can improve through trying hard and can count on when faced with new challenges. And they attribute failure to factors that can be changed or controlled, such as insufficient effort or a difficult task. Whether these children succeed or fail, they take an industrious, persistent approach to learning. In contrast, children who develop learned helplessness attribute their failures, not their successes, to ability. When they succeed, they conclude that external factors, such as luck, are responsible. Unlike their mastery-oriented counterparts, they believe that ability is fixed and cannot be improved by trying hard. When a task is difficult, these children experience an anxious loss of control—in Erikson's terms, a pervasive sense of inferiority. They give up without really trying. Children's attributions affect their goals. Mastery-oriented children seek information on how best to increase their ability through effort. Hence, their performance improves over time. In contrast, learned-helpless children focus on obtaining positive and avoiding negative evaluations of their fragile sense of ability. Gradually, their ability ceases to predict how well they do. In one study, the more fourth to sixth graders held self-critical attributions, the lower they rated their competence, the less they knew about effective study strategies, the more they avoided challenge, and the poorer their academic performance. Because learned helpless children fail to connect effort with success, they do not develop the metacognitive and self-regulatory skills necessary for high achievement. Lack of effective learning strategies, reduced persistence, and a sense of loss of control sustain one another in a vicious cycle.

Ivan Pavlov

Classical Conditioning Theory - A form of learning that involves associating a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that leads to a reflexive response. Once the nervous system makes the connection between the two stimuli, the neutral stimulus alone produces the behavior. p16

helping rejected children

Coach positive social skills. Promote perspective taking and social problem solving. Alter peers' negative opinions. Intervene in negative parenting practices.

Piaget's theory

Cognitive development theory developed from studying his own three children. 4 stages of development, derived from readiness to learn. Children develop schemes (mental models) of how the world works, which are adaptable given new information. page 17

Jean Piaget

Cognitive-Development Theory - view that children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world and that cognitive development takes place in stages. p17

Cooperative Learning

Collaboration on a task by a small group of classmates who work toward common goals by considering one another's ideas, appropriately challenging one another, providing sufficient explanations to correct misunderstandings and resolving differences of opinion on the basis of reasons and evidence. p325

peer groups in middle childhood

Collective that generate unique values and standards of behavior and a social structure of leaders and followers Form on basis of proximity and similarity Adopt similar dress and behavior Often involves exclusion of peers who deviate

Continuous vs. Discontinuous Development (class lecture & asynch)

Continuous: Gradual process Skills are generalized but consistent Development of additional skills through time - A process of gradual augmenting of skills over time Discontinuous: Stages Qualitative instead of quantitative - A process of new ways and skills emerging at particular times; belief in stages or qualitative changes during periods of development

NEWBORN BEHAVIORS - Crying

Crying Way to communicate High pitched usually indicates pain Crying. Crying is the first way that babies communicate, letting parents know they need food, comfort, or stimulation. During the weeks after birth, all infants have some fussy periods when they are difficult to console. But most of the time, the nature of the cry, combined with the experiences that led up to it, helps guide parents toward its cause. The baby's cry is a complex stimulus that varies in intensity, from a whimper to a message of all-out distress (Wood, 2009). As early as the first few weeks, infants can be identified by the unique vocal "signature" of their cries, which helps parents locate their baby from a distance Young infants usually cry because of physical needs. Hunger is the most common cause, but babies may also cry in response to temperature change when undressed, a sudden noise, or a painful stimulus. Newborns (as well as older babies up to age 6 months) often cry at the sound of another crying baby. Some researchers believe that this response reflects an inborn capacity to react to the suffering of others. Furthermore, crying typically increases during the early weeks, peaks at about 6 weeks, and then declines Because this trend appears in many cultures with vastly different infant care practices, researchers believe that normal readjustments of the central nervous system underlie it. The next time you hear an infant cry, notice your own reaction. The sound stimulates a sharp rise in blood cortisol, alertness, and feelings of discomfort in men and women, parents and nonparents alike. This powerful response is probably innately programmed to ensure that babies receive the care and protection they need to survive.

History-Graded Influences (book)

Development is also profoundly affected by forces unique to a particular historical era. Examples include epidemics, wars, and periods of economic prosperity or depression; technological advances like the introduction of television, computers, the Internet, smartphones, and tablets; and changes in cultural values, such as attitudes toward women, ethnic minorities, and older adults. These history graded influences explain why people born around the same time—called a cohort—tend to be alike in ways that set them apart from people born at other times. Consider the baby boomers, a term used to describe people born between 1946 and 1964, the post-World War II period during which birth rates soared in most Western nations. This population increase was especially sharp in the United States: By 1960, the prewar birth rate had nearly doubled, yielding the largest gain in the nation's history. The sheer size of the baby-boom generation made it a powerful social force from the time its members became young adults; today, the baby boomers are redefining our view of middle and late adulthood

Developmental Neuroscience (asynch and book)

Developmental neuroscience—relationship between the brain and the developing person's cognitive processing and behavioral patterns, as well as the brain's influence on social and emotional development Brain's Influence on Social and Emotional Development Brain --> Cognitive Processing --> Behavioral Patterns Developmental Neuroscience Over the past three decades, as information-processing research expanded, a new area of investigation arose called developmental cognitive neuroscience. It brings together researchers from psychology, biology, neuroscience, and medicine to study the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing person's cognitive processing and behavior patterns. Improved methods for analyzing brain activity while children and adults perform various tasks have greatly enhanced knowledge of relationships between brain functioning and behavior. Armed with these brain imaging techniques, neuroscientists are tackling questions like these: How does genetic makeup combine with specific experiences at various ages to influence development and organization of the brain? What transformations in the brain make it harder for adolescents and adults than for children to acquire a second language? What neurological changes are related to declines in speed of thinking, memory, and other aspects of cognitive processing in late adulthood? A complementary new area, developmental social neuroscience, is devoted to studying the relationship between changes in the brain and emotional and social development. Developmental social neuroscience emerged later than its cognitive counterpart because techniques for measuring brain activity are hard to implement in most social situations, where children and adults must move freely to interact with others. When researchers started to tap more convenient neurobiological measures that are sensitive to psychological state, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and hormone levels detected in saliva, an explosion of social-neuroscience investigations followed. Studies are investigating autism

Parental Influences on Early Peer Relations

Direct influences: • Arranging informal peer activities • Encouraging child to be a good "host" • Offering guidance on how to act toward others Indirect influences: • Secure attachment • Sensitive, emotionally positive parent-child conversations and play • Parent-child play as a model of good interaction

What is the time during prenatal development when the organism is most sensitive to teratogen exposure?

Embryonic period, between weeks 3-9 page 81

problem-centered coping

Emotional self-regulation strategy in which children appraise the situation as changeable, identify the difficulty and decide what to do about it.

emotion-centered coping

Emotional self-regulation strategy which is internal, private, and aimed at controlling distress when little can be done to change an outcome. Ex. finding distraction or redefining the situation

Consequences of child maltreatment

Emotional: poor emotional self-regulation impaired empathy/sympathy depression Adjustment: substance abuse violent crime Learning: impaired working memory and executive function low academic motivation

Types of Support

Emotional: Someone you can bring your feelings to Informational: Someone who will help with information Instrumental: Someone who will help with resources

Basic Emotions

Emotions that are universal in humans and other primates and have a long evolutionary history of promoting survival. Happiness, interest, surprise fear, anger, sadness and disgust. p185

constructivist classroom

Encorurages students to construct their own knowledge. Grounded in Piaget's view of children as active agents who reflect on and coordinate their own thoughts rather than absorbing those of others. Features include richly equipped learning centers, small groups and individuals solving self-chosen problems, a teacher who guides and supports in response to children's needs, and evaluation based on individual students' progress in relation to their own prior development.

Psychosocial Theory

Erickson's theory that human development is driven by the need to become integrated into the social and cultural environment. It emphasizes that in each Freudian stage, individuals not only develop a unique personality but also acquire attitudes and skills that make them active, contributing members of their society. Recognizes the lifespan nature of development. p15

psychosocial theory

Erikson emphasized that in addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demands, the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills that make the individual an active, contributing member of society

autonomy versus shame and doubt

Erikson's second crisis of psychosocial development. Toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies. Resolved favorably when parents provide suitable guidance and reasonable choices.

scientific verification

Every theory must be tested using a fair set of research procedures agreed on by the scientific community, and the findings must endure, or be replicated, over time

Appropriate Stimulation

Experience-expectant brain growth Depends of ordinary experiences "expected" by brain for normal growth Occurs early and naturally Experience-dependent brain growth Results from specific learning experiences Varies widely across individuals and cultures Rushing early learning overwhelms the brain's neural circuits

history-graded influences

Explain why people born around the same time--called a cohort--tend to be alike in ways that set them apart from people born at other times.

Lead exposure

Exposure can damage the brain, nervous system, and kidneys

happiness

Expressed first in blissful smiles, later through exuberant laughter- contributes to many aspects of development

XXY Syndrome (Klinefelter Syndrome)

Extra X chromosome Klinefelter syndrome (KS), also known as 47, XXY is the set of symptoms that result from two or more X chromosomes in males. The primary features are infertility and small poorly functioning testicles.

Egocentrism

Failure to distinguish others' symbolic viewpoints from one's own. Piaget believed that children's tendency to focus on their own viewpoint and assume that others perceive, think and feel the same way they do - was the most fundamental deficiency of preoperational thinking. p229

treating obesity

Family-based interventions: diet change exercise program positive reinforcement School environment: screenings improved nutrition standards additional recess/physical education time obesity awareness programs

father-stepmother families

Fathers decrease time spent with children when they get remarried Implications for child: Children struggle with new allegiance, want to stay loyal to mom. Don't want to rely on step-mom because it will get in the way of their relationship with mom

zygote

Fertilized egg, created at page 45

Zygote

Fertilized ovum page 76

Freud's Psychosexual Theory

Freud (1856-1939), a Viennese physician, sought a cure for emotionally troubled adults by having them talk freely about painful events of their childhoods. Working with these recollections, he examined his patients' unconscious motivations and constructed his psychosexual theory, which emphasizes that how parents manage their child's sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development. In Freud's theory, three parts of the personality—id, ego, and superego—become integrated during five stages, According to Freud, the relations established among id, ego, and superego during the preschool years determine the individual's basic personality. Freud (1938/1973) believed that during childhood, sexual impulses shift their focus from the oral to the anal to the genital regions of the body. In each stage parents walk a fine line between permitting too much or too little gratification of their child's basic needs. If parents strike an appropriate balance, children grow into well-adjusted adults with the capacity for mature sexual behavior and investment in family life. Freud's theory was the first to stress the influence of the early parent-child relationship on development. But his perspective was eventually criticized. First, it overemphasized the influence of sexual feelings in development. Second, because it was based on the problems of sexually repressed, well-to-do adults in nineteenth-century Victorian society, it did not apply in other cultures. Finally, Freud had not studied children directly.

id, ego, superego

Freud said that there was conscious, which you could control, and the subconscious. -He said that the Id was living in the subconscious was just had primordial desires that wanted stuff like food and sex. -Then there was the Superego that did not want pleasures of love, and was just pure intellect and rationality. -The ego is the middle ground, the referee between the two different things, Id and Superego. All of this is going on the subconscious.

mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

Cognitive Play Categories

Functional play (0-2 years): running around a room, rolling a car back and forth, leading clay with no intent to make something Constructive play (3-6 years): making a house out of toy blocks, drawing a picture, putting together a puzzle Make-believe play (2-6 years): playing house, School or police officer; acting out storybook or television characters

individual differences in motor skills

Gender Boys excel in skills using force and power. Girls excel in skills using balance and agility. Practice Adult encouragement

Gender stereotyping in early childhood

Gender Typing • Preschoolers apply gender stereotypes routinely. • Prenatal hormones contribute to boys' higher activity level. • Parents, teachers, and peers also promote many gender-typed responses through modeling and reinforcement. • Gender identity—research supports better outcomes for persons who endorse traditionally masculine traits or androgynous traits Transgender • The experienced and expressed gender is different from the natal gender. • The number of transgender children, while small, has risen. • Gender dysphoria is different from children who engage in gender nonconforming behavior. • Transgender adults often trace their identity back to a discomfort with their natal gender in early childhood. • Health professionals increasingly note the importance of allowing children to follow their gender inclinations and to protect them from negative reactions of others. Gender • School-age children extend gender stereotypes to personality traits and academic abilities • Also, broaden views of what males and females can do • Boys identify with more masculine traits while girls are more open to experimenting with various traits

Gender stereotyping

Gender stereotyped expectations also affect self-esteem. In one study, the more 5 to 8yearold girls talked with friends about the way people look, watched TV shows focusing on physical appearance, and perceived their friends as valuing thinness, the greater their dissatisfaction with their physical self and the lower their overall self-esteem a year later In another investigation, being overweight was more strongly linked to negative body image for third grade girls than for boys (Shriver et al., 2013). By the end of middle childhood, girls feel less confident than boys about their physical appearance and athletic abilities. With respect to academic self-esteem, boys, again, are somewhat advantaged: Whereas girls score higher in language arts self-esteem, boys have higher math and science self-esteem—even when children of equal skill levels are compared. At the same time, girls exceed boys in self-esteem dimensions of close friendship and social acceptance.

FREUD'S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES - Genital - (puberty/adolescence onward)

Genital - (puberty/adolescence onward) - Sexual intimacy - Establishing intimate relationships - Contributing to society Genital: With puberty, sexual impulses reappear. Successful development during earlier stages leads to marriage, mature sexuality, and child rearing. Erotic Focus: Genitals - being sexually intimate Key Tasks & experiences: establishing intimate relationships and contributing to society through work

motor development in early childhood

Gross-motor skills: -balance improves -gait smooth and rhythmic by age 2 -upper- and lower-body skills combine into more refined actions by age 5 -greater speed and endurance Fine-motor skills: -self-help: dressing, eating -drawing and printing

Continuous (book)

How can we best describe the differences in capacities among infants, children, adolescents, and adults? One view holds that infants and preschoolers respond to the world in much the same way as adults do. The difference between the immature and mature being is simply one of amount or complexity. For example, when Sofie was a baby, her perception of a piano melody, memory for past events, and ability to categorize objects may have been much like our own. Perhaps her only limitation was that she could not perform these skills with as much information and precision as we can. If this is so, then changes in her thinking must be: continuous—a process of gradually augmenting the same types of skills that were there to begin with.

Centration

In Piaget's theory, the tendency of preoperational children to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect other important features

Zone of Proximal Development

In Sociocultural Theory - a range of tasks too difficult for a child to handle alone, but possible with the help of more skilled partners. p166

Zone of Proximal Development

In Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they receive proper guidance and instruction Zone of proximal development (ZPD) -9 year old by who attends school in Sweden -ASD diagnosis, community had deemed his as "special" -While engaging in a storytelling class assignment that involved pictures, the teacher implemented scaffolding techniques that included using prompts when the participant was either having a hard time with the task or was off task. -The participant went from not working on the assignment at the start of the study to completing independent then, presumably, being excited to share the story he made.

Traditional vs social constructivist classrooms

In a traditional classroom, the teacher is the sole authority for knowledge, rules, and decision making. Students are relatively passive—listening, responding when called on, and completing teacher-assigned tasks. Their progress is evaluated by how well they keep pace with a uniform set of standards for their grade. A constructivist classroom, in contrast, encourages students to construct their own knowledge. Although constructivist approaches vary, many are grounded in Piaget's theory, which views children as active agents who reflect on and coordinate their own thoughts rather than absorbing those of others. A glance inside a constructivist classroom reveals richly equipped learning centers, small groups and individuals solving self- chosen problems, and a teacher who guides and supports in response to children's needs. Students are evaluated by considering their progress in relation to their own prior development.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

In his psychosocial theory, Erikson emphasized that in addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demands, the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills that make the individual an active, contributing member of society. A basic psychosocial conflict, which is resolved along a continuum from positive to negative, determines healthy or maladaptive outcomes at each stage. Erikson's first five stages parallel Freud's stages, but Erikson added three adult stages. Erikson's broad outline of lifespan change captures key, optimal psychosocial attainments during each major period of the life course.

tonic neck reflex

Infant lies in a "fencing position"; may prepare infant for voluntary reaching

Age Graded Influences

Influences on lifespan development that are strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when they occur and how long they last. p9

Cognitive development/improvements in early childhood

Information Processing • Preschool children gain in the executive functions of inhibition, ability to shift focus, and working memory, as well as planning. • Parenting scaffolding assists and poverty creates stress for parents, which can negatively affect children's development. • Less effective use of memory strategies for lists, but episodic memory of events improves and becomes more detailed. Information Processing • Metacognition present—reflect on their thoughts and feelings • Their theory of mind is of a container, not an active agent • Informal literacy activities such as parent-child interactive reading fosters literacy development • Adults promote math development with opportunities for counting Individual Differences • Scores on early childhood IQ tests predict later IQ scores • Criticism of testing • Preschool and kindergarten • Child-centered: learn through play • Academic programs: teacher-structured learning through repetition • Head Start and other early interventions yield higher language, cognitive, and social development among low SES children Playfulness Self awareness in creating new meanings Showed an awareness of 'I can make this stand for that' as opposed to simply 'this can be that' Investment in symbolic meanings Show how much they care about the new meanings about given to objects when pretending Creativity Introduces new creative ideas that enrich the play Fun Did they look like they were having fun

Analytical Intelligence (Sternberg)

Information processing skills: apply strategies, acquire task-relevant and metacognitive knowledge, engage in self-regulation

Informational processing

Informational processing—information is coded, transformed, and organized to go from sensory input to the behavioral response or output Information --> Coded --> Transformed --> Organized The design of digital computers that use mathematically specified steps to solve problems suggested to psychologists that the human mind might also be viewed as a symbol-manipulating system through which information flows—a perspective called information processing. From the time information is presented to the senses at input until it emerges as a behavioral response at output, information is actively coded, transformed, and organized. Most information-processing researchers regard the thought processes of: perception, attention, memory, categorization of infomation, planning, problem solving, and comprehension of written and spoken prose—as similar at all ages but present to a lesser or greater extent. Their view of development is one of continuous change. Information processing Continuous: Children and adults change gradually in perception, attention, memory, and problem- solving skills. One course: Changes studied characterize most or all children and adults. Both nature and nurture: Children and adults are active, sense-making beings who modify their thinking as the brain grows and they confront new environmental demands. Both early and later experiences are important.

Isolette - Interventions for Preterm Infants

Interventions for Preterm Infants A preterm baby is cared for in a special Plexiglas-enclosed bed called an isolette. Temperature is carefully controlled because these babies cannot yet regulate their own body temperature effectively. To help protect the baby from infection, air is filtered before it enters the isolette. When a preterm infant is fed through a stomach tube, breathes with the aid of a respirator, and receives medication through an intravenous needle, the isolette can be very isolating indeed! Physical needs that otherwise would lead to close contact and other human stimulation are met mechanically.

positive parenting

Is when parents communicate with their children, ,set clear expectations and praise a child for desirable behavior. Positive parents intentionally boost their child's self esteem.

