all of the notes i have for the psych final (unit one missing)
a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience
post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
According to Lawrence Kohlberg, those who develop an abstract level of reasoning wherein they perceive basic ethical principles and the moral good as more important than their own selves, have developed what is known as _____ morality.
postconventional
During this stage of Piaget's cognitive development, children are able to represent things with words and images and use intuitive rather than logical reasoning.
pre operational
(basic to Freud's theory) Beneath our awareness is the larger unconscious mind, with its thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. Some of these thoughts we store temporarily in a __________ area, from which we can retrieve them into conscious awareness.
preconscious
According to Kohlberg, _______________ morality focuses on self-interest, _______________ morality focuses on self-defined ethical principles, and _______________ morality focuses on upholding laws and social rules.
preconventional; postconventional; conventional
The urge to distinguish enemies from friends predisposes ________ against strangers.
prejudice
an injustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members (usually involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action)
prejudice
an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action
prejudice
an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group.
prejudice
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.
preoperational stage
stage of cognitive development from age 2 to 6 or 7
preoperational stage
An approach that seeks to identify and alleviate conditions that put people at high risk for developing psychological disorders is called
preventive mental health
(the often unconscious activation of certain associations that may predispose one's perception, memory, or response)shows that we process some information from stimuli below our absolute threshold for conscious awareness.
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.
priming
Detaching is a ________, not an event
process
attributing our own threatening impulses to others (Freud)
projection
Although Greg has accumulated many tickets for a wide range of traffic infractions, he complains all the time to family and friends about other peoples' driving. Sigmund Freud would describe this as _____, while today researchers would describe this as _____.
projection; fasle consensus effect
In 1921, Hermann Rorschach introduced what has become the most widely used ____________ test.
projective
__________ tests ask test-takers to respond to an ambiguous stimulus, for example, by describing it or telling a story about it.
projective
a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics
projective test
behavior that intends to help of benefit someone
prosocial
According to the Gestalt psychologists, humans tend to group together figures that are near each other. This is called the principle of:
proximity
Until puberty, brain cells increase their connections, like trees growing more roots and branches. Then, during adolescence, comes a selective ________ of unused neurons and connections.
pruning
Sigmund Freud's theory of personality that attributes throughout and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts. (2) Freud's therapeutic technique used in treating psychological disorders. Freud believed that the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences - and the therapist's interpretations of them - released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight
psychoanalysis
A therapist who helps patients search for the unconscious roots of their problem and offers interpretations of their behaviors, feelings, and dreams, is drawing from
psychoanalysis.
(Freud) emotional disorders spring from unconscious dynamics, such as unresolved sexual and other childhood conflicts, and fixation at various developmental stages. defense mechanisms fend off anxiety
psychoanalytic
view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences
psychodynamic theories
therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition: views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and seeks to enhance self-insight
psychodynamic therapy
a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individuals's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior
psychological disorder
study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior
psychopharmacology
(stage theories) Erik Erikson = ________ development
psychosocial
treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth
psychotherapy
modern western therapies can be classified into two main categories:
psychotherapy and biomedical therapy
Adolescent begins with ________, the time when we mature sexually.
puberty
A medieval proverb notes that "a burnt child dreads the fire." In operant conditioning, the burning would be an example of a ________.
punisher
The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters is called the:
pupil
Studies have confirmed that orphaned children tend to fare better on later intelligence tests if ____________________.
raised in family homes
frontal lobes enable __________.
rational planning
To predict behavior, social-cognitive psychologists ofter observe behavior in ________ situations.
realistic
A psychologist who asks you to write down as many objects as you can remember having seen a few minutes earlier is testing your ________.
recall
All our senses ________ sensory stimulation, often using specialized receptor cells.
receive
Albert Bandura proposed the social-cognitive perspective on personality, which emphasizes the interaction of pole with their environment. To describe the interacting influences of behavior, thoughts, and environment, he used the term ____________.
reciprocal determinism
Brenda's past experiences in college classes influence her attitude toward academic achievement, which then influence how she prepares for her current classes. This is an example of ____________.
reciprocal determinism
the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment
reciprocal determinism
an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them
reciprocity norm
Once fears and anxieties arise, __________ helps maintain them.
reinforcement
The increase in ASD diagnoses has been offset by a decrease in the number of children with a "cognitive disability" or "learning disability," which suggests ____________________.
relabeling of children's disorders
the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity
repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)
The most enthusiastic or optimistic view of the effectiveness of psychotherapy comes from
reports of clinicians and clients
Psychoanalytic theory presumes that we often __________ offending wishes, banishing them into the unconscious until they resurface, like long-lost books in a dusty attic.
