A2 Geo Unit 3 Energy Security

Energy poverty issues

- 1.6 b people don't have access to electricity - 2.4 billion people rely on biomass for cooking and at least 2.5 million women and children die yearly from lung conditions caused by smoke from traditional cooking stoves - many women have to carry heavy fuel wood every day for an average of 5km - energy poverty keeps people poor by limiting women's ability to engage in education and income generating activities.

Factors to do with reliability/uninterrupted supply (energy security)

- Are there good pathways to gain access to the resources? Either local or international. Are there physical or political issues that disrupt the pathway? - Public don't usually like nuclear - Natural hazards restricting supply such as earthquakes.

Factors to do with affordability/competitiveness of supply (energy security)

- Can the country afford the energy to meet demand? - intensity of use makes the cost an important factor as fuel prices may go up - Prices can change suddenly,8 years ago oil was $150 a barrel and now its $80 a barrel.

Physical constraints of solar energy

- PV cannot operate without direct sunlight so will produce almost not electricity when cloud passes over it - old solar cells take up large land space, can damage fragile desert ecosystems - best if sun is all year round. - energy produces cannot be stored easily ( can't be stored easily for the night) - lower latitudes are best as they receive most sunlight but not in the ITCZ region as there are bounds of cloud there frequently

Transit state

A country through which an energy pathway passes eg. pipeline.

Biodiesel

A diesel substitute produced by extracting and chemically altering oil from plants.

Geopolitics and the ESPO pipeline

- China and Japan have been competing for Russian oil. - China: needs increasing amounts of energy to fuel its rapid economic growth and access to foreign energy sources and energy security are vital for maintaining control of the communist party and security of state; existing supplies are vulnerable because 80% of its energy passes through the Strait of Malacca; China and Russia have joint political interest over the issue of the US military presence in central Asia and the ME. - Japan: also wants a share of the oil because it has no oil of its own and is the 3rd largest oil consumer, after the USA and China. Oil dependence on ESPO can reduce dependence on ME by 10-15%. Also wants to engage with Russia and increase its economic and political influence.

China's energy mix and insecurity

- China has more coal than the USA, UK and Japan combined. However, the ability to mine it, move it and burn it quickly remains extremely difficult to meet demand. Surge in electricity demand in 2002 created shortages in coal. - China's oil fields have peaked and exploration is yet to begin in the west but is unattractive to the remote location and difficult geology (spatial imbalance). Exploration is South China seas risks having major territorial disputes with neighbouring countries so now China imports a lot of its oil from the ME. - Plans to expand China's use of natural gas have slowed down as it is costly and difficult to build pipelines from the gas fields in western China, while LNG for transport in ships is in short supply. - Has invested in green technology such as the £ Gorges Dam which produces 16% of China's energy and installing solar power fields. - The Strait of Malacca is a very important chokepoint for China and the transportation of energy through their is under risk of piracy.

Athabasca tar shale sands - environmental costs and benefits

- Costs: a pristine environment and habitat is destroyed as the top layer is removed to access the tar shale sands beneath. The process is energy intensive and takes 1 barrel of oil to produce 3 barrels of crude oil from tar sands. They are also a large source of GHG emissions as they are frontier hydrocarbons. It takes between 2 & 5 barrels of water to produce every barrel of oil. It has also resulted in the removal of trees, shrubs and soil. 470 km^2 of forest have been removed. Lakes of toxic water cover 130 km^2. - Benefits: There are non, apart from the fact that it will be an additional source until renewable sources and cleaner fuel can be developed. Mining companies are also required to reclaim land, but the reclamation lies behind the disturbance.

Environmental costs and benefits of drilling in the arctic

- Costs: a pristine environment that maybe destroyed by oil spills from pipes moving due to the permafrost melting and super tankers like Exxon Valdez running aground. Habitat destroyed due to ice melting from GW and oil spells effecting polar bear populations. Polar bears moving into towns creating conflicts with humans. It's one of the last protected wildernesses on earth, has knock on effects with food chains. - Benefits: Raising environmental awareness, more money to invest into renewables is generated and an opportunity for tighter laws and regulations for drilling in environmentally sensitive areas, minimising eco foot print.