Interventions for Preterm Infants

Isolette—enclosed bed with filters for air and controlled temperature May also need tube feeding, respirator, and medication through an intravenous needle Stimulation—rockers, auditory stimulation such as womblike sounds, mother's voice, soft music, skin-to-skin touch Parent training to recognize and address baby's needs

Options to reduce pain in childbirth

Labor and Delivery Medication Some form of medication is used in more than 80 percent of U.S. births. Analgesics, drugs used to relieve pain, may be given in mild doses during labor to help a mother relax. Anesthetics are a stronger type of painkiller that blocks sensation. Currently, the most common approach to controlling pain during labor is epidural analgesia, in which a regional pain-relieving drug is delivered continuously through a catheter into a small space in the lower spine. Unlike older spinal block procedures, which numb the entire lower half of the body, epidural analgesia limits pain reduction to the pelvic region. Because the mother retains the capacity to feel the pressure of the contractions and to move her trunk and legs, she is able to push during the second stage of labor. Although pain-relieving drugs help women cope with childbirth and enable doctors to perform essential medical interventions, they also can cause problems. Epidural analgesia, for example, weakens uterine contractions. As a result, labor is prolonged, and the chances of instrument delivery or cesarean (surgical) birth increase. And because drugs rapidly cross the placenta, exposed newborns are at risk for respiratory distress. They also tend to have lower Apgar scores, to be sleepy and withdrawn, to suck poorly during feedings, and to be irritable when awake. Although no confirmed long-term consequences for development exist, the negative impact of these drugs on the newborn's adjustment supports the current trend to limit their use. *mindful interventions ● Classes: learn about the anatomy and physiology of labor and delivery. Knowledge about the birth process reduces a mother's fear. ● Relaxation and breathing techniques. During each class, learn relaxation and breathing exercises aimed at counteracting the pain of uterine contractions. ● Labor coach: partner learns how to help during childbirth by reminding her to relax and breathe, massaging her back, supporting her body, and offering encouragement and affection. ● Textbook noted doulas reduce pharmaceutical analgesic and anesthesia interventions

Supporting language development in infancy (babbling/cooing)

Language Development • Nativist perspective—language acquisition device—all children have innate system of grammar/set of rules • Interactionist perspective—inner capacity and external influences • Process—cooing, babbling, joint attention (caregiver directs attention and names object), first words (under-extension and overextension), two-word phrases Support Language Development • Respond to coos and babbles with words • Establish joint attention & comment on what child sees • Play social games • Engage in joint make believe • Engage in conversation • Read and engage in dialogue about picture books

How does the amount of public health spending in the U.S. compare to other industrialized nations?

Last, the U.S. spends the least amount on health for its citizens compared to other industrialized nations. page 65

How does the U.S. compare to other industrialized nations in childhood poverty?

Last; the U.S. has the highest levels of any developed country page 64

How does the teenage birthrate in the U.S. compare to other industrialized nations

Last; the U.S. has the highest levels of teenage births among developed nations. page 64

How does the poverty rate among people over 65 in the U.S. compare to other industrialized nations?

Last; the U.S. has the highest rates of poverty among people 65 and over in any industrialized nation. page 65

FREUD'S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES - Latency (6-12 years)

Latency (6-12 years) - None - Sexually repressed - Socialization and friendships - Expanding social contacts Latency: Sexual instincts die down, and the superego strengthens as children acquire new social values from adults and same-sex peers. Erotic Focus: none - sexually repressed Key Tasks & experiences: expanding social contacts

normative approach

Launched by Stanley Hall & Arnold Resell. Measures of behavior are taken on large numbers of individuals and age-related averages are computed to represent typical development

Language Development in middle childhood

Metalinguistic awareness develops. Vocabulary increases fourfold: Reading contributes enormously to vocabulary growth. Children grasp double meanings, appreciate riddles and puns. Mastery of grammar increases: Children use passive voice more frequently. Understanding of infinitive phrases advances. Dramatic gains occur in pragmatics: Children can adapt to needs of listeners in challenging communicative situations. Ability to evaluate clarity of others' messages improves. Narratives advance in organization, detail, and expressiveness.

stranger anxiety

Most frequent expression of fear Fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age into 2nd year.

Piaget's Criticisms

Most of his work is observational, not experimental. Gathered data from his own children. About 1 in every 3 young adolescents is a formal operational thinker. Children's and babies' competence was underrated and adolescents competence was overrated. Stages too rigid. Didn't think children could be trained. Some children developed abilities before and after Piaget predicted. He believed that culture and environment were not important to cognitive development

Transgender children

Most studies to date examine children who: - have a binary concept of gender (male/female) - feel they are the gender "opposite" of their sex at birth Lots of anecdotal evidence - some children talk about themselves as the gender "opposite" of their natal sex as early as 2 years old

Early adulthood (18-40 years)

Most young people leave home, complete their education, and begin full-time work. Major concerns are developing a career, forming an intimate partnership, and marrying, rearing children, or pursuing other lifestyles.

NEWBORN BEHAVIORS - reflexes

NEWBORN BEHAVIORS Reflexes Blinking reflex Rooting reflex Sucking reflex Moro reflex Eye blink: Shine bright light at eyes or clap hand near head. Infant quickly closes eyelids. Permanent Protects infant from strong stimulation Rooting: Stroke cheek near corner of mouth. Head turns toward source of stimulation. 3 weeks (becomes voluntary turning at this time) Helps infant find the nipple Sucking: Place finger in infant's mouth. Infant sucks finger rhythmically. Replaced by voluntary sucking after 4 months - Permits feeding Moro Hold infant horizontally on back and let head drop slightly, or produce a sudden loud sound against surface supporting infant. Infant makes an "embracing" motion by arching back, extending legs, throwing arms outward, and then bringing arms in toward the body. 6 months In human evolutionary past, may have helped infant cling to mother Palmar grasp Place finger in infant's hand and press against palm. Infant spontaneously grasps finger. 3-4 months Prepares infant for voluntary grasping Tonic neck: Turn baby's head to one side while infant is lying awake on back. Infant lies in a "fencing position." One arm is extended in front of eyes on side to which head is turned, other arm is flexed. 4 months May prepare infant for voluntary reaching Stepping: Hold infant under arms and permit bare feet to touch a flat surface. Infant lifts one foot after another in stepping response. 2 months in infants who gain weight quickly; sustained in lighter infants Prepares infant for voluntary walking Babinski: Stroke sole of foot from toe toward heel. Toes fan out and curl as foot twists in. 8-12 months Unknown what it prepares for

Peer Relations and School Readiness

NOT just about academic skills. Social skills in early childhood contribute to later academic performance. There's been a push in the last couple of decades to think of this also as being comprised of social and emotional skills. In preschool programs, warm, response teacher-child interaction is vital, especially for shy, impulsive, and emotionally negative children who are at risk for social difficulties It's important to talk about/address social and emotional skills. If a child has poor self regulation skills and bad emotion management, then they'll have trouble in the classroom. Kids w. difficult time adapting tend to have more difficulty in academic skills. EMOTIONAL PART SEEPS INTO ACADEMIC PART There's a way to research in a classroom environ where you observe the dynamics of the entire classroom at all levels (student, teacher, etc...). You discern emotional level of classroom. This form of research notices that the moment a teacher becomes negative, academic learning goes down

Growth Hormone (GH)

Necessary for development of all body tissues except the central nervous system and the genitals Released by Pituitary Gland

somatic mutation

Normal body cells mutate, an event that can happen at any time in life. The DNA defect can eventually become widespread enough to cause disease or disability.

Implantation

Occurs between the 7th and 9th day. The process by which the zygote attaches to the uterine wall. page 77

sex chromosomes

One of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in the human, contains genes that will determine the sex of the individual. in females its called xx, and males its called xy x is relatively long chromosome, whereas the y is short and carries little genetic material

FREUD'S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES - Oral (0-1)

Oral (0-1 year) Nurturing - Mouth - Sucking and biting - Tasks: weaning, gratification Oral: If oral needs are not met through sucking from breast or bottle, the individual may develop such habits as thumb sucking, fingernail biting, overeating, or smoking. Erotic Focus: mouth - sucking biting Key Tasks & experiences: weaning

Oral rehydration therapy (ORT)

Oral rehydration therapy (ORT): in which sick children are given glucose, salt, and water solution that quickly replaces fluids the body loses page. 221

Macrosystem (Bronfenbrenner)

Outermost level of Bronfenbrenner's Model Consists of cultural values, laws, customs and resources The priority the microsystem gives to needs of children and adults affects the support they receive at inner levels of the environment (ex. country requires workplace benefits/pension plan for retirees, it supports well-being of elderly)

Operant Conditioning Theory

People learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired consequences and learn not to perform behaviors that lead to undesired consequences

FREUD'S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES - Phallic (4-5 years)

Phallic (4-5 years) - Shame - Genitals - Masturbation/self exploration - Oedipus Complex - Task identifying adult role models Phallic: As preschoolers take pleasure in genital stimulation, Freud's Oedipus conflict for boys and Electra conflict for girls arise: Children feel a sexual desire for the other-sex parent. To avoid punishment, they give up this desire and adopt the same-sex parent's characteristics and values. As a result, the superego is formed, and children feel guilty when they violate its standards. Erotic Focus: genitals - masturbating Key Tasks & experiences: Identifying with adult role model and ditching the oedipal/electra complex

Gene pool stuffs (just in case)

Phenotype: What are your observable characteristics? Chromosomes: Carries our generic inheritance Gametes: Sex cells zygotes Polygenetic Inheritance: Result of multiple genes Personality intelligence Phenotype are directly observable characteristics which are products of genotype and environment. Chromosomes are rod-like structures within the cell. nucleus that carry our genetic inheritance. Gametes are sex cells. Zygote is the result of the sperm and ovum uniting and carry our full chromosomes. If fertilizing sperm carries an X chromosome, a girl will be conceived, and if the fertilizing sperm carries a Y chromosome, a boy will be conceived. Polygenic inheritance are traits that are the result of multiple genes such as intelligence and personality.

Piaget's Stages of Development specifics within each developmental period (book and class lecture)

Piaget's cognitive developmental theory: kids construct knowledge as they manipulate the world - Mind adjusts to fit the environment - Schemes: organized way to make sense of experiences Discontinuous: Cognitive development takes place in stages. One course: Stages are assumed to be universal. Both nature and nurture: Development occurs as the brain grows and children exercise their innate drive to discover reality in a generally stimulating environment. Both early and later experiences are important.

preoperational stage

Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, lasting from about 2 to 7 years of age, during which thought is more symbolic than sensorimotor thought.

Irreversibility

Piaget's term for a preoperational child's inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse direction, returning to the starting point.

Acceptance of individual differences

Piaget's theory assumes that all children go through the same sequence of development, but at different rates. Therefore, teachers must plan activities for individual children and small groups, not just for the whole class.

concrete operational stage

Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, lasting from about 7 to 11 years of age, during which the individual uses operations and replaces intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete situations.

conservation tasks

Piagetian tasks that involve changing the shape of a substance to see whether children can go beyond the way that substance visually appears to understand that the amount is still the same

three mountain problem

Piagets most convincing demonstration of egocentrism - each mountain is distinguished by its color and by its summit. one has a red cross, another a small house, and the third a snow-capped peak. children at the preoperational stage respond egocentrically. they cannot select a picture that shows the mountains form the dolls perspective. instead, they simply choose the photo that reflects their own vantage point.

Plasticity VS Stability (class lecture & asynch)

Plastic: Changes throughout life Stability: Stays constant Plasticity: development is open to change throughout our lives Stability: primary focus on hereditary indicates that people remain who they are later in life as they are characterized early in life

heritability estimates

Portion of individual differences attributable to genetics. Ranges from 0 to 100. page 67

Child-rearing practices that influence self-esteem

Positive warm behavior, appropriate expectations backed up with explanations, help with making sensible choice. Don't be over-controlling or give a sense of inadequacy. Don't be overly tolerant or indulgent

Piaget's Pre Operational (2 - 6/7)

Pre Operational (2 - 6/7) - Pretend play - Uses symbols - Begins to talk - Very egocentric Preschool children use symbols to represent their earlier sensorimotor discoveries. Development of language and make-believe play takes place. However, thinking lacks the logic of the two remaining stages.

Major Periods of Human Development

Prenatal-Conception to birth Infancy and toddlerhood-Birth-2 years Early childhood-2-6 years Middle childhood-6-11 years Adolescence-11-18 years Early adulthood-18-40 years Middle adulthood-40-65 years Late adulthood-65 years-death

understanding emotions

Preschoolers focus on external factors -Cause or precursor -Behavioral signs of emotion -Consequence or outcome Can correctly understand and label the cause of basic emotions at 4-5 years old Start to understand that thinking and feeling are interconnected Learn to predict and influence others' emotions

Preterm babies

Preterm infants—born several weeks or more before their due date Small for date infants—babies born below their expected weight considering the length of the pregnancy Babies who are at increased risk for death, infection, and brain damage at birth and later in childhood are at increased risk for social immaturity, smaller stature, and academic difficulties Babies born three weeks or more before the end of a full 38-week pregnancy or who weigh less than 5½ pounds (2,500 grams) have for many years been referred to as "premature." A wealth of research indicates that premature babies are at risk for many problems. 11% of US births are preterm

Psychoanalytic perspectives (Freud and Erikson)

Psychoanalytic perspective—People move through stages based on conflicts between their biological drive and social expectations. Freud: parents' management of their child's sexual and aggressive urges early in life greatly affects their development. Erikson's psychosocial theory: along with id and superego, the ego plays a major role in skill development and attitude acquisition. Psychoanalytic perspective Discontinuous: Psychosexual and psychosocial development takes place in stages. One course: Stages are assumed to be universal. Both nature and nurture: Innate impulses are channeled and controlled through child-rearing experiences. Early experiences set the course of later development.

initiative versus guilt

Psychological conflict of the preschool years. Young children have a new sense of purposefulness. They are eager to tackle new tasks, join in activities with peers, and discover what they can do with the help of adults. They also make strides in conscience development.

Sigmund Freud

Psychosexual Theory - emphasizes that how parents manage their child's sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development. p14

Erik Erikson

Psychosocial Theory - emphasizes that in addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demands, the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills that make the individual an active, contributing member of society. p15

Freud's theory

Psychsexual stages of development, emphasized unconscious conflicts at each stage, and the developmental task is to master the conflict. Not considered a modern psychological theory. page 14

Adolescence (11-18 years)

Puberty leads to an adult-sized body and sexual maturity. Thought becomes abstract and idealistic and school achievement more serious. Adolescents begin to establish autonomy from the family and to define personal values and goals.

phonics approach to reading

Reading approach that advocates coaching children on phonics first Phonics are the basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds Only after mastering these skills should they get complex reading material

whole language approach to reading

Reading approach that advocates exposing children to text in its complete form - stories, poems, letters, posters and lists from the start

internal working model

Set of expectations about the availability of attachment figures and their likelihood of providing support during times of stress. The internal working model becomes a vital part of personality, serving as a guide for all future close relationships

Childhood Injuries: Risk Factors

Sex—Preponderance of males; difference mainly the result of behavioral characteristics, especially aggression Temperament—Children with difficult temperament profile, especially persistence, high activity level, and negative reactions to new situations Stress—Predisposes children to increased risk taking and self-destructive behavior; general lack of self-protection Alcohol and drug use—Associated with higher incidence of motor vehicle injuries, drownings, homicides, and suicides History of previous injury—Associated with increased likelihood of another injury, especially if initial injury required hospitalization

Lev Vygotsky

Sociocultural Theory - Children acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up their community's culture through social interaction - in particular, cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society. p22

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory - Stage 2 Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (Will) Toddlerhood

Stage 2 Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (Will) Toddlerhood - 2-4 years - Both parents Autonomy versus shame and doubt: Using new mental and motor skills, children want to decide for themselves. Parents can foster autonomy by permitting reasonable free choice and not forcing or shaming the child.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory - Stage 3 Initiative vs Guilt (Purpose) Early Childhood

Stage 3 Initiative vs Guilt (Purpose) Early Childhood - 4-5 years - Family Initiative versus guilt: Through make-believe play, children gain insight into the person they can become. Initiative—a sense of ambition and responsibility—develops when parents support their child's sense of purpose. If parents demand too much self-control, children experience excessive guilt.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory - Stage 5 Identity vs Role Confusion Adolescence

Stage 5 Identity vs Role Confusion Adolescence - 13-19 - Peers and Role Models Identity versus role confusion: By exploring values and vocational goals, young people form a personal identity. The negative outcome is confusion about future adult roles.

observational methods

Techniques for acquiring data through the direct observation of phenomena, nothing is altered or manipulated, no cause and effect inferences may be made. Most common is a survey.

Chronosystem (Bronfenbrenner)

Temporal Dimension of Bronfenbrenner's Model Life changes can be imposed externally or alternatively can arise from within the person; since individuals select, modify and create many of their own settings and experiences

Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory (book)

The Psychoanalytic Perspective In the 1930s and 1940s, as more people sought help from professionals to deal with emotional difficulties, a new question had to be addressed: How and why do people become the way they are? To treat psychological problems, psychiatrists and social workers turned to an emerging approach to personality development that emphasized each individual's unique life history. According to the psychoanalytic perspective, people move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. How these conflicts are resolved determines the person's ability to learn, to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety. Among the many individuals who contributed to the psychoanalytic perspective, two were especially influential: Sigmund Freud, founder of the psychoanalytic movement, and Erik Erikson.

breech position

The baby's position in the uterus that causes the buttocks to be the first part to emerge from the vagina.

animistic thinking

The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities, such as thoughts, wishes, feelings, and intentions

ego

The ego, the conscious, rational part of personality, emerges in early infancy to redirect the id's impulses so they are discharged in acceptable ways.

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Context theory of development (book)

The field of human development is becoming increasingly aware that children and adults live in distinct contexts—unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in different paths of change. EX: a shy individual who fears social encounters develops in very different contexts from those of an outgoing agemate who readily seeks out other people. These different circumstances foster different intellectual capacities, social skills, and feelings about the self and others Contemporary theorists regard the contexts that shape development as many-layered and complex. - Personal: heredity and biological makeup. - Environmental: home, school, and neighborhood community resources, societal values, and historical time period - cultural diversity impt too Bi-directional influence between individuals and their contexts: People not only are affected by but also contribute to the contexts in which they develop

sensory register

The first memory storage location where sensory information is stored in the brain before becoming short or long term memory

Androgyny

The gender identity held by individuals who score high on both traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine personality characteristics. p279

neighborhood effect

The geographical theory in which the characteristics of people in a local area help determine their political preferences; questions the overall importance of place in shaping people's attitudes or behaviors.

Id

The id, the largest portion of the mind, is the source of basic biological needs and desires.

Nativist perspective

The idea that humans are biologically programmed to learn language, have a Language Acquisition Device (LAD), developed by Noam Chomsky. page 174

dependent variable

The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested. page 33

Stimulus Deprivation

The process whereby the reinforcing power of a stimulus is restored by depriving the organism of it for a period of time.

displaced reference

The realization that words can be used to cue mental images of things not physically present. Symbolic capacity that emerges around the 1st birthday

Prefrontal Cortex

The region of the cerebral cortex, lying in front of areas controlling body movement, that is responsible for thought - in particular, for consciousness, inhibition of impulses, integration of information, and use of memory, reasoning, planning, and problem-solving strategies. p120

Middle childhood (6-11 years)

The school years are marked by improved athletic abilities; more logical thought processes; mastery of fundamental reading, writing, math, and other academic knowledge and skills; advances in self‑understanding, morality, and friendship; and the beginnings of peer-group membership.

Informational Processing

Theoretical perspective that claims information is coded, transformed, and organized to go from sensory input to the behavioral response or output

Developmental Neuroscience

Theoretical perspective that focuses on the relationship between the brain and the developing person's cognitive processing and behavioral patterns; as well as the brain's influence on social and emotional development

Stability vs. Plasticity (book)

Theorists who emphasize stability—that individuals who are high or low in a characteristic (such as verbal ability, anxiety, or sociability) will remain so at later ages— stress the importance of heredity. If they regard environment as impt, they point to early experiences as establishing a lifelong pattern of behavior. Powerful negative events in the first few years, they argue, cannot be fully overcome by later, more positive ones (Bowlby, 1980; Sroufe, Coffino, & Carlson, 2010). Other theorists, taking a more optimistic view, see development as having substantial plasticity throughout life—as open to change in response to influential experiences (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006; Overton & Molenaar, 2015).