repress
Children eventually cope with threatening feelings, said Freud, by __________ and __________
repressing them and by identifying with (trying to be like) the rival parent
Freud believed that we may block painful or unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, or memories from consciousness through an unconscious process called __________.
repression
Freud proposed that painful or unacceptable memories are blocked from consciousness through a mechanism called
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
repression
Most children growing up under adversity (as did the surviving children of the Holocaust) are ________; they withstand the trauma and become normal adults.
resilient
(associative learning) operant conditioning -- the organism associated a ________ and ________.
response and consequence
the light-sensitive inner surfeit of the eye, donating the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing visual information
retina
The distance between our right and left eyes functions to provide us with a cue for depth perception known as:
retinal disparity
geting information back out
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
retrieval
Specific odors, visual images, emotions, or other associations that help us access a memory are examples of
retrieval cues
The hour before sleep is a good time to memorize information, because going to sleep after learning new material minimizes __________.
retroactive interference
(theory) we will like those whose behavior is rewarding to us, including those who are both able and willing to help us achieve our goals
reward theory of attraction
Teens actually don't underestimate the risks of smoking—or fast driving or unprotected sex. They just, when reasoning from their gut, weigh the benefits more heavily. Teens find ________ more exciting than adults do.
rewards
Adolescent selective pruning of unused neurons and connections are to road construction as adolescent impulsivity and _____ are to an absent brake pedal.
risk taking
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
role
compulsive fretting; overthinking about our problems and their causes
rumination
Familiarity is a ________ signal. Familiarity breeds context.
safety
After the events of 9/11, some Americans began boycotting Arab-American stores and lashing out at any person they perceived as Middle Eastern. This behavior is best explained in terms of the __________ theory.
scapegoat
When prejudiced judgement causes us to blame an undeserving person or problem, that person is called a ________.
scapegoat
the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
scapegoat theory
the theory the prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
scapegoat theory
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.
schema
Perceptual sets are the result of _____, which people form to organize and interpret unfamiliar information.
schemas
concepts or mental molds into which we pour our experiences
schemas
a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotion expression
schizophrenia
_____ children's self-concept includes their gender, group memberships, psychological traits, and comparisons to other children.
school age
Money is an example of a:
secondary reinforcer
Three-year-old Adam happily explores the attractive toys located in the dentist's waiting room while his mother is in the room. However, if she briefly leaves he will be distressed. When she returns, he will go to her for reassurance. Then he will continue to play and periodically go to her side for brief moments. Adam most clearly displays signs of _____ attachment.
secure
Ainsworth and others found that sensitive, responsive mothers—those who noticed what their babies were doing and responded appropriately—had infants who exhibited __________.
secure attachment
To answer this question, Mary Ainsworth (1979) designed the strange situation experiment. She observed mother- infant pairs at home during their first six months. Later she observed the 1-year-old infants in a strange situation (usually a laboratory playroom). Such research has shown that about 60 percent of infants display __________.
secure attachment
Human attachment also consists of one person providing another with a __________ from which to explore and a safe haven when distressed.
secure base
in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions
self
With our love needs satisfied, we seek __________.
self esteem
Having achieved self-esteem, we ultimately seek __________ (the process of fulfilling our potential) and self-transcendence (meaning, purpose, and communion beyond the self)
self-actualization
according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential
self-actualization
according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential
self-actualization
By the end of childhood, at about age 12, most children have developed a __________ —an understanding and assessment of who they are.
self-concept
When asked "Who are you?", 15-year-old Samantha answers that she is a sophomore in high school, that her favorite music artist is Taylor Swift, and that her favorite T.V. show is Once Upon a Time. She is describing her ____________.
self-concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
self-concept
Another vital ingredient of loving relationships is __________, the revealing of intimate details about ourselves - like our likes and dislikes, our dreams and worries, our proud and shameful moments.
self-disclosure
the act of revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
self-disclosure
one's sense of competence and effectiveness
self-effiancy
one's sense of competence and effectiveness
self-efficay
one's feelings of high or low self-wort
self-esteem
During the early teen years, reasoning is often __________.
self-focused
a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
self-fulfilling prophecy
Compared with psychoanalysts, humanistic therapists are more likely to emphasize
self-fulfillment and growth
preconventional morality (before age 9) focus
self-intrest obese rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards "if you save your dying wife, you'll be a hero"
The tendency to accept responsibility for success and blame circumstances or bad luck as failures is called ____________.
