A&P 2 Lab test 3

Explain the order of kidney structures (and thus urine flow) leaving the renal papilla until reaching the urinary bladder.

Minor calyces, Ureter, Major calyces, Renal pelvis

The primary inspiratory neurons that innervate the diaphragm arise from the dorsal respiratory group. The pontine respiratory group, also known as the pneumotaxic center, plays a role in regulating the length of each breath and switching between inspiration and expiration. Over inflation of the lungs is prevented by the Hering-Breuer reflex.

Monitoring CO₂ levels by detecting pH of the CSF is the function of central chemoreceptors, which provide the primary sensory input leading to the regulation of the rate and depth of breathing. Forced breathing and heavy breathing are controlled by the ventral respiratory group, which also give rise to both inspiratory and expiratory neurons.

Which of the following is the correct order for the major parts of the gastrointestinal tract?

Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine

Label the midsagittal male pelvis using the hints provided.

Nephrons

Indicate the pathway of urine formation to urine output by placing each of the structures in the correct sequential order from left to right.

Nephrons, collecting tubules, collecting duct, papillary duct, minor calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis, ureters, bladder, urethra

Check the components of the conducting zone of the respiratory system.

Nose Nasal cavity Bronchioles Larynx Trachea (not Alveoli)

Trace the path of an egg would take through the female reproductive tract.

Ovary, Uterine Tube, Uterus, Vagina

Henry's law pointed out that the solubility coefficient of oxygen is very low. This means that only small amounts of oxygen are dissolved in the plasma. Consequently, about 98% of the oxygen in the blood must be transported within erythrocytes where it attaches to the iron within hemoglobin molecules.

Oxygen bound to hemoglobin is referred to as oxyhemoglobin. Hemoglobin without bound oxygen is called deoxyhemoglobin.

___________________ is used to sustain metabolic activities within the cells, and ________________ is produced as a result of these activities. Under normal conditions, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide within the tissues is _____________ than the partial pressure of carbon dioxide within the systemic capillaries. The unloading of oxygen at the tissues results in the formation of ______________________ . This configuration of hemoglobin _____________________ carbon dioxide.

Oxygen; carbon dioxide higher deoxyhemoglobin; more readily binds to

Which of these are accessory organs of the GI tract?

Pancreas Gallbladder

Which of the following enzymes is produced by the stomach?

Pepsin

Select all that are major functions of the muscularis layer of the GI tract.

Peristalsis Mixing

Which of the following is not a function of the digestive system?

Production of ATP

Pulmonary ventilation is known as breathing, which is the movement of air between the atmosphere and the lungs. It consists of two cyclic phases: inspiration, which brings air into the lungs and expiration, which forces air out of the lungs.

Pulmonary ventilation that occurs at rest is called quiet breathing, whereas forced breathing, accompanies exercise or hard exertion. The principles of this involve autonomic nuclei in the brainstem that stimulate skeletal muscle to cyclically contract and relax. This contraction and relaxation causes dimensional changes within the thoracic cavity and results in establishing a changing pressure gradient between the lungs and the atmosphere.

Performs most chemical digestion and absorption Jejunum

Receives bile and pancreatic juice Duodenum Controls entry of material into large intestine Ileum

Put the labels in order based on the blood vessels blood passed through from the blood supply of the kidney to blood draining the kidney.

Renal artery Interlobular artery Arcuate artery Cortical radiate artery Afferent arteriole Glomerular capillary Efferent arteriole Peritubular capillaries Cortical radiate vein Arcuate vein Interlobular vein Renal vein

Name the arteries that supply the kidney, in sequence from largest to smallest.

Renal artery Segmental arteries Arcuate arteries Afferent arterioles

What is the correct branching sequence of arteries in the kidney?

Renal artery, segmental arteries, interlobar arteries

The major calices merge to form a single, funnel-shaped

Renal pelvis

Indicate whether each of the following substances is reabsorbed from the filtrate or secreted into the filtrate.

Secreted: NH4- Drugs H+ Reabsorbed: Glucose Water Mg2+ HCO3- Amino acids Vitamins

Which of the following does not stimulate the secretion of HCl in the stomach?

Secretin

Basic functions of the liver include...

Secretion, storage, and detoxification

From external to internal, what is the correct order of layers of the stomach?

Serosa, muscularis, submucosa, mucosa

Check all that line the mucosa of the large intestine.

Simple columnar epithelium Goblet cells Intestinal glands

The P(O₂) in the tissue cells is 40 mm Hg. The blood as it enters the surrounding systemic capillaries has a P(O₂) of 95 mm Hg. Therefore, oxygen diffuses out of the systemic capillaries down its partial pressure gradient into the cells.

Simultaneously, carbon dioxide is diffusing in the opposite direction. The P(CO₂) in tissue cells is 45mm Hg, and the blood entering the systemic capillaries is 40 mm Hg. Carbon dioxide diffuses downits partial pressure gradient from the cells into the blood until blood P(CO₂) is 45 mm Hg.

Secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK) are hormones that are secreted from what GI organ?

Small intestine

The P(O₂) in the alveoli is 104 mm Hg, and the blood entering the pulmonary capillaries has a P(O₂) of 40 mm Hg. This allows oxygen to diffuse from the alveoli into the capillaries because of the P(O₂) partial pressure gradient. The P(O₂) in the alveoli remains constant because oxygen is continuously entering the alveoli through the respiratory passageways.