Economic costs and benefits of drilling in the arctic

- Costs: oil disasters cost a lot of money, oil needs to be at $70 a barrel as prices to drill in hostile environment are very high, future cost to mitigate and adapt to GW. Costs of a military presence in the Arctic and could possibly create conflict, it is costly to transport the oil and create new pathways. Job loss in other energy industries elsewhere. - Benefits: oil is expensive and region opens up 25% of world's reserves, reduces dependence on OPEC, increases their ESI availability and improves their energy mix. Jobs are created and the multiplier effect leads to more jobs in the area, other minerals can be extracted, India and China will develop at a faster rate and peak oil will be put off and oil prices become cheaper.

Athabasca tar shale sands - economic costs and benefits

- Costs: the extraction is only viable when the cost of each oil barrel is $30/barrel. It costs $15/ barrel to extract bitumen from tar sands. The costs of heating the sands is very expensive due to the extremely cold weather. - Benefits: By 2030, tar sands could meet 16% of North America's demand for oil. In 2007, oil accounted for 20% of the total value of Canadian exports. The process also creates a lot of jobs for people.

UK energy security case study

- Resource availability: Still has reserves of natural gas in the North Sea which is a cleaner fossil fuel. Its is a technology rich country and can use nuclear energy. It is also the world's leader in wind power, has the fastest growing renewable energy sector. 15% of energy is produced by nuclear and could reach 55% of total energy by 2050. - Affordability: Renewable energy is not constant and is expensive due to unpredictability and lack of storage. The UK however has de-industrialised and become a service sector and so uses less energy than it did in 1970s. The country is more effect; households use 12% less energy while industry uses 60% less energy. Uranium is also a relatively cheap source. - Reliability: Nuclear energy has low public perception due to the Fukushima and Chernobyl disaster. The UK has developed good pathways to import energy and has good infrastructure to transport the energy throughout the country such as the national grid. Pathways however such as Gazprom can be disrupted. The UK also relies on Qatar for LNG, the Norwegian pipe.The decreases the UK's oil supply decreases reliability.

Factors to do with accessibility/ availability (energy security)

- Type of energy available in the country. How good is its diversification and energy mix? Are their reserves depleted? - Are they easily accessible or is its exploitation technically difficult? - will resources have to be imported?

Arctic case study

- a new cold war is brewing under the arctic ocean and is all down to a dispute about who owns the arctic region and its resources. - in 2007, Russian mini submarines planted the Russian flag on the sea bed of the north pole and symbolically claimed the Lomonosov ridge and its resources- an underwater mountain range under the North pole that they claim is an extension of the Russian land mass. Eight countries form a part of the Arctic region and many of them have their eyes set on the vast energy and mineral deposits located there.

Future uncertainties caused by supplies

- ability to reach new unconventional resources - possibility that we've reached peak oil - as time goes on, fewer countries will have all the oil wealth as wells are being pumped dry in some areas. - unpredictable actions of OPEC and cartels holding rest of the world to ransom - size of undiscovered wells ANWR - scale of switch to renewables (radicals and CCS) - environmental effects of extracting oil and coal (BP oil spill) - renewable energy is not constant and is uncertain - short term natural disasters - instability in production hotspots - dangers at chokepoints e.g. Strait of Malacca - geopolitical risks e.g. Gazprom - new energy pathways opening up (ESPO, Nord stream etc.)

Disadvantages of biofuels

- biofuels require a lot of energy to grow them and convert them into fuel-amount of fuel used during this production does have a large impact on the overall savings achieved by biofuels - criticism over land use is constant as it is taking agricultural land space especially when a lot of countries have food shortages and issues with malnourishment -large areas of land clearance are also linked to deforestation - may push food prices up -uptake of technology will be slow due to its competition with oil prices.

