ALL OF PE PAPER 2

Effects of violence on the performer

Become a negative role model. Punishment - bans/fines. Loss of pay and sponsorships. Fall from grace.

What will a decrease in trait sports confidence and competitiveness do?

Decrease state confidence. Reduce self-efficacy. Decreases confidence. Causes avoidance behaviour.

Angular motion

Describes the motion of a rotating body around an axis. Occurs as a result of a torque or moment.

Aggression - aggressive cue hypothesis

Frustration increases arousal. Increased arousal paired with an aggressive cue increases the likelihood of aggression.

Definitions of leadership

'The behavioural process of influencing individuals and groups towards set goals' (Barrow, 1977) 'The use of non-coercive influence to direct and coordinate the activities of group members to meet a goal' (Moorhead and Griffin, 1998)

What is screening used to?

Help those at risk of complications from exercise. Prepare performers for their sport and enhance performance. Reduce injury.

Mechanical advantage and disadvantage of levers

Different classes of lever have different advantages and disadvantages depending on the length of the effort arm and the resistance arm.

Social and psychological rewards of performance enhancing drugs on the sport

Makes the sport more exciting - more chances of a record being broken. This increases interest in the sport.

Arguments against drug testing - many banned substances are available legally or occur naturally in the body

Many banned substances are available legally or occur naturally in the body e.g. testosterone and EPO. Some athletes have naturally higher levels of testosterone than others. Athletes take legal supplements e.g. bicarbonate of soda is used by endurance athletes to delay OBLA. Drugs are just another training aid. If used correctly and under medical supervision, there is limited health risk. IMPACT - if drugs in sport were legalised, it would even the playing field for all. Athletes would have a choice.

Causes of violence - refereeing decisions leading to frustration

May become frustrated as goal is blocked by the referees decisions during the match/poor officiating. The other team winning, or a player may be fouled when running through towards the goal, so they retaliate by kicking out at the player.

Types of leaders

Emergent and prescribed

Examples of stressors

Injury Playing in an important match Playing against very good opponents Rewards available Fear of failure

Cognitive stress

Psychological. Negative thoughts & feelings Irrational thinking of inability to cope Fear of failing

What are scalar quantities?

Refer to measurements based on size (magnitude) only.

Social loafing

The loss of individual effort in a group due to a decrease in individual motivation. Performers do not show their true potential.

Outcome goals

results based may not be concerned with the actual performance Problem - if goal not achieved motivation could be lost. Problem - if performer believes they are not as good as others (comparisons) motivation could be lost.

What are the two types of drag?

Surface drag and form drag

Vitamin B-12

Makes red blood cells. Keeps the nervous system healthy. Releases energy from food

Vitamin D

Helps body to absorb calcium to keep bones and teeth healthy. Important for bone health, and protects against cancer and heart disease

Vitamin B complex

Helps to break down and release energy from food. Keeps skin and eyes healthy. Keeps the nervous system healthy.

Periodisation - microcycle

1 week or a few days of training that is repeated throughout the duration of the mesocycle. E.g. what an elite performer may do from Monday to Sunday including rest days. Basketball: Monday - strength and conditioning Tuesday - 2 hour practice, tactics and upper body weights. Wednesday - rest

How long before exercise should simple carbs be eaten?

1-2 hours before exercise

Stages of group formation (Tuckman)

1. Forming 2. Storming 3. Norming 4. Performing

Middle component of each type of lever

1. Fulcrum 2. Resistance 3. Effort

How may a coach make vicarious experiences a suitable method for improving self efficacy?

1. Idea of watching another achieving task; 2. Model of similar ability; 3. Immediately followed by practice.

How does high self-efficacy help a performer to produce better performances?

1. Increases positive attitude; 2. Increases motivation; 3. Reduces fear of failure (Naf)/increases nach; 4. Reduces anxiety/stress; 5. Enhances feeling of well-being/feel good/better; 6. Reach optimal level of arousal.

Discuss whether cohesive groups are always more successful

1. Not clear whether success leads to cohesion or cohesion leads to success; 2. Usually cohesive groups lead to success; 3. Exceptions usually involved where joint goals override personal dislikes; 4. Task cohesion greater than social cohesion; 5. Many other factors involved in success apart from cohesion/e.g. personality/ability/leadership are involved in success apart from cohesion.

What are the three phases of a warmup?

1. Pulse raiser 2. Stretching 3. Skill related practices

How to set and achieve goals

1. Set Goals Identify what is important to you. What do you want to accomplish? 2. Identify possible strategies or objectives to reach each goal. Make a list of what you feel are the best and most effective ways of reaching the goals you have already identified. 3. Select the best strategies Now that you have made a list of several ways to achieve your goal, recognize which of these strategies will work best for you. 4. Outline specific plans to accomplish each strategy. Once you have narrowed down your strategy list, you can begin to make very detailed and specific plans to accomplish each strategy and ultimately reach your goal. Once we have a well-formed Goal Statement we need some direction to follow to achieve this Goal.

What antecedents (factors) may affect the cohesiveness of a group?

1. Size of group; 2. Similarity of status/ability/performance level; 3. Type of sport/interactiveness of the activity; 4. Stability of group members; 5. External threats/outside influences; 6. Satisfaction of team members/get on well together/share the same goals/role acceptance; 7. Success of group; 8. Leadership/style/type.

What three distinct periods make up a macrocycle?

1. The preparation period involves general conditioning and the development of fitness levels (pre-season training). Quantity rather than quality. 2. The competition period is when the performer refines their skills and techniques as well as maintain fitness levels. Quality rather than quantity. Tapering may take place in competitive phase where training is modified. This prepares the athlete both physically and mentally for the big event and allows peaking to occur on competition day. Tapering removes training-inducing fatigue without experiencing reversibility. 3. The transition period is the active rest and recovery stage. This phase allows the athlete to recharge physically and mentally and ensures an injury free start to the forthcoming season.

What three factors is the degree of state confidence determined by?

1. Trait sports confidence 2. The objective sports situation 3. The performer's competitive orientation

Vealey's model of sports confidence - effects of a poor outcome

1. Trait sports confidence and competitiveness will decrease. 2. Decreased trait confidence will decrease state confidence for future competition.

Vealey's model of sport confidence - effects of a successful outcome

1. Trait sports confidence and competitiveness will increase. 2. Increased trait confidence will increase state confidence for future competition.

How much of the diet should be protein?

15%

State trait anxiety inventory (STAI)

20 questions to assess state anxiety. 20 questions to assess trait anxiety. The questions are based on how nervous the performer feels in general and specific situations. Findings - people with high trait anxiety are more likely to have high state anxiety.

How much of a diet should be fat?

25-30%

How long before exercise should complex carbs be eaten?

3-4 hours before exercise

Whole Sport Plan

4 year business plan submitted to Sport England by each NGB that is National Lottery funded. Outlines strategies to increase participation and enhance talent in that sport over a 4 year period (equality targets and medals targets). Sport England assesses the plan and its likely success before awarding lottery funding. Example - British Rowing 2013-17. The WSP received over £5million for participation schemes (Rowability and Indoor Rowing).

Warmup - pulse raiser

5-10 mins of light cardiovascular exercise to gently increase heart rate and oxygen delivery to the muscles

How much of a diet should carbohydrates be?

55-60%

How much of the body is made up of water?

60%

Periodisation - mesocycle

A 4-12 week period of training with a particular focus. For example, a sprinter will focus on power, reaction time and speed, whereas an endurance performer will focus on strength endurance and cardio-respiratory endurance.

Trait confidence

A belief in the ability to do well in a range of sports

State confidence

A belief in the ability to master a specific sporting moment. Has an immediate impact on the skill which is to be performed.

Newton's first law of linear motion - inertia

A body will continue in its state of rest, or moving in a straight line at constant velocity, until acted upon by a force that is large enough to overcome its inertia

Fractures

A break or crack in a bone.

Simple/closed fractures

A clean break of the bone that does not penetrate the skin or damage the surrounding tissue

Qualitative

A coach's opinion. Descriptive. Subjective in nature.

Attitudes

A complex mix of feelings, beliefs and values that predisposes someone to behave towards something or someone in a consistent way. A view held towards an 'attitude object' (a person, event, or behaviour). Can be positive or negative. Tends to be specific rather than global. Influences our behaviour.

Upward lift force

A discus is an aerofoil shape. When it is thrown, the discus has an angle of attack. Air above the discus travels further and faster (low pressure) than air below the discus, which travels a shorter distance and slower (high pressure). This creates a pressure gradient between the upper and lower surfaces of the discus. Air moves from below the discus (high pressure) to low pressure above the discus, creating an upward lift force (acts perpendicular to the body). RESULT: The discus stays in the air for longer and results in a greater horizontal displacement. The more lift a projectile has, the longer it stays in the air and the further it will travel.

Force

A force changes a body's state of motion. Internal forces are generates by the contraction of skeletal muscles. External forces come from outside a body e.g. friction, air resistance, weight, ground reaction force. E.g. in tennis, when a serve is returned across the net, a force has caused the change of direction of the ball.

Forces acting on the body - air resistance

A force which acts in the opposite direction to the motion of a body travelling through air. Affects the horizontal component of a body. It can reduce horizontal velocity and may limit the distance achieved by projectiles.

Centring - stress management technique

A form of breathing control, relaxing muscles of the shoulder and chest whilst concentrating on slow movement of abdominal muscles when taking deep controlled breaths (diverts attention away from stressful situation).

Causes of violence - importance of event

A game may be perceived to be of high importance and have a high emotional intensity. Pre-match media hype can increase pressure on performers who feel that violence is necessary to win.

Factors that reduce and increase drag - cross sectional area of the moving body

A large cross sectional area increases form drag because there is no streamlining and air resistance has a greater effect on the moving body, slowing it down. Reducing the effect of form drag is crucial to ensure success in many sports. EXAMPLES: A downhill speed skier crouches low to reduce drag, allowing them to travel faster.

Sodium bicarbonate

A legal supplement that is an alkaline. It acts as a buffer to neutralise the rise in lactic acid and release of hydrogen ions associated with intense anaerobic activity. Known as soda loading.

Benefits of creatine

A legal supplement used to increase performance by: Increases an athletes stores of PC in the muscle as an energy source for the ATP-PC system. This means that the performer can use the ATP-PC system for longer

Factors affecting stability - height of centre of mass

A lower centre of mass is more stable. A low stance in rugby, judo, and wrestling makes it harder for your opponent to push you over. A low stance when waiting to return a serve in tennis gives you the stability to change direction quickly.

Factors that reduce and increase drag - shape of moving body

A more streamlined aerodynamic shape reduces drag e.g. Speed skiers and cyclists wear form fitting suits and aerodynamic helmets which allow the air to pass more quickly over the top of the helmet and reduce drag, therefore allowing them to ski or cycle faster.

Erythropoietin (EPO)

A natural hormone produced by the kidneys to increase red blood cell production BUT artificially manufactured to increase red blood cell count and haemoglobin levels.

Anxiety

A negative emotional feeling, belief, or thoughts resulting from arousal or stress.

What is an attribution?

A perceived reason for success or failure.

Self-confidence

A person's BELIEF in their ABILITY to achieve SUCCESS. An aspect of self esteem.

Causes of violence - excitement/over arousal

A player may be over aroused by the situation, and over arousal may cause rash decisions to be made e.g. a performer may have to tack an opponent but lose control performing a high or late tackle.

The Olympic Oath

A pledge read by one athlete of the host nation on behalf of all athletes, during the opening ceremony of every Olympic Games (summer and winter). Athletes pledge to: Agree to compete within rules, etiquette and spirit of the game. Allow opponents a fair opportunity to win. Perform as a result of one's own efforts and ability - commit to sport without doping.

Eustress

A positive stress that energizes a person and helps a person reach a goal. When a response to the threat of a difficult challenge is overcome. Provides future confidence and motivation.

Strains

A pulled or torn muscle. Occurs when the muscle fibres are stretched too far and tear. Common where performers accelerate and decelerate suddenly, or where the intensity of training is high.

Newton's first law of angular motion

A rotating body will continue to turn about an axis of rotation with constant angular momentum unless an external rotation force (torque) is exerted upon it. EXAPMLE: The skater will continue to spin (about the longitudinal axis) with constant angular motion until an external force acts upon her. This is known as the principle of angular momentum. Once the body is rotating, the angular momentum remains constant.

GPS

A space based navigation system providing information on location and time. Athletes can wear GPS technology during training and matches (GPS vests) to track their movements and provide real-time data. GPS can provide physiological data and monitor individual player performance data such as: Metres covered. Force being applied in tackles. Speed and acceleration. Heart rate. Recovery time of a player.

Achievement motivation - personality

A stable aspect of our personality. We have 2 underlying motives within our personality: A need to succeed. A need to avoid failure

Caffeine

A stimulant used to heighten the central nervous system and mobilise fats to prolong aerobic production. Easy to consume in tea, coffee, energy drinks, or tablet form. A legal supplement BUT placed on WADA 2015 in-comp monitoring programme to detect patterns of misuse in sport.

What is an acute injury?

A sudden injury caused by a specific impact or traumatic event during competition or exercise. Pain is felt immediately.

Examples of Newton's third law of linear motion - action/reaction

A swimmer applies an action force to the wall when turning and receives an equal and opposite reaction force to push off the wall. The sprinter applies an action force (muscular force) to the blocks. The sprinter receives an equal and opposite reaction force from the blocks to move the lighter mass of the sprinter. The footballer jumps up to win a header. They apply a muscular force down to the ground in order to gain height. The footballer receives an equal and opposite upward reaction force from the ground (ground reaction force).

Steiner's model of group productivity - potential productivity

A teams possible best performance. This depends on available resources i.e. ability, skill, knowledge, fitness etc.

The Vealey Model of Sports Confidence

A theory of achievement motivation based on the concept of sport confidence. It suggests that an athlete who is successful in one sport, thereby enjoys a general feeling of sport confidence that he or she will be able to transfer to new sport situations. The theory predicts that an athlete will develop self-confidence as he or she experiences task mastery and an expectation of success.

Aggressice cue hypothesis- what is an aggressive cue?

A trigger that could cause an aggressive act: People - coach, player, fans. Places - venues where aggression has taken place before. Objects - sticks, bats, balls. Sports - contact sports.

Torque

A turning force (off centre) that causes a body to turn about its axis of rotation.

Win Ethic

A win at all costs attitude. Winning is the most important thing - not taking part. Athletes often resort to cheating, match fixing and doping to win. A dominant ethic in 21stC sport. Sometimes called the Lombardian Ethic.

How is sportsmanship decreasing?

A winning team may stretch the rules and waste time to help ensure a victory. Players will cheat. Players will argue with referee and question decisions. Some players refuse to adopt sporting etiquette with opponents e.g. Suarez and Evra refusing to shake hands before a game despite it being part of the FA's Respect Initiative.

What do you understand by the term cohesion and explain the different types of cohesion.

A. (Forces) keeping a group together/resistance to breaking up/team works together; B. Task cohesion . working to common goals/targets/tasks; C. Social cohesion . Interpersonal attraction/liking each other/socialising together.

Evaluations of a warm up

ALL PERFORMERS NEED TO PHYSICALLY PREPARE BUT: Rugby players require a more physically demanding warm up compared to sports such as golf, as rugby is played at a much more intense level. Rugby players spend longer on pulse raising exercises so that they are ready to work their whole bodies at a higher intensity as soon as play starts. Golfers will spend more time on mobility exercises to ensure they have the correct level of flexibility at the joints to execute the golf swing effectively. ALL PERFORMERS NEED TO MENTALLY PREPARE BUT the correct arousal levels differ between different players e.g. golfers need a lower level of arousal than rugby players because: Putting in golf is a fine skill where arousal needs to be low to allow concentration. Rugby involves gross motor skills e.g. rucking and mauling which need higher levels of arousal. The warm up may need to be designed to increase arousal in preparation for rugby but decrease arousal in preparation for golf.

Deviance

Behaviour which goes against the norms of society. A form of dysfunctional behaviour. Can be positive or negative.

Factors affecting stability

Height of centre of mass, area of base support, position of line of gravity, body mass

Vitamin C

Helps to protect cells and keep them healthy. Important for skin, blood vessels, and tendon, ligament, and bone health. Helps with wound healing.

PNF and football/rugby

Can be used as an injury prevention method. Greater range of motion at joints means they are less likely to incur muscular injuries such as strains and tears.

Places, People, Play

After hosting London 2012 Olympics, Sport England developed the initiative in partnership with the British Olympic Association. A multi-sport legacy provision. Aims to deliver on Olympic promise to increase sports participation by improving sports facilities for the local community to access and use.

Benefits of anabolic steroids

Aid the storage of protein, promote muscle growth and increase muscle size, allowing more powerful contractions and improvements in strength, speed, and anaerobic power. Less fat in the muscle - lean body weight can improve sprint performance and the ability to work at higher intensities for longer. Improve the body's capacity to train for longer at a higher intensity. Decrease the fatigue associated with training - faster recovery time so able to train more frequently. Faster repair of muscle tissue.

Water before exercise

Aim to drink approx. 500ml of fluid at least 4 hours before exercise. In the 10-15 mins before exercise starts, top up fluid levels by drinking approx. 250ml. If you are dehydrated before exercise, your core temperature will rise faster and your heart will have to work harder than normal. This will reduce performance.

Groups - task cohesion

Ability to work together to achieve common goals. Each player understands & fulfils their role effectively.

Bernard Weiner's causal attribution model - what are the four groups of attributions?

Ability, task, effort, luck

Support requirements to become and elite performer

Access to high quality facilities and high quality coaching. Talent ID programmes. Progression routes. Sports science and medicine support. Funding. Equal opportunities and sports equity.

Support requirements to become and elite performer - talent ID programmes

Access to talent ID programmes open to all e.g. Girls4Gold, #discoveryourparapotential.

Achievement motivation and the situation (Atkinson)

Achievement Motivation is a combination of personality (nAch/nAF) and an evaluation of the situational factors. An interactionist perspective! We assess 2 aspects of the situation: The probability of success (relates to task difficulty) & The incentive value of success (relates to feelings of pride or shame following result).

Examples of chronic injuries

Achilles tendonitis, stress fractures, tennis elbow

Why are fats good for endurance swimmers?

Act as an insulator to keep the body warm

Physcial recreation

Activities involving physical exertion and effort (e.g. aerobics or 5-aside football), where heart rate increases

Steiner's model of group productivity

Actual productivity = potential productivity - losses due to faulty group processes

What are the two categories of injuries?

Acute and chronic

How can cyclists reduce cross sectional area and reduce the effects of form drag?

Adopt a streamlined position e.g. crouch low over the handlebars with back parallel to track rather than sitting upright. Tuck arms in close to the body. This will reduce the drag force from air resistance and allowing them to cycle as fast as they can. They will not need to reduce speed to reduce drag.

What are the physiological benefits of a warmup?

Adrenaline released to increase heart rate and dilate the capillaries (vasodilation at working muscles), which increases oxygen delivery to the muscles. This ensures energy supplies are available at the start of exercise to perform at the correct level. Releases synovial fluid at the joints, allowing joints to move mor freely. This increases flexibility and helps performers achieve a full range of motion at the joint. Increases the elasticity of the muscle tissue, reducing the possibility of injury. Increase the temperature of muscles so they become more pliable and less prone to injury. Increased muscle temperature also allows an increased oxygen dissociation (more oxygen released at muscle).

How are proteins broken down?

Aerobically, and only when glycogen and fat stores have been exhausted

Drawbacks of glycogen loading

Affects metabolism and digestion. Can become hypoglycaemic in depletion phase. Poor recovery rates in depletion phase, as well as lethargy and irritability. Water retention and heavy legs. Requires alterations to the training programme e.g. tapering and reduction in training intensity. Increased risk of injury. Affects mental preparation pre-competition.

Forces acting on the body - gravity

Affects the vertical component of a body e.g. ball or long jumper (pulls the body down to earth). It reduces vertical velocity and limits the height of the flight.

Benefits of talent ID programmes

All potential performers can be screened. Performers can be directed to sports most suited to their talents. The development process can be accelerated as a result of info. gained. Efficient use can be made of available funding for Talent ID schemes. Chances of producing medallists are improved. Provide a coordinated approach between organisations such as NGBs, the EIS, and UK Sport.

Tuckman's 'performing' stage of group formation

All work together towards a common goal - focus on group success. All individuals accept their role & support other team members.

Impacts of technology on coaches

Allow detailed analysis of individual fitness, skill and technique development. Analyse games and help to select teams. Talent ID and scouting. Injury prevention.

Benefit of creatine after training

Allows faster recovery time via quick replenishment of PC stores

Positive impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the performer - increase in wages and availability of full time professional contracts

Allows performers to train full time and train harder to improve fitness and produce higher quality performance.

Causes of violence from spectators - poor policing, stewarding and crowd control

Allows pockets of uncontrolled crowd trouble to escalate.

Where is creatine stored?

Almost all creatine stored in the muscle tissue as PC and is used to fuel very high intensity activity

Multi use games areas

Although a specific surface for each sport would be ideal, these are too expensive and impractical in terms of space for most local authorities, schools, and sports clubs. Technology has led to the development of artificial grass and surfaces (3G) suitable for multiuse and increased levels of participation. Have helped Sport England to deliver its Olympic Legacy initiative of Places, People, Play).

What is learned helplessness?

