AFST Exam 2

What are some aspects of social and cultural change under colonial rule?

-growth of cities -expansion of urban life

What are some of the characteristics of the period of high colonialism (1920-1959) and its effects on the Kuba people?

-the Kuba were burdened with exactions that transformed culture -reduced standard of living -forced cultivation, forced labor, forced resettlement -lives regimented by the colonial state in unprecedented ways -low natality due to disease slowed population growth -women's role and status underwent a decline - rise in profound dislike for colonialism, distrust of political leaders/colonists

In what years was Al Mahdi active?

1881-1885

In what years was Samori Ture active?

1882-1898

Whi time period was a time of severe economic disruption, death, disease, and population decline as a result of colonialism?

1890-1918

What is the time period of colonialism in Africa?

1890-1935

When was the military conquest of King Leopold into the Congo?

1899-1900

In what year was King Leopold II forced to give up Congo to Belgium?

1908

When did Britain end the use of forced labor in their African colonies?

1920s

Who was Joseph Conrad?

A British colonial officer who visited the Congo in 1890. He was also a novelist who published "Heart of Darkness" about a man who journeys up the River Congo. One of the novel's characters, Mr. Kurts (an ivory trader), implies that there is little difference between the "civilized" and "colonized."

Who was Roger Casement?

A British diplomat sent to the Congo to investigate the alleged abuses. He founded the Congo Reform Association with E.D. Morel, and submitted a damning report to the British government in 1903.

Who was E.D. Morel?

A British writer who learned of the abuses in Congo and led a campaign against slavery in the Congo Free State by founding the Congo Reform Association in 1904 with Roger Casement.

What was the Herero Genocide?

A campaign of racial exxtermination and punishment that was undertaken by the German Empire in German South West Africa (Namibia) against the Herero and Nama people. It took place 1904-1907 when the Herero people rebelled against German colonial rule.

What was the Compagnie de Kasai?

A concession company of the Congo Free State, which heavily demanded land, labor, and taxes from the Kuba people. The demands led to a rebellion in 1904.

What was the Berlin Conference?

A conference held in Berlin in 1884-1885, at which King Leopold was granted authority over the Congo and regulated European colonization of territory in Africa.

Who was the Mouride Brotherhood?

A large Sufi order, the most prominent in Senegal and the Gambia, pioneered peanut production in Senegambia.

What was the Force Publique?

A law-enforcing entity created by Leopold II in 1888 to repress rebellions and ensure the flow of ivory/rubber, and often forced Africans into forced labor.

Who was Muhammad Ahmad (also known as the Mahdi)?

A religious leader in pre-colonial Sudan who defeated the British and the Egyptians when he resisted colonization with military resistance. They gained independence in 1885, and the Mahdi tried to create a proper Muslim state.

What was the Women's War in eastern Nigeria?

A riot that broke out in 1929 in British Nigeria when Igbo women protested the restriction on women entering government positions.

What is peasant export agriculture?

A system in which peasant labor is used for maximum profit in agriculture. Peasants are not treated like farmers (to make a profit), but as if they only need enough money to sustain themselves.

What were some of the results of settler colonies?

African loss of land to settlers, extensive use of coerced labor, stronger states

Who was William Henry Sheppard?

An African American missionary who did work in the Congo, and later reported and publicized the exploitation of the Congolese people by Leopold II.

Who was Nontetha Nkwenkwe?

An African religious prophet in the eastern cape of South Africa who was one of the women who took the lead in developing new forms of spirituality.

Who was Samori Ture?

An African rwarlord/founder of the Wassoulou Empire in present-day Mali who resisted French colonization with military resistance. He abandoned his territory to move East into parts of Northern Ghana when he lost to the French.

What is a "gatekeeper state"?

An African state that functions as a balance between the unstable internal and the influence of the external factors of the state. Once an independent state, the state continues to depend upon external resources and support rather than on internal factors. These states are typically weak, with limited power to coerce, lacking sustained ability to transform. Its weakness is largely the product of the effort to rule the colonies as cheaply/easily as possible by colonial powers.