Future uncertainties caused by demand

- conflict in producing countries - rise in global consumption - population growth and the increased wealth - new technologies, reducing dependence on fossil fuels - future performance of the global economy : bull/bear market - conservation, technology becoming more efficient - consumption has steadied and even dropped in some MEDCs

Economic impacts of China's energy consumption

- country is having to import oil, is no longer self sufficient - commute for work is shorter, people work for longer - people are now able to travel abroad - higher standard of living - China is an economic powerhouse due to its industrialisation - health costs are on the rise due to respiratory illnesses - people have to take sick leaves more frequently - cleaning of oil spills is very costly

3 Gorges dam costs

- dammed waters will drown 100,000 hectares of arable land, 13 cities, many smaller settlements and 1,500 factories. - some 1.9 million people will be displaced from their homes and lose their land - dam failure, earthquakes, heavy rains and even terrorism pose serious safety risk - ecological impacts on fisheries, biodiversity and habitats are considerable - pollution will increase as abandoned mines and factories are flooded - important archaeological and other heritage sites will be lost - the river has the worlds fifth largest sediment load. Sediment could damage turbines and become trapped behind the dam, raising water levels and reducing soil fertility downstream.

challenges of renewable energy

- intermittency - cost of renewable vs conventional sources - future changes - the biofuels issue - local opposition, habitat destruction and space inefficiency - limited availability

East Siberia-Pacific Ocean pipeline

- is an energy pathway that will like Russia with China and Japan and other Pacific countries that import Russia's oil. -is 3,018 miles long which is due to changes in planning and having to go around Lake Baikal (UNESCO World Heritage site). This move also increased costs considerably. - costs ballooned due to steel prices rising and challenging soil permafrost conditions.

Environmental impacts of China's energy consumption

- is the highest polluter in the world -16 of worlds most polluted cities are in China. - Sudden surge in use of cars. In 2002, 14m cars and in 2010, 55m cars. - smog in cities - if car ownership reaches the rate of the US or Europe, it will amount to a 7 lane highway to the moon. - building 3 coal fire stations a week: using the dirtiest fossil fuel to produce energy, contributes massively the GHG emissions and global warming

Why everyone wants the Arctic because...

- it is estimated that the arctic region contains 25% of the worlds unexploited oil and gas reserves matching Saudi's and can contain diamonds + coal and other minerals. - as countries have been developing, the price per barrel has increased so the discovery of new oil can drop the price

Social impacts of China's energy consumption

- massive consumer society die to increasing wealth- people want new mod cons - manufacturing centre of the world, they pollute and we buy; brings higher standards of living. - a lot of new infrastructure is being built and people are having to relocate. - asthma, bronchitis and emphysema are being caused by the terrible air quality - prices of LNG and oil is increasing due to increased consumption and importation

Physical, economic and geopolitical risks to the energy security of the countries involved in the ESPO pathway

- mountain ranges make it difficult to repair damages - cold weather could cause blockages in the pipe, if not carefully engineered, when temp becomes too low - challenge of building in soils affected by differing permafrost conditions - rising steel prices - increases total cost of the project - having to build a longer route due to safety and environmental objections. - split of pipelines could create tensions between China and Japan, especially when Japan has made a contribution of $8 billion.

Physical constraints of HEP

- needs areas with loads of precipitation, valleys and high land gradients so that the water can travel at fast enough speeds -good locations are equatorial areas - can produce more energy in certain seasons - sediment transfer can create risk of failure and damage

Implications of fossil fuels on the carbon cycle

- ocean acidification: dissolving carbon dioxide into the ocean creates carbonic acid, increasing the acidity of the water. Affects marine organisms- shells become thinner and more fragile, coral bleaching. - climate change: there would be a decrease in cold days and nights, decrease in snowfall, ice stores whilst a decrease in droughts would occur in central and North America and NW Australia. Increase in hot days and nights, occurrence of more frequent heatwaves. - health of ecosystems: Plants and ecosystems will have more CO2 for photosynthesis and can flourish but the extreme heat can create forest fires and reverse that process. Tundra will change completely in warmer climate and some species of flora and fauna may become extinct. Darker surface of ground will lessen the albedo effect and more heat will be absorbed, melting more permafrost creating a positive feedback effect.