The P(CO₂) in the alveoli is 40 mm Hg and that of the blood entering the pulmonary capillaries is 45 mm Hg. This causes carbon dioxide to diffuse down its partial pressure gradient from the blood into the alveoli.

During renal autoregulation, the kidneys maintain a relatively constant GFR despite changes in blood pressure, and without the input of nervous or hormonal control. The process whereby the flow of filtrate through the distal tubule results in changes in GFR is termed tubuloglomerular feedback. The three components of the juxtaglomerular apparatus are the JG cells, the macula densa, and the mesangial cells. Epithelial cells found where the distal tubule passes between the afferent and efferent arterioles are called the macula densa.

The afferent arteriole contains cells called juxtaglomerular cells that secrete the enzyme renin. The afferent arteriole reflexively contracts in response to a rise in blood pressure, thus preventing a rise in GFR. This form of regulation is called the myogenic mechanism. An increase in the rate of filtrate flow through the distal tubule results in contraction of the afferent arteriole and a decrease in GFR. When blood pressure drops, renin is released into the blood, resulting in an increase in the hormone angiotensin II, which acts to decrease GFR while simultaneously raising blood pressure.

The atmospheric partial pressure of oxygen P(O₂) at sea level is 159 mm Hg. The atmospheric partial pressure of carbon dioxide P(CO₂) at sea level is .3 mm Hg. The alveolar partial pressure of oxygen P(O₂) at sea level is 104 mm Hg.

The alveolar partial pressure of carbon dioxide P(CO₂) at sea level is 40 mm Hg. The systemic partial pressure of oxygen P(O₂) at sea level is 40 mm Hg. The systemic partial pressure of carbon dioxide P(CO₂) at sea level is 45 mm Hg.

Air from the environment is inhaled directly into the lungs. The partial pressures of the gases within the alveoli are different from the respective atmospheric partial pressures measured for several reasons:

(1) Air from the environment mixes with the air remaining in the anatomic dead space in the respiratory tract; (2) oxygen diffuses out of the alveoli into the blood, and ____________ diffuses from the blood into the alveoli; and (3) more water vapor is present within the alveoli because of the higher humidity there. Consequently, the percentage of oxygen in the alveoli is lower and the percentage of carbon dioxide in the alveoli is higher than in the atmosphere.

Put the following portions of the nephron in order, beginning at the renal corpuscle and heading toward the collecting tubules.

1 Glomerular capillaries 2 Proximal convoluted tubules 3 Nephron loop 4 Distal convoluted tubules

What percentage of glomerular filtrate becomes urine?

1%

Fill-in the sentences with the correct word and place the sentences in order to describe the flow of bile in the biliary ducts.

1. Bile is made in the liver and released into the common hepatic duct. 2. This duct then merges with the cystic duct from the galldladder to make the bile duct. 3. The bile duct merges with the pancreatic ductfrom the pancreas to form the hepatopancreatic ampulla. 4. This short tube opens up and releases bile into the duodenum at the major duodenal papilla.

As material moves through the large intestine, in what order does it pass through these structures?

1. Cecum 2. Ascending colon 3. Transverse colon 4. Left colic flexure 5. Descending colon 6. Sigmoid flexure 7. Rectum 8. Anal canal

As bile is produced and secreted, what structures or cells does it encounter? Put them in order, beginning with bile production.

1. Hepatocyte 2. Bile canaliculus 3. Common hepatic duct 4. Cystic duct 5. Gallbladder

Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic condition that results in hyperglycemia, or abnormally high blood glucose levels. There are three types of diabetes mellitus; type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes. Type 1 and type 2 diabetes are sometimes referred to as "insulin-dependent" and "insulin independent" respectively. Gestational diabetes is usually a temporary condition present during pregnancy. Individuals with untreated diabetes mellitus have higher glucose levels within the tubular filtrate due to the high blood glucose levels. Normally, 100% of the filtered glucose gets reabsorbed as it passes into the tubular cells through the sodium-glucose symport SGLT2 found at the luminal membrane, and enters the interstitial fluid through the facilitative glucose transporter GLUT2 found at the basolateral membrane. When glucose levels exceed normal values these transport proteins become saturated, unable to reabsorb all of the glucose within the tubular filtrate. This causes glucosuria, in which glucose remains within the tubular filtrate and thus is present within the urine. The increased osmolarity of the glucose-rich tubular filtrate causes water to move into the tubular filtrate by osmosis. This is referred to as osmotic diuresis. The result of this action is an increase in the frequency and volume of urine, and subsequent excessive thirst. An emerging class of drugs is being tested that seeks to lower blood glucose levels by inhibiting the reabsorption of glucose. These drugs target and inhibit the sodium-glucose symport SGLT2, disrupting glucose reabsorption and increasing urinary glucose secretion. Although these drugs are still undergoing clinical trials, they may potentially assist in controlling blood glucose levels of individuals with type 2 diabetes.

1. Inactivating the sodium-glucose symport SGLT2 inhibits the reabsorption of glucose by ____________________________. preventing glucose from entering the tubular cells 2. Inhibiting the sodium-glucose symport SGLT2 is expected to cause a(n) __________________________ in the osmolarity of the tubular filtrate, and would thus _____________________ the risk of dehydration. increase; increase

Trace the path of bile through the biliary apparatus, beginning at the liver, moving to the gallbladder, and ending at the small intestine.