An acquired state or condition related to the performer's perceptions that they do not have any control over the situational demands being placed on them and that failure is therefore inevitable. After experiencing initial failure as a result of their perceived lack of ability (internal) in relation to the very hard task (stable external) they inevitably give up trying.

Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF)

An advanced stretching technique to improve flexibility

Components of attitude - the triadic model

An attitude consists of three components: AFFECTIVE - how we feel about the attitude object. BEHAVIOURAL - how we actually behave towards the attitude object (intended or actual). COGNITIVE - what we know and believe about the attitude object. Attitudes influence our behaviour but are not necessarily a good predictor of behaviour.

Benefits of ice baths

An ice bath can help to flush away the lactic acid once the athlete steps out of the bath and oxygen rich blood reaches the muscles. Reduces swelling and oedema (a build-up of fluid causing swelling) enabling the muscle to have more movement. Reduces DOMS which helps athletes perform optimally in training sessions in the following days. Cheap and easily accessible - easy to build into training routine. Simply need some preparation of a large water container and ice e.g. wheelie bin.

Validity

An indication of whether the data collected measures what it claims to measure. E.g. GPS data collected during a rugby training game is valid as it is sport and intensity specific e.g. force applied in tackles, metres covered, speed and acceleration.

Arousal

An individual's level of activation and alertness. A readiness to perform. A drive to achieve.

Factors affecting horizontal displacement of projectiles

Angle of release, speed of release, height of release

Relationship between angular velocity, moment of inertia, and angular momentum

Angular momentum = moment of inertia x angular velocity EXAMPLE: a figure skater executing a multiple spin. The figure skater turns on the longitudinal axis by applying a torque. Angular momentum remains constant, as ice is a friction free surface, so there are no negligible net forces. Start of spin - skater's mass distributed away form the axis of rotation, allowing them to generate a large torque. Moment of inertia is high and angular velocity is low (spinning slowly). During the spin - Performers bring arms and legs close to axis of rotation to increase speed of rotation. Moment of inertia is low, and angular velocity is high. They are spinning quickly. Good flexibility and a thorough warm up with ballistic stretches is essential in sports where a performer must quickly alter moment of inertia to control their movements.

Self-report questionnaires

Answer a series of questions about emotions in a specific situation

Prescribed leaders

Appointed by external authority to lead the group e.g. captain of national team is announced by the manager or the governing body.

Anabolic steroids

Artificially produced hormone e.g. THG (banned synthetic steroid hormone resembling testosterone in promoting the growth of muscle. Tweaked by chemists to make it undetectable).

The drive theory (Clark Hull)

As arousal increases so does performance, as the performer tries harder, so there is a linear relationship. ACTUALLY, as arousal increases, the likelihood of the performer showing their dominant response increases, so P = H x D (performance = habit strength x drive). This means that is the task is complex or unlearned, increased drive and arousal will lead to a poorer performance, as the dominant response is more likely to be incorrect as it is not fully developed. The negative effect is enhanced if the performer thinks they are being judged. If the task is simple or well learned, increased drive and arousal will lead to increased performance, as the dominant response is more likely to be correct. CRITICISMS - generally regarded as inaccurate and simplistic

Groups - The Ringlemann Effect

As group size increases, the effort and contribution of each individual decreases. Performance & cohesion decrease. This is due to a lack of coordination (cliques & sub groups) & motivational losses.

Principles of training - progressive overload applications/examples

As the body adapts to a specific training load, an athlete must continue to stress the body using the FITT principle: FREQUENCY - how often do you train? - train more often e.g. 5-6 times per week. INTENSITY - how hard do you work? - train harder by increasing the workload or decreasing the rest period (can be monitored using HR monitor, GPS tracking to log distance, speed or time run/cycled). TIME - how long do you work for? - train for longer. TYPE - what type of training are performing? Vary training to avoid boredom e.g. SAQ, HIIT, plyometrics.

Observation for anxiety

Assess the performer in the actual situation and look for symptoms of changes in behaviour. Records two types of data: Individual behaviour- nervous actions, fidgeting etc. Aspects of performance - execution of skilled actions i.e. accuracy of passing, decision making, reaction time etc.

Goal setting principles - measurable

Assessed with statistics or scores. E.g. A swimmer aiming to reduce their 50 m freestyle time by 0.2 secs

Who will consume more carbohydrates, athletes or non-athletes?

Athletes. Endurance athletes need more carbs for slow release of energy to ensure sustained muscle contractions for long periods. Power athletes need more carbs for fast release of energy to ensure rapid and powerful muscle contraction.

Four stages of Bandura's observational learning - personality

Attention Retention Motor reproduction Motivational response

Styles of leadership

Autocratic, democratic, laissez faire

Impulse graphs in a 100m race

Axes should be labelled correctly: X axis - time (milliseconds or seconds) Y axis - force (Newtons) Negative impulse always first (foot landing/braking). Positive impulse always second (foot pushing off).

The factors that contribute to a performers level of achievement motivation

B. Interactionist approach/depends on the personality and the situation C. (Personality) - either Need to Achieve (nAch) or Need to Avoid Failure (nAf) D. (Situation) - probability of success E. (Situation) - incentive value of success.

Top five reasons why negative attitudes form

Bad past experiences. Fear of failure. Fear of injury. Negative role models. Task difficulty.

Strategies to decrease spectator violence - ban/control alcohol sales

Ban pubs from opening on match day where known troublemakers gather prior to kick off. Clubs can ban alcohol and deny access to drunk fans. Change of kick off times, imposed by the police e.g. early kick offs to avoid high levels of alcohol consumption.

Strategies to decrease spectator violence

Ban/control alcohol sales. Increased use of police intelligence/improved liaison between forces. Impose tougher deterrents on offenders, clubs, and NGBs. More CCTV in/around stadiums. Tight control of ticket sales. Community and club links. Players and club officials behaviour.

Subjective

Based on personal opinion, interpretation and assumptions.

Emergent leaders

Become a leader based on support from within the group - elected by team. Often nominated & elected based on ability, interpersonal skills & expertise.

Chelladurai's multidimensional model of leadership

Before a leadership style can be chosen, 3 characteristics must be considered: SITUATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS Task difficulty, group size, time available, nature of activity. LEADER CHARACTERISTICS Preferred leadership style, personality, expertise. GROUP MEMBERS' CHARACTERISTICS Ability, motivation, age, gender & personality. Leadership MUST be adapted to meet the demands of the situation & the group preferences.

Weight training -games players

Benefits are good to a certain point e.g. build up strength in the legs to make shots more powerful. GK could build up arm strength so they can throw and distribute the ball further to facilitate a counter attack for their team. Can help footballers, as it helps build up strength to cope with demands of game e.g. as they become stronger, less likely to be knocked off the ball. Doing light weights and high reps will build a player's muscular endurance and help them to last the duration of the game. HOWEVER, If carried out incorrectly e.g. heavy weights/low reps, players can become too big, reducing stamina, which may reduce their performance. They could slow down and commit more fouls as they struggle to keep up with the play. Greater bulk can also result in more injuries.

Who does using sodium bicarbonate benefit?

Benefits athletes competing in events lasting 1-7 minutes e.g. 400-1500m and most rowing events

Somatic stress management techniques

Biofeedback. Progressive muscular relaxation. Centring.

Side effects of EPO

Blood clots. Strokes. Risk of heart disease. Death (in rare cases).

Resistance location in levers

Body part to be moved

Comminuted fracture

Bone shatters into three or more pieces

Cons of continuous training

Boring and repetitive. Time consuming. Not always sports specific.

Physical recreation and school sport similarities

Both involve physical exertion, improve health and fitness, and have intrinsic benefits. Both may include some competition, but this is much more organised in school sport.

Physical recreation and PE similarities

Both involve physical exertion, improve health and fitness, and have intrinsic benefits. Both may include some competition.

Physical recreation and sport similarities

Both involve physical exertion, improve health and fitness, and have intrinsic benefits. May include competition, can provide stress relief, and are a beneficial use of leisure time.

Gamesmanship and deviance similarities

Both more evident in professional sports where win at all costs attitude dominates. Both conflict with the amateur ethics and sportsmanship. Both lower the status of the game - gives the sports a bad name and create negative role models.

Are carbohydrates used as an energy source for aerobic or anaerobic work?

Both. Simple carbs for fast energy release/high intensity/anaerobic work. Complex carbs for slow, sustained energy release/low intensity/aerobic work.

Styles of attention (Niddefer, 1976)

Broad, when a number of cues can be identified Narrow, when it is best to focus on one or two cues External, when information is drawn from the environment Internal, when information is used from within the performer

Stable fractures

Broken ends of bone line up and are barely out of place

Advantages of hydrotherapy

Buoyancy of water helps to support body weight, reducing the load on joints and allowing more exercise than is permitted on land. This helps to maintain fitness. Exercising against the resistance of water helps to strengthen the injured area.

HIIT/interval training pros

Burns calories quickly and reduces body fat whilst maintain lean body mass. Motivational - varied exercises/short duration. Can be altered to suit various needs and made sports specific. Hypertrophy of fast twitch fibres. Increased stores of ATP and PC. Increased glycogen stores.

How does the World Class Performance Pathway work?

By ensuring that athletes get high quality support via the sports NGB. Funding is given for coaching, training and competition support, technological, medical and scientific services delivered by the National Institutes of sport. Every 4 years, UK Sport (via EIS) runs a checking system for athletes on the WCPP, called the Pathway Health Check.

How can athletes continue moderate to high intensity exercise for longer with carbohydrates?

By replenishing carb stores during exercise e.g. isotonic drinks/gels

For each component of the triadic model, how might a coach/teacher create dissonance?

COGNITIVE - give new information/educate AFFECTIVE - create new emotions/make it fun BEHAVIOURAL - allow success and use praise

Characteristics of physical education

COMPULSORY. SCHOOL TIME. FORMAL TEACHING AND LEARNING - follow National Curriculum and framework of assessment. TEACHER CONTROLS the activity. HIGHLY STRUCTURED AND ORGANISED as lessons must follow National Curriculum, and there are pre-planned lessons and times.

Strategies to overcome faulty group processes

COORDINATION STRATEGIES: Practice - ensure all know the tactics. Develop coordination & tactics e.g. set plays, passing drills, etc. Select players with more interactive skills e.g. timing, vision, ability to learn set pieces. Clarify individual roles. Avoid social cliques. MOTIVATION STRATEGIES: Highlight individual contributions e.g. team/match stats, videos of games. Develop intrinsic and extrinsic motivation & confidence. Develop team cohesion & team bonding. Develop peer support. Give individuals specific responsibility. Improve fitness.

How is PNF done?

CRAC technique (contract, relax, agonist, contract). Targeted muscle group stretched to limit using partner (passive stretch), and stretched position held for 30 secs. Muscle contracted isometrically for at least 5-10 seconds (push against resistance provided by partner) then relaxes. Targeted muscle is stretched again but further through range of motion.

Pros of weight training

Can alter resistance, sets or reps to suit gains required. Specific muscle groups can be targeted. Easy to increase intensity.

Pros of circuit training

Can alter the number and type of exercises to suit needs. Can cover any aspect of fitness, but often used for general body conditioning. More than one fitness component can be trained at once. Easy to increase intensity.

Negatives of ballistic stretching

Can be dangerous and there is a high risk of injury if: It is carried out incorrectly. The athlete does not have high levels of flexibility. Other forms of stretching may be more suitable e.g. static stretching involves fewer risks.

Benefits of 3G

Can be played on more frequently and for longer than natural grass. Gives consistent conditions, unlike real grass which can become worn and unpredictable. Enable fixtures to be played without disruption. They have a positive impact on some sports e.g. hockey.

What happens to complex carbohydrates?

Can be stored in the muscles and liver as glycogen

Functions of sports analytics - talent ID/scouting

Can be used for talent ID where quantitative data on potential recruits (fitness, speed etc.) is analysed to identify the best performers. Qualitative data can be provided via written scouting reports. EIS Pathway Analytics uses data, athlete profiling, and benchmarking to assess the effectiveness of the WCPP in various sports.

Quantitative data

Can be written down or measured in numbers E.g. Cooper's 12 minute run data - distance covered in 12 minutes is measured in metres, then the results are compared to a standardised table. Results of fitness tests can be analysed and compared to other people or standardised scores.

What can losing 2% of body weight through sweat cause?

Can cause up to a 20% drop in performance due to: Increased temperature and decreased heat regulation. Increased blood viscosity. Increased heart rate. Increased fatigue. Decreased cognitive function and skill level. Loss of electrolytes can also cause fatigue and cramping.

What can creatine monohydrate do to PC stores?

Can increase PC in the muscles by 50%

Reasons static stretching is good

Can increase flexibility and range of motion. A lack of flexibility is often a cause of injury, so static stretching can reduce long term risks. A safer method for performers with poor flexibility.

What does dehydration do?

Can result in reduced plasma volume (increased blood viscosity), reduced stroke volume, increased temperature, increased heart rate, and impaired aerobic capacity. Can also impair decision making. As a result, endurance and strength performances will decrease

What is the only food fuel source for high intensity anaerobic work (e.g. 200m swim, 400m run, high intensity sprint down wing)?

Carbohydrates

What is the preferred fuel for all types of exercise?

Carbohydrates

What do high density lipids do?

Carry cholesterol away from cells back to the liver to be broken down (good cholesterol)

What do low density lipids do?

Carry cholesterol from the liver to the cells, and can lead to fatty acid deposits in the arteries (bad cholesterol)

Tennis elbow (lateral epicondylitis)

Caused by overuse of the muscles in the forearm. Inflammation of the tendons of the elbow (epicondylitis). Pain is felt on the bony part of the outer elbow called the lateral epicondyle (lateral epicondylitis). Any activity placing repeated stress on the elbow can cause tennis elbow. Pain felt on the inside of the elbow is called golfer's elbow.

What are the sources of complex carbohydrates?

Cereals, grain, rice, potatoes

What are some sources of fibre?

Cereals, wholemeal bread, lentils, fruit and vegetables

How does a hyperbaric chamber work?

Chamber is pressurised with 2.5 times more oxygen than normal. The pressure increases the amount of O2 breathed in, and the haemoglobin becomes fully saturated with oxygen. This means that 100% oxygen can be diffused to the injured area. Oxygen reaches parts of the body that are not normally saturated. The excess oxygen diffuses into the blood plasma where it reduces swelling, stimulating white blood cell activity and increasing blood supply at the injury site. Many top rugby union, cricket, and football teams use hyperbaric chambers.

Impulse

Change in momentum. Impulse (Ns) = force (N) x time (s) The time it takes for a force to be applied to a body. Measured using pressure platforms. These detect the amount of force being applied when the foot is in contact with the ground. E.g. As the sprinter's foot lands, their muscles contract and a force is applied to the ground. The ground reaction fore then act on the foot, which allows the athlete to accelerate forwards. The action of the foot on the ground is called a single footfall.

Attribution retraining

Changing the reasons given for success/failure. Idea of realising that failure is not inevitable/teaching appropriate attributions;

Pros of self-report questionnaires

Cheap. Easy to administer. Quick. Large numbers.

Impacts of technology on performers - improved clothing, footwear and equipment leading to improved standards of performance

Clothing and footwear e.g. lycra body suits in athletics to increase speed. Equipment e.g. modern day footballs designed to give more swing and curve than before. Good because: Improved standard of performance and marginal gains lead to increased chance of winning medals and breaking records. As performances improve, attract more sponsors and funding, allowing them to train full time and have access to best coaches etc. HOWEVER: Some new technologies can lead to injuries (bladed boots). Protective equipment can make players feel invincible and so lead to over aggression and injury. Expensive and not available to all. Where do you draw the line between technological development and cheating? (full body suits banned from FINA competitions due to dramatic increase in performance and several world records being broken in a short space of time).

Strategies to decrease spectator violence - impose tougher deterrents on offenders/clubs/NGBs

Clubs and NGBs can impose harsher punishment e.g. banning orders, higher fines, prosecution and imprisonment.

Strategies to decrease spectator violence - more CCTV in/around stadiums

Clubs can invest in security measures during and after matches e.g. increased policing, stewards and CCTV. E.g. security camera footage ensured that some Chelsea fans were banned by the club for life for racist behaviour on the Paris metro before a game.

Personality - how can knowledge of the interactionist perspective improve performance?

Coach could predict any potential unacceptable or aggressive behaviour and remove the player from the situation by substituting them. The coach could identify situations that cause inappropriate actions or a dropping off in performance, and create similar situations in training so that the player can learn to cope. The coach could use the interactionist approach to change player behaviour by encouraging players to adapt to specific circumstances.

Advantages of GPS

Collects quantitative and precise data to monitor overall in-game player performance, evaluate work-rate and physical exertion. This can help coaches make objective decisions about substitutions (when and who), and helps coaches compare players to pick the best team. Coaches can identify periods of most intense play, different activity profiles by position, if players are getting tired, and if they have previous reliable data for players. Can help reduce injury by monitoring fatigue, and help to manage the workload of players during rehabilitation. Data can help make better use of training time and be used to adapt training programmes.

Personality - Interactionist theory (Lewin)

Combination of social learning and trait theories. Explains why we alter our behaviour from one moment to the next. Behaviour depends upon the interaction between our inherited, enduring personality traits and the situation that we find ourselves in. B=f(pe) Behaviour is a function of personality and the environment. Explains than individuals may well be different in different environments e.g. loud on rugby pitch but quiet in class. Also explains why people within the same environment may behave differently e.g. not all people in a hockey tournament will behave in the same way.

Extrinsic motivation

Come from a source outside the performer. Can be tangible or intangible rewards.

Who watches performers, causing social facilitation/inhibition?

Competitive co-actors. Audience. Social reinforcers. Co-actors.

Examples of recovery methods from exercise

Compression garments, massage, foam rollers, cold therapy,

Tuckman's 'storming' stage of group formation

Conflict & rebellion within group. Individuals attempt to establish their position, status & role within the group.

What happens to simple carbohydrates?

Converted into glucose in the bloodstream

Positive impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the performer - increased public profile

Could attract sponsors and help the performer to continue to train full time and improve performance.

Positive impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the sport - increased public profile

Could lead to the performers becoming tole models and attracting more youngsters into the sport to increase participation.

Dynamic fluid forces - lift

Created due to pressure differences on the two surfaces of a body. Lift force acts perpendicular to the movement of a body. Can be upwards lift force or downwards lift force.

Criticisms of Bandura's observational learning theory - personality

Critics argue that there is some consistency in the individual's behaviour over time and in a variety of circumstances, which the situational approach fails to account for.

Whole body cryotherapy

Cryogenic chambers are used by performers to reduce pain and inflammation. A performer will enter a cryogenic chamber and remain for up to 3 mins (wearing hat, gloves, socks, and swimwear). The chamber is cooled by liquid nitrogen to a temperature below -100 degrees Celsius. The freezing gas surrounds the body and vasoconstriction of the blood vessels at the limbs occurs. Blood flows towards the core to keep the body warm and protect vital organs from extreme cold. On leaving the chamber, vasodilation of the blood vessels in the arms and legs occur, and oxygen rich blood returns back to the limbs, helping to heal injured cells.

Drawbacks of whole body cryotherapy

Cryotherapy chambers are only available to elite athletes. Requires access to expensive equipment close to the training/competition environment.

Arguments for drugs testing

Dangerous side effects of drugs. If PEDs are legalised, coaches may force performers to take drugs. Use of drugs is cheating and unethical.

Physiological measures to measure anxiety

Data is collected on changes in heart rate, muscle response, respiration rate, sweat production, and levels of hormone secretion. Provides accurate data.

Quantitative

Data that is written down and/or measured factually, precisely and numerically. E.g. a fitness score/VO2 max/speed/acceleration.

Qualitative data

Descriptive and looks at the way people think or feel. E.g. the Borg Scale of Rating Perceived Exertion (RPE) - a performer gives an opinion about how hard they feel their body is working during exercise. Can be used to make judgements on scores.

Benefits of physical education to an individual

Develop motor skills. Developing positive attitude to healthy lifestyle. Improve health and fitness. Develop personal and social skills. Improve cognitive skills e.g. problem solving. Develop positive ethics. Improve self-analysis skills. Emotional development. Encourage lifelong learning.

Impacts of technology on sport - increased inclusivity of sport

Development of adapted equipment such as carbon fibre prosthetic blades and lightweight wheelchairs to increase access to sport for people with disabilities. Good because: Increases participation in the sport. Increases chances of medals and records being broken.

Continuous training - evaluate effectiveness for 1500m runner

Develops aerobic endurance, which is an important component of fitness for a 1500m runner. Improves O2 transport and delivery to the muscles during this aerobic event. They will use aerobic endurance to cover the distance as quickly as they can. Results in cardiac hypertrophy so during the race, the athlete will have greater cardiac output. This allows the athlete to continue working at higher intensity for longer. It's important the 1500m runner also considers other types of training e.g. interval training, as there are some anaerobic components of the race e.g. the start and overtaking.

Fartlek training

Develops aerobic power but can also improve anaerobic capacity. Known as speed play. Intensity and terrain is varies e.g. periods of fast and slow running. The aim is to match the training to the varying demands of a sport e.g. vary the pace of the runs by integrating sprints into the workout, followed by slow recovery runs.