Other factors influencing peoples access and use of energy

- public perception - influence on climate - global availability - local variation - technology - seasonal weather e.g. winter and summer (heaters and ACs)

Pros of nuclear energy

- relatively cheap form of energy - uranium mines today aim for zero emission of pollutants. Any water is off surface runoff and is close to drinking standards. Tailings retention doesn't normally cause pollution offsite. - in all countries using nuclear energy, there are well established procedures for storing, managing and transporting such wastes, funded by electricity users. Wastes are contained and managed, not released - nuclear industry has an excellent safety record, with robust pressure vessels and internal structures, able to withstand impacts from attacks like 9/11. Civil waste and spent fuel storage is also robust and often below ground level. - Decommissioning is usually funded while the plant is operating. Experience to date gives a good idea of costs and earlier estimates are being revised downwards. - safeguards would detect any diversion. Today, military materials are being released for dilution and civil use, so there is not a reason for diversion in customer countries such as France and USA. France no longer has the means to enrich uranium, beyond reactor grade. China has ample uranium for any military programme, but has stopped uranium into this in the 1990s. - electricity generation uses 40% of the world's primary energy. Nuclear provides around 16% of worlds electricity - more than total electricity produced worldwide in 1960.

Energy security factors

- reliable/uninterrupted supply - affordable/competitive supply - accessible/available supply

Nigeria's ESI

- resource factors: it's the 5th largest producer of oil and has a lot of natural gas. This is all offshore but it is very close to the coastline enabling it to be piped to the refineries and exporters. Shell is the main TNC controlling this process; uses mainly oil and gas which is expensive in rural off grid areas as it is developing renewable solar, wind and HEP; Biomass is a major source of energy through Nigeria due to the poor energy infrastructure and with this comes the cost of health. - affordability: demand for energy is increasing due to it moving towards an NEE, has one of the strongest economies in Africa and is rapidly industrialising, rapidly growing population that is going to want mod cons. As the TNC and the corrupt government controls the oil, it often leaves the country short causing blackouts. - Reliability: supply struggles to keep up with demand as most of it is exported and so blackouts happen regularly which shouldn't be happening in an energy rich country (corruption); Gangs such as the biker boys are in charge in the rural areas and illegally siphon the oil from the pipelines. Some of the rural areas also rely on small scale renewable; pipelines have aged and over 300 oil spills have occurred and so the country could suffer from some backlash from environmentalists. People living in the delta zone are at risk from the oil spills, degraded land, water and air quality- "a human tragedy."

Factors influencing energy security

- the demand for energy increases as societies become more sophisticated - types of energy available - rising consumption: use of fossil fuels in different products - depletion of reserves - ability and tech available to extract energy - war and political conflict - amount of transport and industry a country has and its intensity of use - sustainable search (CCS) - environmental concerns - the development of future BRICs

The players in the energy game are:

- the producers: these include the governments of countries or cartels such as OPEC who are the lead petroleum exporting countries that control the amount supplied and therefore, if they want the prices to go up, they reduce supply. - the consumers: major consumers are countries such as the USA and China (rapid industrial growth). The public opinion of using certain energy source can effect a country's energy mix. - TNCs: oil companies can be state owned and are more geopolitical. They can also be TNCs that are driven by economic factors rather than political agendas. They have the technical experience and equipment to explore hostile areas for reserves. They can exploit reserves in technically difficult areas and store and transport via many different means. They can refine the oil and work with a range of difficult players and sell the oil.

Advantages of biofuels

- they emit much less than fossil fuels - may reduce or stabilise the price of oil - could create wider economic growth and increased employment opportunities. In Brazil 750,000 people are employed in sugar cane and ethanol production - could offer a more acceptable long term solution

Physical constraints of wind energy

- they're harmful to birds and bats (depends on size and location of the turbines) - they can be very inefficient when there is a lack of wind - best locations are high altitude and latitudes which have regular wind - off shore, rural locations and hill tops makes maintenance difficult. - salt water corrodes the metal - poor wind areas will only have 30% capacity

Cons of nuclear energy

- uranium mines pollute the environment e.g. boiling dams cause pollutions through leakage. - nuclear waste is an ongoing and unresolved problem - nuclear reactors cannot be guaranteed safe e.g. Chernobyl disaster. There are still a lot of old nuclear reactors being used - nuclear reactors are vulnerable to terrorist attacks like 9/11. Waste and spent fuel storage is even more so. - decommissioning nuclear plants will be expensive to undertake - we cannot be sure that the uranium is not being used to create nuclear warfare e.g. France and China. - nuclear energy makes only smack contribution to world's energy needs.