Who was George Washington Williams?

An American man who traveled to Congo in 1890, and later publicly denounced the abuses committed in the Congo in an open letter he wrote to King Leopold II. He used the term "crimes against humanity" to describe what he saw, and described the violence, corruption, ad forced labor to collect ivory.

What was the Maji Maji Rebellion?

An armed rebellion against German rule in modern-day Tanzania, triggered by German attempts to force the indigenous Africans to grow cotton. The rebellion lasted from 1905-1908.

What was Aladura, in Nigeria?

An example of an independent African church created as a result of missionary racism. It emerged from an Anglican church in Nigeria in 1918.

What was the Congo-Ocean Railway?

An example of an infrastructure project created by a colonial government to maximize economic efficiency. The Congo-Ocean Railway was built 1921-1934, was 317 miles long, and used 127,000 African laborers. This project cost 50 deaths per mile, and ended up running at a loss.

In the French colonies, French rhetoric offered the possibility of ____________, which implied that Africans could possibly gain French citizenship.

Assimilation

What was the primary output of highland Ethiopia?

Coffee

From the African perspective, what were the two types of colonies, and what were their differences?

Colonies of settlement (S. Africa) and colonies of administration (Algeria, Rhodesia, Kenya). This basically meant the difference was in whether or not there were white settlers in the colony.

What was the primary output of Uganda?

Cotton

A new working class arose in the colonial cities, which included workers such as ____________________________________.

Day laborers, local police, petty traders, and sex workers

What is syncretism?

Different ideas merging together and creating a new synthesis.

The ______________ were the ones who pressured colonial administrations for change, seeking greater influence on colonial policies and jobs on merit.

Educated elite

The borders created by colonialism in Africa did not reflect African realities, but ______________.

European needs and rivalries.

The few Africans who accepted the French offer of "assimilation" were educated and called ____________.

Evoluees

True or False? Because women engaged in farming and retail work, the society in colonial Africa was less patriarchal.

False

True or False? One of the reasons that African resistance to colonization failed was because even though African nations united against their colonial adversaries, their collective power still was not enough.

False; African nations didn't unite, they remained very fragmented, there was no all-embracing "African" identity at this point.

True or False? Most of the colonies that were once gatekeeper states have been able to emerge in independence as a stronger, cohesive, and more sustainable power.

False; African states, since gaining independence, are still largely gatekeepers, as divided African leaders and people groups compete for control of the "gate."

True or False? Colonialism only brought different groups of Africans together, creating a more unified African identity.

False; Colonial both fragmented and amalgamated African peoples because it removed autonomy of certain people groups and the borders created by the colonizers often did not reflect African realities, bringing together unlikely groups and separating those who shared identities.

True or False? "Cities" didn't really exist in Africa before colonialism.

False; cities did exist in African before colonialism, but colonialism created new cities on coasts, that were grown very rapidly.

True or False? Colonial authorities often encouraged growth in colonial cities. `

False; colonial authorities often tried to contain growth in the colonial cities (didn't want opportunity to rebel).

True or false? Colonial reach was extensive, and affected even the rural peoples.

False; colonial reach was limited, and many rural people were relatively unaffected by colonialism in their daily lives.

True or False? Colonial powers encouraged Christian missionary activity in Muslim areas (such as the Sokoto Caliphate).

False; they restricted mission activity in Muslim areas.

True or False? Europeans generally allowed Africans access to their new technologies.

False; they tried to limit African access to these technologies to stifle their ability to resist colonization.

True or False? Under an administrative bureaucracy, the colony received funds from the mother country in order to sustain the colony, and the colony does not pay the mother country back.

False; under an administrative bureaucracy, Africans had to pay for their colonial rule through taxes. Taxing was the primary colonial government function, although its ability to collect was limited.

In many rural areas, colonial regimes resorted to _____________ to cultivate crops.

Forced labor; the workers were minimally paid, but the work was compulsory (technically not slavery, because they were paid).