Olympic oath no longer relevant

Different times - winning is now the most dominant ethic as there is more at stake due to commercialism. More likely to lead to deviant behaviour and break Oath. Sponsorships available to successful athletes, so could lead to development of win at all costs attitude and breaking oath. Increasing evidence of gamesmanship - in rules but against oath (London 2012 Team GB Cyclist Philip Hindes - bad start so crashed on purpose. Got restart and won gold). Some athletes who have been previously banned for doping have been allowed to compete once bans have been served e.g. Justin Gatlin. Leads to doubt over the level of the playing field. Pressure on athletes from countries who want athletes to succeed to showcase their countries e.g. Germany had decades long programme of doping to improve chance of winning medals.

Drawbacks of physiological measures to measure anxiety

Difficulty recording information during an actual competitive performance. Changes may occur as a result of being evaluated. Difficult to replicate the competitive environment in a lab situation.

Strategies to decrease spectator violence - players and club officials behaviour

Display positive behaviour e.g. sportsmanship and not incite the crowd via inappropriate gestures. Avoid making inflammatory comments, before or after matches, that may incite trouble among fans. Condemn any acts of violence among fans.

Drawbacks of using a 3G

Do not reflect the true bounce of grass. Gives an unnatural bounce which can make it difficult for performers to judge. Criticised for being too rigid, leading to joint and ligament injuries.

Dynamic fluid forces

Drag and lift

Warmup - skill related practices

Drills and practices that replicate activity from game e.g. shooting in basketball, passing in football, or dribbling in hockey. Carried out at higher intensity to prepare the body for the level of activity required in the game

Impacts of technology on sport - improves standards of performance

Due to advancements in equipment, clothing, and sports analytics e.g. drag resistant clothing and aerodynamic helmets in cycling. Good as it can allow marginal gains and increase the chance of performers winning medals and breaking records. HOWEVER, Can be expensive and lead to inequalities, as only the wealthiest teams can succeed. Some might argue that the high costs of technological advancements might be invested better in participation initiatives, as opposed to only a few elite performers.

Impacts of technology on sport - improved image of sports and a reduction in deviant behaviour

Due to drugs testing, video analysis, biological passports, video playback, CCTV etc. Good because: Increased punishments for foul play and cheating due to video playback. Encourages fair play. Acts as a deterrent to others to make the sport fairer and less deviant. This leads to better role models for grass roots sports, increasing participation. HOWEVER: Relies on support of NGBs and Government to fully utilise technology to detect deviance and employ sanctions (Russia overlooked doping). Athletes still willing to risk deviant behaviour to gai a competitive advantage.

Examples of how there has been a decline in the amateur code, sportsmanship, and fairplay today

During 20thC, professionalism increased - lots more extrinsic rewards. The Lombardian ethic (win ethic) is now more common. Now more pressure on performers to do well - sponsors, media, national expectation. Developed a win at all costs attitude - doping, match fixing, deviancy. Now more likely to break the rules e.g. professional fouls. Increase in gamesmanship. Increase in no. of prosecutions due to foul play.

Nutrition and recovery

During exercise, muscle glycogen stores decrease and must be replenished after exercise. Replenishing glycogen stores in the first 20 minute window after exercise can enhance performance the next day. During this time, the body is most able to restore lost glycogen. Many athletes drink chocolate milk within the 20 mins post exercise to optimise recovery. They consume a 3:1 to 4:1 ratio of carbs to protein. This combination of carbohydrates to protein helps the body to resynthesise muscle glycogen more efficiently than carbohydrates alone. A liquid can be absorbed much faster than a solid and the performer can also rehydrate at the same time.

Coaches and their duty of care

Duty of care - requires coaches to take such measures as are 'reasonable' in the circumstances to ensure that individuals will be safe to participate in activity. Legal obligation to eliminate all potential dangers and risks so players can participate in a safe environment. Coaches also have a legal and ethical responsibility to educate their athletes about drug use and abuse, and provide appropriate advice on legal nutrition and supplements which can be used to enhance performance.

Functions of sports analytics - skill and technique development

E.g. Dartfish to capture and analyse sprint technique or golf swing. Data can be used to give real time technical and visual feedback to a performer to identify weaknesses and suggest corrective measures to improve and refine skills/techniques.

Video motion analysis

E.g. Dartfish. High speed camera and computer with software allowing frame by frame analysis, playback of footage, and tracking of objects. Dartfish video motion analysis software highlights biomechanical and technical aspects, using drawing tools, to analyse a performer's technique e.g. body position in a golf swing. Uses quantitative data to quantify performance in a valid and reliable way. A sprinter's performance could be improved through analysis of data collected. The running action could be analysed, and weaknesses identified and corrected. This will improve the sprinter's efficiency and running time.

Support requirements to become and elite performer - access to high quality coaching

E.g. EIS high performance centres and NGB facilities (British Cycling, Manchester).

National Institutes of Sport - provide access to top class facilities and high quality coaches

E.g. Manchester Institute of Health and Performance houses an EIS high performance centre with state of the art facilities. High level coaches and NGB Performance Directors deliver services to the best athletes (on the WCPP) to optimise training programmes and maximise performance.

Performance analysis

E.g. Prozone. Useful for team games. Uses IT, digital photography, and cameras to capture a performance. Quantitative data about individual or team can be gathered during performance e.g. monitor the amount of court covered by netballer during game to ascertain if position is played effectively. Provides objective feedback e.g. no. of passes made, no. of shots attempted, shape of formations etc. Tactics can be monitored and evaluated via performance analysis to highlight tactical and strategic issues e.g. possession area of the court that results in the most goals being scored.

National Institutes of Sport - works in partnerships with other organisations

E.g. UK Sport, and NGB's. UK Talent Team - EIS and UK Sport work together to develop talent ID programmes and run national recruitment programmes e.g. Grils4Gold, to feed the World Class Performance Programme. EIS has a 'performance solutions' team of scientists who work in partnership with UK Sport, coaches, and NGB performance directors.

Non-parabolic flight path

E.g. badminton shuttle. Compared to a shot putt, a shuttlecock has a lighter mass and unusual shape meaning that air resistance will be high and the dominant force at the start of the flight. During the serve, the racket applies a force to the shuttle causing it to leave the racket at high velocity. The air resistance acts on the horizontal velocity of the shuttle. The air resistance slows the flight of the shuttle until its weight becomes the dominant force, rapidly pulling the shuttle down to the court. Weight (gravity) acts on the vertical velocity of the shuttle. Asymmetrical

Compression garments

E.g. compression socks, leggings and tops. Used to help blood lactate removal, reduce inflammation and the symptoms associated with DOMS. To be effective in recovery, you need to use medical grade compression garments and many sports stores do not sell these.

Negative impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the sport - sports start to lose control

E.g. media and sponsors can demand alterations to the structure and traditional format of games to make games more exciting, and add breaks for adverts. Rules/formats changed from traditional nature e.g. offside rule, T20 cricket concerns that it overshadows 5 day test matches. Can change nature of activity e.g. length of game, viewing times and game structure interrupted by media advertising etc. Can dictate a longer competition schedule and introduce more teams e.g. World Cup. Ticket allocations may go to corporate organisations/sponsors, as opposed to true fans.

Testing and recording equipment

E.g. metabolic cart for indirect calorimetry. Consists of a computer, monitor and breathing tubes mounted on a trolley. It is used to assess energy expenditure by indirect calorimetry which measures the production of CO2 and/or the consumption of oxygen, and transfers these into a heat equivalent. This quantitative data can then be evaluated e.g. respiratory quotient from food fuel usage during the exercise period. This can be used to determine an individual's energy requirements and adjust the nutritional requirements of the performer if needed.

National Institutes of Sport - provide sports medicine support

E.g. physiotherapy, soft tissue therapy. Used to increase the health of performers to maximise training time.

How National Institutes (like EIS) support UK Sport in identifying talent

EIS runs a Performance Pathway Team. The team offers Pathway Frontline Technical Solutions, where the team uses technology to create a 'talent profile' to help predict future Olympic potential. Also used to identify potential positive transfer from one sport to another. Pathway Education provides education and specialist knowledge for coaches working with elite performers, and also talent and development managers. Pathway Analytics are diagnostic tools to measure the effectiveness of the performance pathway (every 4 years, Performance Pathway Health Check). The Pathway Strategy assists sports in developing and putting in place clear and progressive pathways from 'podium foundations' to 'podium' in their sport.

Leadership style and the situation

Effective leaders should change their style of leadership according to the situation & the group preferences. The leader will have a preferred style. The situation will demand a certain style. Team members will demand a certain style. When all THREE preferences MATCH = best performance & satisfaction.

What are the benefits of a cooldown?

Elevated heart rate keeps blood flow high and allows oxygen to flush through the muscles, removing and oxidising any lactic acid that remains. This reduces the potential of DOMS. The skeletal muscle pump maintains venous return to prevent blood pooling (which can cause dizziness and fainting). Gradually reduces and normalises temperature.

Causes of violence from spectators

Emotional intensity and importance of the event. Alcohol and drugs. Diminished responsibility by individuals in a large group. Actions on the pitch. Lack of effective deterrents and punishments. Poor policing, stewarding and crowd control.

Bandura's model of self-efficacy - verbal persuasion

Encouragement/reasoning Convincing the performer that they have the ability/skills to succeed Could be from a coach or from within yourself (positive self-talk)

Democratic leadership

Encourages the group to discuss ideas & become involved in decision making. More informal and relaxed. Person or Relationship Orientated - concentrate on developing interpersonal relationships within a group.

Who will consume more carbohydrates, endurance performers or sprint/power athletes?

Endurance performers, to ensure they take on more carbohydrate than normal to increase muscle glycogen and keep providing energy for long duration

National Institutes of Sport - research and innovation team

Ensures elite athletes have the best technology, training, and equipment available to them when competing on the global stage. The team work directly with NGB's and provide funding and expertise to support projects which have a beneficial effect on elite level athletes now and in the future.

How has technology helped older people?

Equipment has been adapted to encourage low level physical activity. EXAMPLES: Low impact pedal exercise machine - allows individuals to participate in low impact exercise to stimulate circulation and help to maintain muscle tone. Finger extension exerciser - used to help hand and wrist movements.

Data integrity

Essential in sports analytics to ensure validity of data. This involves maintaining and assuring the accuracy of data. If done correctly, it will ensure the consistency of data over its entire lifetime.

What are minerals?

Essential inorganic nutrients required in small quantities to maintain healthy bodily functions. Found in meat, cereals, fish, dairy, vegetables, fruits and nuts

What are vitamins?

Essential organic nutrients required in small quantities to maintain healthy bodily functions. Sufficient vitamins can be consumed by following a varied and balanced diet.

Why is water needed?

Essential to allow chemical reactions, and to dissolve and move substances around the body (e.g. blood plasma is 90% water and carries glucose to the active muscles). Used to regulate the body's temperature by moving heat to the skins surface for evaporation, or to the lung tissues for expiration as water vapour. Necessary to prevent dehydration.

UK Sport - runs and funds the World Class Performance Pathway

Every 4 years, UK Sport (via EIS) runs a checking system for athletes on the WCPP, called the Pathway Health Check, to monitor the effectiveness of the performance pathway (considers an athletes progress, fitness, and transitions between junior and senior levels).

Downward lift force and speed skiers

Exactly the same principle of downward lift force applies to speed skiers who need to stay in contact with the ice for faster speed because more downward lift means that more force can be applied to the snow. This melts the snow and gives a better friction-free surface, increasing the velocity of the skier.

Arguments against drug testing

Expensive and time consuming. Level the playing field. Many banned substances are available legally or occur naturally in the body.

Strategies to increase self-efficacy

Experience early success. Observe demonstrations by competent others of a similar ability. Goal setting/challenging but realistic. Use performance instead of outcome goals. Offer verbal encouragement & positive feedback. Develop effective stress management techniques. Use of positive self-talk/Visualisation/imagery/imagining doing it yourself Avoid social comparison with others. Use attributions correctly - attribute successes internally (ability).

Achievement motivation and n.Ach and n.Af

High achievement motivation - need to achieve personality. Low achievement motivation - need to avoid failure.

School sport

Extra-curricular clubs at school e.g. athletics club or rugby club.

Characteristics of physical recreation

FREE TIME - done away from obligations e.g. eat/sleep/work. INFORMAL AND RELAXED - take part for intrinsic rewards e.g. enjoyment, fitness, health, non-serious, relaxed, and casual. SIMPLE/LIMITED ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE - rules are modified and are flexible e.g. length of play adjusted, fluid boundaries, fluid numbers of team. SELF-REGULATED - performers control the activity themselves. PARTICIPATION level of the sports development pyramid. OPPORTUNITY - to engage in a range of activities. VOLUNTARY/CHOICE - individual controls the activity. Choose what activity to do/when/where. No moral obligation and no long-term commitment.

Running as a physical recreation

FREE TIME - run after work when you have no other obligations (leisure time). INFORMAL AND RELAXED - you run to de-stress and forget about worries. You enjoy the run. SELF REGULATED - you make decisions during the activity (no officials). Run at your won pace, following your own route, and for as long as you want. SIMPLE/LIMITED ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE - unlike running as a sport (a race), don't have to follow any rules (like stay in lane/starters gun), and length of run can be modified. VOLUNTARY - you choose to run or jog rather than go to the gym. Don't have to go if feeling tired as no moral obligation. The individual controls the activity.

Characteristics of school sport

FREE TIME and mostly occurs in extracurricular time (lunchtime or after school). CHOICE - pupils can choose from wide range of activities. VOLUNTARY involvement and is relaxed and informal. COMPETITIVE with an emphasis on winning e.g. inter-house/school competitions. SELECTIVE as the coach chooses team for comps. SPECIALIST COACHES employed to develop pupil's talents to the full. Coach controls the activity. SPECIALISMS are developed. STRUCTURED COMPETITVE LEVELS - gives opportunities to perform to a higher standard.

Objective

Fact based data which is measurable and usable. E.g. GPS data on distance covered in metres.

Positive impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the officials

Fame and increased profile, increasing the awareness and the need for officials to support fair play in sport. Increased salary, so could become full time professional (Premier League Football). Increased funding into sports, which is invested into technology to help officials make more accurate decisions (Hawkeye, Goal line technology). Increased funding in sport can also be used to develop a greater support network of officials and greater training to improve standards of officiating.

Positive impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the coach

Fame and increased profile. Increased salaries, particularly in high profile sports like football. Increased funding. Media coverage provides opportunities to analyse opponents and learn from other high level coaches.

What is used with carbohydrates to fuel ATP resynthesis for moderate, aerobic work?

Fat

What do fats carry around the body?

Fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K, which are important for bone growth and health, strengthening the immune system, eye health, and blood clotting.

What is the energy yield of fats compared to carbs?

Fats have twice the energy yield of carb

World Class Talent

Feeds into the pathway to identify those with the potential to progress through the pathway, and places them on development programmes involving training and competing e.g. British Canoeing Sprint Athlete Pathway.

Fielder's contingency model

Fiedler (1967) identified 2 styles of leadership that he deemed to be most effective in certain situations: AUTOCRATIC LEADERS are more effective in both the MOST FAVOURABLE and the LEAST FAVOURABLE situations. DEMOCRATIC LEADERS are more effective in MODERATELY FAVOURABLE situations.

Newton's laws of linear motion

First law - inertia Second law - acceleration Third law - action/reaction

Foam rollers

Foam rolling uses body weight - a performer rolls their body on the foam roller to try to relax the muscle. Involves kneading or rubbing muscles to breakdown scar tissue, improve blood flow, and remove lactic acid. Used to prevent injury and improve mobility. Releases tension and tightness in a muscle, and between the muscles and the fascia (a layer of fibrous connective tissue, which surrounds a muscle or group of muscles). If the rolling hurts, the performer must use their arms to support their body weight and add more weight as the muscle relaxes.

Narrow external attentional style

Focus is directed to one environmental cue: e.g. golfer concentrating on putting

Task centred leadership

Focus is on what has to be done Achievement of the group's goals Needs of individual group members less important

Proprioceptive training

Following injury, proprioception is impaired. Involves hopping, jumping, and balance exercises to restore lost proprioception and to teach the body to control the position of an injured joint subconsciously. E.g. using a balance board to rehabilitate a sprained ankle. Standing on the balance board with an injured ankle quickly strengthens the joint and re-educates the body to react quickly to the wobbly movements without thinking about it.

Newton's third law of linear motion - action/reaction

For every action force, there is an equal and opposite reaction force

Newton's second law of linear motion - acceleration

Force = mass x acceleration The acceleration of a body is proportional to the force causing it, and occurs in the direction of the force

What are trans fats?

Found in fried foods, takeaways, biscuits, cakes, pastries, and hard margarines. Avoid where possible as can increase cholesterol in blood

The sports development pyramid from bottom to top

Foundation, participation, performance, elite

Transverse fractures

Fracture has a horizontal fracture line

Oblique fractures

Fracture has an angled pattern

Examples of acute injuries

Fractures, dislocations, strains, sprains

Positive impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the sport - increased funding

From TV rights/sponsorship/advertising. Invested into the sport at all levels and has led to high quality facilities, top class coaching and training support (sports psychology, sports nutritionists, strength and conditioning coaches), talent ID programmes resulting in improved performance.

How is creatine produced naturally in the body?

From amino acids, and can be consumed by eating meat.

Positive impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the coach - increased funding

From sponsorships and TV rights invested into sport to improve playing squads and support systems e.g. medical support, nutritionists, psychologists, leading to more successful performances.

What are the sources of simple carbohydrates?

Fruits, sweets, jam

First class lever

Fulcrum is in the middle. Find a first class lever whenever the triceps are the agonist e.g. elbow extension, or elbow flexion against gravity.

What are the three components of levers?

Fulcrum, resistance, effort

Iconic Facilities

Fund direct funds to a small number of best practice strategic facility projects designed to increase mass participation across England. These facilities focus on multisport provision and have high participation numbers. MUGAS (multi use game areas) are an example.

Beta blockers

Help to calm an individual down and decrease anxiety by counteracting the adrenaline that interferes with performance by preventing it from binding to nerve receptors. Used by athletes in high precision sports e.g. archery, snooker, golf.

Disadvantages of GPS

GPS is expensive and not accessible by all teams.

Functions of sports analytics - monitor fitness for performance

GPS receivers provide physiological data e.g. distance covered, acceleration, speed. Smart wearable devices (fitbit) gibe instant feedback on heart rate, calories burned, distance covered etc. The effectiveness of training programmes can be monitored and adaptations made to improve fitness and performance.

How does the law aim to protect spectators?

Games played at specified time/kick off times imposed by the police. Pubs banned from opening prior to the game. All seater stadiums/health and safety requirements. Violent/racist individuals prosecuted. Specific laws e.g. can't trespass on the pitch/field on play. Individuals are banned from grounds. Individuals banned from travel abroad. Increased police/security/CCTV. Players fined for inciting crowd violence. Police share info. about known individuals.

Gamesmanship and deviance differences

Gamesmanship is pushing the rules to the absolute limit e.g. verbal sledging, time wasting. Deviance is cheating e.g. taking performance enhancing drugs, match fixing. Gamesmanship is increasingly coached. Deviance is not.

Strategies to decrease spectator violence - increased use of police intelligence

Gather information on known or potential hooligans. Passing specific laws to prevent 'trespass' onto the pitch to try and stop pitch invasions and potential clashes between rival fans.

Trait anxiety

Generally perceive all situations as threatening. Genetic, stable, and enduring. More likely to be anxious in a wider range of situations. Known as A-trait. Competitive trait anxiety - performer generally perceives competition situations as threatening.

Strategies to overcome social loafing

Give the player specific responsibilities. Explain roles. Highlight individual performance - praise, feedback. Video analysis. Small sided games. Vary practice to maintain motivation. Improve fitness. Set challenging but individual roles.

Bracing

Gives extra stability to muscles and joints that are weak or have been previously injured e.g. ankle and knee braces. This prevents further injury. More substantial than taping and often involves hinges supports.

What does GPS stand for?

Global Positioning System

Personal qualities needed to be an elite performer

Goal orientated - firmly established and measurable short and long term goals, giving framework to advance to elite levels. Long term commitment and discipline - ability to set out clearly defined path and stay on it for several years. Single minded and mentally tough. Resilience and perseverance - learn from failure and have a high pain tolerance. Self confidence - high levels of self-belief linked to high technical skill levels. High levels of natural ability and physical fitness - have a range of natural abilities to underpin high levels of skill. Have a high fitness level.

Good goal setting

Goals set should include both process and performance goals. If only outcome goals are set, motivation can be lost if performer perceives winning as too difficult. Goals should focus on personal improvement and be more performance based. Performance goals reduce anxiety and provide more consistent motivation.

Mental rehearsal

Going over the movements of a task in the mind before the action takes place. Best done in a calm environment.

Qualities of a leader

Good Communication, Interpersonal Skills, Empathy with Individuals, Approachable, Highly Knowledgeable, Vision, Effective Decision Making, Inspirational, Confident, Organised, Determined.

Impacts of technology on coaches - allow detailed analysis of individual fitness, skill and technique development

Good because: Allows real time technical and visual feedback to identify strengths and weaknesses of players and coaches can suggest corrective measures to improve performance. Can monitor the effectiveness of training programmes and adaptations made to improve fitness and performance, or to refine skills. HOWEVER: Some technologies are very expensive and only available to elite athletes. Over emphasis on performance analysis data can lead to paralysis by analysis - performers and coaches may become too reliant on data to inform their decision making.

Impacts of technology on the audience - spectators gain more knowledge

Good because: Detailed analysis informs and educates the public about the sport, increasing interest and awareness. HOWEVER: The commentators and expert pundits who may give biased views shapes the viewer's experiences.