3 Gorges Dam benefits

- water-generated electricity could save up to 50 million tonnes of coal each year (provides 16% of China's energy demands) - could supply water to a region responsible for 22% of china's GDP (reduces spacial imbalance) - flood protection could save many lives and cut the financial losses created by flood damage - navigational improvements could help pen the interior region of China to development -project created many skilled and unskilled jobs

BedZed Eco Housing Case study

-Advantages: houses are well insulated and ventilated, that there is little need for heating, solar panels have cut electricity bills, uses 33% less water than other developments of its size. They are in demand and residents emit 40% less carbon than average UK houses. - Disadvantages: BedZed CHP system failed in 2005 after months of unreliability, read-beds filtering waste water for use in toilets and gardens were out of operation for 7 months, houses are not cheap abc new technologies are expensive, carbon neutrality is difficult to achieve as most people drive their own cars although there is a car sharing scheme.

Nigeria Case Study facts

-demand is growing massively due to moving towards an NEE -has one of the strongest economies in Africa and is rapidly industrialising. It has a rapidly growing population and as it becomes richer, there will be calls for mod cons, like China, increasing energy demand. -supply struggles to keep up with demand and regular blackouts occur which shouldn't be happening in an energy rich country however corruption has removed most of the country's wealth. -has 3% of the world's oil, gas and biomass; is the 5th largest producer of oil and has 606 individual oil wells. -Gangs such as the biker boys are in charge in the rural areas and illegally siphon the oil from the pipelines.

Russia's energy strategy

-re-emerging as a global player and its economic power lies in its key natural resources- particularly oil and gas- with energy becoming a political tool - Critics say that Russia has been using its gas as a weapon: Russia cut gas supplies to the Ukraine in 2004 after the Orange revolution and again in 2012 after the Ukraine started seeking to join NATO and EU. However, Russia claimed this was over a dispute over "debt".

Factors controlling the transition from traditional to modern energy use:

1. Physical availability- in many parts of world modern type of energy is not available/remain inaccessible because the necessary infrastructure is not yet put in place. 2. Energy affordability - even when modern forms of energy are available, people may still choose to use traditional sources such as dung and burning wood as they are less expensive. In rural areas biomass is often preferred as it is free and readily available. 3. Cultural preferences - tradition often slows down the adoption of modern energy sources e.g. use of coal and wood fires.

Europes energy security

Does the EU have to be worried about its energy security thanks to Russia turning off the pipeline in 2006? - Yes: Amount of gas Russia supplies to the EU is crucial to development and when Gazprom shut down the pipeline, the flow of gas to Europe fell by 40% in some areas. - No: Gazprom cannot shut off supplies within Russia and its export markets are too valuable. Even during the cold war, the flow of Russia's gas was stable. Gazprom is helping secure energy supplies to EU with construction of new pipelines bypassing Ukraine and Belarus: the Nord stream (no transit states) and the South Stream pipeline. EU is planning its own pipeline-Nabuco pipeline. They are looking into alternative energy resources.

Conservation in the home

Double glazing, energy efficient lights, insulation, use of carpets and curtains help to retain heat within the house, solar panels on roof, double flush, draft excluders, recycling, mobile phone controlled thermostats, smart meters, dishwasher timers.

Pattern of world's energy consumption

Energy consumption has risen significantly since 1950 due to the industrialisation of economies and now, as population continue to grow and emerging economies rise, consumption is increasing massively.

Frontier hydrocarbons

Grades of oil, such as tar sands, which are inferior to conventional sources of oil.