Individualism vs. Collectivism

Theory focusing on the relationship between the individual and his or her fellows. In individualistic societies, the ties between individuals are loose and individual achievement is highly valued. In societies where collectivism is emphasized, ties between individuals are tight, people are born into collectives, such as extended families, and everyone is supposed to look after the interests of his or her collective.

Erikson's Theory

Theory that proposes eight stages of human development. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved.

insecure attachment

These infants seem unresponsive to the parent when she is present. When she leaves, they usually are not distressed, and they react to the stranger in much the same way as to the parent. During reunion, they avoid or are slow to greet the parent, and when picked up, they often fail to cling. About 15 percent of North American infants in middle-SES families show this pattern.

Secure Attachment

These infants use the parent as a secure base. When separated, they may or may not cry, but if they do, it is because the parent is absent and they prefer her to the stranger. When the parent returns, they convey clear pleasure—some expressing joy from a distance, others asking to be held until settling down to return to play - and crying is reduced immediately. About 60 percent of North American infants in middle-SES families show this pattern. (In low-SES families, a smaller proportion of babies show the secure pattern, with higher proportions falling into the insecure patterns.)

developmentally appropriate practice

These standards, devised by the U.S. National Association for the Education of Young Children, specify program characteristics that serve young children's developmental and individual needs, based on both current research and consensus among experts.

disorganized/disoriented attachment

This pattern reflects the greatest insecurity. At reunion, these infants show con- fused, contradictory behaviors—for example, looking away while the parent is holding them or approaching the parent with flat, depressed emotion. Most display a dazed facial expression, and a few cry out unexpectedly after having calmed down or display odd, frozen postures. About 15 per- cent of North American infants in middle-SES families show this pattern.

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Development

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory—culture (values, beliefs, customs, and skills of a social group) is transmitted to the next generation; understands cognitive development (Piaget) as a socially mediated process Critique is that biological and children's internal capacity less acknowledged while other theories often neglect the sociocultural component Sociocultural Theory Vygotsky - Cognitive development is a socially mediated process According to Vygotsky, social interaction—in particular, cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society—is necessary for children to acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community's culture. Both continuous and discontinuous: Language acquisition and schooling lead to stage-wise changes. Dialogues with more expert members of society also result in continuous changes that vary from culture to culture. Many possible courses: Socially mediated changes in thought and behavior vary from culture to culture. Both nature and nurture: Heredity, brain growth, and dialogues with more expert members of society jointly contribute to development. Both early and later experiences are important

Rh Factor Incompatibility

When inherited blood types of mother and fetus differ, serious problems sometimes result. The most common cause of these difficulties is Rh factor incompatibility. When the mother is Rh-negative (lacks the Rh blood protein) and the father is Rh positive (has the protein), the baby may inherit the father's Rh-positive blood type. If even a little of a fetus's Rh-positive blood crosses the placenta into the Rh-negative mother's bloodstream, she begins to form antibodies to the foreign Rh protein. If these enter the fetus's system, they destroy red blood cells, reducing the oxygen supply to organs and tissues. Intellectual disability, miscarriage, heart damage, and infant death can occur. It takes time for the mother to produce Rh antibodies, so firstborn children are rarely affected. The danger increases with each additional pregnancy. Fortunately, Rh incompatibility can be prevented in most cases. After the birth of each Rh-positive baby, Rh-negative mothers are routinely given a vaccine to prevent the buildup of antibodies.

Vygotsky's theory

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and Scaffolding: children think and understand the world through social interaction. page 22

Methylation

a biochemical process triggered by certain experiences, in which a set of chemical compounds (called a methyl group) lands on top of a gene and changes its impact, reducing or silencing its expression

information processing

a continuum including attention, sensation, perception, learning, memory, and cognition

peer victimization

a destructive form of peer interaction in which certain children become frequent targets of verbal and physical attacks or other forms of abuse

emotional development

a developmental process that refers to the ability to experience, express, and control emotions *preschoolers gain in emotional understanding becoming better able to talk about feelings and to respond appropriately to others emotional signals, emotional self regulation, and both self-conscious emotions and empathy which develops their sense of morality

Fragile X Syndrome

a disorder produced by injury to a gene on the X chromosome, producing mild to moderate mental retardation *genomic imprinting can operate on the sex chromosome *most commonly inherited form

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

correlation coefficient

a number that describes how two measures or variables are associated with each other. page 33

correlation coefficient

a number that describes how two measures, or variables, are associated with each other *can range in value from +1.00 to -1.00. the magnitude of the number shows the strength of the relationship

incomplete dominance

a pattern of inheritance in which both alleles are expressed in the phenotype, resulting in a combined trait, or one that is intermediate between the two

dominant-recessive inheritance

a pattern of inheritance in which, under heterozygous conditions, the influence of only one allele is apparent

Organization of Schemes

a process that occurs internally, apart from direct contact with the environment. Once children from new schemes, they rearrange them, linking them with other schemes to create a strongly interconnected cognitive system

synaptic pruning

a process whereby the synaptic connections in the brain that are used are preserved, and those that are not used are lost

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

a psychological disorder, which involves inattention, impulsivity and excessive motor activity resulting in academic and social problems

national center for children in poverty

a public policy forum that promotes the health and well-being of children and families in need.

Zone of proximal development

a range of tasks too difficult for the child to do alone but possible with the help of others page 235

yolk sac

a specialized structure that leads to the digestive tract of a developing organism and provides it with food during early development

dominance hierarchy

a stable ordering of group members that predicts who will win when conflict arises

expressive style

a style of language use in which language is used primarily to express feelings and needs about oneself and others

mutation

a sudden but permanent change in a segment of DNA, resulting in the creation of a harmful gene

Diethylstilbestrol (DES)

a synthetic hormone, formerly prescribed to prevent miscarriage, that can produce cervical cancer in female offspring and genital-tract abnormalities in males

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)

a term that encompasses a rang of physical, mental, and behavioral outcomes.

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

a test that consists of a series of items that vary according to the age of the person being tested

chromosomes

a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.

sensitive period

a time that is biologically optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences. However, its boundaries are less well-defined than those of a critical period. Development can occur later, but its harder to induce.

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning.

make-believe play

a type of play in which children act out everyday and imaginary activities *piaget believed that through pretending, young children practice and strengthen newly acquired representational schemes.

according to vygotsky make believe play was?

a unique broadly influential zone of proximal development in which children try out a wide variety of challenging activities and acquire many new competencies

Marasmus

a wasted condition of the body caused by a diet low in all essential nutrients. It usually appears in the first year of life when a baby mother is too malnourished to produce enough breast milk and bottle seeing is also inadequate

school refusal (school phobia)

about 5 percent of school-age children develop an intense, unmanageable fear called a phobia. Children with inhibited temperaments are at high risk, displaying phobias five to six times as often as other children.. Some children with phobias and other anxieties develop school refusal—severe apprehension about attending school, often accompanied by physical complaints such as dizziness, nausea, stomachaches, and vomiting. About one-third of children with school refusal are 5- to 7-year-olds for whom the real fear is maternal separation (Elliott, 1999). Family therapy helps these children, whose difficulty can often be traced to parental overprotection. Most cases of school refusal appear around age 11 to 13, in children who usually find a particular aspect of school frightening— an overcritical teacher, a school bully, or too much parental pressure to achieve. A change in school environment or parenting practices may be needed. Firm insistence that the child return to school, along with training in how to manage anxiety and cope with difficult situations, is also helpful. Severe childhood anxieties may arise from harsh living conditions. In inner-city ghettos and in war-torn areas of the world, large numbers of children live in the midst of constant danger, chaos, and deprivation. As the Cultural Influences box on the following page reveals, they are at risk for long-term emotional distress and behavior problems. Finally, as we saw in our discussion of child abuse in Chapter 8, too often violence and other destructive acts become part of adult-child relationships. During middle childhood, child sexual abuse increases.

social referencing

actively seeking emotional information from a trusted person in an uncertain situation

social referencing

actively seeking emotional information from a trusted person in an uncertain situation *toddlers use others emotional messages to evaluate the safety and security of their surroundings , to guide their own actions and to gather information about others intentions and preferences.

scaffolding

adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance page 235

superego

ages 3-6 the conscience develops as parents insist that children conform to the values of society

sequence of motor development

all human children follow the same basic motor skills in the same sequence (though the timing of each one may differ from person to person) - roll over --> sitting up --> standing --> crawling --> walking

genomic imprinting

alleles are imprinted (chemically marked) causing one of the alleles in the pair to be activated. page 49

genomic imprinting

alleles are imprinted, or chemically marked through regulatory processes within the genome, in such a way that one pair member (either the mother's or the father's) is activated, regardless of its makeup

Attachment Q-Sort

alternative method to the four attachment styles; suitable for children ages 1-4, depends on home observation. Either the parent or the observer sorts 90 behaviors of interaction between child and caregiver into categories ranging from highly descriptive to not at all descriptive of the child. Then a score, ranging form low in security to high in security, is computed

neural tube

an embryonic structure that gives rise to the central nervous system

Teratogen

any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period depends on the following factors 1. dose 2. heredity 3. other negative influences 4. age

Practical Intelligence (Sternberg)

application of intellectual skills in everyday situations: adapt to..., shape... select... environments to meet both personal goals and the demands of one's everyday world

overextension

applying a word to a wider collection of objects and events than is appropriate

preterm infants

are born several weeks or more before their due date. page 98

fetal monitors

are electronic instruments that track the baby's heart rate during labor. page 96

self-conscious emotions

as school age children integrate social expectations into their self-concepts, self-conscious emotions of pride and guilt become clearly govern by personal responsibility *pride motivates children to take on further challenges, whereas guilt prompts them to make amends and to strive for self improvement

Correlational methods

associate different factors, giving the ability to predict variables, but not determine cause and effect.

illegal drugs during pregnancy

babies are at risk for a wide variety of problems, including prematurity, low birth weight, brain abnormalities, psychical defects, breathing difficulties, and death around the time of birth.

core knowledge perspective

babies are born with a set of innate knowledge systems, or core domains of thought. Each of these prewired understandings permits a ready grasp of new, related information and therefore supports early, rapid development

insecure resistant attachment

before separation from caregiver, these babies seek closeness to caregiver and do not explore the environment. When the caregiver returns, they resist soothing and are not easily soothed. 10% of North American infants in middle-SES families show this pattern. page 198

Project head start

began in 1965, a typical head start center provides children with a year or two or preschool, along with nutritional and health services. Parent involvement is central to the head start philosophy page 246

social referencing

beginning at 8 to 10 months... actively seeking emotional information from a trusted person in an uncertain situation page 188

authoritative parenting

best kind of parenting: high expectations (demands), high responsiveness, high degree of warmth

hearing

between 4-7 months infants display a sense of musical phrasing, they can distinguish musical tunes

social smile

between 6 and 10 weeks, the parent's communication evokes a broad grin

Implantation

between the 7th and 9th day, process in which the blastocyst attaches to the wall of the uterus (uterine lining)

history-graded influences

biological and environmental influences associated with a particular historical moment Explain why people born around the same time--called a cohort--tend to be alike in ways that set them apart from people born at other times.

age-graded influences

biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group, regardless of when or where they are raised events that are strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when they occur and how long they last

statistical learning capacity

by analyzing the speech stream for patterns-repeatedly occurring sequences for which they will later learn meanings, long before they start to talk around 12 month

statistical learning capacity

by analyzing the speech stream for patterns-repeatedly occurring sequences of sounds-they acquire a stock of speech structures for which they will later learn meanings, long before they start to talk around age 12 months

Kwashiorkor

caused by an unbalanced diet very low in protein. The disease usually strikes after weaning, between 1 and 3 years of age.

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

partial fetal alcohol syndrome (p-FAS)

characterized by: 1. two of the three facial abnormalities 2. brain injury, again evident in at least three areas of impaired functioning Mothers of children with p-FAS generally drank alcohol in smaller quantities, and children's defects vary with the timing and length of alcohol exposure

neurotransmitters

chemicals released by neurons to send messages to other neurons across the synapses

neurotransmitters

chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a receiving neuron's dendrites. page 117

proactive aggression (instrumental aggression)

children act to fulfill a need or desire - to obtain an object, privilege, space or social reward - and unemotionally attack a person to achieve their goal

Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory

children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world

Cognitive Development Theory

children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world.

Discovery learning

children are encouraged to discover for themselves through spontaneous interaction with the environment page 233

Illnesses in Middle Childhood

children experienced a somewhat higher rate of illness during the first two years of elementary school than later because of the exposure to sick children and an immune system that is still developing. about 20-25% of US children have chronic diseases and conditions (including physical disabilities) most common: asthma about 2% of US children have more severe chronic illnesses such as sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, diabetes, arthritis cancer and aids. *strong link exists between good family functioning and child well-being for chronically ill children, just as it does for physically healthy children

family s training ground for aggressive behavior

children subjected to these family processes of aggressive behavior, they acquire a distorted view of the social world, often seeing hostile intent where it does not exist and as a result making many unprovoked attacks

popular-prosocial children

children who are both well-liked (socially accepted) and admired (high in perceived popularity), combine academic and social competence

Rejected Children (Peer Acceptance)

children who are disliked

Neglected Children

children who are seldom mentioned, either positively or negatively, on self-report measures of peer acceptance

Popular Children (Peer Acceptance)

children who are well-liked

uninhibited, or sociable, child (temperament)

children who display positive emotion to and approach novel stimuli

emergent literacy

children's active efforts to construct literacy knowledge through informal experiences

evocative correlation

children's characteristics and behaviors influence others' responses to them (e.g., smiling, happy baby is smiled at by others) page 69

Private Speech (Vygotsky)

children's self-directed speech

natural childbirth program

classes relaxation and breathing techniques labor coach

binocular depth

clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes

uninvolved child-rearing style

combines low acceptance and involvement with little control and general indifference to issues of autonomy

vision and hearing in middle childhood

common vision problem: myopia (nearsightedness), by the end of the school years, if affects 25% of children which increases to 75% by early adulthood during middle childhood the Eustachian tube becomes longer and narrower, and more slanted, preventing flout and bacteria from traveling to easily from the mouth to the ear. As a result middle-ear infections, cannon in infancy and early childhood, becomes less frequent. Still 3-4% of school age population, and as many as 20% of low ses children develop persistent hearing loss as a result of repeated untreated infections

externalizing difficulties

commonly referred to as acting out, children and adolescents externalize their feelings about the divorce, typically through aggressive misbehaviors, non-compliance, disobedience, delinquency, increased absences from school, and increased aggressiveness

ethology

concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history

Exosystem

consists of social settings that do not contain the developing person but nevertheless affect experiences in immediate settings *can be formal orgs. such as the management in the individuals workplace, religious institution or community health and welfare services.

uninhibited, or sociable, children

display positive emotion to and approach novel stimuli. page 191

inhibition and flexible shifting

during middle childhood, children become better at deliberately attending to relevant aspects of a task and inhibiting irrelevant responses. older children are also better at flexibility shifting their attention in repose to task requirements *selectivity and flexibility of attention become better controlled and more efficient over middle childhood. children adapt their attention more quickly in the face of increasingly complex distractors--skills that contribute to more organized, strategic approaches to challenging tasks

yolk sac

emerges that produces blood cells until the developing liver, spleen and bone marrow are mature enough to take over this function. page 77

psychosocial theory

emphasized that in addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demands, the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills that make the individual an active, contributing member of society *development must be understood in relations to each culture's life situation

psychosexual theory

emphasizes that how parents manage their child's sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development

Darwin's Theory of Evolution

emphasizes the adaptive value of physical characteristics and behavior. Affection and care in families are adaptive throughout the lifespan, promoting survival and psychological well-being.

Mesosystem

encompasses connections between microsystems

non-normative influences

events that are irregular: they happen to just one person or a few people and do not follow a predictable timetable

nonnormative influences

events that are irregular: they happen to just one person or a few people and do not follow a predictable timetable

nonnormative influences

events that are irregular: they happen to just one person or a few people and do not follow a predictable timetable random events that are important to an individual but do not happen to most people Influences on lifespan development that are irregular, in that they happen to just one or a few individuals and do not follow a predictable timetable

age-graded influences

events that are strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when they occur and how long they last

age-graded influences

events that are strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when they occur and how long they last example: most individuals walk shortly after their first birthday, acquire their native language during preschool years, reach puberty around age 12-14. Social customs can also create age-graded influences

biologically based reactivity

evident in heart rate, hormone levels, and measured of brain activity. page 191

origins of child maltreatment

family: within family children whose characteristics make them more challenging to rear are more like to become targets of abuse -community:the majority of abusive and neglectful parents are isolated from both formal and informal social supports. -larger culture:cultural values, laws, and customs profoundly affect the chances that child maltreatment will occur when parents feel overburdened. societies the view violence as an appropriate way to solve problems set the stage for child abuse.

sex difference

females as emotionally expressive and males emotionally controlled. page 189

zygote

fertilized ovum containing 46 chromosomes (23 from sperm, 23 from ovum)

between 30th and 34th week of pregnancy

fetuses show rhythmic alternations between sleep and wakefulness that gradually increase in organization.