Impacts of technology on the audience - improved broadcasting technologies

Good because: Developments in high quality sound and picture technology give a clear and impressive view of the sport. Introduction of digital TV allows for highly individualised experience e.g. camera angle. Allowed for globalisation - world audiences and more opportunities to spectate. HOWEVER: TV viewing can lack the real atmosphere with little sense of being part of the spectacle or playing a role within the contest.

Impacts of technology on the audience - increased involvement and crowd excitement

Good because: Ensures correct decisions are made. Spectators experience less frustration due to fewer incorrect decisions. HOWEVER: When watching on TV at home there's very little interaction with other fans, which for many is a key part of the audience experience.

Impacts of technology on coaches - injury prevention

Good because: Helps coaches make objective decisions about substitutions. HOWEVER: GPS only provides quantitative data, which coaches may not fully understand, and so can have limited value.

Impacts of technology on coaches - analyse games and hep to select teams

Good because: Helps coaches to provide quality feedback to players, and identify errors in performance and suggest corrective measures. HOWEVER: Pure data can be misleading. Performers may be unable to react creatively and instantly to on field problems that may occur. The us of computers leaves coaches potentially open to hackers which might lad to information on weak links being passed on and exploited by the opposition.

Impacts of technology on the audience - improved security and reduced deviant behaviour

Good because: Hooligans can be identified and punished. This can acts as a deterrent, increasing audience safety at matches. HOWEVER: Hooliganism and racism does still exist despite security cameras. Fans can cover their faces to mask identity, or may feel hidden as part of a group.

Impacts of technology on performers - fair play

Good because: Improvements in technology have led to less deviance and have encouraged fair play. HOWEVER: Advanced technologies means that new drugs and masking agents are being developed for which there are no tests. Video playback and Hawkeye can disrupt or slow down play during training - time taken for a playback may knock player off their stride and they could lose focus.

Impacts of technology on the audience - improving standards of performance

Good because: More medals are won and more records are broken, making the sport and exciting spectacle. HOWEVER: As sports become more commercial with advancements in technology, performers are more likely to cheat and win by unfair methods.

Impacts of technology on coaches - talent ID and scouting

Good for comparing players and the relative data. Provides quantitative data on potential recruits (fitness, speed etc.), which can be analysed to identify the best performers. HOWEVER: Time consuming, overpowering, and coaches can become too reliant on quantitative data.

Circuit training evaluations

Good for focusing on specific muscle groups that may be used for activities and can be made sports specific. However, quite static and may be better for games players to use interval or fartlek training to replicate the varying intensity of games.

HIIT/interval training evaluations

Good for improving anaerobic capacity e.g. 10x30m intervals at 95% with 30secs rest to develop the ATP-PC system for a sprinter. Can be used to improve speed for games players HOWEVER, where they need to move at changing paces over longer periods, fartlek training may be more effective.

Ballistic stretching positives

Good for performers like long jumpers as it allows greater range of motion at the hip, allowing a more effective take off. Ballistic stretching is suitable for a long jumper as it is a fast/dynamic and explosive activity requiring a large force of contraction on take off.

Principles of training - progressive overload

Gradually training harder than normal to cause physiological adaptations to the body without potential injury. An increase of 10% per week is often recommended as a max overload.

Forces acting on the body

Gravity, frictional force, air resistance, internal-muscular force, weight

PNF and swimming/sprinting

Greater flexibility allows more efficient technique to be used, which can increase the speed of the performer, or decrease the effort required to travel at the same speed.

What are the sources of vitamin C?

Green vegetables, fruit

Tuckman's 'forming' stage of group formation

Group gets to know each other. Early social relationships form. Work independently of one another.

What are the two types of lipids involved in cholesterol?

HDL - high density lipids LDL - low density lipids

Vectors on a shot put in flight

HORIZONTAL VECTORS - The horizontal velocity vectors remains the same length because air resistance is negligible and horizontal velocity remains the same throughout the flight. VERTICAL VECTORS - A large vertical component on release as the shot travels up and away from the athlete. Vertical velocity decreases on the up phase as weight (gravity) affect the vertical component. At the peak of the parabola, vertical velocity is zero. On the down phase, the vertical vectors are the same length as the opposite side but in a downwards direction. There is a large negative vertical component, as the shot lands, due to the effects of gravity.

Vectors

Have magnitude and direction, a point of application, and a line of application. Have vertical and horizontal components e.g. a sprinter pushes down and back to generate a reaction force up and forwards. EXAMPLES: Long jump - at take off, the athlete will apply a muscular force via contraction of the leg muscles. The force must have a large horizontal component to generate a large ground reaction force to achieve maximal horizontal velocity and distance in the pit. High jump - At take off, the athlete will apply a muscular force via contraction of the leg muscles. The force must have a large vertical component to generate a large ground reaction force to achieve maximal velocity to clear the bar.

Causes of aggressions

High arousal. Nature of the sport - contact/non-contact. Rivalry between teams e.g. local derby match. Importance of the event and expectations. Frustration. Poor officiating. Extrinsic rewards - financial gain, status etc.

Cognitive anxiety before a sporting situation

High in the days/weeks before event. Gets higher as event approaches. Initially decreases as event begins but can fluctuate during the competitions as the likelihood of success and failure changes.

Cons of fartlek training

High intensities can cause injury. Not sports specific for all sports e.g. tennis, squash, or playing positions e.g. outfield player vs GK.

HIIT/interval training cons

High intensities increases stress on joints and may cause injury. Can lead to heart problems due to sudden increase in heart rate. Loss of technique. Needs high levels of motivation.

Drawbacks of caffeine

High levels of caffeine can lead to: Gastrointestinal problems Insomnia and anxiety Diuretic effect leading to dehydration Although caffeine can increase alertness, concentration and reaction time, there is little evidence of a beneficial effect on sprint performance

Impacts of technology on performers - improved support for athletes during training and recovery

High quality facilities. Hyperbaric and cryotherapy chambers for recovery. Good because: It increases the availability of performers to play and train. Increases the chance of winning medals and breaking records. HOWEVER: As players get bigger and stronger due to technological advancements, it can increase the chance of injury to them or their opponents.

Causes of violence - win ethic

High rewards for winning can increase pressure on players to win at all costs and use violence as a way to achieve success.

Home field advantage

Home support tends to improve performance & boost self efficacy - social facilitation effect. More matches are won at home than away. Home effect is more obvious during early rounds of competitions. More Olympic & World medals when hosted by a performers own nation. Home teams tend to play more attacking styles & tactics. Proximity effect - the closeness of crowd has negative effect on visiting teams. Larger crowds and hostile crowds have a negative effect on visiting teams. Away team commit more fouls, can become anxious & over-aroused due to crowd or unfamiliar surroundings.

Aggression

Hostile. Deliberate physical or verbal behaviour. Involves intent to harm or injure. Is outside of the rules. E.g. punch below the belt.

Goal setting principles - time bound

How long? Deadlines. E.g. A team aiming to be in the top four of the league halfway through the season.

Characteristics of groups

INTERACTION of 2 or more people. IDENTICAL GOALS (norms and values) Shared IDENTITY. INTERDEPENDENCE (cohesion). INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS (social cohesion). Structured forms of COMMUNICATION

Assertion

Instrumental. Robust and vigorous behaviour. No intent to harm. Within the rules. Use legitimate force. Also known as channelled aggression - feelings of aggression are diverted into positive actions e.g. working harder, concentrating more etc.

The catastrophe theory - regaining arousal levels

If arousal continues to increase, the performer will be unable to recover. If the performer stops and refocuses, arousal can be controlled back to lower levels, but they will not return immediately to optimal performance. Recovery time can vary depending on the level of over-arousal, the performer, and the duration of the event.

What happens once glycogen stores are depleted?

If not replaced, athletes may hit the wall. If insufficient carbs consumed, it will force the performer to reduce exercise intensity

Importance of choosing correct attentional style

If the correct style is chosen at the right time, then stress is lowered and performance is enhanced.

Chelladurai's multidimensional model of leadership - how to use correct leadership

If the leader's ACTUAL BEHAVIOUR matches the: REQUIRED BEHAVIOUR (the leadership type demanded by the situation) and the PREFERRED BEHAVIOUR (the way the athletes like their leader to relate to them) Then there will be the IDEAL team situation where QUALITY OF PERFORMANCE and SATISFACTION levels are high.

How do you get the peak flow experience to occur?

If the performer is presented with a challenge that is perceives as too great, it will result in anxiety. If the task is too easy, the performer will become bored. To achieve peak flow, performers should be given a task that is realistic yet challenges them at an appropriate level.

Calcium

Important for bone health, muscle contraction, blood clotting, and nerve transmission

Iron

Important for the formation of red blood cells/haemoglobin, enzyme reactions and the immune systems. Reduced iron in the body can lead to less oxygen being delivered to the muscles

Benefits of physical recreation to an individual

Improved HEALTH AND FITNESS (physical and mental) e.g. running improves CV endurance and wellbeing, and endorphins are released. REDUCES STRESS and gives a sense of ENJOYMENT e.g. escape from reality when swimming, relax in non-serious environment. Develop SELF-CONFIDENCE and SELF ESTEEM via achievement and overcoming challenges. DEVELOP SKILLS (physical, motor, cognitive) e.g. improved golf swing, understanding basic movement patterns in aerobic class. SOCIAL SKILLS improve e.g. meet new friends with regular attendance at aerobics.

Benefits of caffeine

Improved aerobic performance, as caffeine allows fats to be mobilised sooner, preserving glycogen for higher intensity bouts of activity and delaying fatigue. Increased nervous stimulation, alertness, concentration and reaction time.

Impacts of technology on performers

Improved clothing, footwear and equipment leading to improved standards of performance. Improved support for athletes during training and recovery. Improved data collection and analysis of performance to identify strengths and weaknesses and improve performance. Fair play.

Benefits of sport to individuals

Improved health and fitness, and advanced physical skill levels e.g. high VO2 max. Increased social opportunities. Develop teamwork. Increase self-confidence and self-esteem. Has intrinsic benefits e.g. pride and satisfaction. Higher cognitive development. Develop positive sporting morals e.g. sportsmanship and fair play. Preparation for a competitive society e.g. learn to win and lose gracefully, respect rules and authority.

Benefits of school sport to an individual

Improved health and fitness. Cognitive development. Skills become more refined. Develops teamwork skills and team spirit. Encourages pride and loyalty of school team, encouraging cohesion. Increased academic achievement - more motivated to attend school. Preparation for competitive society - learn to win and lose gracefully. Structured competitive levels give opportunities to perform to higher standard. Fosters interest later in life - feel confident joining clubs. Boost self-esteem as they experience success.

Process goals

Improvements in technique Can be used as a base so that a better performance can be achieved.

Task-oriented goals

Improvements in technique or performance Motivation is maintained when performance or process goals are used

PNF and tennis players

Improves flexibility at hip, allowing the player to stretch further to return a shot

Benefits of physical recreation to society

Improves physical and mental health, so reductions in stress, heart disease and obesity - less strain on NHS. Economic benefits - buy equipment, gym memberships. Employability improves as gives people new skills e.g. communication, social, improved self-esteem. Highly skilled population increases morale of country. Equality of opportunity in society increases - wider participation base increases numbers progressing to elite levels and winning medals - increased national pride. Social integration and community cohesion improves, as people from different social communities socially interact - increase community morale. Social control increases - positive use of free time so less petty crime.

PNF and gymnastics and dance

Improves range of motion at joints, allowing more advanced, aesthetically pleasing routines, leading to higher scores. Allows more technical accuracy.

Pros of artlek training

Improves stamina and recovery times. Less boring. Can be done anywhere. Sports specific to games players where the demands of the game are constantly changing to involve aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

Impacts of technology on sport

Improves standards of performance. Improved image of a sport, and reduction in deviant behaviour. Allows for globalisation. Increases inclusivity of sport.

Pros of continuous training

Improves the CV and respiratory systems. Increases the ability to take up, transport, and use oxygen more effectively. No need for equipment/can be done anywhere. Simple to do.

Downward lift fore

In sports such as speed skiing, cycling and car racing, the skis, bike, and car need to be pushed down to the ground to create a greater frictional force.

Factors affecting reliability and validity of indirect calorimetry via the metabolic cart

Inaccuracies from air leaks. Possible inaccuracies from measurement and recording errors. The process measures consumption, not needs. Relies on specialist knowledge to interpret results and make them objective (useable).

What can reliability be affected by?

Incorrect use of equipment (skin fold callipers when assessing body composition). Poorly maintained equipment (weighing devices giving inaccurate readings which can affect BMI. Time of day - must repeat tests at a similar time. Playing surface (indoor/outdoor) needs to be consistent.

Negative impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the performer

Increase in extrinsic rewards leading to win at all costs attitude and an increase in deviant behaviour. Increased pressure can lead to anxiety and negatively impact performance, as well as positive and negative deviance. Poor behaviour off the pitch leads to performer becoming poor role models and losing sponsorships. Can start to spend too much time working for sponsors (public appearances) which can negatively impact training and performance. Inequality of funding sees performers in minority sports (badminton) missing out on funding and professional opportunities.

Impacts of technology on sport - allows for globalisation

Increase in global viewing figures via broadcasting technologies (digital TV, video streaming). Good because: Sport now available to mass audience, increasing commercial value of sport. Brings more interest and money via sponsors. Increased revenue for commercialisation can be used to develop sports technology and further improve a sport. Increases participation. HOWEVER: Only the wealthiest countries, sports and teams are able to succeed. The gap widens between the popular and less popular sports.

Benefits of EPO

Increase in red blood cell count, which leads to an increase in haemoglobin, and ultimately an increased O2 carrying capacity of the blood. This increases the amount of work that can be performed. Improved endurance and O2 transport, delaying the onset of fatigue. An athlete can keep going for longer and recover more quickly from fatigue.

Positive impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the sport - increase in the number of events

Increase in the number of events that are more media friendly to generate interest and promote a sport e.g. T20 cricket, darts, Netball Super League.

Positive impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the performer

Increase in wages and availability of full time professional contracts. Increased public profile. Continued professional set up. Encourages performers in public eye to maintain discipline and portray a positive image e.g. sportsmanship and charitable work.

Strategies to decrease spectator violence - community and club links

Increase links between clubs and the community to promote social inclusion. Work with clubs to educate fans in the community about the negative implications of hooliganism e.g. damage to health, potential fines/bans from clubs. Inform the clubs of any known trouble makers in the community and report incidents.

High self-efficacy will...

Increase positive attitude. Increase motivation. Reduce fear of failure/increases need to achieve. Reduce anxiety. Enhance well being. Reach optimal arousal.

What are proteins?

Made up of amino acids. Essential for growth and repair of cells and tissues. Used to make muscle proteins (for growth and repair of muscles), haemoglobin, enzymes, antibodies, and collagen

What will an increase in trait confidence and competitiveness do?

Increase state confidence. Increase self-efficacy. Increase confidence. Facilitate approach behaviour.

Benefits of a sports massage

Increased blood flow to soft tissue so more oxygen and nutrients can pass through to help repair any damage. Removes lactic acid. Stretching of soft tissue to relieve tension and pressure. Breaks down scar tissue, which if not removed can lead to mobility problems in muscles, tendons, and ligaments.

Negative impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the officials

Increased coverage = more pressure to make correct decision (Sky and BT Sport now use ex pro refs. to give instant reviews of key decisions via TV replays. Wrong decisions are scrutinised by media and officials could lose their job or have their reputations damaged. May become dependent on technology that has been developed, and are not confident making decisions without it. Not always available at lower levels of sport.

Benefits of glycoloading

Increased endurance capacity. Delays the onset of fatigue (can increase time to exhaustion by up to 30% for athletes competing for approx. 90 mins). Allows athletes to perform at higher intensities for longer.

Positive impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the sport

Increased funding. Increased public profile. Increased coverage and public awareness. Increased number of events. Increased money for grass roots. Rule changes. Increased funding for technology. Increased spectator interest and involvement (wearing team kit).

Home field advantage - problems with the home crowd

Increased pressure from the home crowd. The more important the game the greater the pressure from home fans - choking effect. Performers become more self-conscious at home causing over-arousal. Players place more pressure on themselves at home matches due to high audience expectations. Social inhibition for the home team. Evaluation apprehension for the home team.

What are the impacts of too much unsaturated fat in the diet?

Increased risk of cardiovascular disease, which can greatly reduce a performers cardiovascular endurance/stamina. Can limit flexibility at the joints. Can lead to high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and coronary heart disease

The inverted-U hypothesis

Increases in arousal cause an increase in performance up to an optimal point. At the optimal point, the performer will give a maximal level of performance. Beyond that point, performance deteriorates. DIFFERENT SKILLS NEED DIFFERENT LEVELS OF AROUSAL: Gross skills require higher arousal level than fine skills to reach optimal levels. Simple skills need higher than complex. Open skills require lower levels due to cognitive nature. DIFFERENT PERFORMERS NEED DIFFERENT LEVELS OF OPTIMAL AROUSAL: Novices require lower arousal to reach optimal levels than experts. Extroverts can cope with higher arousal levels than introverts.

Benefits of a Whole Sport Plan

Increases participation (widens base of pyramid so more progression to top). Increases funding to sport if successful in meeting targets, and can be used to develop elite performers and increase medal count. NGB's are accountable for their use of funds (WSP are measurable - medal count, improved performance at elite levels, success of talent ID). NGB's share good practice e.g. British Cycling would have looked at British Rowing when they developed their WSP. Increases the number of qualified and specialist coaches (leading to improved athletic performances).

The catastrophe theory

Increasing arousal leads to increased performance up to an optimal level. If cognitive and somatic anxiety and arousal are high, there is a dramatic decline in performance (unlike inverted-U where the decline is more gradual). Arousal simply becomes too high for the performer to cope with. Performance is uncoordinated and more out of control than normal. Shock at how bad the performance is may increase anxiety further.

Positive impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the coach - fame and increased profile

Increasing awareness due to increased media coverage. Increases public awareness of their role.

Benefits of goal setting

Increasing motivation leading to task persistence/perseverance. Improving confidence (when a target is reached). Regulating & sustaining effort. Setting goals improves performance.

How does too much cognitive arousal affect performance?

Indecision. Negative thoughts. Poor concentration. Irritability. Fear. Loss of confidence. Images of failure.

Causes of social loafing

Individual effort is not measured effectively. They are able to hide within group. The task may lack meaning for the individual. May be role conflict or a lack of understanding of role. Lack of fitness. Rely on others to do well. May feel their efforts will go unnoticed.

Agression - instinct theory

Individuals are born with a drive to be aggressive - innate. Will be aggressive in all situations, including sport. Sport will often make these people more aggressive. HOWEVER, The theory suggests that performers use sport as a means of catharsis. Performers release aggressive tendencies on the field of play in an acceptable manner. This should reduce antisocial and destructive behaviour off the field of play.

Theories of aggression

Instinct theory (trait theory). Frustration-aggression hypothesis. Aggressive cue hypothesis. Social learning theory.

Negative impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the coach

Intense pressure to be successful and win. High public expectations. Coaches can be sacked quickly. Hire and fire culture. Expectation to deal with the media and answer questions can be difficult. Inequality of sponsorships and funding means coaches at lower level clubs find it harder to attract the best players to their clubs and sports (financially disadvantaged).

Groups - social cohesion

Interaction of players and their interpersonal relationships (like each other & get on well socially) Individuals commit to the social goals of the group.

Forces acting on the body - internal-muscular force

Internal muscular forces are created by contraction of the skeletal muscles allowing a body to push off the ground or move another body. This generates a reaction force. If the reaction force is large enough to overcome a body's inertia, then movement will occur.

Positive impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the sport - more money from commercialisation for grass roots level

Invested into participation initiatives at grass roots level. New clubs develop, and the base of the sports development pyramid widens, so more people progress to elite levels.

Person (or relationship) centred leadership

Involve the group in decision making. May sacrifice success for good interpersonal relationships.

What is periodisation?

Involves dividing the year into blocks or sections when specific training occurs. These blocks of time are referred to as cycles, and periodisation divides training into three cycles: Macrocycle (big/whole) Mesocycle Microcycle

Ballistic stretching

Involves fast bouncing or swinging movements. The performer uses the momentum of a moving limb to attempt to force it beyond its normal range of motion at the joint. Increases range of motion at the joint. Fast and dynamic, replicating muscle and joint requirements in an activity. A gymnast may use ballistic stretching in a warm up as the bouncing achieves a greater range of motion, preparing them to perform moves requiring higher levels of flexibility e.g. pommel horse dismount. The ballistic stretching during the warm up reduces the likelihood of injury during the competition.

Objective data

Involving facts, and are measurable. E.g. Wingate test measures anaerobic power. Performer cycles as fast as possible for 30 seconds on a cycle ergometer. A counter measures how many times the flywheel completes one full turn in 5 second intervals.

Subjective data

Involving opinions, interpretations, assumptions and beliefs. Sub-maximal tests often rely on data that is predictive, so more subjective e.g. Harvard Step Test, Multistage Fitness Test

Why would a unified approach to the elimination of drugs in sport by all countries and sports be good?

It would help to ensure equality between sports and competitors. Clarify for all a standard list of banned substances, testing procedures, and punishments. It would enable the high cost of testing to be shared between all sports and countries. Enable random, out of competition testing via improved access to performers who would not be able to pick and choose sports based on drug testing procedures and practices.