1. Left and right hepatic ducts 2. Common hepatic duct 3. Gallbladder 4. Common bile duct 5. Hepatopancreatic ampulla 6. Major duodenal papilla

Blood pH adjustment occurs at the distal convoluted tubule, collecting tubule, and collecting duct through the reabsorption and secretion of HCO3- and H+. Type A and type B intercalated cells transport both HCO3- and H+, but in opposite directions. Type A cells secrete H+ through H+ ATPases located at the luminal membrane, and reabsorb bicarbonate through Cl-/HCO3- exchangers at the basolateral membrane. Type B cells secrete bicarbonate through Cl-/HCO3- exchangers at the luminal membrane, and reabsorb H+ through H+ ATPases found at the basolateral membrane. The Cl-/HCO3- exchanger found at the luminal membrane of Type B intercalated cells has been identified as Pendrin (SLC26A4). In these cells, the Cl-/HCO3-ion transporter moves bicarbonate into the tubular filtrate in exchange for a Cl- ion moving in the opposite direction. Animal studies have shown that Pendrin transport proteins may be upregulated (increased) or down-regulated (decreased) in response to specific conditions such as metabolic alkalosis and metabolic acidosis, respectively. Upregulation and downregulation allows the nephron to dynamically adjust to changes in blood pH and maintain homeostasis.

1. Pendrin is found in __________ intercalated cells where it allows for the ________________ of bicarbonate. type B; secretion 2. The expected response to metabolic alkalosis is the ___________________ of Pendrin. Type _____________ also assist in buffering the alkaline blood through its transport of H+. upregulation; B

Match the segment of the colon with its description. 1. Terminates at the rectum; is intraperitoneal 2. Originates at the ileocecal valve; is retroperitoneal 3. Originates at the left colic flexure; is retroperitoneal 4. Originates at the right colic flexure; is intraperitoneal

1. Sigmoid colon 2. Ascending colon 3. Descending colon 4. Transverse colon

Fill in the sentences with the correct part of the male reproductive tract. Then place the sentences in order to describe the flow of sperm.

1. Sperm is formed in the seminiferous tubules. 2. Immature sperm leave the testis and enter the head of the epididymis. 3. Sperm mature as they travel through the body of the epididymis. 4. Sperm are then stored in the tail of the epididymis until ejaculation. 5. The vas deferens leaves the scrotum in the spermatic cord to enter the pelvic cavity. 6. Each seminal vesicle duct joins the vas deferens to form the ejaculatory duct. 7. The last place sperm and semen are found in the male reproductive system is in the urethra.

Match the secretory cell of the stomach with its secretion. 1. Mucin 2. Pepsinogen 3. Gastrin 4. Acidic mucin 5. Hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor

1. Surface mucous cell 2. Chief cell 3. Enteroendocrine cell 4. Mucous neck cell 5. Parietal cell

Fill-in the sentences with the correct organ that match the function described. Then place the sentences in order of the GI tract, from proximal to distal.

1. The oral cavity provides mechanical digestion of chewing, which is called mastication. 2. The esophagus moves food from the pharynx to the stomach with wave like contractions called peristaltic waves. 3. The stomach is a hollow storage vat that initiates digestion of proteins. 4. The small intestines is where most absorption of nutrients takes place. 5. The large intestines absorbs a little water and electrolytes, but is mostly for storing feces.

Fill in the sentences with the appropriate words regarding the male external reproductive organs. Then place the sentences in order from largest to smallest structure.

1. The testes are paired, oval, male gondal structures. 2. They are divided into 200-300 lobules. 3. Each of these contain up to three seminiferous tubules

Using the graph provided, determine the correct oxygen partial pressure associated with the classification of "high altitude."

112 mm Hg

1. The cortex is the outer part that functions in blood filtration.

2. The medulla is the inner part kidney tissue that functions in tubular reabsorption and secretion. 3. The renal sinus is the medial most portion that is filled with vessels and the renal calyces.

1. The glomerular capsule leads into the proximal convoluted tubule, the longest and most coiled of the four regions of the renal tubule. 2. From there, the filtrate flows into the descending limbof the nephron loop, the first part of the U-shaped portion of the tubule found mostly in the medulla.

3. Next, the flitrate makes a 180 degree turn into the ascending limb, returning to the renal cortex. 4. The filtrate is funnelled into the distal convoluted tubule, the end of the nephron. 5. The collecting duct receives the filtrate from the DCTs of several nephrons and funnels it toward the medullary pyramid.

1. There are four major stages in the formation of urine. 2. The first stage involves creating a filtrate in the glomerulus.

3. Second, the filtrate flows through the tubules and useful substances are reabsorbed. 4. Waste products will then be secreted by the tubules. 5. The last stage is water conservation occuring in the renal tubule.

1. The ovaries are paired, oval-shaped organs found in the pelvic cavity. 2. The uterine tubes receive the ovulated oocyte and are the most common place for fertilization to take place.

3. The uterus is a pear shaped muscular organ where fetal development takes place. 4. The vagina is a fibroelastic tube that is the passage way for the fetus during childbirth.

Structurally, the human liver is divided into how many lobes?

4

1. Each nephron is composed of two parts: a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. 2. The renal corpuscle is composed of a glomerulus and a Bowman's capsule. 3. This area is where the filtrate is formed from the plasma.

4. Leading away from the corpuscle is the renal tubule, which consists of three regions. 5. The regions include the proximal and distal convoluted tubules and the loop of Henle.