What are the names for the different style of ruling colonies between Britain and France?

France enforced "direct" rule, in which there was an emphasis on the hierarchy (all the way up to the king). Britain enforced "indirect rule," in which they relied on local rulers to manage colonies.

By 1914, _____________ was the world's largest cocoa producer.

Gold Coast (Ghana)

Who was Henry Morton Stanley?

He was a Welsh-American explorer who was hired by Leopold II to stake out claims in Leopold's name in the Congo 1879-1884. Stanley made "treaties" with Congo rulers and built a port and roads to facilitate the extraction of Congo resources.

What was the significance of the first European in Congo to the Kuba people?

He was an ivory trader who arrived in 1880, and the Kuba people were able to shoot and kill elephants, so they traded ivory with the first Europeans in Congo

Who was Lord Frederick Lugard?

He was the Governor of British Colonial Nigeria, and discussed British indirect rule in his "The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa" in 1922.

When did missionaries first arrive in the Congo?

In 1891, but they kept their distance from the Kuba people.

When Belgian rule was imposed in the Congo in 1908, did they utilize direct or indirect rule?

Indirect rule

What happened at the battle of Adowa in 1896?

Italians with the intention of colonizing Ethiopia disputed with Menelik II over the 1889 Wulache Treaty. Italians sent 18,000 men armed with modern weapons, Ethiopians arrived with 80-100,000 men armed with breech loading rifles, 40 cannons, and several maxim guns. The Ethiopians emerged victorious.

What is an example of syncretism in the religions in colonial Africa?

New forms of spirituality developed some hybrids of European, African, and Islamic belief systems.

How were wage laborers a key new element of the emerging colonial order in Africa?

New mines, railways, and port projects started by colonial powers required wage laborers, leading to a rise of working class. The workers organized unions to seek higher wages and better working conditions.

Where was the first colonial foothold in the Congo?

On the Lulua River, found in 1885. It has links to Leopoldville (which was later called Kinshasa)

What were the Pass Laws Protests?

One of the successful women-organized protests in South Africa in 1913 that was successful in preventing the implementation of the pass laws that were intended to segregate the population.

What was the primary output of Senegal?

Peanuts

Concern for population decline in the Congo led the colonial leaders create what kind of policies?

Policies that were designed to control women's sexuality and fertility, which were supported by African male elders in order to maintain control over their own women.

What were some of the taxes imposed upon rural peoples by colonial governments that forced them to seek waged work?

Poll taxes and hut taxes

Which African pre-colonial ruler exhibited diplomatic resistance to colonial rule?

Prempeh 1 (1894-1896)

What were concessionary companies?

Private European companies that were lured to Africa to make investments and harness private capital in return for land. They had a responsibility to their European shareholders to make a profit , and they engaged in many abuses (such as land grabs, forced labor). Most went bankrupt and dissolved by the 1920s and were taken over by metropolitan governments.

What was the "Red Rubber" atrocity in the Congo?

Rubber was the primary product created in Congo, and King Leopold demanded high productivity from his African workers when extracting rubber (which was very difficult). The Force Publique would cut off hands/feet, rape, whip, kill, and the destroy the villages of African workers in Congo to motivate the workers (slaves) to raise outputs of rubber.

What is the significance of Menelik II's victory at Adowa?

The African victory showed the crucial roles of military technology, force size, and European hubris in the struggle against colonialism.

What was one of the earliest international human rights campaigns in history, started over the Congo abuses?

The Congo Reform Association, founded in 1904

Who was considered the key actor in French and British colonies?

The District Commissioner (or Officer); he was a commissioned officer of one of the colonial governments of the British Empire who was an administrator of the colony and the link between the professional and technical services of the colonial government and the people of his district.

Who was Tewodros?

The emperor of Ethiopia from 1855-1868 who re-unified the nation and attempted to modernize it.

Who was Leopold II?

The king of Belgium from 1835-1909 who exploited the Congo as a private venture.