Fulcrum location in levers

Joint

When to use autocratic/task orientated leadership

Larger groups/teams. Older players. Male performers. Novices or weaker performers. Quick decisions required. Limited time to complete task. Clear and specific goals. Complex or dangerous tasks.

The Achilles Tendon

Largest tendon in the body connecting gastrocnemius to the heel bone

Positive impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the sport - rule changes

Lead to speeding up the action, making the sport more entertaining e.g. penalty shoot outs, multi ball system in football to reduce time wasting, badminton now score on every point, 5 points for a try in rugby to make it more exciting.

Autocratic leadership

Leader dictates. Little or no input from members in terms of decision making. Task Orientated - Main Focus is to complete the goal as soon as possible.

Laissez faire leadership

Leader leaves the group to their own devices, allowing them to make their own decisions & offering little help with decision making process.

Positive impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the sport - increased coverage and public awareness

Leads to an increase in fans and spectators, as well as revenue from sponsors.

Creatine effect during training

Lengthen the duration of training at higher intensities to increase muscle mass and develop strength and power (e.g. weight lifter will have more energy to lift more reps per set so will result in strength gains over time). When combined with a weight training programme, maximum and explosive strength/power gains can be achieved. This allows the performer to lift heavier weights in training, push off the blocks faster in sprinting, or throw further etc.

Benefits of physical education to society

Less strain on NHS. Employability improves, as gain new skills. Equality of opportunity in sport. Social integration and community cohesion. Social control.

What is a cool down?

Light exercise following the activity to keep the pulse elevated and the skeletal muscle pump working. Heart rate and breathing rate are then gradually reduced, followed by stretching.

How has technology helped disabled people to play sport?

Lightweight wheelchairs for basketball and tennis to enable fast paced movements, sharp turns, and lots of agility. Angled wheels for stability, a T-frame with a third wheel at the front for precision steering and balance for road racing. Strong reinforced frame wheelchairs with impact and foot protection for rugby. Cross country sit skis - allows skiers to sit down and push themselves around a set course. New materials for prosthetic limbs have developed e.g. carbon flex fibre. Prosthetic leg devices e.g. the Springlite Prosthesis Device - designed to assist athletes in running via improved gait efficiency.

Football as physical recreation

Limited and flexible rules e.g. rules adapted and length of play modified e.g. 10 min kick about in the park, uneven numbers etc. Self-regulated e.g. decisions made during play by participants, not by officials.

Side effects of anabolic steroids

Liver damage. Heart and immune problems. Acne. Behaviour changes such as aggression, paranoia, and mood swings.

Bernard Weiner's causal attribution model - what are the two dimensions?

Locus of control/causality (internal/external). Locus of stability (stable/unstable)

What durations are fats used as an energy source for?

Long duration activities, and therefore allow endurance performers to last the duration of long events. There is enough fat stored in the body to fuel activity for hours

Second class lever - mechanical advantages and disadvantages

Long effort arm. Short resistance arm. Mechanical advantage - can generate larger forces with minimal effort to move a large resistance e.g. can lift the whole body onto the toes. Mechanical disadvantage - slow with a limited range of movement APPLIED EXAMPLES: The second class lever at the ankle during the take off for a jump allows a performer to generate height with minimal effort e.g. to clear hurdle, clear bar in high jump, jump for a header. A hurdler combines the second class lever at the ankle to achieve height to clear the hurdle, with third class levers at the hip and knee to quickly throw the leading leg to gain forwards movement and quickly prepare the lower body for the next hurdle.

Third class lever - mechanical advantages and disadvantages

Long resistance arm. Short effort arm. Mechanical advantage - large range of movement. Resistance or load can be moved quickly. Mechanical disadvantage - cannot apply much force to move an object. Need to apply a force that is much larger than the resistance to be moved. APPLIED EXAMPLES: The third class lever at the hip allows a long jumper to throw legs forwards (with wide range of motion) quickly to gain forwards movement and jump further. The third class lever at the hip and knee allows a sprinter to achieve a high knee lift quickly and be ready for the next drive phase to achieve acceleration.

Goal setting principles - evaluate

Look at successes and failures. E.g. The team did not make the top four (attack was good, but defending was poor).

Principles of training - reversibility

Losing fitness levels when you stop exercising

Causes of violence from spectators - diminished responsibility as part of a large group

Lost in the crowd - feel that they can get away with violence and won't get caught.

Somatic anxiety before a sporting situation

Lower in the days before the event. Increases in the hours before the event. Decreases rapidly as the event starts.

What are the different methods of glycogen loading?

METHOD ONE (begins one week before competition and can result in 50% higher glycogen stores ready for competition day). Day 1 - glycogen depleting bout of endurance exercise. Day 2-3 - Follow a low car, high protein, high fat diet. Day 4 - Glycogen depleting bout of endurance exercise. Day 5-7 - High carbohydrate diet while training is tapered or reduced to resting. Increase water consumption throughout. METHOD TWO On the day before competition, athlete performs 3 minutes of high intensity exercise. Carb window opens. Within 20 minutes, athlete consumes high carbohydrate diet. METHOD THREE Non depletion protocol - reduce training intensity the week before competition. Then, three days before comp, follow a high carbohydrate diet and light training.

Steiner's model of group productivity - faulty group processes

MOTIVATION FACTORS: Individuals display decreased motivation & effort. Loss of concentration & low self confidence. Expect others to do the work. Social Loafing. COORDINATION FACTORS: Skills not interwoven into unity. Tactical failings/lack of teamwork. Poor teamwork & tactics. Interactive teams suffer more from this. Ringlemann Effect.

Examples of attitudes

May have a poor attitude towards weight training, therefore put in a half hearted approach. A team game player may have a poor attitude towards a certain ref, causing them to disagree with all their decisions.

Cons of self-report questionnaires

May misinterpret questions. May give socially desirable answers. Time to complete tests can influence responses.

How effective are bans, fines, and loss of pay in decreasing violence in sport?

May not be effective in sports such as football due to the players' huge salaries. Player violence still exists as players are still being rewarded red cards.

Scalar quantities

Measurements based on magnitude (size) only.

CSAI-2 test

Measures cognitive state, somatic state, and self-confidence in a competition situation. Complete up to an hour before the start of an event. Each question refers to either a cognitive or somatic stress response. Coach can evaluate data and identify weaknesses that may hinder performance.

Sports competition anxiety test (SCAT)

Measures competitive trait anxiety in a pre-competition sporting environment. Respond to 15 statements. Can assess if a performer is prone to experiencing high anxiety pre-competition.

Biofeedback - stress management technique

Measures of stress such as heart rate; galvanic skin response; electromyography that measures muscular tension Helps performer recognise signs of stress

Broad internal attentional style

Mental analysis of numerous cues: e.g. analyse tactics and game plan

Narrow internal attentional style

Mental practice of one or two important cues. e.g. concentrate on weakness.

Preventing social inhibition

Mental rehearsal/imagery/visualisation, Train in front of others and gradually increase the numbers, Improve selective attention and cut out the effect of the audience, Gradually introducing evaluation Ensure skills are over-learned to encourage the dominant habit to occur as the levels of arousal increase.

What are some sources of protein?

Milk, eggs, meat, and soya

Is protein a minor or a major source of energy?

Minor

Positive impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the performer - continued professional set up

Money from commercialisation (e.g. TV rights) being invested by the clubs (e.g. access to high quality training facilities and support such as the best coaches, sports nutritionists, and psychologists, helping performers to achieve and maintain peak performance.

Functions of sports analytics

Monitor fitness for performance. Skill and technique development. Injury prevention. Game analysis. Talent ID/scouting.

Support requirements to become and elite performer - funding

More likely to progress if funding available to pay for training, specialist coaches and equipment. EXAMPLES: Private funding (family, scholarships at school and uni, sponsorships - kit). Performers on the World Class Performance Pathway can access public funding via National Lottery (athlete personal award).

Impulse graphs - early phase of a race

More propulsive impulse (positive) than braking impulse (negative). Net impulse is positive. The performer is accelerating. Positive aspect of the graph is bigger than the negative, showing that the athlete has applied a large force via contraction of the leg muscles during the drive phase, to generate a large ground reaction force and achieve acceleration.

Sleep and recovery

More sleep needed following a heavy exercise programme. Deep sleep rebuilds the damage done to the muscle cells caused by strenuous exercise. Deepest part of sleep is the third stage of non-REM sleep. During the third stage non-REM sleep, brainwaves are at their slowest and blood flow is directed away from the brain towards the muscles to restore energy. If sleep is too short, then the time for repair is cut short. Most elite athletes need a minimum of 8-9 hours sleep each night.

Stress fractures

Most common in the weight bearing bones of the legs. Occur when the amount of exercise or intensity of exercise increase too quickly. Happens when muscles become fatigued and are no longer able to absorb the added shock of exercise. The fatigued muscle eventually transfers the stress overload to bone and the result is a tiny crack - a stress fracture.

Achievement goal theory

Motivation & task persistence depend on the type of goals set by the performer and how they measure success.

Linear motion

Movement in a straight or curved line with all body parts moving the same distance at the same speed, in the same direction.

Effort location in levers

Muscle

For movement to occur, what must the force applied be?

Must be large enough to overcome inertia

How can a coach maintain motivation after a defeat?

NEVER attribute failure to Internal/Stable factors e.g. Ability. Attribute Failure to: Internal/Unstable factors e.g. Effort. External/Unstable Factors e.g. Luck. External/Stable Factors e.g. Task Difficulty. External Control - areas a player cannot influence. Self Serving Bias. Attribution Retraining.

How does too much somatic arousal affect performance?

Nausea. Increased respiration rate. Sweating. Vomiting. Clammy hands and feet. Loss of appetite. Butterflies in stomach. Sleeplessness. Adrenaline surge. Increased blood pressure. Pounding heart.

Drawbacks of observation to measure anxiety

Need several observers to note all action. Performer must be well known to the observer. Observation can cause extra anxiety.

Why do performers need to use periodisation?

Need to programme their training year carefully so that they can improve performance and reduce the risk of injury. Some sports require an athlete to peak more than once in a season. A long-distance athlete may want to peak in winter during the cross-country season and again in the summer on the track. An international footballer may want to peak for an important cup final for his club, and for a cup competition later in the year for his country. These performers have to follow a double periodised year.

Cons of PNF

Needs a partner. Incorrect technique may lead to injury. Only focuses on flexibility, but in lots of sports other components of fitness are more important e.g. anaerobic power in swimming - HIIT may be more effective. Reduces power and speed if performed immediately prior to activity so is not an appropriate warm up. Due to passive nature of stretches and the overriding of the stretch reflex, risk of injury is increased if precautions such as a thorough warm up and a knowledgeable performer are adhered to.

Social and psychological repercussions of taking performance enhancing drugs for the performer

Negative effect on emotional and psychological wellbeing. Punishment - can result in legal action against athletes e.g. fined, banned from competing, stripped of medals and earnings, jailed (Marion Jones as part of the BALCO scandal). Athletes can lose their good reputation following a positive drugs test - doping infringements are widely reported in the media, so their future career prospects are negatively impacted, and so they have a loss of income and sponsorship deals.

Implications of spectator violence

Negative image of sport causes decline in participation. Spectator attendance declines. Supporters may be banned from attending - matches may have to be played behind closed doors. Teams may be banned from competing, lose points, or be fined. Sponsors and commercial deals may be withdrawn, having financial implications for the club and their ability to pay players. May need more police and stewards at events, increasing the cost to the club. Relationships with the local community/other countries may break down, negatively affecting the opportunity to host future events.

Effects of cognitive anxiety on performance

Negative linear relationship. As cognitive anxiety increases, performance decreases.

Officials and negligence

Negligence = Failure in the duty of care to a player. Officials have a legal obligation towards participants to make sure that all dangers around them are eliminated so that they can participate in a contest in a safe environment.

Impulse graphs - end of race

Net impulse is negative. The performer is decelerating. The negative aspect of the graph is bigger than the positive. The landing foot hits the ground for a longer time than during the race. The negative (braking) impulse is more than the positive (propulsive impulse) causing the athlete to slow. Often caused by the performer switching to glycolysis, which produces ATP more slowly so the muscles cannot exert as much force.

Benefits of taking sodium bicarbonate

Neutralises the negative effect of lactic acid and hydrogen ions, and reduces the acidity of the muscles. Increases the buffering capacity and tolerance to lactic acid. This will delay OBLA, which will delay fatigue and allow the performer to work at higher intensities for longer.

What are the functions of fibre?

Normal functioning of the large intestine. Slows down the time it takes to break down food, which provides a slower sustained release of energy, benefitting endurance performers. Prevents constipation. Assists with the breakdown of glucose (benefits endurance and activities fuelled by the anaerobic glycolytic system). High fibre diet can reduce cholesterol, the risk of diabetes, and obesity

Drawbacks of screening

Not always 100% accurate and problems may be missed (false negative). Can sometimes identify problems that do not exist (false positive). Can increase anxiety when an athlete finds out that they have a health problem or are susceptible to injury.

Examples of gamesmanship

Not declaring or admitting to a foul/contradict referee/claim for decision knowing its not theirs e.g. not walking out when in cricket. Verbal sledging/abuse/distraction of opponent. Time wasting to ensure victory. Delaying play at a restart to get back in defence and keep possession of the bal. Pre-match psyching out tactics. Taking an injury time out, toilet break, or appealing the decision of an umpire to try to upset the concentration of opponents.

Causes of violence from spectators - lack of effective deterrents and punishments

Nothing to deter individuals from involving themselves in violence at football matches.

Benefits of video and analysis programmes

Objective feedback can be given by the coach linked to this data to refine technique and improve performance. Analysis can take place immediately after performance e.g. trackside or in a lab. Could reduce injury due to improvement of poor technique. Split screens can be used to compare the performer to the ideal model, or themselves earlier in the season.

What are the three ways to measure anxiety?

Observation. Questionnaire or self-report test. Physiological measures

Dislocations

Occur at joints when the ends of the articulating bones are forced out of position. Common after falls or contact with other players e.g. football tackles. Common in contact sports.

Sprains

Occur when ligaments are stretched too far or tear. Often occur when there is lots of twisting and turning and excessive force applied to a joint.

Chronic injuries

Occurs after playing sport or exercise for a long time. Often called overuse injuries. Develop slowly and last a long time - often ignored by performers which can make injuries worse.

Forces acting on the body - frictional force

Occurs when 2 or more bodies are in contact with one another. Sliding friction force - when dry friction acts between 2 surfaces that are moving relative to one another. Acts in the opposite direction to motion (possible slippage). Gives players grip and prevents sliding. Static friction force - force exerted by one surface on another where there is no motion between the 2 surfaces e.g. static friction between sole of shoe and netball court.

The peak flow experience

Occurs when sports performers experience a situation when the timing of movements and actions appears perfect. They can do no wrong and everything seems to work. They perform to the best of their ability.

Taping

Often used in recovery to give the ankles, which are prone to sprains, extra support to prevent further injury. Kinesiology tape is used on muscles to decrease pain and swelling. Tape is applied directly to the skin to provide controlled support as the muscle moves.

Circuit training

Often used to improve muscular endurance. Can be designed to develop the aerobic and anaerobic systems. Periods of work at station, interspersed with periods of rest. Stations can be designed to be sport specific. Involves a number of different stations/exercises. Each station works a different muscle group. Resistance used is an athletes body weight. Number and variety of stations must be considered. Number of reps or time at each station, and length of rest interval need to be considered. Layout should ensure same body part is not exercised continuously to allow for recovery. Improves fast twitch fibres.

What are the sources of vitamin D?

Oily fish, made by the body

Angle of release - release height equal to landing height

Optimal angle of release is 45 degrees. E.g. long jump or a lofted pass in football

Angle of release - release height below landing height

Optimal angle of release must be greater than 45 degrees. E.g. bunker shot in golf or shooting in netball or basketball

Angle of release - release height greater than landing height

Optimal angle of release needs to be less than 45 degrees. E.g. shot putt

Hollander's model of personality - role related behaviours

Our behaviour at any given time depending on circumstances and our perception at that time. Most changeable aspect. Our behaviour alters to suit the situation. May appear out of character e.g. normally calm but become aggressive if provoked.

Types of goals

Outcome goals Task-orientated goals Performance goals Process goals

Positive deviance

Over conformity to the sports ethic e.g. over training or performing with an injury. E.g. Paula Radcliffe 2004 Athens - did her best to win despite carrying injury - pulled out of race part way through. When a performer strives to win within the rules/etiquette but accidentally, and without intent, injures another player.

Arguments against drug testing - level the playing field

PEDs enhance physical performance and psychological attributes, allowing athletes to train longer and recover faster. This increases the chance of success. Lots of other athletes are taking drugs, so they are necessary to level the playing field. IMPACT - High performances will lead to more spectators, sponsors, and more money for the sport and performer. Spectators, sponsors and media want best performances possible. More records will be broken.

Fielder's contingency model - leadership in moderately favourable situations

PERSON CENTRED. Some harmony. Some clarity. Need for consultation. Reasonable ability. Moderate motivation. Limited support.

How UK Sport Talent ID programmes find talent

PHASE 1 - TALENT SEARCH National campaign open to all. Athletes submit application to UK Sport. If successful, invited to phase 1 testing. Phase 1 testing includes physical and skill based tests e.g. sprints, jumps, aerobic fitness and strength tests. Also includes analysis of each athletes training and comp. history. PHASES 2 AND 3 Further assessment of an athletes suitability for the sport, and preparation for training and development. Includes physical and medical screening, performance lifestyle workshops and psychological assessments. CONFIRMATION PHASE Selected athletes train over 6-12 months. They are fully immersed in sports training environment. Continuously assessed, and rate of progress is recorded to judge suitability for elite sport and for WCPP funding. Unsuccessful athletes are given opportunities to continue the sport through the club system.

Symptoms of chronic injuries

Pain when you compete or exercise. A dull ache when you rest. Swelling.

Top five factors affecting the formation of attitudes

Parents, peers, teachers/coaches, role models, media

Amateurism

Participation in sport for the love of it, with no financial gain.

How is sportsmanship maintained at the highest levels in sport

Penalties during the event e.g. bookings/sinbin/free kicks. Penalties after the event e.g. bans/fines. Fair play awards to promote positive role models. Use of technology to help match officials make the correct decision. Matches played behind closed doors/spectators banned from watching. Fair play charters/code of conduct/campaigns. Rigorous drug testing to ensure fairness and catch out drug cheats.

Competitive co-actors

People in direct competition with the performer

Audience

People watching the event live or at home

Social reinforcers

People who have a direct impact on performance e.g. coach

Bandura's model of self-efficacy - emotional arousal

Perception of effects of anxiety on performance. Helps performer interpret their arousal in a positive way. Perceiving Somatic and Cognitive Anxiety before participation in a positive manner is more likely to develop high self efficacy.

Creatine benefit during performance

Perform at higher intensities for longer/run quicker during the race

Social and psychological rewards of taking performance enhancing drugs on a performer

Performance in elite competitions creates high pressure situations which may negatively impact performance. Taking PEDs to steady nerves gives athletes a greater change to perform at their optimum. Can boost confidence and self-belief in the performer. Can positively improve performance and bring fame and fortune for those who evade detection. Can lead to more success and an increase in commercial interest e.g. media and sponsors.

Progressive muscular relaxation

Performer alternates between a state of tension in a group of muscles to a state of relaxation, usually done to instructions.

Positive self-talk

Performer replaces negative thoughts with positive ones Used to focus attention on a tactic. To overcome a bad habit

Co-actors

Performers carrying out the same task but not in direct competition.

Examples of how amateurism is still evident today

Performers have to show fair play and sportsmanship as they are role models and must understand their responsibilities. Need to maintain a positive image to retain sponsorship and commercial deals. Fair Play Awards. Shaking hands before and after competition. Promoted at events - The Olympic Games (biggest amateur competition in the world). The Olympic Ideal is underpinned by the principles of amateurism. Rugby Union maintained amateur code until late 20thC - still have codes of conduct based on these principles e.g. call ref. 'sir'.

Characteristics of being in the zone of optimal functioning

Performing at optimal levels of arousal. Feeling calm. Complete attentional control. Performing on 'autopilot'. Feeling completely confident that success is inevitable. Performing smoothly and efficiently.

Hollander's definition of personality

Personality is the sum total of an individual's characteristics which make him/her unique.

What does confidence depend on?

Personality, situation, past experiences

Two most commonly used methods of changing attitudes

Persuasive communication. Cognitive dissonance.

Tangible rewards

Physical rewards such as medals and money. These should be used sparingly with young athletes to avoid a situation where winning a prize is more important than competing well.

Somatic arousal

Physiological e.g. sweaty palms, increased heart rate, butterflies, tension, shaking.

Somatic anxiety

Physiological. Awareness of arousal, sweaty palms, high heart rate, increased heart rate, tense muscles.

Somatic stress

Physiological. Increases in heart rate & sweating Feeling sick Muscular tension

Broad external attentional style

Picking up wide range of cues from environment e.g. position of players in game

Psychological skills training - stress management techniques

Players can train and practice any of the methods above.

Sportsmanship

Playing by the unwritten rules of etiquette. Fair play.

Factors affecting peak flow experience

Poor mental preparation. Environmental influences (crowd, referee). Effect of injury or fatigue.

Causes of violence from spectators - actions on the pitch

Poor officiating or frustration with match officials heightens tensions between rival fans. Violence on the pitch by players is reflected in the crowd. Frustration at ones own team losing can lead to some in the crowd becoming violent.

Goal setting principles - specific

Positional and sports specific. E.g. a netball centre aiming to improve agility.