Conservation in the industry

In MEDCs the manufacturing industry is being reduced and we are moving into the tertiary and quaternary industries which require less energy. We are also conserving energy, good examples are: -Walmart 360 sustainability programme: building stores 25-35% more energy efficient, making 7000 trucks more energy efficient, reducing packaging by 5% -Airlines: larger more efficient aircraft that can complete longer flights. This saves aircraft from landing and taking off during a long haul flight as this is where the greatest expenditure of energy is. BA carbon credits are making us more aware. - Coldplay the band is bringing awareness by offsetting its carbon emissions (planting mango trees in India)

Gazprom

Is the state-owned energy company in Russia that is the tenth-largest oil and gas entity in the world. Accounts for 92% of Russia's gas production and provides 25% of the EU's natural gas. Over 80% of gas exports to Western Europe go across the Ukraine. Government still owns 50.002%

Conservation in transport

Many more energy efficient cars are being produced such as diesel, electric, hybrid and hydrogen fuelled cars. These new technologies help to reduce carbon emissions however access to them can be difficult and expansive. There are also more public forms of transport that discourage people from buying cars such as the underground, bus networks, Borris bikes. Shipping is also becoming more efficient. Congestion charge has been introduced in busy cities within the UK such as London.

Energy Pathways

Supply routes between energy producers and consumers, which may be pipelines, shipping routes, the national grid etc. Energy pathways are needed due to the unequal distribution of energy reserves between producers and consumers (spatial imbalance). Examples are: ESPO, Strait of Malacca, Strait of Hormuz.

Energy mix

The combination of different available energy sources used to meet a country's total energy demand. The exact proportions or mix vary from country to country. It is an important component of energy security.

Unconventional oil

These are oils that are technically difficult to get to e.g. deep sea drilling, fracking and tar shale sands

Green vehicles

Vehicles that provide less harmful impacts to the environment than conventionally fueled vehicles. Examples of green vehicles are hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, battery electric vehicles, compressed-air vehicles, hydrogen and fuel-cell vehicles, natural gas vehicles, and clean diesel vehicles.

Cartel

a formal organisation of producers that agree to coordinate prices and production.

Energy Poverty

a lack of access to modern energy services, including electricity and clean cooking fuels. This may take a different form such as in the UK where nearly 5 million people aren't connected to the main's gas network and the use of LPG and oil is expensive. Pensioners are given winter allowances.

Tar sands

also known as oil sands, bitumen sands and extra heavy oil in Venezuela. They are natural;;y occurring mixtures of sand, or clay, and water - and a very dense viscous form of petroleum called bitumen.

Bioethanol

an alcohol fuel made from crops like corn and sugarcane in a process of fermentation and distillation.

Fossil fuels

are formed over geological time from the partly decayed remains of plants and animals and include coal, oil and natural gas. They are finite sources of energy and they become exhausted because they can only be replaced over considerable periods of geological time. They emit a lot of CO2 during combustion and exploiting them has many environmental impacts such as deforestation, disruption of water and groundwater supplies.

Radical technologies

are the new ways of providing energy or using new, cleaner methods of using fossil fuels.

Renewable sources of energy

are those capable of natural generation on a human timescale-they provide almost continuous flows of energy e.g. wind, solar rays.

Carbon capture storage (CCS)

involves capturing the carbon dioxide emissions released by the burning of fossil fuels and storing it deep underground. Implementation of this idea is challenging as it is expensive because of the complex technology used and no one can guarantee that the CO2 won't eventually leak to the surface and enter the atmosphere.

Primary energy

is the energy contained in natural resources, such as coal, oil, sunlight, wind, and uranium.

Peak oil

the hypothetical point in time when the global production of oil reaches its maximum rate, after which production will gradually decline and prices of oil rise.

Carbon cycle

the movement of carbon from the nonliving environment into living things and back. Any movement of carbon between reservoirs is a flux.

Energy conservation

the practice of finding ways to use less energy or to use energy more efficiently. A simple way to become more energy secure is to try to stop wasting the energy in the first place. Trying to decrease the amount of energy used to reduce costs, reduce harmful emissions and promote energy security. This works on individual and local scale up to national and global scale. In the UK they are trying to work towards zero energy building standards.

Secondary energy

this is when primary resources are converted into a more convenient energy form. Is the largest consumer of primary energy and is easy and efficient to use, however it cannot be stored and therefore supple and demand must run in unison. Countries must have a reasonable infrastructure to maintain secondary energy supplies.

Sustainable sources of energy

wood-can be regrown. Nuclear power can be put into this category because the nuclear power industry is able to reprocess spent oil fuel so that it can be reused.