If intrapulmonary pressure was 760 mm Hg, what would you expect the intrapleural pressure to be? Contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles results in ____________ in the thoracic volume which results in _______________ of the intrapulmonary pressure.

756 mm Hg an increase; a decrease

The altitude of Kabul, Afghanistan is approximately 6000 feet. What is the approximate alveolar oxygen partial pressure found here?

85 mm Hg

The cell type in the distal tubule and collecting duct that is responsible for Na⁺ and water reabsorption is the principal cell. The hormone aldosterone acts in this part of the nephron and has a big impact on sodium and potassium levels in the filtrate. Overconsumption of alcohol can cause the hypothalamus to sense that the blood is too dilute, resulting in a decrease in the production of antidiuretic hormone thus reducing the reabsorption of water leading to dehydration.

A person who experiences higher than normal levels of phosphate in their blood and higher than normal levels of Ca²⁺ in their urine probably suffers from a deficiency in the production of parathyroid hormone. When the level of the hormone atrial natriuretic peptideincreases, a person will experience an increase in Na⁺ excretion in their urine.

Put the processes of gas exchange into the correct order, beginning with inhalation.

Air is drawn into the lungs. Oxygen is transported to body cells by blood. Cells use oxygen and generate carbon dioxide as a waste product. Blood transports carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs. The lungs exhale carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Which phase(s) of gastric secretion is (are) regulated by the medulla oblongata?

All three phases are regulated by the medulla oblongata.

The pleural cavity is located between the visceral and parietal serous membrane layers. When the lungs are fully inflated, this cavity is considered a potential space because the visceral and parietal pleurae are almost in contact with each other.

An oily, serous fluid is produced by the membranes and covers their surface within the pleural cavity. This oily substance is drained continuously by lymph vessels within the visceral pleura.

Indicate whether each of the following is a characteristic of the ascending limb or the descending limb of the nephron loop.

Ascending limb: Tubular fluid osmolarity decreases as it passes through Permeable to solutes Impermeable to water Descending limb: Tubular fluid osmolarity increases as it passes through Impermeable to solutes Permeable to water

Identify the three components of the filtration membrane.

Basement membrane Fenestrated endothelium Podocytes with filtration slits

Which of the following is not secreted by the stomach to aid in digestion?

Bile

Check the events that occur during internal respiration.

Blood transports oxygen from the lungs to the body cells. Blood transports carbon dioxide produced by the body cells to the lungs.

A portal triad consists of which three elements?

Branches of a hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein, and bile duct

A portal triad consists of which three structures?

Branches of a hepatic artery, hepatic vein, and bile duct

What is the function of bile?

Break down fats to assist in their chemical digestion

The pulmonary circulation conducts blood to and from the gas exchange surfaces of the lungs. Pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood to pulmonary capillaries within the lungs. The deoxygenated blood that enters these capillaries is reoxygenated here before it returns to the left atrium. The bronchial circulation is a component of the systemic circulation and transports oxygenated blood to the tissues of the lungs.

Bronchial veins collect blood from capillary beds that supply structures in the bronchial tree. Some of this deoxygenated blood drains into the pulmonary veins. Consequently, blood exiting the lungs via the pulmonary veins is slightly less oxygenated than the blood that leaves the pulmonary capillaries.

During alveolar gas exchange, blood P(CO₂) decreases from 45 to 40 mm Hg; during systemic gas exchange, blood P(CO₂) increases from 40 to 45 mm Hg. Blood P(O₂) increases from 40 to 104 mm Hg during alveolar gas exchange, and blood P(O₂) decreases from 95 to 40 mm Hg during systemic gas exchange.

Bronchial veins dump small amounts of deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary veins and the blood P(O₂) decreases from 104 to 95 mm Hg.

Which region of the stomach is continuous with the esophagus?

Cardiac region

What are the three phases of gastric secretion?

Cephalic, gastric, and intestinal

Which cell of the gastric glands produces pepsinogen?

Chief cell

Choose the correct order of urine formation and flow through the kidney.

Collecting tubules Collecting ducts Papillary duct Renal papilla

Match the component of a nephron with its description.

Contains podocytes, pedicels, and filtration slits Glomerulus Secretes ions into the tubular fluid; reabsorption of water Distal convoluted tubule Contains a descending limb and an ascending limb Nephron loop Cuboidal cells with tall microvilli; active reabsorption Proximal convoluted tubule

Name the arteries that supply the kidney, in sequence from largest to smallest.

Cortical radiate arteries Afferent arteries Peritubular capillaries Glomerulus

List the veins through which blood leaves the kidney in sequence from smallest to largest.

Cortical radiate veins, Arcuate veins, Interlobar veins, Renal vein

he junction of the renal medulla and renal cortex is called the

Corticomedullary junction

Indicate whether the provided renal function results from the creation of urine or through other mechanisms.

Directly Resulting From Urine Formation: Filtration of blood Reduction of blood acidity Blood pressure regulation Removal of nitrogenous waste Electrolyte regulation Blood volume regulation Not Resulting From Urine Formation: Calcitrol (vitamin D) conversion Erythropoiesis stimulation

The majority of CO₂ in the blood is carried as bicarbonate ions. The ability of CO₂ to bind to deoxygenated hemoglobin more readily than it binds oxyhemoglobin is referred to as the Haldane effect. The chloride shift is an anion exchange that takes place in red blood cells as a mechanism to transport bicarbonate ions out of the cell.