G. Stanley Hall

founder of child study movement *with his pupil Gesell regarded development as a maturational process

the role of guilt

freud--> guilt motivates moral action, inducing empathy cased guilt reactions are associated with stopping harmful actions, repairing damage caused by misdeeds and engaging in future prosocial behavior

applications of information processing to academic learning

fundamental discoveries about the development of information processing have been appleid to children's learning of reading and mathematics.

scripts

general descriptions of what occurs and when it occurs in a particular situation page 240

basic emotions

happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust are universal in humans and other primates and have a long evolutionary history of promoting survival

physical aggression

harms others through physical injury - pushing, hitting, kicking, or punching others or destroying another's property

verbal aggression

harms others through threats of physical aggression, name-calling, or hostile teasing

Executive function

helps us succeed in cognitively challenging situations page 236

cytomegalovirus

herpes-type virus that usually causes disease when the immune system is compromised

Carriers

heterozygous individuals who carry the recessive allele (Db) can pass that trait to their children

Carriers of the trait

heterozygous individuals with just one recessive allele can pass that trait to their children

divorce affects on children

how well children fare depends on many factors: the custodial parents psychological health and financial Resources, the wilds characteristics, and social supports within the family and surrounding community

The period of the embryo lasts from

implantation through the eighth week of pregnancy *during these brief six weeks the most rapid prenatal changes take place as the ground work is laid for all body structures and internal organs

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (age 11+) - capacity for abstract, systematic thinking; evaluate logic of verbal statements without real world circumstances

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

reinforcer

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows page 131

the family

in power and breadth of influence, no the microsystem context equals *within families children learn the language, skills, and social and moral values of their culture

structured interviews

in which each participant is asked the same set of questions in the same way *do not yield the same depth of information as a clinical interview

normal distribution

in which the most scores cluster around the mean or average with progressively fewer falling toward the extremes

infantile amnesia

inability of adults to remember personal experiences that took place before age two or three

anoxia

inadequate oxygen supply

anoxia

inadequate oxygen supply page 96

reflex

inborn, automatic response to a particular form of stimulation

popular-antisocial children

include "tough" boys- athletically skilled but poor students who cause trouble and defy adult authority- and relationally aggressive boys and girls who enhance their own status by ignoring, excluding, and spreading rumors about other children. Often viewed as cool, despite their aggressiveness, perhaps because of their athletic abilities and sophisticated but devious social skills.

cohort effect

individuals born in the same time period are influenced by a particular set of historical and cultural conditions. results based on one cohort may not apply to people developing at other times

differentiation theory

infants actively search for invariant features of the environment- those that remain stable- in a constantly changing perceptual world

secure base

infants use the familiar caregiver as a point from which to explore, venturing into the environment and then returning for emotional support

gender schema theory

information processing approach that explains how environmental pressures and children's cognitions work together to shape gender role development

amodal sensory properties

information that is not specific to a single modality but that overlaps two or more sensory systems

Microsystem

innermost level of the environment, consists of activities and interaction patterns in the person's immediate surroundings *relationships are bidirectional (adults affect children behavior, but children's biologically and socially influenced characteristics--their physical tributes, personalities, and capacities--also affect adults behaviors

structured observation

investigator sets up a laboratory situation that evokes the behavior of interest so that every participant has equal opportunity to display the response. page 28-29

goodness to fit

involves creating child rearing environments that recognize each child's temperament while simultaneously encouraging more adaptive functioning. page 195

rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

irregular sleep in which an infant's eyes dart rapidly beneath the eyelids. uneven heart rate, blood pressure and breathing, slight body movements

Ovum

is a tiny sphere, measuring 1/175 in. diameter. Page 76

By the end of the first year of life an infant's height

is about 32 inches

theory

is an orderly integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior. *they guide and give meaning to what we see, they are verified by research to provide a sound basis for practical action. *theories are influenced by the cultural values and belief systems of their times

DRD4 7-repeat

like the short 5-HTTLPR genetic marker- makes children more susceptible to the effects of both negative and positive parenting. page 201

prenatal exposure to dioxins

linked to thyroid abnormalities in infancy and to an increased incidence of breast and uterine cancers in women

pituitary gland

located at the base of the brain, plays a critical role by releasing two hormones that induce growth - Growth Hormone (GH) and Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

games with rules

making up rules for a game or playing games with preestablished rules * these play experiences in turn contribute greatly to emotional and social development. Child-invented games usually rely on simple physical skills and a sizable element of luck. compared to past generations, school-age children today spend less time engaged in informal outdoor play--a change that reflects parental concern about neighborhood safety as well as competition for children's time from tv and other screen media

Experimental methods

manipulate variables to discover their effects, may make cause and effect inferences.

Lifespan view of development

many pathways are possible, depending on the contexts that influence the individuals life course

middle adulthood

many people are at the height of their careers and attain leadership positions. they must also help their children begin independent lives and their parents to adapt to aging. they become more aware of their own mortality

logical thought

many studies show that when preschoolers are given tasks that are simplified and relevant to their everyday lives, they do not display the illogical characteristics that piaget saw in preopreational stage

X-linked inheritance

means that the gene causing the trait or the disorder is located on the X chromosome. page 48

heritability estimates

measure the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic factors

normative approach

measures of behavior are taken on large numbers of individuals and age-related averages are computed to represent typical development

prenatal diagnostic methods

medical procedures that permit detection of developmental problems before birth

polygenic inheritance

occurs when multiple genes determine the phenotype of a trait *in which many genes affect the characteristic in question

behaviorism critiques

offer too narrow a view of the importance of environmental influences underestimating people's contributions to their own development

Chorion

outermost layer of the fetal membrane page 78

Helping toddlers develop compliance and self-control

page 209

clinical or case study methods

page 30

parenting and development of executive functioning

parental sensitivity and scaffolding foster preschoolers' executive function skills, as many investigations reveal. with planning, children learn much from cultural tools that support it, especially when they collaborate with expert planners. *remember: poverty and negative parenting undermined early stress regulation, promoting reactive and inflexible rather than reflective and flexible forms of behavior and cognition

support for blended families

parenting education and couples counseling can help parents and children adapt to the complexities of blended families.

Influences on Achievement-Related Attributions

parents (too-high standards, believe child incapable, trait statements); teachers (learning vs. performance goals); gender; ethnicity; cultural values

knowledge of results

participants have the right to be informed of the results of research in language that is appropriate to heir level of understanding

random assignment

participants to treatment conditions. By using an unbiased procedure, such as drawing numbers out of a hat or flipping a coin... page 34

Cultural variations

peer sociability takes different forms, depending on the relative importance cultures place on group harmony as opposed to individual autonomy.

later adulthood

people adjust to retirement, to decreased physical strength and health, and often to the death of an intimate partner. they reflect on the meaning of their lives

physical education children Development

physical activity support many aspects of children development--physical health, self-esteem, and cognitive and social skills. yet 80% of school districts in the US don't require daily recess in the elementary school grades.

fine motor skills

physical skills that involve the small muscles and eye-hand coordination (occurs earlier in girls) page 134

pituitary gland:

pituitary gland: located at the base of the brain, which plays a crucial role by releasing two hormones that induce growth. page 219

circular reaction

provides a special means of adapting their first schemes. It involves stumbling onto a new experience caused by the baby's own motor activity. The reaction is "circular" because, as the infant tries to repeat the event again and again, a sensorimotor response that originally occurred by chance strengthens into a new scheme.

adolescence

puberty leads to an adult-sized body and sexual maturity, thought becomes abstract and idealistic and school achievement more serious. adolescents begin to establish autonomy from the family and to define personal values and goals

Stages of Development

qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific periods of development

stages

qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific periods of development *in stage theories, development is like climbing a staircase, with each step corresponding to a more mature, reorganized way of functioning.

Of all motor skills, which one plan the greatest role in cognitive development?

reaching page 136

reading

reading makes use of many skills at once, tasing all aspects of our information processing system. as children make the transition from emergent literacy to conventional reading, phonological awareness continues to facilitate their progress.

semantic memory

recall of isolated pieces - information removed from the context in which it was first learned that has become part of one's general knowledge base

social-cognitive

referring to the use of cognitive processes in relation to understanding the social world

gender typing

refers to any association of objects, activities, roles, or traits with one sex or the other in ways that conform to cultural stereotypes

peer acceptance

refers to likability - the extent to which a child is viewed by a group of age mates, such as classmates, as a worthy social partner

conservation

refers to the idea that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes

experience-expectant brain growth

refers to the young brain's rapidly developing organization, which depends on ordinary experiences - opportunities to explore the environment, interact with people, and hear language and other sounds

hallmarks of Piaget's preoperational stage

representational/symbolic thought, make believe play, ages 2-7

cross-sectional design

research design that examines people of different ages at a single point in time Strength: more efficient than longitudinal design, not plagued by dropout and practice effects Limitation: does not permit study of individual development trends. age differences may be distorted b/c of cohort effects

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period. page 35

face perception

research using preferential looking and habituation to explore what very young babies know about faces

correlation design

researchers gather information on individuals, generally in natural life circumstances, without altering their experiences. page 31

follow up research on preopreational thought

researchers have challenged Piagets view of preschoolers as cognitively deficient. because many piagetian problems contain unfamiliar elements or too many pieces of information for young children to handle at once.

clinical interview

researchers use a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant's point of view *major strengths: permits people to display their thoughts in terms that are as close as possible to the way they think in everyday life and the clinical interview can produce a large amount of information in a fairly brief period *limitation: accuracy with which people report their thoughts, feelings, and experiences

recast

restructuring inaccurate speech into correct form page 252

internalizing difficulties

results in emotional problems such as worry, feelings of unhappiness, anxiety, depression, distress, guilt, and poor self-concept

androgyny

scoring high on both masculine and feminine personality characteristics

evolutionary developmental psychology

seeks to understand the adaptive value of species-wide cognitive, emotional, and social competencies as those competencies change with age

independence

self-reliance and freedom from outside control

Fostering resilience in middle childhood

several highly effective school-based social and emotional learning program promote children's resilient by increasing academic motivation, social competence and supportive relationships, among these are the 4R's: reading, writing, respect, and resolution.

Lateralization

specialization of function in one hemisphere of the cerebral cortex or the other *studies using FMRI reveal that the left hemisphere is better at processing information in sequential analytic way and in contrast the right hemisphere is specialize for processing information in a holistic, integrative manner, ideal for making sense of spatial information and regulations negative emotion

mirror neurons

specialized neurons in the motor areas of the brain that fire identically when observing an action as when performing the action page 132

Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS)

specially designed for use with newborns ar risk for developmental problems because of low birth weight, preterm delivery, prenatal substance exposure, or other conditions

Theory of Evolution

states that organisms change and develop over time to adapt an increase rate of survival *theory emphasized natural selection and survival of the fittest

preventing child maltreatment

strategies needed for family, community, and society: family social support, improved parenting practices (healthy families America, nurse-family partnership); combating poverty; government intervention; legal termination of parental rights

contributions and limitations of the psychoanalytic perspective

strength: its emphasis on the individuals unique life history as worthy of study and understanding --psychoanalytic theorists accept the clinical/case study method which synthesize information from a variety of sources into a detailed picture of personality of a single person. limitations: strongly committed to in-depth study of individuals that they failed to consider other methods. Too vague to be tested empirically

chorion

surrounds the amnion page 78

academic programs

teachers structure children's learning, teaching letters, numbers, colors, shapes, and other academic skills through formal lessons, often using repetition and drill

Academic programs

teachers structure children's learning, teaching letters, numbers, colors, shapes, and other academic skills through formal lessons, often using repletion and drill. page 246

primary teeth

teeth which will begin being replaced at about the age of six *the age which children lose their baby teeth is influenced by heredity, environmental influences also matter. *girls whoa re ahead of physical in physical development lose their primary teeth earlier, and prolonged malnutrition delayed appearance of permanent teeth whereas overweight and obesity accelerate it.

why isn't temperament more stable?

temperament itself develops with age. page 193

temper tantrums

tend to occur because toddlers cannot control the intense anger that often arises when an adult rejects their demand. page 189

emotional intelligence

the ability to reason about emotions and to use emotions to enhance reasoning *among school age, they are positively associated with self--esteem, empathy, prosocial behavior, cooperation, leadership skills, and academic performance negatively associated with internalizing and externalizing problems

phonological awareness

the ability to reflect on and manipulate the sound structure of spoken language

Phonological awareness

the ability to reflect on and manipulate the sound structure of spoken language page 244

deferred imitation

the ability to remember and copy the behavior of models who are not present

deferred imitation

the ability to remember and copy the behavior of models who are not present 153

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

empathy

the ability to understand another's emotional state and feel with that person, or respond emotionally in a similar way

empathy

the ability to understand another's emotional state and feel with that person, or respond emotionally in a similar way. page 208

Policies for Children, youths and Families

the affordable care act--extended government supported health insurance to all children in low income families, but expanded covered for low income adults, including parents.

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

the approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture *social interaction, in particular, cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society--is necessary for children to acquire the way of thinking and behaving that make up a community culture. *viewed cognitive development as a socially mediated process: in which children depend on assistance from adults and more expert peers as they tackle new challenges

sense of self-efficacy

the belief that their own abilities and characteristics will help them succeed

gene-environment correlation

the concept that our genes influence the environments to which we are exposed

experimental condition

the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the independent variable

ego

the conscious, rational part of personality that emerges in early infancy to redirect the id's impulses so they are discharged in acceptable ways

Embryo

the developing human organism from 2 weeks after fertilization through the end of the 8th week. page 77 and 78

Fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth. page 77 and 79

separation anxiety

the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider leaves

executive function

the diverse cognitive operations and strategies that enable us to achieve our goals in cognitively challenging situations

Identity Foreclosure

the identity status of individuals who do not engage in exploration but, instead, are committed to ready-made values and goals chosen for them by authority figures. Distinguished from Identity Achievement, Identity Moratorium and Identity Diffusion. p408

self-esteem

the judgments we make about our own worth and the feelings associated with those judgments *by age 4 preschoolers have several self-judgements for example: about learning things in school, making friends, getting along with parents, and treating others kindly *high self-esteem contributes greatly to preschoolers initiative during a period on which they must master many new skills.

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Cardinality

the last number in a counting sequence indicates the quantity of items in a set

vision

the least developed of the newborn baby's senses, visual structures in both the eye and brain are not yet fully formed.

alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND)

the least severe form of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, involving brain injury but with typical physical growth and absence of facial abnormalities

sociodramatic play

the make-believe with others that is under way by the end of the second year and increases rapidly in complexity during early childhood

Sociodramatic play

the make-believe with others that under way by the end of the second year and increases rapidly in complexity during early childhood page 228

conception

the moment at which a female becomes pregnant *about once every 28 days, in the middle of a woman's menstrual cycle, an ovum bursts from one of her ovaries and its drawn into one of two fallopian tubes, while to ovum is traveling the corpus luteum secretes hormones that prepare the lining of the uterus to revived a fertilized ovum. *if pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum shrinks, and the lining of the uterus is discarded two weeks later with menstruation

infantile amnesia

the most of us can retrieve few. apge 164

authoritative child-rearing style

the most successful approach- involves high acceptance and involvement, adaptive control techniques, and appropriate autonomy granting

authoritative child-rearing style

the most successful approach- involves high acceptance and involvement, adaptive control techniques, and appropriate autonomy granting

prenatal

the one-celled organism transforms into a human baby with remarkable capacities to adjust to life in the surrounding world

Hierarchical classification

the organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and differences page 230

gene-environment correlation

the person who contributes to a patient's genetic makeup and provides the environment in which the patient lives

age of viability

the point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely between 22 & 26 wks

handedness

the preference of using one hand over another *joint contribution of nature and nurture to brain lateralization *handedness reflects greater capacity of one side of the brain==the individuals dominant cerebral hemisphere==

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

fast mapping

the process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure

cognitive self-regulation

the process of continuously monitoring progress toward a goal, checking outcomes, and redirecting unsuccessful efforts

synaptic pruning

the process of elimination of unused and unnecessary synapses, retting them to an uncommitted state to support future development. page 118

genetic counseling

the process of informing a person or couple about their genetic makeup, designed to help identify the chances for a hereditary disorder in offspring page 51

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

symbolic understanding

the realization that words can be used to cue mental images of things not physically present--a symbolic capacity called displaced reference that emerges around the first birthday

eye blink reflex

the reflexive blinking of the eyes that protects the newborn from bright light and foreign objects

privacy

the right to concealment of their identity on all information collected in the course of research

executive function

the school years are a time of continued development of the prefrontal Cortez, which increase its connection with more distant parts of the brain. myelination of neural fibers rises steadily, especially in the prefrontal Cortex and in the corpus callous, which connects the two cerebral hemispheres the prefrontal c. becomes more effective executive overseeing the integrated functioning of neural networks

middle childhood

the school years are marked by improved athletic abilities; more logical thought processes; mastery of fundamental reading, writing, math, and other academic knowledge and skills; advances in self-understanding, morality, and friendship, and the beginnings of peer-group membership

food insecurity

the state of being without reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, nutritious food

attachment

the strong affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives that leads us to feel pleasure when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress

attachment

the strong affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives that leads us to feel pleasure when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress. page 196

Behavioral genetics

the study of the contributions of nature and nurture to the diversity of human traits and abilities.w page 66

telegraphic speech

the term describing children's first sentences that are generally two-word utterances (e.g., me go!)

synapses

the tiny gaps between neurons across which they communicate

Larger amygdala

the worse adopted children perform on tasks assessing understanding of emotion and the poorer their emotional self-regulation. page 200

insecure disorganized attachment

these infants seem confused or dazed and show contradictory behaviors; often predictive of abuse or trauma. 15% of North American infants in middle-SES families show this pattern. page 198

Centration

they focus on one aspect of a situation, neglecting other important features page 230

Metacognition

thinking about thought; a theory of mind, or coherent set of ideas about mental activities

planning

thinking out a sequence of acts ahead of time and allocating attention accordingly to reach a goal

planning

thinking out of sequences of acts ahead of time and performing them accordingly to reach a goal page 238

when is a fetal heartbeat detectable?

third month of pregnancy page 79

Mastery-oriented Attributions

those who are high in academic self-esteem and motivation credit their successes to ability; a characteristic they can improve through trying hard and can count on when facing new challenges. They attribute failure to factors that can be changed or controlled, such as insufficient effort or a very difficult task

Plasticity

throughout life--as open to change in response to influential experiences *development can have substantial ________ *put simply, the brains ability to change with learning.

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): prompts the thyroid gland in the neck to release thyroxin which is necessary for brain development and for GH to have its fullf impact on body size. page 219

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH):

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): prompts the thyroid gland in the neck to release thyroxin which is necessary for brain development and for GH to have its fullf impact on body size. page 219

alternatives to harsh punishment

time out, withdrawing privileges, positive discipline

Synapses

tiny gaps between dentrites and axons of different neurons *at the end of the second trimester brain weight increases tenfold from the 20th week until birth. at the same time neurons begin forming connections at a rapid pace

APGAR scale

to assess the newborn's physical condition quickly. page 94

sensory capacities

touch, taste, smell, hearing, vision

helping children and parents control aggression

treatment for aggressive children is best begun early, before their behavior becomes well-practiced and difficult to change. breaking the cycle of hostilities between family members and prompting effective ways of relating to others are crucial

Allele

two forms of each gene occur at the same place on the chromosomes, one inherited from the mother and one from the father.

laughter

typically peppers around 3-4 months, reflects faster processing of information than smiling. first laughs occur in response to very active stimuli such as the parent saying playfully "im gonna get you." and kissing the babies tummy

contexts

unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in different paths of change *mutually influential relations between individuals and their contexts: people not only are affected by but also contribute to the contexts in which they develop

assimilation

use our current schemes to interpret the external world. Page 150

secure base

use the familiar caregiver as a secure base, or point from which to explore, venturing in the environment and then returning for emotional support. page 186

dual representation

viewing a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and a symbol

dual representation

viewing a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and a symbol *experiences with diverse symbols --picture books, photographs, drawings, make believe, and maps --help preschoolers appreciate that one object can stand for another

Dual representation

viewing a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and a symbol page 229

Ecological Systems Theory

views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment

delay of gratification

waiting for an appropriate time and place to engage in a tempting act

delay of gratification

waiting for an appropriate time and place to engage in a tempting act. page 209

Accommodation

we create new schemes or adjust old ones after noticing that our current ways of thinking do not capture the environment completely

short- term memory

we retain attended-to information briefly so we can actively "work on" it to reach our goal. page 160

Assimilation

we use our current schemes to interpret the external world ex. Timmy dropped objects, he was assimilating them to his sensorimotor "dropping scheme"

programmed cell death

which makes space for these connective structures: synapses form... page 118

Preoperational stage

which spans the years 2 to 7, the most obvious change is an extraordinary increase in representational, or symbolic activity page 227

Vernix

white cheese-like substance that protects the fetus's skin from chapping in amniotic fluid during development

Vernix

white, cheesecake substance that emerges on the skin of the fetus during the 2nd trimester page 79

Lanugo

white, downy hair that covers the entire body of the fetus, helping the vernix stick to the skin

Rejected Children (Peer Acceptance)

who get many negative votes (are disliked)

Popular Children (Peer Acceptance)

who get many positive votes (are well liked)

trophoblast

will become the structure that provide protective covering and nourishment. page 77

HIV/AIDS and babies

10-20% transmitted to babies *AIDS progresses rapidly in infants: by 6 months weight loss, diarrhea, and repeated respiratory illnesses. Can cause brain damage as indicated by seizures, gradual loss in brain weight, and delayed cognitive and motor development

compliance

12 and 18 months. They show clear awareness of caregivers' wishes and expectations and can obey simple requests and commands. page 209

The best outcomes for the mother and child are predicted by a childbirth leave of

12 weeks or longer

Milestones of language development

2 mos: cooing, pleasant vowel sounds 4 mos: active observation of others' interactions 6 mos: babbling, adding consonant sounds to vowel sounds, comprehend some words 8-12 mos: joint attention, use of pre-verbal gestures, can use sign language if taught 12 mos: first word 18-24 mos: vocabulary expands to 250 words, begin to make two words utterances page 175

Early childhood (ages)

2-6 yrs (developmental period)

Around what age do researches believe the areas in the prefrontal cortex is involved in suppressing impulse developed rapidly?