self-serving bais
a readiness to perceive oneself favorably
self-serving bias
readiness to perceive oneself favorably
self-serving bias
(module 18) the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
sensation
Sensation is to ________ as perception is to ________.
sensation = bottom-up processing perception = top-down processing
The _____ may all be influenced by perceptual set.
senses
Ralph Waldo Emerson said, "With the past, I have nothing to do; nor with the future. I live now." These sentiments would best reflect a child at the _____ stage of development.
sensorimotor
stage of cognitive development from birth to nearly age 2
sensorimotor
experiencing the world thought senses and actions (looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping)
sensorimotor (birth - 2)
four major stages of cognitive development according to Piaget
sensorimotor preoperational concrete operational formal operational
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.
sensorimotor stage
__________ adaptation even influence how we perceive emotions
sensory
In Atkinson and Shiffrin's three-stage processing model we record information in which order?
sensory memory short-term memory long-term memory
What makes sensation possible?
sensory receptors
Piaget identified significant cognitive milestones and stimulates worldwide interest in how the mind develops. His emphasis was less on the ages at which children typically reach specific milestones than on their ________.
sequence
a neurotransmitter than influences sleep, mood, and attention to negative images
serotonin
When drug therapies have not been effective, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) may be used as treatment, largely for people with
severe depression
One way to change behavior is to reward natural behaviors in small steps, as the organism gets closer and closer to a desired behavior. This process is called
shaping
To make a long-distance call, you have to dial an unfamiliar phone number. You are likely to have trouble retaining the number you just looked up. This best illustrates the limited capacity of ___________ memory.
short-term
When forgetting is due to encoding failure, meaningless information has not been transferred from
short-term memory into long-term memory
Two TSA officers are scanning bags at the airport. One of the officers lets a bag go through, but the other officer yells, "Wait, didn't you see that?" Why one officer saw a weapon and the other did not is best explained by:
signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.
signal detection theory
predicts how and when we will detect a faint stimulus amid background noise. Individual absolute thresholds vary, depending on the strength of the signal and also on our experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.
signal detection theory
The fundamental attribute error involves underestimating ____________
situ rational influences on another's behavior
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs (accountants call it cost-benefit analysis; philosophers call it utilitarianism)
social change theory
Our social behavior arises from our __________.
social cognition
the power of the situation
social control
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
social exchange theory
__________ experiments test the effects of others' presence on performance of an individual task, such as shooting pool.
social facilitation
improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
social facilitation
strengthened perfomance in others' presence (simple tasks)
social facilitation
Makayla is a young White girl who lives in Miami Florida. Makayla is very aware of her minority status. Her _____ has formed around her uniqueness to the area.
social identity
the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships.
social identity
In general, neo-Freudians such as Adler and Horney accepted many of Freud's views but placed more emphasis than he did on ____________.
social interactions
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts towards attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
social loafing
We are sensitive to __________ because the price we pay for being different can be severe.
social norms
understood rules for accepted and expected behavior
social norms
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
social psychology
Thomas enjoys watching violent pornography. When he goes out with a woman, he expects her to be submissive to his sexual demands; when he is turned down he becomes violent. Research done by social psychologists suggests that his beliefs are caused by _____, which are mental files for how to act.
social scripts
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each pursuing their self-intreat rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior "It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest."
social traps
Albert Bandura proposed the ____________ perspective on personality, which emphasizes the interaction of pole with their environment.
social-cognitive
Critics say that ____________ personality theory is very sensitive to an individual's interactions with particular situations, but that it gives too little attention to the person's enduring traits.
social-cognitive
The _____ perspective involves the concept of reciprocal determinism.
social-cognitive
these theories build from research on learning and cognition
social-cognitive
views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context
social-cognitive perspective
theories that explore the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and social context
social-cognitive theories
an expectation that people will help those needing their help
social-responsibility norm
(associative learning) classical conditioning -- the organism associates two or more ________.
stimula
__________ occurs when a person experiences a fearful even and later develops a fear of similar events
stimulus generalization
retaining information
storage
After about 8 months, soon after object permanence emerges and children become mobile, a curious thing happens: They develop __________.
stranger anxiety
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.
stranger anxiety
happens when, without our awareness, our sensory system processes the sound of the approaching bike (when it is below our absolute threshold)
subliminal stimulation
If a visual image is first presented _____, the chance of a person later recognizing the same briefly presented image is improved.
subliminally
Although Alex is frequently caught stealing money and other valuables from friends and strangers, he does not feel guilty or remorseful about his actions. According to Freud, Alex most clearly demonstrates a weak ________.
superego
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
superordinate goals
Peripheral route persuasion doesn't engage in ________ thinking, but does produce fast results as people respond to uninformative cues (such as celebrity endorsements) and make snap judgements.
systematic
The technique ____________ teaches people to relax in the presence of progressively more anxiety-provoking stimuli.
systematic desensitization
Dr. Pence is studying perceptual set in children. When given a serving of chicken nuggets, children thought that the nuggets served in a McDonald's bag tasted much better than nuggets served in a plain bag. Dr. Penc concludes that the children's sense of ____ has been influenced.
taste (??)