The combination of carbon dioxide and protein known as carbaminohemoglobin is abbreviated HbCO₂. The decrease in the ability of oxygen to bind to hemoglobin when the pH decreases is known as the Bohr effect. The reaction between CO2 and H2O to form H2CO3 is catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase.

Three main vessels make up the hepatic triad including the hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery, and bile ductules. The hepatic portal vein delivers nutrient rich, oxygen poor blood to the liver cells

The hepatic artery is responsible for delivering oxygen rich blood to the hepatocytes and thus providing for the large metabolic demand for this tissue. The hepatic ductules collect bile produced in the hepatic lobules and deliver it to the hepatic ducts on their way to the gallbladder for storage.

Hypertension affects approximately 20% of the adult population in the U.S., and is classified into 'primary hypertension' and 'secondary hypertension.' Primary hypertension has no specific, single identifiable factor and is the most common cause of hypertension. Secondary hypertension can be attributed to a specific cause, such as chronic volume overload. For patients in which modified diet and exercise plans do not significantly improve hypertensive symptoms, diuretics may be prescribed.

Diuretics increase urine output and decrease fluid volume by reversibly inhibiting Na+ reabsorption at specific sites of the nephron, and increasing the excretion of both Na+ and water. This results in decreased blood volume and blood pressure, improving hypertension. Diuretics work at different sites on the nephron. Loop diuretics (ex. Furosemide, Bumetanide, and Torsemide) act at specific sites along the nephron loop, and specifically inhibit the Na+/K+/2Cl- symport (NKCC2) found at the luminal membrane of the thick ascending loop, thereby preventing the reabsorption of sodium, chloride, and potassium. Thiazides (ex. Chlorothiazide and hydrochlorothiazide) act on the Na+/Cl- cotransporter at the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and inhibit Na+ and water reabsorption in this region.

Bile from the liver and digestive juices from the pancreas enter which section of the small intestine?

Duodenum

The paired lungs are located within the thoracic cavity on either side of the mediastinum, the region that houses the heart and other structures. Each lung also has a(n) apex that is slightly superior and posterior to the clavicle. Each lung has a wide, concave base that rests inferiorly upon the muscular diaphragm.

Each lung has a conical shape with an indented region on its mediastinal surface called the hilum. Collectively, the structures that extend from this indented region are termed the root of the lung.

Match the structure of the small intestine with its function. Intestinal glands Contain enteroendocrine cells Circular folds Slow passage of material

Enteroendocrine cells Secrete digestive hormones Submucosal glands Secrete alkaline mucus

Check the functions that can be carried out by the respiratory system.

Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide Passageway for air between the external environment and the alveoli of the lungs Detection of odors Production of sound

The liver lobule is the same as a hepatocyte.

F

Gastric secretion is increased in all three phases (cephalic, gastric, intestinal).

False

The liver lobule is the same as a hepatocyte.

False

When chyme enters the duodenum, gastric secretion increases.

False

Structurally, the human liver is divided into how many lobes?

Four

What are the primary hormones that participate in the regulation of the processes of digestion?

Gastrin Cholecystokinin (CCK) Secretin

In the gastric gland, the chief cells secrete pepsinogen. Also in the gastric gland, the parietal cells will secrete HCl.

HCL will remove some amino acids from pepsinogen and turn it into pepsin. Pepsin enzymes can then digest dietary proteins in the lumen of the stomach.

Correctly label the forces involved in glomerular filtration.

HPc 18 in OPg 32 in NFP 10 out HPg 60 out

Blood vessels, nerves and the renal pelvis enter/exit the kidney at the

Hilum

The renal corpuscle consists of a capillary called the glomerulus and a capsule of epithelial cells. A virus that specifically attacks podocytes would damage the visceral layer of the glomerular capsule . Glomerular filtrate collects in the capsular spacebefore entering the first portion of the renal tubule, called the proximal tubule. A blockage in the distal tubule would prevent filtrate from reaching the collecting duct.

If an electron micrograph of a nephron segment revealed very highly developed microvilli, then you are most likely looking at cells of the proximal tubule. Nephrons that have very long loops are classified as juxtamedullary nephrons.

Indicate whether each factor on the left would increase or decrease urine volume.

Increase: Blood pressure Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) Decrease: Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Aldesterone

Indicate whether each of the following would increase or decrease filtration.

Increase: an increase in blood pressure Constriction of the efferent arteriole Decrease: An increase in capsular pressure An increase in plasma protein concentration An obstruction i the proximal tubule

Normal bacterial flora in the large intestine are responsible for the production of vitamins B and

K

Which of the following are primary organs of the urinary system?

Kidneys Ureters Urinary Bladder Urethra (Small intestine and gall bladder are not)

Place the following structures in order as urine passes through them. (cadaver)

Kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra

The stomach is located in which abdominal quadrant?

Left upper

What organ produces bile?

Liver

Fill in the blanks using the terms provided. Not all terms will be used

The law of partial pressure, also known as Dalton's law, states that the individual gases in the air contribute to the total atmospheric pressure as a function of the percentage each gas contributes to the total volume. If two gases have the same partial pressure, but gas A has a higher water solubility coefficient than gas B, then gas A will diffuse at a faster rate. Henry's law states that the amount of a gas that dissolves in water is a function of its partial pressure and its solubility coefficient. If the alveolar partial pressure of gas A is 110 mm Hg and the partial pressure of gas B is 135, then gas B will diffuse into the blood at a faster rate. If the P(CO2) in the tissues increases, then the P(CO2) in the systemic venous blood will increase.