2.5- 3 years. page 193

When can a fetus hear external sounds?

20 weeks

fetus stage

9th week to end of pregnancy Growth and finishing phase Rapid increase in size

Doula

A caregiver who provides continuous physical, emotional, and educational support for the mother before, during, and after childbirth.

permissive parenting

A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior.

Learned Helplessness

Attribution of success to external factors such as luck; and failure to low ability, which is fixed and cannot be improved through effort. Distinguished from Mastery-Oriented Attributions. p339

Discontinuous (book)

According to a second view, infants and children have unique ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving, ones quite different from those of adults. If so, then development is discontinuous— a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times. From this perspective, Sofie could not yet perceive, remember, and categorize experiences as a mature person can. Rather, she moved through a series of developmental steps, each with unique features, until she reached the highest level of functioning.

early face perception

Newborns respond to facelike structures but cannot discriminate a complex facial pattern from other complex patterns. Around 3 months, infants make fine distinctions among features of different faces. At 5 months, infants perceive emotional expressions as meaningful wholes, a capacity that expands by 7 months. Early experience promotes perceptual narrowing with respect to gender and racial information.

Prenatal (conception to birth)

Nine months of rapid growth in which organs and systems appear; extreme sensitivity to environmental influences. The one-celled organism transforms into a human baby with remarkable capacities to adjust to life in the surrounding world.

Common Health Problems in Middle Childhood

Nutrition Overweight and obesity Vision and hearing Bedwetting Illnesses Unintentional injuries

maternal depression

Obstacle to intersubjectivity - Mothers less responsive - Infants disengage

Behaviorism

An approach to Psychology that views the development of behavior as taking place through classical and operant conditioning - focusing on directly observable events/stimuli and responses. p16

the cognitive-development perspective

An approach to development that focuses on how children think and on how their thinking changes over time. *children as active thinkers about social rules

developmental cognitive neuroscience

An area of investigation that brings together researchers from psychology, biology, neuroscience, and medicine to study the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing child's cognitive processing and behavior patterns.

discovery learning

Teaching methods that enable students to discover information by themselves or in groups.

Emotional Self Regulation

The strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals. p189

Attachment

The strong affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives, which leads us to feel pleasure when interacting with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress. p196

Anorexia Nervosa

An eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) starves themselves because of a compulsive fear of getting fat and an extremely distorted body image. p378

Binge Eating Disorder

An eating disorder in which a person binges at least once a week for three months or longer, without compensatory purging, exercise or fasting. p379

palmar grasp

An infant reflex that occurs when something is placed in the infant's palm; the infant grasps the object.

Theory

An orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior. p5

Heterozygous

An organism that has two different alleles for a trait

heterozygous

An organism that has two different alleles for a trait page 46

Heterozygous

An organism that has two different alleles for a trait that influence phenotype

Homozygous

An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait

Which emotion is more common in infants, sadness or anger?

Anger page 186

reactive aggression (hostile aggression)

Angry, defensive response to provocation or a blocked goal. Is meant to hurt another person

autosomes

Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome (22 of 23 chromosomes are autosomes)

major periods of human development

Prenatal-Conception to birth Infancy and toddlerhood-Birth-2 years Early childhood-2-6 years Middle childhood-6-11 years Adolescence-11-18 years Early adulthood-18-40 years Middle adulthood-40-65 years Late adulthood-65 years-death

hierarchical classification

Preoperational children have difficulty with the organization of objects into classes and sub-classes on the basis of similarities and differences.

peer relations

Child's ability to form close or satisfying relationships with other children.

emergent literacy

Children active efforts to construct literacy knowledge through informal information experiences are called emergent literacy page 242

Piaget's Concrete Operational (7-11)

Concrete Operational (7-11) - Conservation - Math concepts and operations Children's reasoning becomes logical and better organized. School-age children understand that a certain amount of lemonade or play dough remains the same even after its appearance changes. They also organize objects into hierarchies of classes and subclasses. However, children think in a logical, organized fashion only when dealing with concrete information they can perceive directly.

Piaget's stage for middle childhood is referred to as...?

Concrete operational stage

gender constancy

a full understanding of the biologically based permanence of their gender, including the realization that sex remains the same even if clothing, hairstyle, and play activities change

catch-up growth

a period of accelerated growth in which children who have experienced growth deficits grow very rapidly to "catch up to" the growth trajectory that they are genetically programmed to follow

continuous

a process of gradually augmenting the same types of skills that were there to begin with

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder

a term that encompasses a range of physical, mental, and behavioral outcomes caused by prenatal alcohol exposure

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory - Stage 6 Intimacy vs Isolation Early Adulthood

Stage 6 Intimacy vs Isolation Early Adulthood - 20-40 - Friends and Partners Intimacy versus isolation: Young adults establish intimate relationships. Because of earlier disappointments, some individuals cannot form close bonds and remain isolated.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory - Stage 7 Generativity vs Stagnation Middle Adulthood

Stage 7 Generativity vs Stagnation Middle Adulthood - 40- 65 - People at Home and Work Generativity versus stagnation: Generativity means giving to the next generation through child rearing, caring for others, or productive work. The person who fails in these ways feels an absence of meaningful accomplishment.

Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence

Sternberg's theory, in which intelligent behavior involves balancing three broad, interacting intelligences- analytical, creative, and practical - to achieve success in life according to one's personal goals and the requirements of one's cultural community. p316

Effective interventions for childhood obesity & diabetes

Consequences of obesity. Obese children are at risk for lifelong health problems. Symptoms that begin to appear in the early school years—high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, respiratory abnormalities, insulin resistance, and inflammatory reactions—are powerful predictors of heart disease, circulatory difficulties, type 2 diabetes, gallbladder disease, sleep and digestive disorders, many forms of cancer, and premature death. Furthermore, obesity has caused a dramatic rise in cases of diabetes in children, sometimes leading to early, severe complications, including stroke, kidney failure, and circulatory problems that heighten the risk of eventual blindness and leg amputation. treating obesity. In Mona's case, the school nurse suggested that Mona and her obese mother enter a weight-loss pro- gram together. But Mona's mother, unhappily married for many years, had her own reasons for overeating and rejected this idea. In one study, nearly 70 percent of parents judged their overweight or obese children to have a normal weight (Jones et al., 2011). Consistent with these findings, most obese children do not get any treatment. The most effective interventions are family-based and focus on changing weight-related behaviors. In one program, both parent and child revised eating patterns, exercised daily, and reinforced each other with praise and points for progress, which they exchanged for special activities and times together. The more weight parents lost, the more their children lost. Follow-ups after 5 and 10 years showed that children maintained their weight loss more effectively than adults—a finding that underscores the importance of early intervention. Monitoring dietary intake and physical activity is important. Small wireless sensors that sync with mobile devices, enabling individualized goal-setting and tracking of progress through game-like features, are effective. But these interventions work best when parents' and children's weight problems are not severe. Children consume one-third of their daily caloric intake at school. Therefore, schools can help reduce obesity by serving healthier meals and ensuring regular physical activity (Lakshman, Elks, & Ong, 2012). Because obesity is expected to rise further without broad prevention strategies, many U.S. states and cities have passed obesity-reduction legislation. Among measures taken are weight-related school screenings for all children, improved school nutrition standards that include food and beverages sold outside of meals, additional school recess time and physical education, and obesity awareness and weight-reduction programs as part of school curricula. A review of these school-based efforts reported impressive benefits (Waters et al., 2011). Obesity prevention in schools was more successful in reducing 6- to 12-year-olds' BMIs than programs delivered in other community settings, perhaps because schools are better able to provide long-term, comprehensive intervention.

induction

Conscious formation is promoted when adult helps make the child aware of feelings by pointing out the effects of the child's misbehavior on others

Applied Behavior Analysis

Consists of careful observations of individual behavior and related environmental events, followed by systematic changes in those events based on procedures of conditioning and modeling. The goal is to eliminate undesirable behaviors and increase desirable responses.

Research Designs (Five)

Correlational Experimental Longitudinal Cross-Sectional Sequential

advances in mental representation

Development of make-believe play Gains in understanding of symbol-real-world relations *piaget acknowledged that language is our most flexible means of mental representation. by detaching through from action, it premise far more efficient thinking than was possible earlier. Piaget believed that sensorimotor activity lead to internal images of experience, which children then label with words.

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. page 130

make-believe play

a type of play in which children act out everyday and imaginary activities

gender identity and behavior in middle childhood

as school age children make social comparisons and characterize themselves in terms of stable dispositions, their gender identity expands to include the following self-evaluations, with greatly affect their adjustment: gender typicality: the degree to which the child feels similar to others of the same gender gender connectedness: the degree to which the child feels comfortable with is or her gender assignment, which also promotes happiness felt pressure to conform to gender roles: the degree to which the child feels parents and peers disapprove of their gender related traits.

Major Theoretical Orientations

THEORIES THAT LAID THE FOUNDATION 1. Freud's and Psychoanalytical Perspective - internal conflict (biological drives and social expectations) 2. Behavioral and Social Learning Perspectives - Classical conditioning Associations (Pavlov) - Operant conditioning Positive and Negative Punishment and Reinforcement (Skinner) - Social learning observational learning (Bandura) 3. Five Founding Perspectives of Psychology - Psychodynamic - Behavioral - Cognitive - Humanistic - Biological

Germinal mutation

Takes place in the cells that give rise to gametes Defective DNA is passed on to the next generation.

traditional classroom

Teacher is the sole authority for knowledge, rules, and decision making and does most of the talking. Students are relatively passive- listening, responding when called on, and completing teacher assigned tasks. Their progress is evaluated by how well they keep pace with a uniform set of standards for their grade.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

authoritarian child-rearing style

low in acceptance and involvement, high in coercive control, and low in autonomy granting

from a lifespan perspective, the challenges and adjustments to development are?

multidimensional--affected by an intricate blend of biological, psychological, and social forces

lifespan development is also?

multidirectional--in at least two ways 1. development is not limited to improved performance, its a joint expression of growth and decline 2. besides being multidirectional over time, change is multidirectional within each domain of development.

coparenting

mutually supporting each other's parenting behaviors

coparenting

mutually supporting each other's parenting behaviors. page 57

Nature vs. Nurture

name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior

allele

one of two different forms of a gene, one comes from father and one comes from mother. page 46

gene environment interaction

one's response to a specific environmental event is influence by genes page 68

Summary of Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage

page 151

autobiographical memory

page 164

psychoanalytic perspective

people move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. How these conflicts are resolved determines the person's ability to learn, to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety

sensimotor stage

piaget first stage in cognitive development, spanning the first 2 years of life, in which infants rely on their senses and motor behaviors in adapting to the world around them.

pituitary gland

pituitary gland: located at the base of the brain, which plays a crucial role by releasing two hormones that induce growth pg.219

research designs

plans of action for how to conduct a scientific study

video deficit effect

poorer performance after a video than a live demonstration

video deficit effect

poorer performance after a video than a live demonstration *toddlers seem to discount information on video as relevant to their everyday experiences because people do not look at and converse with them directly or establish a shared focus on objects as their caregivers do

peer acceptance categories

popular children rejected children controversial children neglected children average children

nutrition

preschoolers' appetites decline because their growth has slowed and their wariness of new foods is adaptive. preschoolers require a high-quality diet, including the same nutrients adults need, but in smaller quantities.

myelination

process of the growth of the myelin sheath around the axon of a neuron. page 118

sensitive caregiving

responding promptly, consistently and appropriately to infants and holding the tenderly and carefully. page 200

sensitive caregiving

responding promptly, consistently, and appropriately to infants and holding them tenderly and carefully

left hemisphere

responsible for verbal abilities such as spoken and written language, and positive emotions such as joy

Socioeconomic status

status in society based on level of education, income, and occupational prestige. page 58

where can the heartbeat be heard?

stethoscope

Prolactin

stimulates milk production

Denser synaptic connections are produced by

stimulation (social, cognitive, emotional, physical)

neurons form connections and __________________

stimulation becomes vital to survival. *neurons that are stimulated by input from the surrounding environment continue to establish new synapses, forming increasingly elaborate system of communication that support more complex abilities.

chromosomes

store and transmit genetic information. page 44

emotional self-regulation

strategies for adjusting our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals by age 10 most children shift adaptively between two general strategies for managing emotion.

basic-level categories

the level in a category hierarchy that provides the most useful and predictive information; the basic level usually resides at an intermediate level in a category hierarchy

sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

unexpected death of an apparently healthy infant up to age 1 that remains unexplained after thorough investigation

gender dysphoria

unhappiness with one's biological (natal) sex

Contexts

unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in different paths of change

ordinality

the mathematical principle specifying order relationships (more than and less than) between quantities

ethnic differences in the consequences of physical punishment

the meaning and impact of physical discipline to children can vary sharply with its intensity level, context of warmth and support , and cultural approval.

cognition

the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

clear-cut attachment phase

the third phase in the development of attachment, occurring at 6 or 7 months of age and characterized by intensified dependence on the primary caregiver

lanugo

white, downy hair page 79

20 week old fetus

cannot survive because its lungs are immature, and the brain cannot yet control breathing and body temperature can be stimulated as well as irritated by sounds

Creative Intelligence (Sternberg)

capacity to solve novel problems, make processing skills automatic to free working memory for complex thinking

Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME)

checklist for gathering information about the quality of children's home lives through observation and parental inteview

educational self-fulfilling prophecies

children may adopt teachers' positive or negative views and start to live up to them

pragmatics

children must learn to engage in effective and appropriate communication. This practical, social side of language is call pragmatics page 252

nutrition

children need a well balanced, plentiful diet to provide energy for successful learning in school and increased physical activity.

prenatal (ages)

conception to birth

central executive

directs the flow of information, implementing the basic procedures just mentioned and also engaging in more sophisticated activities that enable complex, flexible thinking for examples, the central executive coordinates incoming information with information already in the system, and it selects, applies, and monitors strategies that facilitate memory storage, comprehension, reasoning, and problem solving

piaget and education

discovery learning, sensitivity to children's readiness to learn, acceptance of individual differences

Metacognition

"thinking about thought" (the prefix meta- means "beyond" or "higher" page 240

mutation

(genetics) any event that changes genetic structure page 49

mild punishment effectiveness

*consistency: permitting children to act inappropriately on some occasions but scolding them on others confuses them, and the unacceptable act persists *warm parent-child relationships: children want to regain parental warmth and approval as quickly as possible *explanations: providing reasons for mild punishment help children relate the misdeed to expectations for future behavior

environmental influences on gender typing

- Family: expectations of sons vs daughters - Teachers: actions that extend gender-role learning - peers: reinforcement for gender-typed play - broader social environment

Culture, Schooling, and Memory Strategies

- Memory strategies are mostly useful for recalling isolated bits of information. - Western schooling gives little practice in using everyday cues: -- spatial location -- arrangements of objects

changing states of arousal

- Sleep-wake pattern moves to night-day schedule during first year - By age 2, total sleep time declines from 18 to 12 hours per day - Sleep patterns are affected by social environment, cultural values

understanding individual rights

- When children challenge adult authority, they typically do it within the personal domain. - Ideas of personal choice enhance children's moral understanding. - Older school-age children put limits on individual choice and typically decide in favor of fairness, resulting in a general decline in prejudice during middle childhood.

development of shyness and sociability

- stability/change in temperament affected by genetic makeup and child rearing - arousal of amygdala (emotions, stimulated in shy children more than sociable ones) - parenting style plays a significant role (i.e. overprotectiveness and appropriate demands)

paternal depression

- strong predictor of behavior problems - child subjected to parental negativity develop pessimistic worldview - early treatment/ quality of parenting important

flexible shifting

- studied through rule-use tasks - around age 4, can switch rules

stability

--theorist who emphasize stability--individuals who are high or low in a characteristic such as verbal ability, anxiety, or sociability will remain so at later ages---typically stress the importance of heredity

emotional self-regulation

-By age 3-4, know strategies for adjusting emotional arousal -Effortful control important -Affected by parents, temperament

follow up research on concrete operational thought

-Culture and schooling affect task performance -Going to school provides experiences relevant to Piagetian tasks -Certain non-school informal experiences in some cultures foster concrete operations

Gender Typing in Middle Childhood

-Gender Stereotypes -extend stereotypes to include personalities and school subjects -more flexible about what males and females can actually do -Gender Identity (3rd-4th grade) -boys strengthen identification with "masculine" traits -girls identification with "feminine" traits declines -Cultural and social factors

Cephalocaudal growth trend

-head to tail growth trend; the lower part of the body grows later than the head. page 117

id

-largest portion of the mind -unconscious, present at birth -source of biological needs and desires

primary circular reactions

1-4 months; simple motor habits centered around the infant's own body; limited anticipation of events

Stages of Childbirth

1. Dilation and effacement of the cervix 2. Delivery of the baby 3. Delivery of the placenta

What should a woman do to facilitate a healthy pregnancy?

1. Get any necessary vaccine updates before conception; 2. Get regular health care before, during and after pregnancy; 3. Eat a balanced diet, including vitamin and mineral supplements. Start this 6 month before conception! 4. Learn about prenatal development, take a class with a partner; 5. Stay physically fit; 6. Gain 25-30 pounds gradually during pregnancy; 7. Reduce and manage emotional stress; 8. Cultivate social support network; 9. Rest and sleep well; 10. No alcohol or other drugs, no smoking, and discuss other medications with physician; 11. Avoid environmental hazards; 12. Get someone else to clean the cat's litter box!

Attachment develops in 4 phases

1. Preattachment phase (birth to 6 weeks) 2. Attachment-in-the-making phase (6 weeks to 6-8 months) 3. Clear-cut phase (6-8 months to 18 months- 2 years) 4. Formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months to 2 years and on) Page 196-97

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor 2. Preoperational 3. Concrete Operational 4. Formal Operational

what factors influence attachment?

1. early availability of a consistent caregiver 2. quality of care giving 3. baby's characteristics 4. family context page 199

what are the three layers embryonic disk form?

1. ectoderm 2. mesoderm 3.endoderm page 78

3 important changes in make-believe play

1. play detaches from the real-life conditions associated with it.in early pretending toddlers use only realistic objects and usually imitate adult actions and are not yet flexible 2. play becomes less self-centered: at first make believe is directed toward the self, soon children direct pretend actions toward other objects as when chid feeds a doll. Early in third year they become detached participants making the doll feed itself 3. play includes complex combinations of schemes in sociodramatic play

What are the developmental effects for children in poverty?

1. poor physical health 2. deficits in cognitive (thinking) skills 3. poorer academic achievement 4. higher likelihood of dropping out of school 5. higher levels of mental illness 6. higher rates of impulsivity, aggression and antisocial behavior

What effects does eating dinner with parents have on children's adjustment in both high and low SES status families?