Children with autism spectrum disorder had difficulty understand that Sally's state of mind differed from their own - that Sally, not knowing the ball had been moved would return to the red cupboard. (15.2) They are, for example, less likely to use ____________________.
te personal pronouns I and me
The symptoms of phobias begin to appear at a median age of about __.
ten
(literally, "monster maker") agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.
teratogens
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
teratogens
Most major depressive episodes self-________
terminate
a theory of death-related anxiety explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death
terror-management theory
Susan asked her roommate to lower the radio as she was trying to study. Her roommate had turned the radio up originally from a volume level of 14 to 15, which was just enough for Susan to detect. She turned it back down to 14 after Susan asked her to lower it, which satisfied Susan. This is probably the result of:
the difference threshold
Adler, Horney, and Jung's psychodynamic view of personality
the dynamo interplay of conscious and unconscious motives and conflicts shape our personality
One of the strengths of the biopsychosocial model, in comparison to the medical model, is that the biopsychosocial model incorporates _____ into an understanding of psychological disorders.
the effect of culture
When tested immediately after viewing a list of words, people tend to recall the first and last items more readily than those in the middle. When retested after a delay, they are most likely to recall
the first items on the list
The humanistic perspective of personality emphasized ____________.
the growth potential of "healthy" individuals
Preoperational stage: in Piaget's theory (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend ____________________.
the mental operations of concrete logic (which is more example)
Prejudice springs from a culture's divisions, the heart's passions, and also from __________
the mind's natural workings
One reason false memories form is our tendency to fill in memory gaps with our reasonable guesses and assumptions, sometimes based on misleading information. This tendency is an example of
the misinformation effect
Self-actualization is the ultimate psychological need. It only arises after basic psychological and physiological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved. Self-actualization is:
the motivation to fulfills one's potential
Personality psychologists focus on __________
the person (They study the person traits and dynamics that explain why different people may act differently in a given situation.)
Most American cities with populations of 50,000 or more have used assessment centers in evaluating police officers and firefighters. These procedures exploit the principle that the best means of predicting future behavior is neither a personality test nor an interviewer's intuition. Rather, it is ____________.
the person's past behavior patters in similar situations.
the id operates on ____________: it seeks immediate gratification
the pleasure principle
The ego, operating on ____________, seeks to gratify the id's impulses in realistic ways that will bring long-term pleasure
the reality principle
After Mrs. Chanski and her children had helped themselves to free samples of the cookies promoted in the grocery store, she felt obligated to buy some even though they seemed unreasonably expensive. Her reaction best illustrates the significance of:
the reciprocity norm
Beth and Marsha have worked together for about a year. They work well together and both are advancing in the career. What can best explain why Beth and Marsha like each other?
the reward theory of attraction
Those who emphasize biological maturation tend to see development as a sequence of genetically predisposed stages or steps: Although progress through the various stages may be quick or slow, everyone passes through the stages in __________ order.
the same
Dennis, a nurse, notes that some parents of asthmatic children respond to very small changes in their children's breathing, and seek care accordingly. However, other parents do not notice the same small changes. This type of difference in reaction to stimuli is best explained by:
the signal detection theory.
Social psychologists study __________ that explain why the same person will act different in different situations.
the social influences
a projective test in which people express their inner feelings an distrusts through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
thematic apperception test (TAT)
When Little Red Riding Hood realized her "grandmother" was really a wolf, she swiftly revised her ideas about the creature's intentions and raced away. Preschoolers, although still egocentric, develop this ability to inter other's mental states when they begin forming a __________.
theory of mind
people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.
theory of mind
People with ASD are said to have an impaired __________.
theory of the mind
concrete operational state -- could a child understand this joke or not? "When the waiter asked if he wanted the pizza cut into 6 or 8 slices, Mr. Jones said, 'Oh, you'd better make it 6, I could never eat 8 pieces!'"