The preprostatic urethra is connected to the urinary bladder. The prostatic urethra passes through a reproductive organ and receives two ejaculatory ducts.

The membranous urethra passes through the pelvis floor. The spongy urethra is the longest part of the male urethra.

Check all that are characteristics of the esophagus.

The mucosa is composed of thick, nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium. The two layers of muscle in the superior one-third of the muscularis are skeletal.

Fill in the blanks of the paragraph with the correct terms.

The nasal cavity extends from the nostrils to paired openings called choanae or posterior nasal apertures. These paired openings lead into the pharynx. The floor of the nasal cavity is formed by the hard and soft palate. The roof of the nasal cavity is composed of the nasal, frontal, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones. The nasal septum divides the nasal cavity into left and right portions. The bony part of this divider is formed by the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid and the vomer. Three paired, bony projections called nasal conchae are located along the lateral walls of the nasal cavity. These projections partition the nasal cavity into separate air passages, each called a nasal meatus.

Only the air reaching the alveoli is available for gas exchange. When air is moved from the atmosphere into the respiratory tract, a portion of it remains in the conducting zone. This collective space, where there is no exchange of respiratory gases, is referred to as the anatomic dead space, and it has an average volume of approximately 150 mL.

The normal anatomic dead space plus any loss of alveoli is the physiologic dead space. The usual loss of alveoli is minimal in a healthy individual, so the anatomic dead space is equivalent to the physiologic dead space.

The countercurrent multiplier is a phenomenon that occurs in the nephron loop. Countercurrent exchange occurs as both solutes and water move freely in and out of the vasa recta. The increase in osmolarity as filtrate moves down the descending limb is due to water moving out of the tubule. The decrease in osmolarity of the filtrate as it moves up the ascending limb is due to solutes moving out of the tubule.

The osmolarity of the filtrate is approximately 100 mOsm/L at the end of the ascending limb and around 1200 mOsm/L at the end of the descending limb. The recycling of urea out of the collecting duct and back into the nephron loop contributes significantly to the medullary osmotic gradient.

The most important stimulus affecting breathing rate and depth is blood P(CO₂). Central chemoreceptors monitor CSF and peripheral chemoreceptors monitor blood.

The peripheral chemoreceptors differ from central chemoreceptors because they are stimulated by changes in H⁺ produced independently of P(CO₂). In general, decreased P(O₂), increased P(CO₂), and production of H⁺, will cause greater stimulation of the respiratory center.

An obstruction in the renal pelvis would prevent urine from leaving the kidney. Urine directly exits the body via the urethra. The minor calyx receives urine from the renal pyramid.

The portion of the kidney in direct contact with the renal capsule is the renal cortex. The ureter and the renal artery and vein enter the kidney through the opening known as the hilum.

Low blood pressure causes the kidneys to increase the secretion of renin from the JG cells. The activation of angiotensin II stimulates widespread vasoconstriction, release of ADH from the posterior pituitary, as well as the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone. Aldosterone acts on the DCT of the kidney tubules to reabsorb greater amounts of sodium from the tubular fluid.

The release of ADH directly stimulates the collecting ducts of the kidney to increase water reabsorption from the tubular filtrate. The net result of angiotensin II, aldosterone, and ADH cooperatively is a(n) increase in blood pressure resulting largely from increased blood volume.

Fill in the blanks with the correct terms.

The respiratory membrane consists of an alveolar epithelium and its basement membrane, and a(n) capillary endothelium and its basement membrane. The gas that diffuses from the alveolus, across the respiratory membrane, and into the pulmonary capillary is oxygen. This gas is then transported by the blood to tissue cells. Conversely, carbon dioxide gas diffuses from the blood in the capillary through the respiratory membrane. This gas then enters the alveoli and is eventually expired into the external environment.

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate terms regarding the general functions of the respiratory system.

The respiratory tract is a passageway for air between the external environment and the alveoli (air sacs) of the lungs. There are two gases that are exchanged during respiration. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli while the other gas, oxygen, diffuses from the alveoli into the blood. Receptors located in the superior regions of the nasal cavity called olfactoryreceptors detect odors as air moves across them. The vocal cords of the larynx (voice box) vibrate as air moves across them to produce sound. Sounds then resonate in upper respiratory structures.

Which two fetal remnants are found on the liver?

The round ligament and the ligamentum venosum

Which of the following might stimulate the cephalic phase of gastric secretion?

The thought of food

The residual volume is the amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced expiration. The volume of air exchanged during normal breathing is called the tidal volume. After a normal inspiration, the amount of air that can then be inspired forcefully is called the inspiratory reserve volume.

The total lung capacity minus the residual volume equals the vital capacity. The vital capacity minus the expiratory reserve volume equals the inspiratory capacity. The effects of obstructive diseases such as asthma or emphysema may be determined by measuring the forced expiratory volume.

Negatively charged proteoglycans found in the basement membrane prevent most proteins in the blood from exiting the glomerular capillaries. Filtrations slits are formed by podocytes. Small openings in the capillary endothelium called fenestrations are too small to allow cells to leave the glomerulus.

The volume of blood that enters the afferent arteriole is not equal to the volume of blood that travels through the efferent arteriole due to the process termed glomerular filtration. A kidney infection or injury that results in damage to the filtration membrane may result in proteinuria (protein in the urine).