1. reduced anxiety and depression; 2. better grades; 3. less substance use. page 60

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

1. sensorimotor 2. preoperational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational

difficult child

10% of the sample: is irregular in daily routines, is slow to accept new experiences, and tens to react negatively and intensely. page 190

Adolescence (ages)

11-18 yrs (developmental period)

Formal Operational Stage

11yrs+ | Young people develop the capacity for abstract, systemic, scientific thinking. p18

Mesosystem (Bronfenbrenner)

2nd Level of Bronfenbrenner's Model. Encompasses connections between microsystems (ex. school life and home life)

genetic engineering

A technology that includes the process of manipulating or altering the genetic material of a cell resulting in desirable functions or outcomes that would not occur naturally.

false belief task

A type of task used in theory-of-mind studies, in which the child must infer that another person does not possess knowledge that he or she possesses (that is, that other person holds a belief that is false).

dynamic systems

A view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial influences. The crucial understanding is that development is never static but is always affected by, and affects, many systems of development.

informed consent

A written agreement to participate in a study made by an adult who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail.

growth norms

Age-related averages for height and weight. Heredity and environment are involved.

social learning theory

Albert Bandura Sparked by Behaviorism Emphasizes modeling, aka imitation or observational learning as a powerful source of development

genetic marker

Alteration in DNA that may indicate an increased risk of developing a specific disease or disorder *autism, schizophrenia, and bipolar have been linked to an array of DNA sequence deviations (g.m.)

Amygdala

Amygdala: plays a central role in processing of novelty and emotional information (an inner brain structure) pg. 218

Hemophilia

An X-linked recessive disorder in which blood fails to clot properly, leading to excessive bleeding if injured. 1/4000-7000 male births

polygenic inheritance

An additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotypic characteristic page 50

programmed cell death

As synapses form, many surrounding neurons die—40 to 60 percent, depending on the brain region.

adult organized youth sports

Associated with increased self-esteem and social competence. Increase in physical activity. Competition emphasized Coaches and parents influence their children's athletic attitudes and abilities. High parental pressure sets the stage for emotional difficulties and early athletic dropout, not elite performance. About half of U.S. children aged 5-18 participate in organized sports outside of school.

cerebellum

At the rear and base of the brain is the cerebellum, a structure that aids in balance and control of the body movement. pg 218

metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes. Thinking about thinking, understanding false beliefs

compliance (self control)

Between 12-18mo, toddlers show clear awareness of caregivers' wishes and expectations and can obey simple requests and commands

categorical self

Between 18 and 30 months, children classify themselves and others on the basis of age ("baby," boy," or "man"), sex ("boy" or "girl"), physical characteristics ("big,""strong"), and even goodness versus badness ("I a good girl," "Tommy mean!") and competencies ("Did it!" "I can't")

superego

Between 3 and 6 years of age, the superego, or conscience, develops as parents insist that children conform to the values of society. Now the ego faces the increasingly complex task of reconciling the demands of the id, the external world, and conscience —for example, the id impulse to grab an attractive toy from a playmate versus the superego's warning that such behavior is wrong.

Puberty

Biological changes at adolescence that lead to an adult-sized body and sexual maturity. p367

Infancy and toddlerhood (ages)

Birth-2 yrs (developmental period)

Sensorimotor Stage

Birth-2 yrs | Infants and toddlers "think" with their eyes, ears, hands and other sensorimotor equipment. p18

ethological theory of attachment

Bowlby's theory, the most widely accepted view of attachment, which regards the infant's emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival.

bioecological model

Bronfenbrenner's approach, in which the individual develops within and is affected by a set of nested environments, from the family to the entire culture.

Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner's model emphasizing that the developing person is embedded in a series of environmental systems that interact with one another and with the person to influence development

Adaptation

Building schemes through direct interaction with the environment. Consists of two complementary activities, assimilation and accommodation.

Understanding Diversity and Inequality

By the early school years associates power, privilege with white people assigns stereotyped traits to minorities With age, overt prejudice declines: focuses on inner traits subtle prejudice may persist

Limitations of Preoperational Thought

Cannot perform mental operations Egocentrism and animistic thinking Cannot conserve Lack hierarchical classification

psychoanalytic perspective

Children move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. How these conflicts are resolved determines the person's ability to learn, to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety. *children obey the superego to avoid guilt, by freud moral development is complete by 5-6 years old

cooperative play

Children orient toward a common goal, such as acting out a make-believe theme Highest level of 3-Step Sequence of social development (along with associative play)

social-constructivist classroom

Children participate in a wide range of challenging activities with teachers and peers, with whom they jointly construct understandings. As children acquire knowledge and strategies through working together, they become competent, contributing members of their classroom community and advance in cognitive and social development

limitation of concrete operational thought

Children think in an organized, logical fashion only when dealing with concrete information they can perceive directly. The capacity for abstract thinking is not yet present.

Learned Helplessness

Children who attribute their failures, not their successes, to ability. When they succeed, they conclude that external factors, such as luck, are responsible. Unlike mastery-oriented counterparts, they believe that ability is fixed and cannot be improved by trying hard.

gifted children

Children who display exceptional intellectual strengths IQ score above 130

Controversial Children

Children who receive many votes, both positive and negative, on self-report measures of peer acceptance, indicating that they are both liked and disliked.

private speech

Children's self-directed speech is now called private speech instead of egocentric speech page 234

Self Report Research Methods (Two Types)

Clinical Interview Structured Interview, Questions & Tests

working memory

Contemporary view of the short-term store which offers a more meaningful indicator of its capacity - the number of items that can be briefly held in mind while also engaging in some effort to monitor or manipulate those items.

benefits of make believe play

Contributes to cognitive and social skills Strengthens mental abilities: sustained attention memory language and literacy creativity regulation of emotion perspective taking

Five states of arousal

Degrees of newborn sleep and wakefulness Regular (NREM) sleep Irregular (REM) sleep Drowsiness Quiet Alertness Waking Activity and Crying

Peer relationships in middle school Changes physical vs verbal aggression

Development of Aggression Beginning in late infancy, all children display aggression from time to time, and as opportunities to interact with siblings and peers increase, aggressive outbursts occur more often. By the second year, aggressive acts with two distinct purposes emerge. Initially, the most common is proactive (or instrumental ) aggression, in which children act to fulfill a need or desire—to obtain an object, privilege, space, or social reward, such as adult or peer attention—and unemotionally attack a person to achieve their goal. The other type, reactive (or hostile) aggression, is an angry, defensive response to provocation or a blocked goal and is meant to hurt another person. Proactive and reactive aggression come in three forms, which are the focus of most research: ● Physical aggression harms others through physical injury— pushing, hitting, kicking, or punching others, or destroying another's property. ● Verbal aggression harms others through threats of physical aggression, name-calling, or hostile teasing. ● Relational aggression damages another's peer relationships through social exclusion, malicious gossip, or friendship manipulation. Although verbal aggression is always direct, physical and relational aggression can be either direct or indirect. For example, hitting injures a person directly, whereas destroying property inflicts physical harm indirectly. Similarly, saying, "Do what I say, or I won't be your friend," conveys relational aggression directly, while spreading rumors, refusing to talk to a peer, or manipulating friendships by saying behind someone's back, "Don't play with her; she's a nerd," do so indirectly. Physical aggression rises sharply between ages 1 and 3 and then diminishes as verbal aggression replaces it. And proactive aggression declines as preschoolers' improved capacity to delay gratification enables them to resist grabbing others' possessions. But reactive aggression in verbal and relational forms tends to rise over early and middle childhood. Older children are better able to recognize malicious intentions and, as a result, more often retaliate in hostile ways. By age 17 months, boys are more physically aggressive than girls—a difference found throughout childhood in many cultures. The sex difference is due in part to biology—in particular, to male sex hormones (androgens) and temperamental traits (activity level, irritability, impulsivity) on which boys exceed girls. Gender-role conformity is also important. For example, parents respond far more negatively to physical fighting in girls. Although girls have a reputation for being both verbally and relationally more aggressive than boys, the sex difference is small. Beginning in the preschool years, girls concentrate most of their aggressive acts in the relational category. Boys inflict harm in more variable ways. Physically and verbally aggressive boys also tend to be relationally aggressive (Card et al., 2008). Therefore, boys display overall rates of aggression that are much higher than girls'. At the same time, girls more often use indirect relational tactics that—in disrupting intimate bonds especially important to girls—can be particularly mean. Whereas physical attacks are usually brief, acts of indirect relational aggression may extend for hours, weeks, or even months. In one instance, a 6-year-old girl formed a "pretty-girls club" and—for nearly an entire school year—convinced its members to exclude several classmates by saying they were "dirty and smelly." An occasional aggressive exchange between preschoolers is normal. But children who are emotionally negative, impulsive, and disobedient and who score low in cognitive abilities— especially, language and executive function skills necessary for self-regulation—are at risk for early, high rates of physical or relational aggression (or both) that can persist. Persistent aggression, in turn, predicts later internalizing and externalizing difficulties and social skills deficits, including loneliness, anxiety, depression, peer relationship problems, and antisocial activity in middle childhood and adolescence

Factors that predict effect of a teratogen

Dose Heredity Timing of exposure Other negative influences (e.g., stress, poor nutrition) age page 81

Infancy (Birth) and toddlerhood (2yrs)

Dramatic changes in the body and brain support the emergence of a wide array of motor, perceptual, and intellectual capacities and first intimate ties to others.

infancy and toddlerhood

Dramatic changes in the body and brain support the emergence of a wide array of motor, perceptual, and intellectual capacities and first intimate ties to others.

immediate consequences of divorce

Drop in income Parental stress, disorganized home life Child reactions vary with age, sex, temperament

Early childhood (2-6 years)

During the "play years," motor skills are refined, thought and language expand at an astounding pace, a sense of morality is evident, and children establish ties with peers.

measuring brain function

EEG, PET, fMRI

factors that affect attachment security

Early availability of consistent caregiver, quality of caregiving, infant characteristics, family circumstances, parents' internal working models

Sensitive Periods in Brain Development

Early, extreme sensory deprivation results in permanent brain damage and loss of function. Babies born with cataracts in both eyes who have corrective surgery within 4 to 6 months show rapid improvement in vision. The longer the surgery is postponed, the less complete the recovery of visual skills.

temperament

Early-appearing, stable individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation Reactivity refers to quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention and motor activity. Self-regulation refers to strategies that modify reactivity

Urie Bronfenbrenner

Ecological Systems Theory - views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment, from immediate settings of family and school to broad cultural values and programs. p23

empathy and sympathy

Empathy- Feeling same or similar emotions as another person Sympathy- Feeling concern or sorrow for another's plight *preschoolers rely more on words to communicate empathic feelings. *temperament plays a role in whether empathy prompts sympathetic, prosocial behavior or personally distress self focused response.

corpus luteum

Endocrine tissue which produces hormones, estrogen, and progesterone which prepares the uterine lining for receiving an embryo

Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)

Evaluates the newborn's reflexes, muscle tone, state changes, responsiveness to physical and social stimuli, and other reactions Specifically designed for use with newborns at risk for developmental problems because of low birth weight, preterm delivery, prenatal substance exposure or other conditions Scores used to recommend appropriate interventions and to guide parents in meeting their baby's unique needs

Age-Graded Influences (book)

Events that are strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when they occur and how long they last are called age-graded influences. These age graded milestones are influenced by biology: For example, most individuals walk shortly after their first birthday, acquire their native language during the preschool years, reach puberty around age 12 to 14, and (for women) experience menopause in their late forties or early fifties. Social customs can create age-graded influences as well: such as starting school around age 6, getting a driver's license at age 16, and entering college around age 18) - especially prevalent in childhood and adolescence, when biological changes are rapid and cultures impose many age-related experiences to ensure that young people acquire the skills they need to participate in their society.

nonsocial activity

First step in 3-step sequence of social development which involves unoccupied, onlooker behavior and solitary play

Piaget's Formal Operational 12+

Formal Operational 12+ - Abstract thinking - Moral reasoning The capacity for abstract, systematic thinking enables adolescents, when faced with a problem, to start with a hypothesis, deduce testable inferences, and isolate and combine variables to see which inferences are confirmed. Adolescents can also evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to real-world circumstances.

Rough-and-tuble play

Friendly chasing and play fighting that emerges in preschool years and peaks in middle childhood

anger and sadness

General distress: from birth Anger: 4-6 months Sadness: response to disrupted caregiver-infant communication

protein coding genes

Genes that encode instructions for making proteins. page 44

protein coding genes

Genes that lie along the chromosomes and directly affect the body's characteristics.

dominant cerebral hemisphere-

Handedness reflects the greater capacity of one side of the brain-the individual's dominant cerebral hemisphere- to carry out skilled motor action pg. 218

dominant cerebral hemisphere

Handedness reflects the greater capacity of one side of the brain-the individual's dominant cerebral hemisphere- to carry out skilled motor action. pg 218

basic emotions

Happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust; are universal in humans and promote survival. page 185

Divorce

Helping Children Through Divorce • Shield children from conflict • Provide as much continuity as possible • Explain the divorce and tell children what to expect • Emphasize the permanence of the divorce • Respond sympathetically to children's feelings • Promote continuing relationship with both parents • Authoritative parenting—affection, acceptance, reasonable demands

Causes of Obesity in Middle Childhood

Heredity (overweight parents) Socioeconomic status Early growth pattern of rapid weight gain Family eating habits: use of food as reward, overfeeding, parental control of children's intake Responsiveness to food cues vs. hunger Lack of physical activity Television viewing Early malnutrition and growth stunting

Hippocampus:

Hippocampus: plays a vital role in memory and in images of space that help is find our way. page 218

Hippocampus

Hippocampus: plays a vital role in memory and in images of space that help is find our way. pg. 218

gender schema theory

Holding an idea regarding what is appropriate behavior for males and females

beneficial treatments

If experimental treatments believed to be beneficial are under investigation, children in control groups have the right to alternative beneficial treatments if they are available.

embryo stage

Implantation - 8th Wk. Period of most rapid prenatal changes

basic trust versus mistrust

In Erikson's theory, the psychological conflict of infancy, which is resolved positively when the balance of care is sympathetic and loving.

industry versus inferiority

In Erikson's theory, the psychological conflict of middle childhood, which is resolved positively when experiences lead children to develop a sense of competence at useful skills and tasks

inner speech

In Vygotsky's theory, the way in by which human beings learn to regulate their behavior and master cognitive challenges, through silently repeating information or talking to themselves.

punishment

In operant conditioning, a consequence of a behavior that decreases the likelihood of a behavior

socioeconomic status (SES)

Index which combines three related, but not completely overlapping, variables 1. years of education 2. prestige of one's job and the skill it requires, both of which measure social status 3. income, which measures economic status *as SES rises and falls, people face changing circumstances that profoundly affect family functioning *SES is linked to timing of marriage and parenthood and to family size

neurons

Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information.

Microsystem (Bronfenbrenner)

Innermost Level of Bronfenbrenner's Model. Individual's immediate environment Ex: Child's school place

Amnion

Innermost membranous sac surrounding the developing fetus. Keeps temperature constant and provides cushioning from jolting. page 77

phobia

Intense, unmanageable fear experienced by about 5% of school-age children Children with inhibited tempraments are at high risk, displaying phobias 5-6 times as often as other children

Reducing Prejudice

Intergroup contact: -Equal status -Common goals -Authorities expect cooperation. Early, long-term contact and collaboration Seeing others' traits as changeable School diversity

cognitive development theory

Jean Piaget. Children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world

Behaviorism

John Watson (N. American) Directly observable events- stimuli and responses- are the appropriate focus of study Perspective aimed at creating an objective science of psychology Inspired by Pavlov's dog studies (classical conditioning)

Jean Piaget

Known for his theory of cognitive development in children *was influenced by his background in biology, believed that the childs mind forms and modifies psychological structures so they achieve a better fit with external reality

strange situation test

Laboratory procedure for assessing the quality of attachment between 1 & 2 yrs by taking the baby through eight short episodes of brief separation and reunion of the child and mother

strange situation test

Laboratory procedure for assessing the quality of attachment between 1 & 2 yrs by taking the baby through eight short episodes of brief separation and reunion of the child and mother *securely attached infant and toddlers should use the parent as a secure base from which to explore in an unfamiliar playroom, when parent leaves, and unfamiliar adult should be less comforting than the parent. the strange situation takes the abby through eight short episodes in which brief separations from the reunion wit the parent occur

brain development in early childhood

Left hemisphere especially active: -language skills -handedness Links among parts of the brain increase: -cerebellum -reticular formation -hippocampus -corpus callosum

Hippocampus

Located in the inner brain, adjacent to the amygdala Plays a vital role in memory and in images of space that help us find our way

Organization of Schemes

Logical grouping of content based on particular criteria. E.g. chronological, alphabetical, or geographical organization.

testes

Male gonads that produce sperm and hormones

amnion

Membrane that encloses the embryo in protective amniotic fluid, which helps keep the temperature of the prenatal world constant and provides a fusion against any jolts caused by the woman's movement

Nature vs. nurture (class lecture & asynch)

Nature VS Nurture False dichotomy Heredity vs social influences Nature: hereditary information we receive from our parents Nurture: complex forces of the physical and social world influencing our biological and psychological experiences before and after birth

gene-environment interaction

Nature/Nurture concept that says individuals differ in their responsiveness to qualities of the environment because of their genetic makeup

Neurons

Nerve cells that store and transmit information. p117

neuroimaging techniques

Neurological tests that provide images of brain structure or activity, such as CT scans, PET scans, and MRIs. Also called brain scans.

sex chromosomes

One of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in the human, contains genes that will determine the sex of the individual.

Plasticity

Openness of development to change in response to influential experiences. p50

Talent

Outstanding performance in a specific field

factors related to child maltreatment

Parent characteristics Child characteristics Family characteristics Community Culture

passive correlation

Parents pass on and express trait; environment is consistent with trait. page 68

protection from harm

Participants should not be put through anything they wouldn't normally be expected to.

rejected-withdrawn children

Passive and socially awkward children who are overwhelmed by social anxiety, hold negative expectations for treatment by peers, and worry about being scorned and attacked

Pragmatics (conversation)

Practical, social side of language in which children must learn to engage in effective and appropriate communication.

person praise

Praise that emphasizes a child's traits, such as "You're so smart!" Person praise teaches children that abilities are fixed, which leads them to question their competence and retreat from challenges. Children - especially those with low self-esteem - feel more shame following failure if they previously received person praise

Consequences for Caregivers with preterm neonate

Preterm babies are more likely to be unresponsive, irritable, fragile, and tiny in appearance. Caregivers often hold them less close, touch them less, and talk to them less. Parents are sometimes harsh verbally or physically in attempts to illicit a response. Preterm babies are at increased risk for abuse. Preterm Babies Do Better With Caregivers Who Are: • Warm • Sensitive • Socially supported • Stabile • Connected to resources

prevention and treatment child sexual abuse

Prevention: education Treatment: long-term therapy

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Prompts the thyroid gland in the neck to release thyroxine, which is necessary for brain development and for GH to have its full impact on body size Released by Pituitary Gland

Stability of attachment

Quality of attachment in infancy moderately predicts parent-child relationships in childhood and adolescence

linguistic intelligence

Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words; sensitivity to the different functions of language. (Poet, Journalist)

Piaget's Sensory Motor (0 - 2 years)

Sensory Motor (0 - 2 years) - Info from senses - Main task learned: object permanence Infants "think" by acting on the world with their eyes, ears, hands, and mouth. As a result, they invent ways of solving sensorimotor problems, such as pulling a lever to hear the sound of a music box, finding hidden toys, and putting objects into and taking them out of containers.

gamete

Sex cell (sperm and ovum) page 44

Children Defense Fund

Since 1973. A program that prevents children from slipping through the cracks. *engages in public education and partners with other organizations, communities, and elected officials to improve policies for children.

incomplete dominance

Situation in which one allele is not completely dominant over another allele page 48

body growth in middle childhood

Slow, regular pace Girls shorter and lighter until about age 9, when trend reverses Lower portion of body grows fastest Bones lengthen, broaden Muscles very flexible All permanent teeth appear

Albert Bandura

Social Learning Theory - An approach that emphasizes the role of modeling; also known as imitation or observational learning, as a powerful source of development. P17

sensorimotor stage

Spans the first two years of life. Piaget believed that infants and toddlers "think" with their eyes, ears, hands, and other sensorimotor equipment. They cannot yet carry out many activities inside their heads. *but by end of toddlerhood, children can solve everyday practical problems and represent their experiences in speech, gesture, and play.