Who are the Kuba people?

The most highly centralized, complex kingdom of the Congo, and the subject of J. Vasina's study of DRC under Belgian rule, "Being Colonized".

What was the significance of cocoa in the emerging colonial order?

The production/harvesting of cocoa was an individual farmer initiative and involved the indigenous use of migratory labor.

What was the Congo "Free" State?

The state created in 1885 in present-day Congo. Leopold II was recognized as "king sovereign", although it was not directly attached to Belgium (only to Leopold).

Who was Menelik II?

The successor of Tewodros who sought to modernize Ethiopia in the wake of growing colonization. He was fascinated by European technology and adopted a policy of defensive developmentalism as he attempted to obtain the latest European weapons to strengthen his military.

What happened at the battle of Omdurman in 1898?

The successor to Al-Mahdi, Khalifa Abdullah, sent 40,000 troops with guns and swords to fight against the joined British (8,000) and Egyptian (17,000) forces who were armed with maxim guns, field artillery, and 6 river gunboats. The Sudanese lost in a 5-hour battle, one of the most notable African defeats.

At the end of colonial rule in the Congo in 1960, in what state were the Kuba people in?

They were (like most post-colonial states in Africa) left impoverished, disoriented, and unprepared for the return of political independence

What were the Africans who did not become "evoluees" considered in French colonies?

They were considered "non-evolved," subjects of the French, not citizens, lacking fundamental rights in law

How did the "educated elite" get their education?

They were the product of Western educated, either overseas or in Africa. The education facilities in Africa were initially mission-run, but state schools were eventually established. An "educated elite" appeared West Africa before formal education and colonialism.

True or False? Fewer women than men migrated to colonial cities, even though it offered an escape from patriarchal leaders or unwanted marriage in the countryside.

True

True or False? Most African colonies lacked European settlement, were weak, and saw little "development."

True

True or False? One of the reasons that Africans generally failed to resist colonization was because the Europeans knew Africa better than the Africans knew Europe.

True

True or False? There was a decline in arranged marriages, more frequent divorce, and remarriages under colonial rule in Africa.

True

True or False? Under an administrative bureaucracy, the judiciary used imported legal codes rather than creating their own.

True

True or Flase? Colonial defeat led many to embrace the colonizer's faith as the old faith and forms of belief/practice had failed the colonized African peoples in many ways.

True

True or False? Islam expanded under colonialism.

True; Islam expanded during this time as a form of resistance to colonialism and colonial religions.

True or False? Britain did not agree with the French policy of "assimilation" in their colonies.

True; the British preferred to work through precolonial African institutions, while denying them full autonomy.

What was the type of institution imposed as a result of civilian rule in Africa?

administrative bureaucracy

What were the effects of WWII on the Congo Free State?

compulsory military recruitment of the Kuba/African people, continued forced cultivation, prices of imports rose

Cities in Africa created by colonialism offered new, but limited economic opportunities such as _______________ to Africans.

escape from rural taxation, forced labor (for women), patriarchal domination, conscription

The ___________________ led to a 25% population loss in Congo from 1900-1919.

influenza pandemic

Colonial cities also created a new middle class, which included ________________________________________.

managers, administrators, teachers, ministers, merchants

What are some examples of the types of weaponry/technology available to Europeans that Africans did not have?

maxim guns, steamers, the telegraph

What were the effects of the Depression of 1929-1939 in the Congo Free State?

more exploitation of laborers/land, and forced cultivation

European powers created a system of ______________ to govern Africa.

ruling hierarchies based on military occupation and force

What were the three African reactions to colonial rule?

submission, alliance, and confrontation

In 1876, Leopold II founded ______________________________, which was a humanitarian and scientific cover for his imperial ambitions.

the International African Association

Adam Hothschild wrote a novel called "King Leopold's Ghost" in 1998. What did this novel expose?

the widespread devastation and death of an estimated 10 million people, the lingering Congolese bitterness toward Belgium, and the Belgian ignorance/denial of colonial atrocities.