The act of protein digestion begins in the mouth with mechanical digestion. Once in the stomach, pepsinhydrolyzes peptide bonds.

Then, in the small intestine, trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidasewill continue the breakdown of proteins. The brush border in the intestines will finish the breakdown and begin absorption.

The solubility coefficient of carbon dioxide is 0.57. Due to both this value and the small partial pressure gradient for CO₂, approximately 7% of carbon dioxide is transported to the alveoli as a dissolved gaswithin the plasma of blood. Hemoglobin is capable of transporting about 23% of the CO₂ as a carbaminohemoglobin compound. The remaining 70% of the CO₂ diffuses into erythrocytes and combines with water to form bicarbonate and H⁺.

Thus, the largest percentage is carried from the tissue cells to the lungs in plasma as dissolved bicarbonate.

Gastrin functions to increase the production of HCl in the stomach.

True

Surfactant is produced by __________________ Increased production of surfactant would __________________ Insufficient surfactant production would result in __________________

Type II pneumocytes. result in an increase in the thickness of the respiratory membrane, which would decrease diffusion of respiratory gases. a tendency for the lungs to collapse.

Match the component of urine formation with its description.

Water and solutes passively move out of the glomerulus Filtration Active transport or diffusion of substances into the blood Tubular reabsorption Active transport of solutes into the tubular fluid Tubular secretion

Place each of the labels in the proper position to denote whether they would pass through the filtration membrane or not.

Will Pass Through: sodium water urea thyroid hormone (TH) glucose Will Not Pass Through: RBCs lymphocytes Platelets Albumin TH bound to a plasma protein

Indicate whether each of the following would result in a more dilute urine or a more concentrated urine.

Would Result in a More Concentrated Urine: Working outside in the heat without access to water Overespression of aquaporins Increasing the permeability of the collecting duct to water Would Result in a More Dilute Urine: Drinking a large volume of water on a day when you rested and stayed insife Overdosing on Losartan, a drug that blocks action of angiotensin II. Overproduction of aldosterone A new virus that attacks and damages the pituitary gland.

When systemic blood pressure decreases, the result is that the ___________ arterioles change diameter by undergoing ______________

afferent; vasodilation

Glucose that is reabsorbed into tubular cells travels __________ its concentration gradient through sodium-glucose symport channels at the luminal membrane. Glucose in tubular cells exits the basolateral membrane into interstitial fluid through the process of ______________________.

against; facilitated diffusion

Under normal conditions, the alveolar oxygen partial pressure is ______________________ than the atmospheric oxygen partial pressure.

always lower

Hyperpnea would result in ___________________________ within the blood.

an increase in Pressure (oxygen) and a decrease in Pressure (carbon dioxide)

1. Aldosterone enhances the reabsorption of sodium through the upregulation of the sodium-potassium pump found at the ________________. 2. In addition to enhancing the reabsorption of sodium, aldosterone also enhances the __________________ of potassium. 3. Antidiuretic hormone enhances water ______________ by _______________ the number of aquaporins at the tubular cell membrane.

basolateral membrane secretion reabsorption; increasing

Which of the following forces oppose glomerular filtration?

capsular hydrostatic pressure (HPc) and blood colloid osmotic pressure (OPg)

An internal ridge of mucosal covered cartilage called the _______ is located at the bifurcation (split) of the main bronchi.

carina

Functions of the stomach include

chemical and mechanical digestion.

Which of the following are bicarbonate ions exchanged for when they diffuse from plasma back into red blood cells? At the respiratory membrane, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the plasma is higher than in the alveoli of the lungs.

chloride ions higher; alveoli

Place the following parts of the kidney in order of urine flow.

collecting duct, renal papilla, minor calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra

If both the glomerular and capsular hydrostatic pressures remain unchanged, an increase in the blood colloid osmotic pressure results in a(n) _____________ in the net filtration pressure.

decrease

The nephron loop is responsible for approximately 25% of the reabsorption of sodium. Loop diuretics cause an overall __________________ in the reabsorption of sodium in this region resulting in a(n) ________________________ in the osmolarity of the tubular filtrate.

decrease; increase

During quiet breathing, about two-thirds of the thoracic cavity volume change comes from contraction/movement of the _______, and one-third comes from external intercostal movement.

diaphragm

Negative pressure ventilation, demonstrated by iron lungs, allows a person to breathe by producing an intermittent negative pressure that moves across the chest and diaphragm. This specific action would artificially induce the intrapulmonary pressure to _____________ atmospheric pressure thus resulting in ______________ When this negative pressure stops being applied, the lungs __________________and the intrapulmonary pressure __________________ When using positive pressure ventilators, what triggers the elastic recoil of the lung, and what does this action cause?

drop below; inspiration. recoil; increases. airway pressure reaching zero; expiration

The vasa recta is a specialized capillary that branches from the ___________ arteriole. The blood flow in the vasa recta runs _______________ to the flow of tubular filtrate within the nephron loop.

efferent; parallel, but in the opposite direction

Tubular secretion involves the movement of substances

from capillary blood to tubular fluid.

The interstitial fluid within the medulla has a __________________ osmolarity than the interstitial fluid within the cortex.

higher

Within the Tibetan highlander population, genetic variation has been found to determine relative oxygen-hemoglobin saturation levels. Individuals within this population may be homozygous for either the low oxygen saturation gene or the high oxygen saturation gene. Individuals may also be heterozygous, carrying one low and one high oxygen saturation gene. Based on this information, individuals within the population carrying __________________________ alleles are expected to demonstrated a physiological advantage for survival.

homozygous high oxygen saturation population

Secretin is released from the duodenum in response to

hydrochloric acid in chyme.