Lateralization

Specialization of function in the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. Left Hemisphere responsible for verbal and written language and positive emotion. Right Hemisphere responsible for spatial abilities and negative emotions. p121

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory - Stage 1 Trust vs Mistrust (Hope) Infancy

Stage 1 Trust vs Mistrust (Hope) Infancy - 1-2 years - Mother most important Basic trust versus mistrust: From warm, responsive care, infants gain a sense of trust, or confidence, that the world is good. Mistrust occurs if infants are neglected or handled harshly.

Moro

Startle Reflex in which a newborn makes an embracing motion when loud noise occurs or head drops

triarchic theory of successful intelligence

Sternberg's theory, which states that intelligent behavior involves balancing analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence to achieve success in life, according to one's personal goals and the requirements of one's cultural community.

kinship studies

Studies comparing the characteristics of family members to determine the importance of heredity in complex human characteristics

Three types of child temperaments

The Easy Child The Difficult Child The Slow-to-Warm-up Child

Resilience (protective factors)

The ability to adapt effectively after threat across one's life span. Four broad factors seemed to offer protection from the damaging effects of stressful life events. 1. Personal characteristics (intelligence, easygoing, sociable, and socially valued talents) 2. Warm parental relationship 3. Social support outside the immediate family 4. Community resources & opportunities

Emotional Development

The development of the full range of emotions and the optimal way of dealing with and expressing them

Amount or complexity of content

The difference between mature and immature is simply an amount or complexity. The more complex or detailed the content, the more difficult it is for most people to learn and retain. In addition, the greater the change, the greater is the challenge for both teacher and client.

Stage theories of development (book)

The discontinuous perspective regards development as taking place in stages: qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific periods of development. Stage Theories: development is like climbing a staircase, with each step corresponding to a more mature, reorganized way of functioning. - assumes that people undergo periods of rapid transformation as they step up from one stage to the next. - change is fairly sudden rather than gradual and ongoing. - assumes that people everywhere follow the same sequence of development

self-development

The emergence of a sense of self depends on our physiological capacity for reflexive thinking.

germinal period

The first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation. *the zygotes first cell duplication is drawn out, it is not complete until 30 hours after conception. Gradually new cells are added at a faster rate, by the fourth day 60-70 cells exist that form a hollow fluid filled ball called a blastocyst. The cells on the inside of the blastocyst called the embryonic disk will become the new organism; the outer ring of cells called trophoblast will become the structures that provide protective covering and nourishment.

dominant cerebral hemisphere

The hemisphere of the cerebral cortex responsible for skilled motor action and other important abilities. In right-handed individuals, the left hemisphere is dominant; in left-handed individuals, motor and language skills are often shared between the hemispheres.

mother-stepfather families

The most common type of blended family. Boys tend to adjust more rapidly than girls, who have more difficulty with custodial mother's remarriage. Older children and adolescents show more problems.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

The most severe form of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, distinguished by slow physical growth, facial abnormalities, and brain injury. Usually affects children whose mothers drank heavily throughout pregnancy. Distinguished from Partial Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (p-FAS) and Alcohol-Related Neuro-Developmental Disorder (ARND). p84

traditional behaviorism

The original behavioral worldview that focused on charting and modifying only "objective," visible behaviors.

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

long-term memory

The third of three memory stages, with the largest capacity and longest duration; LTM stores material organized according to meaning.

long-term memory

The third of three memory stages, with the largest capacity and longest duration; LTM stores material organized according to meaning. *permanent knowledge base

Charles Darwin

Theory of Evolution - emphasized two related principles: Natural Selection Survival of the Fittest p12

violation of expectation method

They may habituate babies to a physical event (expose them to the event until their looking declines) to familiarize them with a situation in which their knowledge will be tested. Or they may simply show babies an expected event (one that follows physical laws) and an unexpected event (a variation of the first event that violates physical laws). Heightened attention to the unexpected event suggests that the infant is "surprised" by a deviation from physical reality and, therefore, is aware of that aspect of the physical world.

Metacognition

Thinking about Thought Conscious awareness of mental activities. p241

contrast sensitivity

a general principle accounting for early pattern preferences, which states that if babies can detect a difference in contrast between two or more patterns, they will prefer the one with more contrast.

maturational process

a genetically determined series of events that unfold automatically

habituation

a gradual reduction in the strength of a response due to repetitive stimulation

natural or prepared childbirth

a group of techniques aimed at reducing pain and medical intervention and making childbirth a rewarding experience

group prenatal care

a group session for minority expectant mothers after checkup

extended family household

a household in which parent and child live with one or more adult relatives

conditioned response

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

developmental systems perspective

a perpetually ongoing process, extending from conception to death, that is molded by a complex network of biological, psychological, and social influences

information processing

a perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output

discontinuous development

a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times

discontinuous

a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times *infants and children have unique ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving than adults.

continuous development

a process of gradually adding more of the same types of skills that were there to begin with

correlation coefficient

a statistical index used to examine relationships that describes how two measures or variables are associated w/ each other

bilingual education

a strategy in which school subjects are taught in both the learner's original language and the second (majority) language

Cerebellum

a structure at the rear and base of the brain that aids in balance and control of body movement

reticular formation

a structure in the brain stem that maintains alertness and consciousness

uninvolved parenting

a style of insensitive, indifferent parenting with few demands or rules

vernix

a white cheeselike substance page 79

interpersonal intelligence

ability to detect and respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions of others (therapist, salesperson)

pattern perception

ability to discriminate among different figures and shapes

intrapersonal intelligence

ability to discriminate complex inner feelings and to use them to guide one's own behavior; knowledge of one's own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligences (person with detailed, accurate self-knowledge)

musical intelligence

ability to produce and appreciate pitch, rhythm (or melody), and aesthetic quality of the forms of musical expressiveness (Instrumentalist, composer)

Theory of Mind

ability to reason about what other people know or believe page 240

autobiographical memory

ability to recall many personally meaningful one-time events from both the recent and distant past

naturalist intelligence

ability to recognize and classify all varieties of animals, minerals, and plants (biologist)

Recognition memory

ability to tell whether a stimulus is the same as or similar to one they have seen before page 239

bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

ability to use the body skillfully for expressive as well as goal-directed purposes; ability to handle objects skillfully (dancer, athlete)

preclampsia

abnormal condition associated with pregnancy marked by high blood pressure proteinuria, and edema.

working memory

about 15 percent of children have very Lowe working memory scores, and the majority struggle in school. scaffolding in which parents and teachers modify tasks to reduce memory load is essential so these children can learn.

prosocial/altruistic behavior

actions that benefit another person without any expected reward for the self

active correlation (niche picking)

actively choosing environments that complement our heredity. page 69

Imaginary Audience

adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern. p392

expansions

adult responses that elaborate on children's speech, increasing its complexity

recasts

adult responses that restructure children's grammatically inaccurate speech into correct form

adopting

adults who are infertile or like to pass along a genetic disorder, same sex couples, and single adults who want a family are turning to adoption in increasing numbers

language acquisition device (LAD)

an innate system that contains a universal grammar, or set of rules common to all languages. It enables children, no matter which language they hear, to understand and speak in a rule-oriented fashion as soon as they pick up enough words

mental representation

an internal image of a past event or object, that the mind can manipulate page 152

clinical interview

an interview method in which the researcher uses a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant's point of view Strengths: comes as close as possible to the way participants think in everyday life. great breath and depth of info obtained in short time Limitations: may not result in accurate reporting. flexible procedure makes comparing individuals responses difficult

explicit self-awareness

an objective understanding that the self is a unique object in a world of objects, which includes representations of one's own physical features and body dimensions

Theory

an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior

Pathways to Change

are highly diverse because development is influenced by multiple forces: biological, historical, social and cultural.

automatic processes

are so well-learned that they require no space in working memory and therefore permit id to focus on other information while performing them. page 161

babbling stage

around 6 months, the infant repeats consonant-vowel combinations

self-recognition

around age 2, identification of the self as physically unique being. page 207

individual differences in mental development

around age 6, IQ becomes more stable than it was at earlier ages, and it correlates moderately with academic achievement.

steps prospective parents can take before conception to increase the chances of a healthy baby

arrange for a physical exam, consider your genetic makeup, reduce or eliminate toxins under your control, ensure proper nutrition, consult your doctor after 12 months of unsuccessful efforts at conception

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

PKU inheritance pattern

autosomal recessive

Reflexive Schemes

birth-1 month; newborn reflexes

What organ is closest to adult size at birth?

brain. page

clinical or case study method

brings together a wide range of information on one person, including interviews, observations, and test scores *yields richly detailed case narratives that offer valuable insights into the many factors influencing development *theoretical preferences may bias their observations

developmental cognitive neuroscience

brings together researchers from psychology, biology, neuroscience, and medicine to study the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing person's cognitive processing and behavior patterns

metaphor of plasticity in lifespan

butterfly---metamorphosis and continued potential--lifespan change.

Training infants with flashcards and educational tablets

can be counterproductive, causing them to withdraw. page 124

how can severe maternal stress affect the developing organism?

can permanently alter fetal neurological functioning, thereby heightening stress reactivity in later life. Children can display cortisol levels that are either abnormally high or low, which signal reduced physiological capacity to manage stress *negative behavioral outcomes in children and adolescents: anxiety, short attention span, anger, aggression, overactivity, and lower intelligence test scores

kwashiorkor

caused by an unbalanced diet very low in protein. page 129

Private Speech (Vygotsky)

children's self-directed speech instead of egocentric speech *Vygotsky believed that language helps children think about their mental activities and behavior and self course of action, thereby serving as the foundation for all higher cognitive processes, including controlled attention deliberate memorization and recall, categorization, planning, problem-solving and self-reflection

matters of personal choice

choice of friends, hairstyle, and leisure activities, etc. - which do not violate rights and are up to the individual

autosomes

chromosomes that do not determine the sex of a person. page 45

fast-mapping

connect new words with their underlying concepts after brief encounter page 250

Umbilical cord

connects the growing organism to the placenta. contains one large vein that delivers blood loaded with nutrients and two arteries that remove wast product. page 78

umbilical cord

connects the placenta to the developing organism grows to length of 1-3 ft and contains one large vein that delivers blood loaded with nutrients and two arteries that remove waste products

central executive

conscious part of the mind, coordinates incoming information with information in the system, controls attention, selects applies and monitors the effectiveness of strategies

controversial and neglected children

consistent with the mixed peer opinion they engender, controversial children display a bled of positive and negative social behaviors. they are hostile and disruptive, by they also engage in positive, prosocial acts. they often bully others and engage in calculated relational aggression to sustain their dominance neglected children are usually well-adjusted. when they want to, they can break away usual pattern of playing alone, cooperating well with peers and forming positive stable friendships .

macrosystem

consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources

Applied Behavior Analysis

consists of observations of relationships between behavior and environmental events, followed by systematic changes in those events based on procedures of conditioning and modeling. The goal is to eliminate undesirable behaviors and increase desirable responses.

Exosystem (Bronfenbrenner)

consists of social settings in which the individual does not have an active role but nevertheless affect experiences in immediate settings (management in individuals workplace)

gross motor development

control over actions that help infants get around in the environment (crawling, standing, walking) page 134

intentional or goal-directed behavior

coordinating schemes deliberately to solve simple problems

intentional, or goal directed, behavior

coordination schemes deliberatly to solve problems. page 152

imitation

copying behavior that is unlikely to occur naturally and spontaneously

imitation

copying behavior that is unlikely to occur naturally and spontaneously page 132

imitation

copying the behavior of another person

corpus callosum

corpus callosum: is a large bundle of fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres page 219

corpus callosum:

corpus callosum: is a large bundle of fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres page 219

gene therapy

correcting genetic abnormalities by delivering DNA carrying a functional gene to the cells

elaboration (memory strategy)

creating a relationship, or shared meaning, between two or more pieces of information that are not members of the same category

cultural variations

cross cultural evidence indicates that attachment patterns may have to be interpreted differently in certain cultures. ex. German infants show considerably more avoidant attachment than American babies. But German parents value independence and encourage their infants to be non clingy.

pectoral depth cues

cues about distance that can be given in a flat picture

culture, gender, and ethnicity

cultural forces profoundly affect self-esteem. As especially strong emphasis on social comparisons in school may explain why Chinese and Japanese children despite their higher academic achievement, score lower Thant US children in self-esteem.

social conventions

customs determined solely by consensus, such as table manners and politeness rituals (saying "please" and "thank you")

relational aggression

damages another's peer relationships through social exclusion, malicious gossip, or friendship manipulation

nature-nurture controversy

deals with the extent to which heredity and the environment each influence behavior

Breast feeding benefits

decrease incidence of SIDS and breast and ovarian cancer, appropriate weight gain, decrease risk of obesity in childhood, decrease allergens, prevention/reduction in diarrhea, decrease in respiratory infections, bacterial infections, UTI and denser bones, decrease childhood cancer.

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

defines intelligence in terms of distinct sets of processing operations that permit individuals to engage in a wide range of culturally valued activities dismisses idea of general intelligence and proposes at least 8 independent intelligences

memory strategies

deliberate mental activities that improve our chances of remembering

Memory strategies

deliberate mental activities that improve our changes of remembering page 239

interdependent

dependent on one another; mutually dependent

self-conscious

depends on a strengthening sense of self. page 208

experience-expectant brain growth

depends on ordinary experiences like chances to explore the environment, hear language, interact with people page 124

recessive inheritance

describes a trait or an allele that is only expressed in a homozygous situation

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon

developed the first intelligence test to identify children who needed remedial education

gross motor development

development of motor abilities including balance and posture as well as whole-body movements such as crawling, standing, and walking

fine motor development

development of motor abilities involving finely tuned movements of the hands such as grasping and manipulating objects

fine motor development

development of motor abilities involving finely tuned movements of the hands such as grasping and manipulating objects *to parents, fine-motor progress is most apparent in two areas: 1. children's care of their own bodies, and 2. the drawings and paintings that fill the walls at home, childcare, and preschool

Epigenesis

development resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of the environment

sequential design

developmental research design based on cross-sectional and longitudinal designs Strength: when incl. longitudinal sequences, permits both longitudinal and cross-sectional comparisons. permits age related changes tracking more efficiently than longitudinal Limitation: may have same issues as longitudinal and cross-sectional strategies by design itself helps identify difficulties

developmental social neuroscience

devoted to studying the relationship between changes in the brain and emotional and social development

the stages of childbirth

dilation and effacement of the cervix delivery of the baby delivery of the placenta page 93

Behaviorism

directly observable events- stimuli and responses- are the appropriate focus of study

central executive

directs the flow of information, implementing the basic procedures just mentioned... page 161

prenatal mercury exposure

disrupts production and migration of neurons causing widespread brain damage

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

distinguished by: 1. slow physical growth 2. pattern of three facial abnormalities (short eyelid openings, thin upper lip, smooth or flat philtrum 3. brain injury, evident in small head and impairment in at least 3 areas of functioning (ex. memory, language/communication, attention span, activity level, planning/reasoning, motor coordination, social skills

problems of cross-sectional design

does not provide evidence about development at the level at which It actually occurs: the individual.

relational-child-rearing goals

doing what parents say and sharing with others. page 208

cigarette smoking by a caregiver

doubles the risk of SIDS page 106

moral and social-conventional understanding

during middle childhood children contrast a flexible appreciation of moral rules. they take into account an increasing number of variables--not just the action aid its immediate impact, but also the actor intentions and the context of his behavior

knowledge and memory

during middle childhood, children general knowledge base grows larger and becomes organized into increasingly elaborate, hierarchically structure networks. this rapid growth of knowledge helps children use strategies and remember.

the school-age child's theory of mind

during middle childhood, children theory of mind becomes more elaborate and refined. unlike preschoolers, older children regard it as an active contained of information, older children regard the end as an active structure agent that selects and transforms information.

early childhood

during the play years, motor skills are refined, thought and language expand at an astounding pace, a sense of morality is evident, and children establish ties with peers

cephalocaudal trend

during the prenatal period, the head develops more rapidly than the lower part of the body

Allele

each form of a gene

Temperament

early-appearing, stable individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation. The traits that makeup temperament are believed to form the cornerstone of the adult personality. Reactivity refers to quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention and motor activity Self-Regulation refers to strategies that modify reactivity. p190

temperament

early-appearing, stable individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation. page 190

Limits on children's thinking during the preoperational stage

egocentrism, inability to understand conservation, contraption, irreversibility

expansions

elaborating on children's speech, increasing its complexity page 252

fetal monitors

electronic instruments that track the baby's heart rate during labor

Importance of modeling

enhances young children prosocial behavior. the following models affects children's willingness to imitate 1. warmth and responsiveness 2. competence and power (admiration) 3. consistency between assertions and behavior (children choose the most lenient standard of behavior)

maternal factors linked to fraternal twinning

ethnicity, family history of twinning, age, nutrition, number of births, fertility drugs and in vitro fertilization

neonatal behavioral assessment scale (NBAS)

evaluates the newborn's reflexes, muscle tone, state changes etc. page 110

kinship studies

examine patterns of behaviors and traits in family members. page 67

Resistant Infants

experience inconsistent care. page 201

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone

preoperational obvious change

extraordinary increase in representational or symbolic activities

newborn reflexes

eye blink, rooting, sucking, moro, palmar grasp, tonic neck, stepping, babinski

taste and smell

facial expressions reveal that newborns can distinguish several basis tastes, during pregnancy the amniotic fluid is rich in tastes and smells that vary with the mothers diet--early experiences the influence newborns preferences

Egocentrism

failure to distinguish others' symbolic viewpoints from one's own. page 229

Like anger,

fear rises from 6 months old into the 2nd year page 186

Rothbart's Model of Temperament

fearful distress and irritable distress distinguish between reactivity triggered by fear and reactivity due to frustration.

sympathy

feelings of concern or sorrow for another's plight

self-conscious emotions

feelings that involve injury to or enhancement of their sense of self *preschoolers depend on the messages of parents, teachers, and others who matter to them to know when to feel proud, ashamed, or guilty, often viewing adult expectations as obligatory rules

Do babies start to reach with their hands or feet first?

feet first, because they are better able to control leg movements with less practice than hand movements require page 135

behavioral genetics

field devoted to scientifically determining the role that hereditary forces play in determining individual differences in behavior

visual acuity

finemess of discrimination page 109

visual acuity

fineness of visual discrimination

Germinal period

first two week of prenatal development after conception. page 76

Crying in infants

first way that babies communicate, letting parents know they need food, comfort, or stimulation.

embryonic disk

forms 3 layers of cells 1.ectoderm 2.mesoderm 3.endoderm

Personal Standard

from watching others engage in self-praise and self-blame and through feedback about the worth of their actions

What does the research say about the role of childcare in attachment?

fully normal emotional development depends on establishing a close tie with a caregiver. page 200 see page 202

scripts

general descriptions of what occurs and when it occurs in a particular situation

recall

generating a mental image of an absent stimulus page 239

inventive play

generating make-believe scenarios unconstrained by actual experience.