Development of approach behaviours

Positive childhood experiences - encouraging feelings of pride & satisfaction through success (intrinsic rewards). Reducing punishment and negative feelings. Allowing success by gradually increasing the task difficulty but ensuring that challenging tasks are set. Improving confidence - raising levels of self efficacy. Goal setting - appropriate outcome or task orientated goals. Attribute success internally - effort & ability. Reinforcement - Providing praise & rewards from significant others such as a coach.

Drawbacks of creatine supplementation

Potential side effects may outweigh the benefits: Muscle cramps Bloating and weight gain Dehydration Nausea Possible liver damage Research indicates the effect of creatine of performance is inconclusive. Can be expensive to buy supplements so not available to all. Some may argue that there is a fine line between supplementation and doping and consider it cheating or unethical

What types of athletes are likely to consume the most protein?

Power athletes, e.g. weightlifters, for growth and repair of muscle tissues, however, endurance athletes also require protein in the diet for similar reasons

Intangible rewards

Praise, recognition, and achievements. These should be used on a regular basis to encourage the athlete to repeat the behaviour which earned the praise.

How can a coach reduce the aggressive tendencies of one of their players?

Praise/reinforce assertive behaviour. Remove cues/factors causing aggression. Remove/penalise aggressive player. Teach stress management techniques to reduce arousal. Teach cognitive techniques/imager/self-talk. Encourage performance-related rather than outcome related goals. Stop encouraging/reinforcing aggressive behaviour.

Bandura's model of self-efficacy - performance accomplishments

Previous successes at the task - the most important factor! If you have done something successfully before, you will be confident in doing it again. A cricket batsman who has developed a particular shot in training & scored runs regularly using the skill in a game, will be confident in using the skill again. FLIP SIDE: Repeated failures can give rise to a downward performance spiral & a 'snowball effect' where performer begins to believe that success is not possible - PAULA RADCLIFFE

What can affect the reliability of the data collected by GPS?

Problems with battery life and location of satellites. Poorly maintained equipment or cheaper versions of GPS can compromise accuracy e.g. underestimate speed and distance. Researchers who do not know how to use equipment correctly. GPS will only provide quantitative data which coaches may not understand, and so can have limited value.

Examples o sportsmanship

Professional footballers returning ball to opponents when it has been kicked out of play to allow injured players to have treatment. Cricketers 'walking' when they know they have made contact between the bat and ball and it has been caught. Professionals showing good grace when returning to play at former clubs - not celebrating goal or try. Verbally congratulating opponent.

Parabolic flight path

Projectiles with a large weight force will move slowly through the air e.g. shot putt. Weight is the dominant force (the resultant force is closest to weight) so it will move slowly through the air. Air resistance is considered to be negligible (horizontal force does not slow it down - only the vertical force of gravity affects it). It will follow a parabolic flight path. Symmetrical

Examples of injury rehabilitation methods

Proprioceptive training, strength training, hyperbaric chambers, cryotherapy, hydrotherapy

National Institutes of Sport

Provide access to top class facilities and high quality coaches. Provide sport science support. Provide sport medicine support. Provide performance lifestyle support programmes. Research and innovation team. Work in partnerships with other organisations.

Examples of a coaches duty of care

Provide first aid equipment so that injured players are dealt with. Maintain the correct supervision numbers to allow safe participation. Collect medical information and contact details so any incidents can be dealt with. E.g. a coach could be sued for negligence if they allowed a basketball session to take place on a wet sports hall floor. If a child slips and hurts themselves, they have failed in their duty of care to ensure participation in a safe environment.

What kind of energy do fats provide?

Provide slow release energy for long durations

Benefits of the World Class Performance Pathway

Provides financial support for athletes e.g. Athlete Personal Award. Athlete has access to high quality facilities and coaching. Access to sports science and sports medicine support. Access to performance lifestyle advice to ensure focus remains tightly on training and performance. Access to the newest innovations in training, technology and equipment.

Cognitive arousal

Psychological e.g. worry, negative thoughts, nervousness, anxiety, attentional narrowing, poor selective attention.

Cognitive anxiety

Psychological. Feelings of nervousness, apprehension and worry, loss of concentration, perceptual narrowing, doubt your own ability to complete a task.

Strategies to overcome player violence

Punishments during game (bookings/sending off) - officials must be consistent, remain calm, and make accurate decisions. Punishments after game (heavy fines, long bans, deduction of points from clubs) - this can reduce violence, as players can be banned from a number of games and lose pay. Fair Play Awards. Codes of conduct - all players must follow it, and be aware of the consequences of violent play. Improved refereeing - use of technology means violent acts are no longer easy. Additional referee to reduce frustration by incorrect decisions. Technology. Rugby League 'on report' system - a referee can highlight an incident of violent play immediately to a panel of independent reviewers after the game.

Drawbacks of video and analysis programmes

Pure data can be misleading at times e.g. a performer may not have covered many metres n a game but the tactics and game context may not have required them to do so. Coaches must know what the data means and what to do with it (subjective). Performers may be unable to react creatively and instantly to on field problems that may occur. The use of computers leaves coaches potentially open to hackers which might lead to information on weak links being passed on and exploitation by the opposition.

Functions of sports analytics - game analysis

Quantitative data about an individual or team can be gathered during performance e.g. monitor the amount of court covered by netballer during game to ascertain if position is played effectively (via GPS or Performance Analysis). Tactics can be monitored and evaluated via performance analysis e.g. possession area of the court that results in the most goals being scored.

Goal setting principles - re-do

Re-visit the failures. E.g. Aim to be in the top four at the three quarter point in the season, with improved defending.

Impact of arousal on performance - optimal arousal

Reaction times are fast. We can screen out irrelevant information (effective cue utilisation - detect the cues required to complete task effectively).

Persuasive communication

Receiver must be ready for the message (level of education), and must be motivated to change. The persuader must be: high status, significant other, popular, credible, from a similar social and cultural background. The message must be of good quality (accurate, clear, logical and motivating), the timing of the message must be right.

Proprioception

Receptor nerves in the muscles, joints and tendons informing the brain of the position of body parts and how fast body parts are moving.

Imagery

Recreate an image of a previous successful action (recall the feeling of the movements). Recall emotions of successful actions (builds confidence) Avoid stress by imagining a calm place.

Sources of vitamin B-12

Red meat and dairy

Benefits of hyperbaric chambers

Reduces recovery time for an injury. Reduces pressure at an injured site and reduces swelling.

Benefits of sport to society

Reduces strain on NHS as improves health and fitness. Increased social control - less petty crime. Increased social integration and community cohesion. Employability skills e.g. communication, teamwork, and opportunities for specific jobs e.g. coaches, personal trainers. Economic benefits to sport and leisure industry. Wider participation base = more medals.

Benefits of whole body cryotherapy

Reduces swelling and oedema, enabling the muscle to have more movement. Reduces DOMS which helps athletes perform optimally in training sessions in the following days. Targets the whole body and not just a particular muscle. Much less time consuming compared to ice baths and more pleasant. Body returns back to normal much quicker.

Why do sports performers get massages?

Regular exercise can cause a build-up of tension in a muscle, which can place stress on the muscle, joints, tendons, and ligaments.

Measures to maintain data integrity

Regularly backing up data (storing a copy in an alternative location). Controlling access to data and protecting against malicious intent via security mechanisms (data encryption to lock data). Designing interfaces which prevent the input of invalid data (input validation). Using error detection and correction software when transmitting data (data valuation). Access controls to regulate who and what can use or view data.

Sodium

Regulates water content and maintains electrolyte balance. Involved in nerve functioning. Too much can increase the risks of high blood pressure and strokes

Water after exercise

Rehydrate after exercise. Sweat rate calculation - a performer can weigh themselves before exercise first thing in the morning and weigh after exercise to compare the figures. For every kg of body weight you lose, drink up to a litre and a half of fluid.

HIIT/interval training

Repetitions of short periods of high intensity, anaerobic work (80-95%) followed by short recovery period of active recovery or rest (20 secs work/10 secs recovery). Complete 6-8 cycles. Improves anaerobic power. Involves a work:rest ratio. Many variables can be altered such as: Duration of work interval Intensity/speed of work interval Number of sets Number of reps Duration of recovery Number of work intervals and recovery periods.

What is a drawback of fats as an energy source?

Require lots of oxygen for breakdown, and breakdown is slow, meaning that they can only be used under aerobic conditions

National Governing Bodies

Responsible for individual sports e.g. RFU, FA, England Netball. Responsible for administration of sport (handle misconduct/ensure rules followed, select national teams, distribute funding. Produce a Whole Sport Plan and submit to Sport England. Work with EIS and UK Sport to develop talent ID programmes and assist in sport specific elements of them. Work with UK Sport and EIS to support athletes on the World Class Performance Pathway (provide high quality facilities and coaches, funding (APA) etc. Provide developmental training squads and structured levels of competition. Performance lifestyle support, research into innovation and sports science and medicine support - all available at National Institutes.

Principles of training - recovery application/examples

Rest days are essential to allow the body to recover from training and to increase energy stores. A 3:1 ratio is best (train hard for 3 days and rest for 1).

Principles of training - recovery

Rest is required in appropriate amounts

Examples of the Win Ethic

Rugby Union - code of amateurism protected until late 20thC. However, coaches have cheated by using fake blood capsules to mimic injury so a specialist kicker can enter the field at a crucial game stage, when kicking a penalty is required to win.

Examples of negligence by officials

Rugby officials who repeatedly allow dangerous incidents to occur e.g. scrum collapses. Failure to follow NGB guidelines in relation to safe practice. Failure in duty of care to a player e.g. not enforcing rules correctly.

The Pathway Health Check

Run every 4 years by UK Sport (via EIS). Involves discussions between the performance pathway team and coaches. Considers the athletes progress, fitness levels, and whether a good transition has been made by the athletes between junior and senior levels. This is used to measure the effectiveness of the performance pathway.

Goal setting principles

SMARTER. Specific Measurable Achievable Realistic Time bound Evaluate Re-do

Three ways attitudes form

SOCIAL LEARNING - watching others e.g. peers, parents, coaches, role models. REINFORCEMENT - rewards strengthen existing attitudes e.g. praise performer for training, attitude towards training is strengthened. FAMILIARITY - more experience a performer has of an attitude object, the more likely they are to develop a positive attitude towards it.

Characteristics of sport

SPECIALIST equipment, kit, and facilities. PROWESS - complex and refined levels of skill. HIGHLY ORGANISED with WELL DEFINED, WRITTEN RULES e.g. team numbers, kit, boundaries, time limits, behaviour. EXTRINSIC REWARDS available and serious end product e.g. trophies, medals, money. TACTICS AND STRATEGIES to outwit opponents. COMMITTMENT - serious training and coaching is involved to improve performance. COMPETITIVE with a serious end product. Objective is to win. OFFICIALS e.g. referees and umpires enforce the rules. Can be played at PROFESSIONAL AND AMATEUR level.

What are the principles of training?

SPORR - to maximise the impact on performance, training programmes should be designed and carried out according to the principles of training: Specificity Progressive overload Reversibility Recovery

Forces acting on the body - factors affecting friction

SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS - sprinters wear spikes to increase friction and maximise acceleration. TEMPERATURE OF THE SURFACES - in curling, the ice is swept in front of the stone, increasing the surface temperature of the ice. This reduces friction between the stone and the ice so it can travel further. MASS OF THE OBJECTS SLIDING - the larger the mass, the greater the friction

What are the bad fats?

Saturated fats, trans fat

Examples of screening

Screening to assess muscle imbalances, core strength, range of joint movement, and postural alignment. From the results, individual training programmes can be designed to enhance performance and reduce risk of injury. ECG screening monitors a performer's heart (CRY - cardiac risk in the young). The test is encouraged by most NGB's due to the demands of elite sport and the stress it places on the heart. Screening to identify the musculoskeletal condition of an athlete to highlight past or current injury.

Examples of injury prevention methods

Screening, protective equipment, warm up, flexibility training, taping and bracing

Characteristics of 'need to achieve' personality

Show approach behaviours. Gain a sense of pride and satisfaction from competing. Seeks out challenges and loves 50:50 challenges. Concerned with standards of performance and being the best - will do extra training. Enjoy performing in situations where evaluation takes place. Not afraid to fail. Attributes performance to internal factors. Keeps going at task for longer (task persistence). Persist even after failure. Value feedback from others.

Characteristics of 'need to avoid failure' personality

Shows avoidance behaviours. Attempt to avoid shame and humiliation. Avoids challenges - prefers easy tasks (guaranteed success) or very difficult tasks (guaranteed failure). voids situations where success is 50:50 Performs worse when being evaluated. Preoccupied with failure. Attributes performance to external factors. Give up easily. Does not value feedback.

Hollander's model of personality - typical responses

Shows our usual response to a situation. Gives good indication of psychological core. Often learned. E.g. one player reacts to defeat by training harder. Another may feel unable to improve and gives up.

What are the two types of carbohydrates?

Simple and complex

Objectives of UK Sport's Gold Event Series

Support high performance success. Create high profile opportunities for people to engage in sport. Use and demonstrate the legacy of London 2012 and Glasgow 2014. Drive positive economic and social impacts for the UK.

Self-efficacy

Situation Specific Self Confidence. A performer's PERCEIVED ABILITY to COPE with the DEMANDS of the SITUATION. Performer may feel confident in training BUT lack confidence in actual game.

State anxiety

Situation specific anxiety. Temporal emotional response to a specific situation. Known as A-state. Changes from moment to moment e.g. taking a penalty. Competitive state anxiety - level of anxiety during competitive situations.

Nach or Naf

Situation specific. Depends on the interaction of: Personality - innate or developed. Situation - probability of success and incentive value.

What are the factors affecting fluid loss during exercise?

Size - larger people sweat more. Men swear more than women. Fitness - fitter people sweat more and earlier during exercise. Environment - a performer will sweat more in hot and humid conditions. Exercise intensity - a performer will sweat more as exercise intensity increases.

Compound/open fractures

Skin pierced by bone, or by a blow that breaks the skin at the time of the fracture. The soft tissue or the skin is damaged so there is a higher risk of infection.

When to use democratic/person orientated leadership

Smaller groups/individuals. Younger players. Female performers. Experienced or highly skilled players. Limited facilities. Have time to make decisions.

Causes of violence - NGBs too lenient

Some NGBs have a lack of deterrents and relatively low level of punishments for violent actions - players know that they can get away with it e.g. FA fines on pro footballers have a limited impact due to their already high wages. Willing to risk a violent act to win the game.

Effects of somatic anxiety on performance

Some somatic anxiety is good. An inverted-U theory relationship. Optimal level of performance occurs when somatic anxiety is at moderate level. Too much somatic anxiety will cause a decrease in performance.

Drawbacks of ice baths

Some studies suggest that ice baths have limited value. Some studies suggest that cold water is effective rather than ice cold water. Uncomfortable and the body takes time to recover from the cold. Time consuming - 5-20 mins. Other recovery methods may be as effective and less extreme e.g. cool down and massage, cool down and foam rolling. Most Rugby Super League teams do 'hot and cold' sessions - players spend 2 minutes in the steam room followed by 1 minute in the cold plunge room. This flushes lactic acid from the muscles and reduces muscle soreness for the week ahead.

Cons of circuit training

Space and equipment may be required. Hard to calculate how hard people are working.

National Institutes of Sport - provide performance lifestyle support programmes

Specialist advisors are on hand to the athletes on the WCPP to help them cope with the pressures of elite sport and prepare for life after sport. Helps to increase success rate and decrease drop out.

Tennis as a sport

Specialist equipment used. Prowess and high skill levels. Highly organised e.g. strict rules - set court area. Extrinsic rewards available. Tactics and strategies used e.g. vary height/spin on ball, play to weaker side. High levels of commitment. Officials enforce the rules e.g. chair umpire and line umpire. Professional circuit where players get paid, but can also play as a sport at amateur level.

Cons of weight training

Specific equipment required. Incorrect technique may lead to injury.

How does the law protect performers?

Spectators attacking players - laws in place to maintain restricted areas during training and competition. Opponents too violent - player violence dealt with by NGBs, but pitch violence can be prosecuted. Contractual issues with sponsors and employers - the Bosman Ruling gave pro footballers within the EU to work anywhere within the EU without restriction. Refereeing negligence - health and safety laws ensures a duty of care from officials. Poor officiating and negligence can lead to legal action.

Impacts of technology on the audience

Spectators gain an improved knowledge. Increased involvement and crowd excitement. Improved broadcasting technologies. Improves standards of performance. Improved security and reduced deviant behaviour.

Laws and spectator safety

Spectators of sports events must act within the law. Under Public Order Acts, spectators cannot invade the playing surfaces or use racist chants without risking prosecution.

What are the two scalar quantities?

Speed and distance

Examples of scalar quantities

Speed, distance, mass

Arguments for drugs testing - the use of drugs is cheating and unethical

Sport is about using natural talent, and drug use is outside of this concept. It is against the nature of the sport and gives athletes an unfair advantage. Young performers may be tempted to use them if they see their role models using them. Only the richer countries will be able to afford the technology to manufacture new drugs, giving athletes from these countries an unfair advantage.

Positive impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the audience

Sport more exciting as more money invested for higher standards. Better quality facilities and bigger stadiums due to increased investment. Increased number of competitions and live events. Increased awareness and knowledge of sport to educate spectators with expert analysis. Variations in formats and rule changes make sport more exciting and provide alternate viewing experience. Funding used to improve technology at grounds (large screens for playbacks). Fewer incorrect decisions by officials (Hawkeye, VAR).

Groups - other factors affecting cohesion

Sport type ('interactiveness' of sport). Coordination - Players must understand their own role & other's role. Be in the right place at the right time. Skills, ability and tactics interwoven in unity. Cooperation - Players must work together, accept their roles and work towards common goals.

Negative impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the sport

Sports start to lose control. Can become over reliant on funding and income from commercial sources and experience problems if it is withdrawn. Increased use of technology and appeals methods can lead to the game losing flow. Money involved can lead to players developing win at all costs attitude which could cause deviance, ruining the reputation of the game. Poor behaviour on or off pitch can lead to reduction in participation and spectator levels, as performers become negative role models. NGBs can struggle to meet the demand of newly popular sports. Not all sports benefit - money goes to popular sports, and favours male, elite, able bodied sport. Sports with less coverage have fewer role models, less money to invest into grass roots and elite sport, and so reduced participation.

Causes of violence - nature of the sport

Sports with high levels of contact, e.g. tackling and body checking, will see more violence.

Examples of Newton's second law of linear motion - acceleration

Sprinter applies muscular force to the blocks. Acceleration is proportional to force applied, so the greater the force applied, the greater the acceleration out the blocks, giving a better start than competitors. The blocks apply a force back to the sprinter, and they will accelerate in the direction of this force and move forward down the track. Football player kicks the ball (muscular force), and the acceleration of the ball is proportional to the size of the force applied. The harder the ball is kicked, the faster and further it will travel in the direction that the force has been applied. The faster the ball goes, the more likely it will catch the GK off guard. In high jump, the size of the muscular force applied to the ground governs the vertical acceleration at take off. The greater the muscular force applied, the more height and acceleration achieved, so more likely to achieve height required to get over the bar. Direction of force governs direction of acceleration.

Examples of Newton's first law of linear motion - inertia

Sprinter remains stationary in the blocks until they apply a muscular force (contraction of the leg muscles) to the blocks that is large enough to overcome their inertia. This causes the athlete to change their state of motion and leave the blocks. They move from a stationary position to a run. The football on the penalty spot will remain stationary on the spot until the player kicks it, causing it to change its state of motion and take flight. In high jump, the athlete runs at a constant velocity towards the bar until a force is applied by the muscles of the legs to change their state of motion for take off.

What are the types of fractures?

Stable, open/compound, simple/closed, transverse, oblique, comminuted

Types of anxiety

State anxiety. Trait anxiety. Cognitive. Somatic.

Types of self-report questionnaires

State trait anxiety inventory (STAI). Sports competition anxiety test (SCAT). CSAI-2 test.

Aggression - frustration-aggression hypothesis

States that aggression is caused by frustration, as the sports performer is blocked in the achievement of a goal. This causes a drive towards the source of frustration. A performer will try to achieve a goal. Opposition blocks or tackles performer. Leads to frustration. As frustration builds up, the likelihood of aggression increases. Aggression reduces frustration (catharsis). If punished, aggression increases further.

Drawbacks of static stretching

Static stretching before exercise could decrease muscle power so could be ineffective for games players such as footballers and netball players who need speed and power within a game. These performers may only use static stretching within a cooldown. They may opt for ballistic r dynamic stretching as part of their warm up.

Psychological reasons for doping

Steady nerves where fine motor skills are required e.g. beta blockers in snooker. Increase self-efficacy and confidence. The use of drugs raises a performer's belief that they can achieve. Increase aggression in high contact sports e.g. anabolic steroids and rugby players.

UK Sport

Strategically distribute National Lottery and Government funding. Runs and funds the World Class Performance Pathway. Provide National Institutes (EIS) Run talent ID programmes

World Class Podium

Supports athletes with realistic medal winning capabilities at the next Olympics.

Stress - attentional control and cue utilisation

Stress can cause: Performer to focus on incorrect stimuli. Loss of concentration and focus. Attentional narrowing - Ability to take in information is directly linked to levels of arousal (cue utilisation) Low arousal Broad attentional field, Lots of information received. Moderate arousal Relevant information received High cue utilisation. High arousal Narrow attentional field, information missed Attentional wastage.