No genetic differences were found among the Andean population in either oxygen-hemoglobin saturation levels, nor hemoglobin concentrations. However, this group as a whole displayed higher hemoglobin concentration levels than their lower altitude neighbors. The most accurate explanation for this finding is that individuals constantly exposed to lower atmospheric partial pressures for oxygen would have a physiologic response which would _______________________.

increase the cumulative number of red blood cells

Treatment with Probenecid® results in _________________ levels of uric acid in the urine and __________________ levels of uric acid in the blood.

increased; decreased

Decreased Pressure (carbon dioxide) results in an increase in blood pH levels. Both of these conditions result in a shift of the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the ______________________. This shift _______________ hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen.

left; increases

Gastric secretion during the intestinal phase is inhibited by the presence of

lipids or low pH.

Individuals with Bartter syndrome have a defective gene coding for Na+/K+/2Cl- symport (NKCC2) that disables it from functioning. These individuals are expected to have ___________ than normal blood potassium levels. This response is the ___________ what is expected from individuals taking prescribed loop diuretics.

lower; same as

The majority of sodium reabsorption occurs at the proximal convoluted tubule. During this process sodium enters the tubule cells at the ___________________ and exits the tubule cells at the ____________________.

luminal membrane by facilitated diffusion; basolateral membrane through the sodium potassium pump

Digestion begins in the

mouth.

Urine is formed in the

nephrons

Filtration is a ________________ process that depends on a ___________________ gradient.

passive; pressure

The process of moving a bolus through the GI tract as a result of involuntary muscle contractions is referred to as

peristalsis.

Which of the following substances utilizes paracellular transport in order to cross the basolateral membrane of the tubule cell during the process of reabsorption?

potassium

Most of the water in tubular fluid is reabsorbed in the

proximal convoluted tubule

Under normal conditions the majority of uric acid reabsorption occurs at the _______________________.

proximal convoluted tubule

Carbonic anhydrase is found in the _______________ where it directly catalyzes the formation of ____________________ Blood pH decreases in response to ________________________ Renal retention of bicarbonate _______________ blood pH acting as a compensatory mechanism for the condition of respiratory ____________________________ Hypoventilation results in a(n) _________________ in the arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide, which may result in respiratory ___________________________

red blood cells; carbon dioxide gas into carbonic acid. the dissociation of carbonic acid into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions. increases; acidosis. increase; acidosis.

The inspiratory muscles ____________ during normal exhalation resulting in a(n) __________________ in the thoracic volume. The intrapulmonary pressure is _______________ than the atmospheric pressure during exhalation.

relax; decrease higher

The thin barrier that oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse across during gas exchange between the alveoli and the blood in the pulmonary capillaries is the _______ membrane.

respiratory

Increased levels of 2,3 BPG occur in response to decreased blood pH levels. With all other variables unchanged, an increased concentration of 2,3 BPG in the blood would _____________________.

result in a shift of the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the right enhancing unloading of oxygen at the tissues.

Basic functions of the liver include

secretion, storage, and detoxification.

The binding of CO to hemoglobin causes the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to ___________________ Acute carbon monoxide poisoning would result in ____________________ of the tissues because oxygen ____________________

shift to the left, indicating that the carboxyhemoglobin is less likely to release bound oxygen. hypoxia; is not released from hemoglobin in sufficient amounts at the tissues.

The stomach is lined by a

simple columnar epithelium

Respiratory gases cross the respiratory membrane by ___________________ Which environment separated by the respiratory membrane would display the highest oxygen partial pressure?

simple diffusion Alveolar air

During digestion, the major site of nutrient absorption is the

small intestine.

Most nutrient absorption occurs in the

small intestine.

Oxygen molecules bind ___________________ of the hemoglobin. A single hemoglobin displaying a saturation level of 75% would be bound to ___________________________

specifically to the heme region three oxygen molecules.

Hydrochloric acid is secreted in the

stomach.

Carbon dioxide enters the blood at the _____________________ capillaries. Here, some of the carbon dioxide binds to the _____________ region of hemoglobin. The empirical formula for bicarbonate is ________________. Carbon dioxide goes through a series of reactions resulting in the formation of bicarbonate. Where does this reaction occur?

systemic; globin HCO3- Systemic capillaries

The reason tetrodotoxin causes death so quickly is directly related to __________________________ If four new drugs were discovered and each of them esulted in the unique physiologic responses indicated below, which drug do you think would hold the most promise as a cure for tetrodotoxin poisoning? Drug 1: Stimulated an increase in the amount of neurotransmitters released from motor neurons Drug 2: Inhibited action potentials of motor neurons Drug 3: Caused hyper-exitability of nervous and muscle tissue Drug 4: Dilated the alveoli within the lungs

the loss of respiratory muscle function, which disables a person's ability to appropriately adjust thoracic volumes and associated intrapulmonary. pressures Drug 3

Oxygen unloading occurs at the _________________________ This process causes a(n) _________________ in the oxygen partial pressure of the blood leaving this region.

tissues; decrease

Which of the following is one of the processes in urine formation?

tubular secretion

Tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion differ in that __________________________.

tubular secretion adds materials to the tubular filtrate while tubular reabsorption removes materials from the tubular filtrate