heredity and hormones

genes influence growth by controlling the body's production of hormones *the impact of heredity on physical growth is evident throughout childhood. Genes influence growth by controlling the body production of hormones

regulator genes

genes that control the activity of other genes, modify the instructions given by a protein-coding gene page 44

Schools

give most children their first experience with bureaucracy and impersonal evaluation *school is a formal institution designed to transmit knowledge and skills needed to become productive members of society--affect many aspects of development

standardization (IQ Test)

giving the test to a large, representative sample and using the results as the standard for interpreting scores

standardization

giving the test to large representative sample. page 169

naturalistic observation

go in the field, or natural environment, and record the behavior of interest. page 28

intentional behavior

goal-directed; coordinating schemes deliberately to solve simple problems

Vygotsky and Early Childhood Education

goes beyond independent discovery to promote assisted discovery, which is aided by peer collaboration as children of varying abilities work in groups, teaching and helping one another.

learning disabilities

great difficulty with one or more aspects of learning, usually reading. As a result, their achievement is considerably behind what would be expected on the basis of their IQ

obesity

greater than 20% increase over healthy weight based on BMI BMI above 95th percentile

obesity

greater than 20% increase over healthy weight, based on the BMI--a ratio of weight to height associated with body fat. A BMI above the 85th percentile for a childs age and sex is considered over-weight, a BMI above 9th percentile is obese

cross-sectional design

groups of people differing in age are studied at the same point in time

subcultures

groups of people with beliefs and customs that differ from those of the larger culture

subcultures

groups of people with beliefs and customs that differ from those of the larger culture. page 62

growth hormone (GH)

growth hormone (GH): is necessary for development of almost all body tissues page 219

growth hormone (GH):

growth hormone (GH): is necessary for development of almost all body tissues. page 219

synaptic growth

growth of connections between neurons and myelination of nerve fibers

Proximodistal growth trend

growth proceeds from near to far, core of the body before the limbs. page 117

proximodistal trend

growth proceeds literally from "near to far" - from the center of the body outward

chernobyl children

had abnormal brain wave activity, lower intelligence test scores, and rate of language and emotional disorders two to three times greatnesses than those of non-exposed children *radiation*

right hemisphere

handles spatial abilities (judging distances, reading maps, and recognizing geometric shapes), and negative emotions such as distress

experience dependent brain growth

happens throughout life, is the refinement of connections based on our experiences page 124

chromosome-11

having a certain repetition of DNA base pairs. page 201

independent movement

helps baby acquire faster depth perception

Chronosystem

historical changes that influence the other systems --temporal dimension, life changes can be imposed externally or alternatively, can arise from within the person, since individuals select, modify and create many of their own settings and experiences

Ecological systems theory

how multiple factors interact to influence performance, developed by Bronfenbrenner. page 23

speech perception

how the brain processes speech and language *newborns can distinguish nearly all sounds in human languages and that they prefer listening to human speech over nonspecca sounds and to their native tongue rather than a rhythmically distinct forming language.

monozygotic twins

identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo

self-recognition

identification of the self as a physically unique being

Our most powerful mental representations include ________ and _________.

images and concepts

early childhood stress

impairs a child's ability to manage stress

circular reaction

in Piaget's theory, a means of building schemes in which infants try to repeat a chance event caused by their own motor activity

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

epigenesis

in development, the continuous bidirectional interactions between genes and environment. Genes affect behavior and experiences; experiences and behavior affect gene expression. page 70

punishment

in operant conditioning, any event that decreases the behavior that it follows page 131

sequential design

in which they conduct several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies

sequential designs

in which they conduct several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies (sequences) page 36

structured interviews

including tests and questionnaires, in which each participant is asked the same set of questions in the same way. page 30

high emotional reactivity or activity level

increases the chances of sibling conflicts. page 204

neurons

individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information. page 117

unintentional injuries

injury fatalities increase from middle childhood into adolescence, with rate for boys rising considerably above those for girls.

endoderm

inner embryonic (germ) layer, becomes the digestive system, lungs, glands and urinary tract. page 78

emotional stress during pregnancy

intense anxiety: is associated with higher rates of miscarriage, prematurity. low birth-weight, infant respiratory and digestive illnesses, colic, sleep disturbances, and irritability during the childs first 3 years

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

recall

involves remembering something not present. page 163

Skeletal age

is the best estimate of a child's maturity, girls are ahead of boys by 4-6 weeks at birth. page 117

Fear starting at 6 months is adaptive because

it keeps newly mobile babies from exploring dangerous situations. page 186

Social Comparisons

judgments of one's own appearance, abilities, and behavior in relation to those of others

biological concept of adaptation

just as structures of the body are adapted to fit with the environment, so structures of the mind develops to better fit with, or represent, the external world.

teratogen: dose

larger doses over longer time periods usually have more negative effects

hemisphere specialization

lateralization of function to one hemisphere of the brain page 121

public policies

law and government programs designed to improve current conditions. page 64

public policies

laws and government programs designed to improve current conditions

self-awareness

leads to first efforts to understand another's perspective. page 208 also contributes to effortful control, the extent to which children can inhibit impulses, manage negative emotion and behave in socially acceptable ways. (self-control page 208)

bilingual development

learn both languages at the same time or learn first language, then second sensitive period during childhood

fear

like anger, fear rises from the second half of the first year into the second year, older infants hesitate before playing with a new toy, and newly crawling infants soon back away from heights

testes

male gonads *male produces sperm in vast numbers an average of 300 million a day.

dynamic systems theory of motor development

mastery of motor skills involves acquiring increasingly complex systems of action page 135

dynamic systems theory of motor development

mastery of motor skills involves acquiring increasingly complex systems of action. when motor skills work as a system, separate abilities blend together, each cooperating with others to produce more effective ways of exploring and controlling the environment

mathematics

mathematics teaching in elementary school build on and greatly enriches children's informal knowledge of number concepts and counting.

Mesoderm

middle germ layer; develops into muscles, and much of the circulatory, reproductive, and excretory systems

interactional synchrony

mirroring of each others nonverbal behavior by communication partners. page 200

regulator genes

modify the instructions given by protein-coding genes

normal distribution

most scores cluster around the mean or average. page 169

Isotretinoin

most widely used potent teratogen. exposure during the first trimester results in eye, ear, skull, brain, heart, and immune system abnormalities

early adulthood

most young people leave home, complete their education, and begin full-time work. major concerns are developing a career, forming and intimate partnership, and marrying, rearing children, or pursuit other lifestyles

neurons

nerve cells that store and transmit information. page 79

synaptic pruning

neurons that are seldom stimulated soon lose their synapses

According to the lifespan perspective,

no age period is supreme in its impact on the life course, rather, events occurring during each major period

gender atypical

not conforming to prevailing stereotypes pertaining to one's gender

recognition

noticing when a stimulus is identical of similar to one previously experienced. page 163

recognition

noticing when a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously experienced

consequences of obesity

obese children are at risk for lifelong health problems. symptoms that begin to appear in the early school years--high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, respiratory abnormalities, insulin resistance, and inflammatory reactions--are powerful predictors of hear disease, circulatory difficulties, type 2 diabetes, gallbladder disease, sleep and digestive disorders, many forms of cancer, and premature death.

systematic observation

observations of the behavior of children and adults

cohort effects

occur when differences between age groups growing up in different time periods. page 9-10 and 35

dizygotic twins (fraternal)

occur when two eggs get fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in the development of two zygotes in the uterus at the same time

experience-dependent brain growth

occurs throughout our lives. It consists of additional growth and refinement of established brain structures as a result of specific learning experiences that vary widely across individuals and cultures

accommodating

or reflecting on and revising their fault reasoning in response to their physical and social worlds

reflexes

organized patterns of behavior. page 101

third month of pregnancy

organs, muscles, and nervous system start to become organized and connected lungs begin to expand and contract * by 12th week the external genitals are well formed and the sex of the fetus can be detected with ultrasound

third-parties

other individuals in the microsystem--also affect the quality of any two person relationship.

gene-environment correlation

our genes influence the environments to which we are exposed

ectoderm

outer embryonic (germ) layer, becomes the nervous system and skin. page 78

contrast sensitivity

page 141

Bayley Scales of Infant and toddler development

page 167

development quotients (DQ)

page 169

Home

page 170

developmentally appropriate practice

page 171

Rothbart's Model of Temperament

page 191

ethnography

page 30

Recessive Inheritance

pattern of inheritance in which a child receives identical recessive alleles, resulting in expression of a nondominant trait

Dominant Inheritance

pattern of inheritance in which, when a child receives different alleles, only the dominant one is expressed

perceptual narrowing effect

perceptual sensitivity that becomes increasingly attuned with age to information most often encountered

experimental design

permits inferences about cause and effect because researchers use an evenhanded procedure to assign people to two or more treatment conditions

experimental design

permits inferences about causes and effects because researchers use an evenhanded procedure to assign people to two or more treatment conditions. page 33

child maltreatment takes the following forms

physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, emotional abuse

lifespan researches emphasize that development is?

plastic at all ages

amygdala

plays a central role in processing many emotional processes, particularly the formation of emotional memories

amygdala

plays a central role in processing many emotional processes, particularly the formation of emotional memories *sensitive to facial emotional expressions, especially fear

Amygdala

plays a central role in processing of novelty and emotional information (an inner brain structure)

classical conditioning

possible in the young infant. neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that leads to a reflexive response. Once the baby's nervous system makes the Connerys lion between the two stimuli, the neutral stimulus produces the behavior itself

younger age at adoption

predicts better mental and emotional health.

Which area of the brain is the last to develop?

prefrontal cortex

categorization

preschoolers organize their everyday knowledge into nested categories at an early age.

Familism (Familismo)

pride in the extended family, expressed through the maintenance of close ties and strong obligations to kinfolk outside the immediate family

Implantation

process in which the blastocyst attaches to the wall of the uterus

Rights of Research Participants

protection from harm, informed consent, privacy, knowledge of results, beneficial treatments

Acculturative Stress

psychological distress resulting from conflict between an individual's minority culture and the host culture. p412

Bowlby's theory

quality of infant/caregiver attachment is critical for development

reactivity

quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention and motor activity. page 190

zone of proximal development (potential)

range of task that the child cannot yet handle alone but can so with help of more skilled partners. page 166

ethological theory of attachment

recognizes the infant's emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival, is most widely accepted view. page 196

Conservation

refers to the idea that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes page 229

palmar grasp reflex

reflexive curling of the infant's fingers around an object that touches its palm

Infant States of Arousal

regular sleep, irregular sleep, drowsiness, quiet alertness, waking activity and crying

rehersal (memory strategy)

repeating information to ones self

longitudinal design

research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time Strength: permits study of common patterns and individual differences in development and relationships b/t early and later events and behaviors Limitations: age related changes may be distorted b/c of participant dropout, practice effects & cohort effects

correlational design

researchers gather information on individuals, generally in natural life circumstances, without altering their experiences. Then they look at relationships between participants' characteristics and their behavior or development

clinical interview

researchers use a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant's point of view. page 29

autonomy versus shame and doubt

resolved favorably when parents provide young children with suitable guidance and reasonable choices. page 184

sensitive caregiving

responding promptly, consistency, and appropriately to infants, promotes secure attachment. page 200

moral imperatives

rules and expectations that protect people's rights and welfare

chorionic villus sampling

sampling of placental tissue for microscopic and chemical examination to detect fetal abnormalities

emotional understanding in middle childhood

school age children understanding of mental activity means that unlike preschoolers, they are likely tp explain emotion by referring to internal states such as happy or sad thoughts.

sensitivity to children's readiness to learn

sensitivity to children's readiness to learn: teachers introduce activates that build on children's current thinking page 234

logico-mathematical intelligence

sensitivity to, and capacity to detect, logical or numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of logical reasoning (mathmatician)

page's stages of cognitive development

sensorimotor, pre operational, concrete operational, formal operational

interactional synchrony

separates the experiences of secure babies. It is best descried as a sensitively tuned "emotional dance"... page 200

Gametes

sex cells

Gametes

sex cells (sperm and egg)

self-help skills

skills that allow children to help take care of themselves and their personal needs *young children gradually become self-sufficient at dressing and feeding

Ectoderm

skin and nervous system

cooperative learning

small groups of classmates work toward common goals - by considering one another's ideas, appropriately challenging one another, providing sufficient explanations to correct misunderstandings and resolving differences of opinion on the basis of reasons and evidence

immunization

some parents have been influenced by media suggesting a link between vaccines and autism. no associations, others parents have religious or philosophical objections--the belief that children should develop their immunities naturally

abnormal crying

sometimes infants cry in a way that it is nearly impossible for parents to sooth the child. This is called colic (persistent crying). The reason for colic is unknown but it generally subsides between 3 - 6 months.

sensorimotor stage

spans the first two years of life. Page 150

Schemes

specific psychological structures, organized ways of making sense of experience *at first they are sensorimotor action patterns

self-regulation

strategies that modify that reactivity. page 190

emotional self-regulation

strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals

emotional self-regulation

strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals *requires voluntary, effortful management of emotions

Emotional self-regulation

strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to comfortable levels of intensity so we can accomplish our goals. page 189

inclusive classrooms

students with learning difficulties learn alongside typical students in the regular educational setting for all or part of the school day - a practice designed to prepare them for participation in society and to combat prejudices against individuals with disabilities

authoritarian parenting

style of parenting marked by emotional coldness, imposing rules and expecting obedience

Interactionist perspective

suggests that both nature and nurture are important for language development.page 174

Attachment Q-Sort

suitable for children between 1 and 5, depends on home observation... page 198

36th week of pregnancy

synchrony between fetal heart rate and motor activity peaks: a rise in heart rate is usually followed within five seconds by a burst of motor activity

child-centered programs

teachers provide a variety of activities from which children select, and much learning takes place through play

Child-centered programs

teachers provide activities from which children select, and much learning takes place thorough play page 246

violation of expectations method to test object permanence and mental representations

testing for babies' level of surprise when seeing unexpected events . page 153

dynamic assessment

testing procedure in which the adult introduces purposeful teaching into the testing situation to find out what the child can attain with social support - reducing cultural bias in testing

Piaget's conservation tasks

tests a child's ability to see that physical characteristics of an object remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes.

resilience

the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats

resilience

the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development

transitive inference

the ability to figure out the unspoken link between one fact and another

Seriation

the ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight

Homozygous

the alleles from both parents are alike

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

the approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture

mutual exclusivity bias

the assumption that words refer to entirely separate (non overlapping) categories

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived. page 152

Reversibility

the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point

effortful control

the capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant response in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response

effortful control

the capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant response in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response. page 191

embryonic disk

the cell inside the blastocyst will become the new organism page 77

joint attention

the child attends to the same object or event as the caregiver

ulnar grasp

the clumsy grasp of the young infant, in which the fingers close against the palm

Myelination

the coating of neural fibers with an insulating fatty sheath that improves the efficiency of message transfer

executive function

the diverse cognitive operations and strategies that enable us to achieve our goals in cognitively challenging situations. page 161

teratogen: age

the effects of teratogens vary with the age of the organism at time of exposure.

in-group and out-group biases: development of prejudice

the extent to which children hold racial and ethnic biases varies, depending on the following personal and situational factors 1. a fixed view of personality traits 2. overly high self-esteem 3. a social world in which people are sorted into groups

Second month of pregnancy

the eyes, ears, nose, jaw, and neck form.

stereotype threat

the fear of being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype - can trigger anxiety that interferes with performance

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age page 186

by the end of pregnancy

the fetus takes on the beginnings of a personality. fetal activity is linked to infant temperament

teratogen: heredity

the genetic makeup of the mother and the developing organism plays an important role, some individual are better able than others to withstand harmful environments

bell-shaped distribution

the highest frequency occurs in the middle and frequencies tail off to the left and right of the middle

information processing

the human mind might be viewed as a symbol-manipulating system through which information flows *from the time information is presented to the sense at input until it emerges as a behavioral response at output, information is actively coded, transformed and organized *view development as one of continuous change

gene-environment correlation

the idea that heredity influences the environments to which individuals are exposed

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center largest brain structure, accounting for 85% of the brain's weight

structured observation

the investigator sets up a laboratory situation that evokes the behavior of interest so that every participant has an equal opportunity to display the response Strengths: Equal opportunity to display response Limitations May not yield observations typical of participant's behavior in everyday life

self-esteem

the judgments we make about our own worth and the feelings associated with those judgments

infant mortality

the number of deaths in the first year of life per 1,000 live births

infant mortality

the number of deaths in the first year of life per 1,000 live births- is an index used around the world to assess the overall health of a nation's children. page 102

working memory

the number of items that can be briefly held in mind while also engaging in some effort to monitor or manipulate those items. page 161

average life expectancy

the number of years the average newborn in a particular population group is likely to live estimated avg in us by 2050--84 yrs

teratogen: other negative influences

the presence of several negative factors at once, such as additional teratogens, poor nutrition, and lack of medical care, can worsen the impact of a harmful agent

Neural tube

the primitive embryonic central nervous system. page 78

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

self-concept

the set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual believes defines who he or she is

self-concept

the set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual believes defines who he or she is *preschoolers self-concept consists largely of observable characteristics such as their name physical appearance, possessions, and everyday behaviors.

poverty

the state of being poor *the contact stressors that accompany poverty gradually weaken the family system.

object permanence

the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view

sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

the unexpected death, usually during the night page 106

goodness-of-fit model

to explain how temperament and environment can together produce favorable outcomes. page 195

scale errors

toddlers attempting to do things that their body size makes impossible

touch

touch helps stimulate early physical growth, emerge early prenatally and is well developed at birth

telegraphic speech

two-word utterances that focus on high-content words, omitting smaller, less important ones (go car, moor cookie)

cesarean delivery (c-section)

type of birth in which mother's abdomen is cut open and fetus is retrieved directly from the uterus

over extension

using a word too broadly

affluence

wealth; richness *promote favorable development *however youths have been snowed to show serious developmentally behavioral problems (drinking etc).

X-linked inheritance

when a harmful allele is carried on the X chromosome

X-linked inheritance

when a harmful allele is carried on the X chromosome *males are more likely to be affected because their sex chromosomes do not match

under extension

when children define words more narrowly than adults do

underextension

when children first learn words, they sometimes apply them too narrowly

drawing

when given crayon and paper, even toddlers scribble in imitation of others, gradually makes on the page take on meaning. These include the realization that pictures can serve as symbols, and improved planning and spatial understanding.

overregularization

when preschoolers acquire these markers, they sometimes overextend the rules to words that are exceptions- a type of error called overregularization page 251

inhibition

with age, preschoolers gain steadily in ability to inhibit impulses and keep their mind on a competing goal.

self-reports

written or oral accounts of a person's thoughts, feelings, or actions

Negative impacts on physical growth

• Pituitary gland—releasing growth-inducing hormones • Nutrition—fats, oils, sugar, and salt should be minimal (Children often imitate food choices.) • Infectious diseases—immunization, SES • Injuries—unintentional injuries leading cause of childhood death in industrialized countries (auto accidents, suffocation, drowning) • Prevention—safety policies, monitoring, modeling

Possible Contributing Factors to preterm births

• Poor maternal nutritional intake • Poorly functioning placenta • Babies with defects that prevented prenatal growth

glial cells make up _____ of the brain's volume

50% page 118

chorion

Outermost layer of the two membranes surrounding the embryo; it forms the fetal part of the placenta.

inductive discipline

Reasoning with a child through the consequences of their actions

special infant stimulation

Rocking, talking, touching (massage, kangaroo care), Nonnutritive sucking

sex chromosomes

X and Y chromosomes, determine genetic sex of an organism. page 45