Static stretching

Stretching while not moving, and holding stretch for 30 seconds or more. Take muscle to its range of motion until feel a gentle stretch in the muscle. Hold the stretch at that point. Can be active (athlete holds stretch themselves, and the position is held by an agonist muscle) or passive (position held by partner or equipment). Considered the safest way to stretch, as the performer controls the movement. Often used as part of a cooldown.

Tendons

Strong bands of soft tissue which connect muscle to bones

Ligaments

Strong bands of tissue that join bone to bone.

Characteristics of learned helplessness

Strong reaction to failure. Performer feels that failure is inevitable - usually due to past bad experiences and loss of motivation. Give up even when success is possible. Caused by the performer attributing failure to internal, stable factors such as ability. Can be global (believe failure is inevitable in all sports) or specific (experience learned helplessness in some activities or roles).

Tuckman's 'norming' stage of group formation

Structure established & the group gains stability. Cooperation & Cohesion. Accept and work towards same goals.

Support requirements to become and elite performer - progression routes

Structures levels of competition to progress through (county-regional-national), and development squads e.g. British Cycling post talent ID has several stages to develop their talent e.g. The Olympic Academy Programme (18-23 year olds) fine tunes skills to help them progress to the Senior Olympic Podium Programme, which supports elite cyclists on a full time programme.

Symptoms of acute injuries

Sudden severe pain. Swelling around the injured site. Unable to bear weight. Restricted movement. A protruding bone or joint that is visibly out of place.

Trait theories of personality

Suggests personality is: Something you are born with Made up of a set of traits or characteristics Stable and enduring Behave the same way in all situations These traits cause a person to act in a particular way e.g. a person with an aggressive nature will be aggressive in all situations. CRITICISMS: Too simplistic Don't account for changes over time

Aggression - social learning theory

Suggests that aggressive (and non-aggressive) behaviours are learned through observation, imitation (modelling), and reinforcement. Aggression is more likely to be copied if: The performer being observed is of high status. Performer observes realistic events. The learner believes that their behaviour will be reinforced. If the learner believes they will not be punished.

Personality - Hollander's Model

Suggests that personality is a layered structure. Three layers which from the middle outwards are: Psychological core Typical responses Role related behaviours

Social learning theory (Bandura) - personality

Suggests that personality is shaped by our interactions with the social and physical environment. Suggests that this is from direct experiences, or observational learning, nut also depends on our self-efficacy (confidence). Behaviour is a function of social learning and the strength of the situation. An individual behaves according to how he or she has learned to behave, consistent with environmental constraints. We learn from two types of experience: Modelling Reinforcement

Bandura's model of self-efficacy

Suggests that self-efficacy is based on four primary sources of information: Performance accomplishments. Vicarious experiences. Verbal persuasion. Emotional arousal.

World Class Podium Potential

Supports athletes with realistic medal winning capabilities at the subsequent Olympics, or newly funded sports that are demonstrating the ability to be competitive (e.g. British Basketball).

Multi use surfaces

Surfaces suitable for multi-use provision have developed e.g. 3G surfaces. 3G surfaces - a sand and rubber infilled sports synthetic surface. Ideal for sports such as football, hockey and rugby. The rubber infill in 3G surfaces gives the artificial grass surface playing characteristics similar to those of natural grass.

Fielder's contingency model - leadership in favourable situations

TASK CENTRED. Strong leader. Group/leader harmony. Clear task. Respect for leader. High ability. High motivation. Good support.

Fielder's contingency model - leadership in least favourable situations

TASK CENTRED. Weak leader. Group hostility. Unclear task. Little respect for leader. High ability. Low motivation. Some support.

What two factors does The Vealey Model of Sports Confidence measure?

TRAIT SPORTS CONFIDENCE: Innate and described as a natural disposition. Relatively stable. The amount of confidence a person has in their overall sports ability. STATE SPORTS CONFIDENCE: The degree of confidence in a specific situation e.g. taking a penalty. Can be developed through learning, so is unstable and changeable.

How can a referee control aggression?

Talking to/pre-warning/calming players. Punish aggressive behaviour. Immediate sanctions. Apply rules properly/correctly/fairly/clearly/with authority. Be consistent in judgements/sanctions.

Effects of violence on a sport

Tarnishes the reputation of the sport. Can reduce spectator numbers. Can create friction among spectators. Loss of sponsors. Can reduce participation at grass roots level, which means fewer progress to elite levels.

Groups - achieving effective cohesion

Task cohesion is more important than social cohesion. A team can be successful with poor social cohesion. Social Cohesion not vital for team success BUT success usually follows when both task and social cohesion are high. Social cohesion can improve performance as players get on well but it can also undermine performance, e.g. formation of cliques or not challenging poor performance for fear of upsetting others. Players must understand their own role & other's role (good co-ordination). Task cohesion ensures that everyone is working towards a common goal. Success = Cohesion Cohesion = Success Other factors may also affect cohesion e.g. personality, ability & leadership.

Causes of violence from spectators - emotional intensity and importance of the event

Team loyalty taken to the extremes

How can technology be used to adapt sport?

Technology and innovation have been used to adapt sports equipment for the elderly and disabled. This has increased opportunities for groups to participate. This has reduced limited mobility being a barrier to participation for these groups to communicate.

Functions of sports analytics - injury prevention

Technology such as Microsoft Kinect stations are used to identify any potential for injury so that it can be prevented. Players check into a station each morning pre training. They rotate their pelvis and stretch their hamstrings. A camera logs imperceptible changes in their motion and flexibility. Players also complete short surveys about their sleep, diet, soreness and well being. This information is available to coaches on an online dashboard to pinpoint problem areas. This reduces injury (by 20-30%) and increases player availability by up to 10%.

Achilles tendonitis

Tendonitis is an over-use injury causing pain and inflammation of the tendon. The Achilles Tendon is prone to tendonitis after lots of regular activity - it is used when running, walking, and jumping. Common in runners who suddenly increase the intensity or duration of runs, or in people who become active suddenly.

What makes talent ID programmes effective?

Testing facilities of high standard (National Institutes act as hosts). Analysis of performers via a clear database (to compare physiological data). Links between organisations (UK Talent Team involves UK Sport, EIS and NGBs working together). Equal opportunities. National Development Squads (structured levels of comp. provide progression routes to elite level). Talent Spotting via high quality coaches. Support Services. Skills Testing - physiological, psychological. Within high quality testing facilities.

Evaluation of strategies to eliminate drugs in sport

Tests for PEDs have increased the chances of catching drug cheats. HOWEVER, Athletes are still willing to risk deviant behaviour to gain advantage. Chemists work to develop masking agents and manufacture new drugs that cannot be easily detected. Can sometimes be hard to gain access to athletes who are training abroad, making random testing difficult. Different countries and sports have different regulations and testing procedures - very difficult to get a unified approach to eliminating drugs in sport.

Periodisation - macrocycle

The 'big period' which involves a long-term performance goal. In rugby it may be the length of the season, or for an athlete it could be 4 years as they build up to the Olympics. A macrocycle is made up of three distinct periods.

Historical roots of amateurism

The 19thC gentlemen amateurs had high status in society. Played sport for the love of the game (rich, so no need to play for monetary gain). Controlled sport (organised fixtures, leagues, codified rules, set up NGBs). Played to a high moral standard and displayed sportsmanship and fair play. They devised and followed the amateur code, where taking part was considered more important than winning, and followed the written and unwritten rules of the game.

Factors affecting flight paths of different projectiles

The effect of weight and air resistance will determine whether a projectile will follow a parabolic flight path (symmetrical) or a non-parabolic flight path (asymmetrical).

Examples of legislations to do with spectators

The Football Spectators Act 1989 - allows banning orders to be put on individuals who have committed offences and the Act prevents them from ever attending sports events for a certain period of time at home and abroad. The Football Offences Act 1991 - This created 3 offences at football grounds to prevent the throwing of missiles, the chanting of racist remarks, and trespassing onto the field of play.

Steiner's model of group productivity - actual productivity

The actual performance achieved by the team/group.

Sports analytics

The analysis of sports data using analytical tools and methods to study the effectiveness of performance and try to improve results. e.g. biomechanical data, fitness data. Using technology, data becomes objective and provides reliable data on which to base further analysis.

Angle of attack - discus

The angle of attack of the discus changes the flow of air around the discus. If the angle of attack is too great e.g. 90 degrees, the air begins to flow less smoothly over the top of the discus, and the air flow becomes more and more separated. This results in a reduction in lift and an increase in drag, causing the discus to stall and fall. The discus will not travel as far. The optimum angle of attack to produce the best lift for discus is anything between 25 degrees and 40 degrees.

Gamesmanship

The art of winning by cunning means without actually breaking the rules. Stretch the rules to their limit. Not following the etiquette.

Arguments against drug testing - expensive and time consuming

The battle against drugs is expensive and time consuming, and drugs tests can be ineffective. This is because the tests/testers are always one step behind the chemists who design new drugs and masking agents, making drug detection very difficult e.g. when drugs tests were introduced in the Tour de France, the artificially manufactured drug EPO was produced as it was more difficult to detect. IMPACT - Making drugs legal in sport would save money and time. Money could be used to educate the younger athletes about the risks of PEDs.

The Vealey Model of Sports Confidence - definition of sports confidence

The belief or degree of certainty individuals possess about their ability to be successful in sport.

Learned helplessness

The belief that failure is inevitable and that the individual has no control over the factors that cause failure.

What does dehydration during prolonged endurance activity cause?

The cardiovascular drift (increased HR and decreased SV due to a loss of fluids and increased viscosity of the blood).

What is glycogen loading?

The careful manipulation of carbohydrate intake in the week before competition to maximise stores of glycogen in the muscles and liver for endurance performers.

The Vealey Model of Sports Confidence - objective sporting situation

The combination of the type of skill performed & the situation

The importance of correct attributions

The correct use of attributions is a crucial factor in maintaining a performer's: Level of Performance, Satisfaction of Performance, Task Persistence, Future Expectations. If attributions are incorrect, these are seriously jeopardised.

The Vealey Model of Sports Confidence - competitive orientation

The degree to which a performer is drawn to challenging situations

Reliability

The degree to which data collection is consistent and stable over time. Tests can be repeated to provide similar data.

Levers - effort arm

The distance between the fulcrum and the effort

Levers- resistance arm

The distance between the fulcrum and the resistance

Arousal theories

The drive theory. The inverted-U hypothesis. The catastrophe theory.

Vectors - weight

The effect of gravity on the mass of a body. Weight = mass (kg) x acceleration due to gravity (9.8) Measured in Newtons.

Forces acting on the body - weight

The effect of gravity on the mass of a body. Weight = mass (kg) x acceleration due to gravity (9.8) Measured in Newtons. Affects the vertical component of a body e.g. ball or long jumper (pulls body down to earth). It reduces vertical velocity and limits the height of the flight.

Third class lever

The effort is in the middle. Examples - most types of levers. Everything except plantar flexion at the ankle (second class), and except when the triceps are the agonist (first class). Knee flexion, hip extension, elbow extension, dorsi flexion etc.

What is a goal?

The end toward which effort is directed. Goals are specific.

Effort role in levers

The force applied by the user of the lever system

Surface drag

The friction between the surface of a body and the fluid environment. A smoother surface reduces surface drag e.g. swimmers wear lycra suits and shave body hair to reduce surface drag.

Why goals fail

The goal was not written down. Rewards for achieving the goals were not given. The goal was unrealistic or not specific enough. The goal is not really believable or little commitment exists. Keep changing or switching goals with the weather The person who set the goal has not told anyone else for added accountability, help and support. The goal was not incorporated into a realistic plan that includes measurements, timelines and resources.

Factors affecting stability - body mass

The greater the mass, the greater the stability. A rugby player with a large mass will aim to adopt a low position with a wide stance when scrummaging, to maintain stability.

Factors affecting horizontal placement of projectiles - height of release

The greater the release height, the greater the horizontal displacement. Shot putt - gravity acts on the mass of the shot, so it is essential that the shot is released at the highest possible point above the ground to gain maximal horizontal displacement.

Factors affecting horizontal placement of projectiles - speed of release

The greater the release velocity of a projectile, the greater the horizontal displacement. Shot putt/discus - the speed of the shift/rotation across the circle ensures that the shot leaves the hand at maximal velocity to help achieve greater horizontal displacement. Long jump - a fast run up and powerful take off at the board allows a fast release and greater horizontal displacement.

Factors that reduce and increase drag - velocity of the moving body

The greater the velocity of a body moving through fluid, the greater the drag force acting on the body. This increase the potential for the performer to slow down, as drag opposes motion. To minimise the effect of drag, performers can focus on factors such as clothing (smoothness of surfaces), and body position (reduce cross sectional area) to reduce drag and allow the performer to maintain a high velocity. Streamlining (shaping a body so it moves as effectively and quickly through a fluid as possible) can reduce drag.

Form drag

The impact of the fluid environment on a body. Affected by the cross sectional area of a body e.g. swimmers aim to create the thinnest and straightest form to move through the water quickly and reduce form drag.

Group dynamics

The interactive processes that occur between people in a group.

Fielder's contingency model - factors affecting the favourableness of the situation

The leader's relationship with group, The leader's level of authority, The resources available e.g. facilities, time, equipment, Demands of the task & any dangers, Success & Ability, Discipline structure & Motivation.

Scalar quantities - distance

The length of the path a body follows when moving from one position to another. Distance = speed x time Distance covered in metres (m).

Distance (scalar quantity)

The length of the path a body follows when moving from one position to another. Distance = speed x time Distance covered is measured in metres (m).

Factors affecting stability - position of line of gravity

The line of gravity extends vertically from the centre of mass. The line of gravity should be central over the base of support to increase stability. A ballerina en pointe will have their centre of mass directly over their supporting leg. If the line of gravity moves to the edge of their base support, their body will become unbalanced. A sprinter in the 'set' position will have their centre of mass as the edge of their base support. On 'go', they lift their hands, become off balance and fall forward, giving the momentum to leave the blocks quickly.

Impulse graphs - middle of race

The negative (braking) impulse is equal to the positive (propulsive) impulse. Net impulse is zero. The performer is running at a constant velocity. After a good start, the middle of the race allows the athlete to maintain position to match or better opposition. Speed is maintained as the athlete runs at constant velocity.

Social inhibition

The negative effect of an audience on performance

Stress

The negative response of the body to a threat, causing anxiety. Managing & controlling stress is key to successful performance. If the performer has feelings of apprehension and anxiety, will feel that they can't cope with the demands of the situation, and can experience both cognitive and somatic anxiety, worsening performance.

Hydrotherapy

The patient carries out rehabilitation exercises in warm water (35-37 degrees Celsius) to improve blood circulation, relieve pain and relax muscles. EXAMPLES: squats, lunges, walking, and running with or without a buoyancy aid in the water. Some hydrotherapy pools have underwater treadmills.

Achievement motivation

The performer either has a desire to succeed, or a fear of failure. Our motivation to achieve upon our personality and the situation. Achievement motivation = drive to succeed - fear of failure

Fulcrum role in levers

The point about which the lever rotates (pivot)

The centre of mass

The point of balance of a body or the point of the concentration of mass. When standing, centre of mass is between the hip area BUT it will move as the body moves. As your body moves, so does your centre of mass e.g. raising your arms raises your centre of mass to keep the body balanced. Centre of mass also differs according to gender e.g. Males have more mass in their shoulders and upper body so their centre of mass is slightly higher. Females have more mass concentrates around the hips. The centre of mass can fall outside of the body. E.g. the Fosbury Flop technique in high jump. The centre of mass of the performer passes underneath the crossbar, whilst the body goes over it. This is beneficial as the performer does not have to lift their centre of mass a great distance compared to a performer who uses a scissor kick - their centre of mass remains in their body and has to be lifted over the bar.

Social facilitation - Zajonc's drive theory

The presence of others increases arousal. The performer will try harder. This increases the likelihood of a dominant response occurring.

Cottrell's evaluation apprehension theory

The presence of others will increase arousal, BUT The perception of being evaluated or judged increases arousal further. This is linked with how confident you feel. This can lead to over arousal.

Vectors - momentum

The product of mass x velocity of a body. Momentum = mass (kg) x velocity (ms^1)

Scalar quantities - mass

The quantity of matter a body possesses e.g. bone, muscle, fat, tissue, fluid. Measured in kg

Angular momentum

The quantity of motion that a rotating body possesses. Angular momentum = moment of inertia x angular velocity Once a body has started to rotate, angular momentum is conserved. It will remain constant during the spin unless an external force acts on the body (air resistance considered to be negligible). However, once rotating, we can change our rate of rotation (angular velocity) by changing our body shape (moment of inertia). This is essential to help the performer to control their movement, and gives an aesthetic performance e.g. to score a high tariff in gymnastics. E.g. a high board diver performs a double front somersault from the 10m board. Once the diver starts to spin, their angular momentum remains constant during the flight and only changes when they hit the water.

Newton's second law of angular motion

The rate of angular momentum is proportional to the force (torque) causing it, and the change takes place in the direction in which the force (torque) acts. EXAMPLE: The greater the torque exerted, the faster the rotation will be. A skater or ballerina will whip the arm across their body and turn their head quickly to achieve a greater turning force (torque). A gymnast will take a fast run up to hit the springboard with high velocity to achieve a greater turning force (torque).

Angular velocity

The rate of change of angular displacement (how quickly a body rotates around its axis). Rate of rotation Measured in radians/second Angular displacement (radians)/time (seconds).

Angular acceleration

The rate of change of angular velocity. Measured in rad/s^2 Change in angular velocity (rad/s)/time taken (seconds)

Scalar quantities - speed

The rate of change of position. Distance covered in metres (m)/time taken in seconds (s) Measured in metres per second (ms^1)

Speed (scalar quantity)

The rate of change of position. Speed = distance in metres/time taken in seconds Speed is measured in metres per second (ms1)

Vectors - acceleration

The rate of change of velocity e.g. when push off ground to accelerate. Acceleration = change in velocity (ms^1)/time (s) Measured in (ms^2) Change in velocity = final velocity - initial velocity

Vectors - velocity

The rate of displacement. How fast a body travels in a given direction e.g. towards a ball. Velocity = displacement (m)/time (s) Measured in ms^1

Hollander's model of personality - psychological core

The real you. Our beliefs, values, and attitudes. Relatively permanent and unlikely to change. Affects the next layer - typical responses.

Dynamic fluid forces - drag

The resistance force caused by the motion of a body travelling through a fluid. Acts in the opposite direction to motion. A drag force is produced from air resistance and friction. Slows and reduces the velocity of a body.

Second class lever

The resistance is in the middle. The only example is plantar flexion at the ankle.

Moment of inertia

The resistance of a body to change its state of angular motion (rotation). Depends on the distribution of mass around the axis of rotation. When mass is close to the axis of rotation (arms and legs tucked), moment of inertia is low. When mass is distributed away from the axis of rotation, moment of inertia is high.

Inertia

The resistance of a body to change its state of motion

Racing cars and downward lift force

The shape and angle of attack of the rear spoiler creates a downward lift force that acts down to push the car into the track. The air travelling over the top of the car is travelling a shorter distance than the air underneath, due to the angle of the spoiler. The air above the car travels at a slower velocity and at a higher pressure. This cerates downward lift and causes a greater frictional force allowing the tyres to maintain a firmer grip on the track as the car travels at high speed around corners

Vectors - displacement

The shortest distance in a straight line between the start and finishing positions. Measured in metres (m).

Arguments for drugs testing - dangerous side effects

The side effects of drugs are dangerous and there are proven health risks. Between 1987 and 1990 when EPO was first manufactured, 20 young Belgian and Dutch cyclists died of sudden heart failure. However, it was difficult to conclusively attribute the deaths to EPO.

Angular displacement

The smallest change in angle between the start and finish point of a rotation. Measured in degrees and radians. 1 radian = 57.3 degrees.

Factors that reduce and increase drag - surface characteristics of the moving body

The smoother the surface of the body, the less drag there is, allowing the body to move more quickly through the fluid. EXAMPLES: Cyclists - wear aerodynamic helmets, tight lycra suits, and shave off body hair. They also use smooth, high pressure, thin tyres on the bikes to reduce friction. These factors all reduce surface drags so that speeds can be maintained. Elite swimmers shave off all body hair, wear swimming caps and lycra body suits to create a smooth surface, reduce surface drag and increase speed in the water. Speed skiers wear helmets that extend over their shoulders to give a more streamlined position. They wear form fitting suits and aerodynamic boots.

Downward lift force and cyclists

The streamlined aerofoil position of cyclists creates an angle of attack. Air travelling above the cyclist has a shorter distance (slow velocity/high pressure)) to travel than air below the cyclist that travels a further distance (faster velocity/low pressure). There is a pressure gradient, and this creates a downward lift force as the air molecules move downwards from high to low pressure. This allows the tyres to apply more force to the track, maintain a firm grip, and allows for faster cornering.

Mastery orientation

The strong motive to succeed found in the high achiever. This type of person will expect to succeed, but will persist when failure is experienced.

Fluid mechanics

The study of a body travelling through any liquid or gas (fluid). Considers the movement of fluid and it's effects.

Groups - cohesion

The tendency of a group to stay together to achieve a goal. The forces which: Keep members within a group. Prevent disruption. Foster commitment to the group's norms and values. Two types of cohesion: task and social

Social facilitation

The tendency of people to perform better when they are being watched or when they are competing with others doing the same task.

Reliability

The test can be repeated accurately and give similar results. E.g. step test must be completed by everyone at the same rate, height, cadence, and that there is a full extension between steps. The t stern should be experienced, and the equipment should be standardised.

Evaluation of inverted-U theory

The theory seems plausible, but it is difficult to test empirically (scientifically) due to a lock of independent measures of arousal, and inadequate specification of 'point beyond which diminishing returns occur' (when performance starts to drop).

Doping

The use of banned performance enhancing drugs by competitors.

Cryotherapy

The use of cooling and cold temperatures to treat injuries. RICE - Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation. Common injuries such muscle strains. The ice has an analgesic effect and this can limit pain and swelling by decreasing blood flow to the injured area.

Resistance role in levers

The weight to be moved by the lever system

Factors affecting stability - area of base support

The wider it is, the greater the stability. The more contact points, the greater the stability. E.g. a headstand has more points of contact than a handstand and so is more balanced. A tennis player has a wide stance when waiting to return a serve to give them the stability to change direction quickly.

The zone of optimal functioning

The zone is a mental state that autonomous performers experience when everything is perfect. Suggests that optimal arousal does not occur at a specific point, but within a band width. It is within this bad width than an individual achieves his or her maximum attention capacity. Factors such as the situation, skill, and the performer will cause the ZOF to alter. Each individual will have their own zone of optimal functioning.

Why should endurance performers include fat in their diet?

They are used as an energy source for ATP resynthesis for low intensity, aerobic work e.g. jogging, games, marathon, triathlon

Drawbacks of talent ID programmes

They may miss late developers. Require high levels of funding. Require large numbers to be tested to be of use. No guarantee of success. Many sports are in competition for the same talent pool. High profile sports ay attract more performers, or the best performers.

Why do athletes need more protein than sedentary individuals?

They need to build new muscle cells and compensate for increase in muscle breakdown during and after intense exercise (muscle growth and repair)

Intrinsic motivation

This is motivation from within. A desire to perform well and succeed. The following will be true: Desire to overcome the problem or task Development of skills and habits to overcome that problem Rehearsal of successful habits until they are perfect A feeling of pride and enjoyment in performing the skill Repeated goal setting in order to progress and maintain motivation

Gross' definition of personality

Those relatively stable and enduring aspects of individuals which distinguish them from other people, making them unique but at the same time permit a comparison between individuals.

Cognitive stress management techniques

Thought stopping. Positive self-talk. Imagery. Visualisation. Mental rehearsal. Attentional control and cue utilisation. Psychological skills training.

Social and psychological repercussions, of performance enhancing drugs, on the sport

Threatens the spirit and integrity of the sport - damages the reputation and decreases interest in it. Can lead to a loss of sponsorship. Dangerous negative role models.

What are the psychological benefits of a warm up?

Time for the application of stress management techniques e.g. mental rehearsal and imagery to help control arousal levels. A well-executed warm up can increase intrinsic motivation. Improved reaction time, as nerve impulse conduction increases.

Side effects of beta blockers

Tiredness due to low blood pressure and slower heart rate. Reduced aerobic capacity.

Factors affecting horizontal placement of projectiles - angle of release

To achieve the greatest angular displacement, a performer must determine the optimal angle of release.

National Institutes of Sport - provide sport science support

To athletes and coaches. E.g. biomechanics, performance analysis, psychology and performance nutrition to evaluate and monitor the impact of training and to maximise performance.

UK Sport - provides National Institutes (EIS)

To develop and support elite performers through research, sports science, and sports medicine. Each country in the UK has a sports institute which provide a wide range of services to increase the probability of athlete success and increase medal count.

Positive impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the sport - increased funding to improve technology

To ensure fair officiating e.g. stump cam in cricket, goal technology in football.

Why would a footballer cool down?

To flush lactic acid from the muscles effectively to prevent delayed onset of muscle soreness and ensure that training in subsequent days is not negatively affected.

Support requirements to become and elite performer - sports science and medicine support

To help performers make marginal gains, keep healthy, and maintain high levels of training to improve performance. EXAMPLES: Sports science support (via EIS e.g. biomechanics, performance psychology, and performance nutrition). Sports medicine support (via EIS e.g. strength and conditioning coaches and physiotherapists).

Impacts of technology on performers - improved data collection and analysis of performance

To identify strengths and weaknesses and improve performance. Good because: Data can be analysed to identify weaknesses and adjust training programmes and/or technique. Allows continuous feedback on the effectiveness of training programmes. Motivates players. HOWEVER: Pure data can be misleading. Can lead to paralysis by analysis - performers and coaches may become too reliant on data to inform their decision making. They may be unable to react creatively and instantly to on field problems that may occur.

UK Sport - strategically distribute National Lottery and Government funding

To maximise the performance of UK athletes in the Olympics, Paralympics, and global sports events. Funding goes to: NGB's, enabling them to operate the World Class Performance Programme. National Institutes e.g. EIS, so athletes can have access to the best training support to prepare for world standard competition. Directly to the athletes on the WCPP via the Athlete Personal Award (APA). This allows athletes to train and compete full time.

What is the aim of a warmup?

To physically prepare an athlete for exercise

UK Sport - runs talent ID programmes

To support the World Class Programme in developing talented performers from talent ID to podium. UK Sport works with National Institutes (e.g. EIS) to form the UK talent team (EIS facilities used as host venues).

Causes of violence from spectators - alcohol and drugs

Too much alcohol, and the highs caused by drugs, can lead to drunk and disorderly behaviour and violence.

Principles of training - reversibility applications/examples

Too much rest can lead to a reversal of the body's physiological adaptations (detraining effect). Muscular strength and CV fitness both begin to decrease after a period of inactivity. It is important to avoid overtraining to ensure that sufficient rest is completed. Strict hygiene protocols can reduce the risk of colds and flu that may prevent training and increase the chances of reversibility.

Characteristics of the peak flow experience

Total ability to complete the challenge successfully. Complete absorption in activity. Clear goals. Totally focused on task. Apparent loss of consciousness - movements seem automatic. Effortless movement.

Negative impact of commercialisation, sponsorship and the media on the audience

Traditional nature of the sport has changed and the viewing experience altered (breaks for ads). Higher prices and less tickets as allocated to sponsors. Start times arranged to maximise viewing figures - often schedules at prime time slots which are not always in the best interest of the long distance fans who want to watch it live. Companies create lots of merchandise - expensive team kit changed regularly. Catering in stadiums is expensive. Watching on TV can lack the atmosphere of being at the live event. Minority sports receive less coverage. Major sports dominate the TV schedule. Pay for View restricts access to sport. Some prestigious events only available on satellite TV (test cricket, Ryder Cup).

Principles of training - specificity

Training must be specific to the performer and the fitness requirements of their sport and performance: The energy system(s) - training should use the same energy system. Components of fitness. Muscle groups and muscle fibre types. Movement patterns. Intensity/duration must be similar to game/competition. Physiological adaptations.

What are fats stored as?

Triglycerides, which provide the body with fatty acids for energy production. The breakdown of fats requires oxygen

What is a group?

Two or more individuals interacting with each other - or connected to each other via social relationships - often with a common objective."

What are unsaturated fatty acids?

Typically liquid at room temperature (e.g. sunflower, olive, and fish oils). Should replace saturated and trans fats with small amounts of unsaturated fat in the diet to maintain healthy cholesterol and provide essential fatty acids. Should make up the majority of fat intake. Fish oil can boost oxygen delivery, improve recovery, reduce inflammation, and improve joint health. Low density lipids - can help lower cholesterol

What are saturated fatty acids?

Typically solid at room temperature. Mainly associated with animal products e.g. bacon and butter. Should be limited to reduce risk of cardiovascular disease. High density lipids - can increase cholesterol

UK Sport's Gold Event Series - successful bids

UCI Track Cycling World Championships ins London 2016. World Athletics Championships at the Olympic Stadium 2017.

Strategies for the elimination of performance enhancing drugs in sport

UK Anti Doping (UKAD) is the organisation responsible for protecting UK sport from the threat of doping. UKAD work with other organisations (World Anti Doping Agency and NGBs) in a coordinated approach to develop and enforce stricter drug testing procedures. Random drug testing, out of system testing, the whereabout system (athletes must supply details of their whereabouts so they can be located for random testing). Athlete biological passport - regular blood samples given by athletes every year which are analysed and recorded electronically. Over time, any changes in blood values can be identified. Harsher punishments. Promotion of a drug free culture via education programmes e.g. 100% ME.

Support requirements to become and elite performer - equal opportunities and sports equity

UK Sport Talent searches open to all. Sport England sets equity targets for each NGB to reduce discrimination and help more to progress to elite levels. NGB's must set and meet equity targets in their Whole Sport Plan.

Talent ID Programmes

UK Sport run Talent ID and Talent Confirmation programmes. They work in collaboration with the National Institutes of Sport to form a UK Talent Team e.g. EIS facilities acts as the host venues. It supports the World Class Programmes to identify and develop talented athletes (from talent to podium).

What is the World Class Performance Programme/Pathway?

UK Sport runs and funds the WCPP to assist athletes on their long journey to the top. Covers all funded summer and winter Olympic and Paralympic sports. From the bottom to the top of the pyramid: World Class Talent, World Class Podium Potential, World Class Podium.

Bandura's model of self-efficacy - vicarious experiences

Watching others of a similar ability successfully perform a skill. Modelling. A cricketer watching one of his peers successfully playing a shot is more likely to think that he too can achieve success. Lets us see that success is achievable. "if they can do it, so can I!" Eg. Celebrity fitness videos

UK Sport's Gold Event Series

UK Sport's flagship programme. Aims to bring 100 targeted major international sporting events to the UK during the 10 years that it's operating (2013-23). Focuses on World Championships, European Championships, and Premium World Circuit events in the UK. UK Sport works with the sport and host location to draw up a detailed business plan, and gives a budget to work to. If successful, UK Sport continues to work with the NGB to develop and support the planning and delivery of the event.

Negative deviance

Under conformity to the norms and expectations of society. Main aim is to win at all costs. Against the rules. E.g. deliberate fouls, doping, match fixing (accepting a bribe to lose for financial gain), diving to win a penalty free kick, cheating, harming opponent through violent actions, hooliganism by spectators).

Olympic Oath is still relevant

Underlying principles of Olympic Games are still the same and are a celebration of sport, showcasing the best athletes in the world. Athletes who cheat and break Oath have been disqualified (8 badminton players 2012 Olympics for attempting to lose matches to gain easier next round). Athletes found guilty of cheating at Olympics in the past have has medals removed (Marion Jones as she used drugs to cheat). Whole teams have been banned when a country has been found of state sponsored drugs programmes (Russia's track and field team 2016 Rio).

Overview of personality

Unique to you. Makes you act the way that you do. Relatively stable and enduring.

Drawbacks of sodium bicarbonate

Unpleasant taste causing nausea. Possible gastro-intestinal problems. Muscle pain and cramping.

What are the good fats?

Unsaturated fats

How to do attribution retraining

Use correct attributions: Attribute failure to external, unstable factors. - luck. Attribute success to internal factors - ability (stable factors). Set up situations where success is achievable. Improve self esteem. Set performance goals rather than outcome goals. Avoid social comparison with others.

Thought stopping

Use of a trigger to remove negative or irrational thoughts

How does the use of fats impact on glycogen?

Use of fats helps to spare glycogen for high intensity elements of a performance e.g. to allow glycolysis to take place in a sprint finish of a marathon

Benefits of beta blockers

Used to improve accuracy in precision sports, as nerves are steadied. Reduce performance anxiety by keeping heart rate low and decreasing tremble in the hands. Widen the arteries to increase blood flow and reduce involuntary muscle spasms.

Warmup - stretching

Used to improve flexibility (range of motion) at joint and increase temperature of muscles so they become more pliable and less prone to injury

Weight training

Used to improve strength, but also anaerobic muscular power and muscular endurance (power athletes, rowers, games players). The use of resistance machines, free weights, kettle bells to target muscle groups. Utilises the force of gravity and the weight being held/lifted. Can vary repetitions and sets to achieve specific aims.

Protective equipment

Used to reduce injuries in sport e.g. mouth guards, helmets, and pads EXAMPLES Football: ankle and shin pads. Rugby: scrum cap, gum shield, body armour. Cricket: batting pads, thigh pads, box, helmet, gloves. Hockey: leg guards, shin guards, kickers, gloves, helmet, face mask for short corners Squash: eye guards

Reasons for glycoloading

Used to supercompensate for high glycogen demand by storing more glycogen in the muscle than normal. Glycogen is an anaerobic energy source and in long duration/distance events, there is the potential to run out of glycogen/hit the wall. Glycogen depletion would result in an inability to maintain exercise intensity

Ice baths

Useful after a gruelling training session, race, or match where lactic acid has built up in the legs. Performer gets into ice cold water bath for 5-20 minutes. Ice cold water reduces swelling. Ice cold water causes the blood vessels in the legs to vasoconstrict, restricting blood flow to the area. This helps to reduce swelling and aids muscle repair. When the performer gets out the bath, vasodilation of the blood vessels of the legs occurs. Fresh oxygenated blood floods into the vessels of the legs. The fresh oxygen removes lactic acid and helps the cells to function better.

Fartlek training and games players

Useful for games players e.g. footballers, to help them cope with the changing pace of the game e.g. a striker has to sprint to chase a ball played in the oppositions defence (high intensity), but may also have less intense periods of play e.g. tracking back when the opposition have the ball. Helps to develop the different energy systems needed. HOWEVER, Most beneficial to outfield players as they run at a lot of varying intensities. May be less beneficial to goal keepers who do not run as much and are more static - may benefit from other types of training e.g. plyometrics to improve strength and power when jumping to save the ball.

Visualisation

Uses a mental image of the skill to execute in under pressure Can quicken the execution of an action. Can be Internal or external

Strength training as an injury rehabilitation method

Uses resistance to increase strength gradually e.g. WEIGHT MACHINES - the machine has a lot of control and when improving strength in the early stages of an injury, a performer can begin with low weights and gradually build this up. FREE WEIGHTS - dumbbells and kettlebells have to be controlled as they are lifted. By not relying on a machine, the muscles have to stabilise the weight as well as lift it. BODY WEIGHT - using the body as resistance often involves core body exercises such as the plank. Improving core strength helps balance and posture, and reduces any imbalances that could lead to injury. THERA BANDS - made of latex and have different strengths. Light resistance bands used for rehabilitation and as the injury improves, bands with greater resistance are used.

Attentional control and cue utilisation - stress management techniques

Using the correct attentional style

Forces acting on the body - factors affecting air resistance

VELOCITY OF THE BODY - the faster the body moves, the greater the air resistance. CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF THE BODY - the larger the cross sectional area, the greater the air resistance e.g. cyclists crouch low over the handlebars rather than sit upright. SHAPES AND SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BODY - e.g. a streamlined shape results in less air resistance e.g. cyclists wear lycra and remove body hair.

The major leg muscles used in the drive phase of sprinting are the gastrocnemius, quadriceps, gluteals, and hamstrings. Exactly the same muscle groups are also used in high jumping. Explain, using the idea of VECOTRS, how these same muscle groups can produce both maximal horizontal motion and maximal vertical motion.

Vectors have: Magnitude/direction Point of application/line of application Vertical and horizontal components. A performer applies a muscular force to the ground by contraction of the muscles. An equal and opposite ground reaction force moves the performer and produces the movement. A sprinter requires a large horizontal component to achieve maximal horizontal motion. A high jumper requires a large vertical component to achieve maximal vertical motion.

Sources of vitamin B complex

Vegetables and cereals

Factors that reduce and increase drag

Velocity of the moving body Cross sectional area of the moving body Shape of moving body Surface characteristics of the moving body.

Atkinson's achievement motivation

Views achievement motivation as a personality which is activated by a situation. The situation comprises the 'probability of success' and the 'incentive value of success' Probability of success - the extent to which success is likely. Incentive value of success - the intrinsic value experienced by the individual after success has been achieved.

Evaluation of strategies to control spectator violence

Violence amongst spectators has decreased since hooliganisms height in the 70s/80s, showing that strategies have been effective. The introduction of all seater stadiums (removal of the terraces), segregation of fans, and family zones, has creates a more civilised atmosphere at football matches. More responsible media reporting prior to matches has helped to decrease tension between the rival fans. HOWEVER, Deviant behaviour by fans can still exist despite strategies and technologies: CCTV - fans can still engage in hooliganism by covering their faces. Despite trespass laws, spectators have still been known to invade the pitch. Easy access to alcohol means that spectators can drink at home/on the train etc.

What is tapering?

Volume of training is reduced while intensity remains high OR intensity reduces and focus is shifted to skill specific elements.

Swimming as a physical recreation

Voluntary - no moral obligation. Go for enjoyment and stress relief (intrinsic rewards). Self-regulated - decide own pace/stroke/duration. Free time - completed after work/away from obligations, in leisure time. Limited organisational structure and flexible rules - non-standard sized pool, not swimming in lanes, any stroke.

How to use flexibility training safely

Warm up prior to stretching. Make stretches sports specific. Hold for 10-30 seconds. Never hold a painful stretch. Balance stretches - stretch agonist and antagonist.

Self-serving bias

We have a tendency to blame defeat on factors outside of our control - external (luck/task difficulty). We tend to credit success to factors within our control - internal factors (ability/effort). We do this to: Maintain self-esteem - feel better about ourselves. Increase self-efficacy.

Water during exercise

We lose more fluid during exercise because we sweat more to maintain body temperature and increase respiration to meet the oxygen demand of the working muscles (water vapour). Fluid loss must be replaced (approx. 750ml-1500ml per hour depending on the individual and condition). Use rest breaks, timeouts and water stations to rehydrate during performance.

Impact of arousal on performance - when we are over-aroused

We miss the important cues, which reduces our performance levels. The performer becomes so tightly focused on the performance, or one aspect of the display e.g. the defender, that they miss important cues. We call this attentional narrowing. If attentional narrowing continues, it is called attentional wasting. This occurs when attention is misdirected to irrelevant cues e.g. shouts from the crowd.

What does the overconsumption of carbs lead to?

Weight gain (as excess glucose is stored as fat), water retention, heavy legs, and it can affect digestion. These factors decrease an athletes performance.

Examples of vectors

Weight, velocity, displacement, acceleration, momentum

Newton's third law of angular motion

When a force (torque) is applied to one body by another, the second body will exert an equal and opposite force (torque) on the other body. EXAMPLE: A gymnast runs up to the vault and onto the springboard. They apply an off centre muscular force (torque) down onto the springboard. The springboard returns to its original shape and exerts an equal, upward reaction force on the gymnast to start off their rotation.

Performance goals

When an athlete sets a goal to better their own performance rather than in comparison to others. Breaking down performance into techniques e.g. better arm action in swimming

When is the peak flow experience most likely to occur?

When the performer has reached the correct level of somatic arousal, and cognitive arousal is low

Validity

When the test actually measures what it sets out to do. E.g. sit and reach test measures the flexibility of the hamstrings and the lower back, therefore it is not a valid test for the upper body. The multistage fitness test involves running, and is a valid test for a games player where lots of running is involved, but less so for a swimmer or cyclist where movement patterns are different.

The Bernoulli Principle

When there is an increase in the velocity of air, there is a decrease in pressure. When air flow is fast, pressure is low. When air flow is slow, pressure is high. Air will then attempt to move from the high pressure area to the low pressure area, creating lift.

Social reasons for doping

Win at all costs attitude. High level of extrinsic rewards. Belief that other athletes are taking drugs - have to even the playing field. High levels of pressure - coaches, fans, media. Institutionalised - coaches may persuade athletes to take drugs illegally. Lack of effective deterrents and a firm belief they won't get caught. Poor role models.

Causes of violence in a performer

Win ethic. Importance of event. Nature of the sport. NGBs too lenient. Excitement/over arousal. Refereeing decisions leading to frustration.

Drawbacks of school sport

Winning emphasis can be over-stressed. Can lead to win at all cost attitudes e.g. cheating, aggression, loss of sports ethic. Low morale if fail. Overtraining - physical stress and burnout. Loss of enjoyment - may only play for extrinsic rewards.

Goal setting principles - realistic

Within performer ability. E.g. A high jumper who can already jump 1.20m could aim for 1.25m

Goal setting principles- achievable

Within reach or effort. E.g. A team player aiming to increase the number of tackles made each game

Continuous training

Work continuously without breaks (30+ mins) to develop aerobic power and cardiovascular endurance. Work at a steady state for 60-80% maximum heart rate. Can involve cycling, running, rowing, or swimming. Continuous training will lead to several adaptations to the CV system e.g. cardiac hypertrophy resulting in a greater maximum cardiac output. Blood vessels will become more elastic and able to dilate more, increasing oxygen delivery to the muscles. It will increase the number and size of mitochondria and myoglobin, which are used for aerobic respiration.

Cognitive dissonance

Works by creating conflict between one of the components of the triadic model. This creates psychological discomfort and a feeling of dissonance. The individual is then motivated to ease this discomfort by changing their existing attitude. To decrease feelings of inconsistency, individuals are motivated to alter what they believe, feel, or do.

Arguments for drugs testing - if PEDs are legalised, coaches may force performers to use drugs

Young performers may feel that they have to take them to compete on a level playing field. In the 80s and 90s, it is alleged that china compulsory doped athletes in a systematic doping programme in a range of Olympic sports. This included children as young as 11, and athletes who refused were taken off the teams.