they could understand this joke
Imagine that 10-year-old children were shown photographs of 3-year-old preschoolers and asked to spot former classmates. What were the probable results?
they forgot all of their classmates
Our earliest conscious memories seldom predate our ________ birthday
third
If we achieve a sense of security, we then seek ____________.
to love, to be loved, and to love ourselves
At a treatment center, people who display a desired behavior receive coins that they can later exchange for other rewards. This is an example of a(n) ____________.
token economy
Perceptions can be influenced, _____, by expectations, the context, emotions and motivation.
top-down
information processing guided by high-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions by filtering information through our experience and expectations
top-down processing
(Allport, Eysenck, McCrae, Costa) we have certain stable and enduring characteristics, influenced by genetic predispositions
trait
A(n) _____ describes a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.
trait
________ theories of personality focus on describing characteristic behavior patterns, such as agreeableness or extraversion.
trait
a characteristic pattern of behavior or a distortion to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports
trait
theories that examine characteristic patterns of behavior (traits)
trait theories
(developmental psychology issue) Stability and change: Which of our _________ persist through life? How do we change as we age?
traits
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret.
transduction
the process of converting one form of energy into another that our brain can use
transduction
In psychoanalysis, when patients experience strong feelings for their therapist, this is called ___________ . Patients are said to demonstrate anxiety when they put up mental blocks around sensitive memories , indicating __________ . The therapist will attempt to provide insight into the underlying anxiety by offering a(n) ___________ of the mental blocks.
transference; resistance; interpretation
All our senses ________ that stimulation into neural impulses.
transform
Hardship short of ________ boosts mental toughness.
trauma
psychological development: infancy (to one year) issue
trust vs mistrust if needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust
theory of emotion that helps us understand the intense positive absorption in another assumes that emotions have two ingredients (physical arousal plus cognitive appraisal) and that arousal from any source can enhance one emotion or another, depending on how we interpret and label the arousal
two factor-theory
The total acceptance Rogers advocated as part of a growth-promoting environment is called ____________.
unconditional positive regard
a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients develop self-awareness and self-acceptance
unconditional positive regard
according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories according to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware
unconscious
Freud believed that our defense mechanisms operate __________ and defend us against __________.
unconsciously; anxiety
Perceptual sets are the result of schemas, which people form to organize and interpret _____ information.
unfamiliar
Permissive parents are ________. They make few demands and use little punishment. They may be indifferent, unresponsive, or unwilling to set limits.
unrest raining
conventional morally (early adolescence) focus
uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order "if you step the drug from her, everyone will think you're a criminal"
The partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after unpredictable time periods is a __________ schedule.
variable interval
Jack finds it extremely difficult to pull himself away from the blackjack table. He keeps thinking he will break even as the next hand will be his winning one. This is a ________ schedule.
variable-ration
A variable-ratio schedule reinforces behavior after a:
varying number of responses
Kinesthesia is your sense of body position and movement. Your __________ specifically monitors your head's movement , with sensors in the inner ear.
vestibular sense
According to Bandura, we learn by watching models because we experience __________ or __________.
vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment
the characteristic of light that determines the color we experience such as blue or green
wavelength
sychologists involved in the study of memories of abuse tend to DISAGREE about which of the following statements?
we tend to repress extremely upsetting memories
identity = people's sense of who they are, what is important to them, and ____________________
where they are headed in life
The concept of __________ clarifies the idea of short-term memory by focusing o t eh active processing that occurs in this stage
working memory
The first two weeks of prenatal development is the period of the _________.
zygote
the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.
zygote
Mere exposure to people and things fosters ________. (Children like to reread the same books, rewatch the same movies, reenact family traditions)
fondless
We tend to agree to a larger request more readily if we have already agreed to a small request. This tendency is called the __________ phenomenon
foot-in-the-door
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
foot-in-the-door phenomenon (ex section 42.2 Chinese communist war camp)
an identity status in which a person has adopted a ready-made identity provided by others, usually the parents, without seriously considering alternatives
foreclosure
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.
formal operational stage
When adolescents achieve the intellectual summit that Jean Piaget called __________, they apply their new abstract reasoning tools to the world around them.
formal operations
About one out of every _____ people diagnosed with depression is simply struggling with the emotional impact of a significant loss.
four
in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing
free association
Piaget's core idea what that our intellectual progression reflects an unceasing struggle to make sense of our experiences. To this end, the maturing brain builds schemas, concepts or mental molds into which we pour our experiences. By adulthood we have build countless schemas, ranging from __________ to __________.
from cats and dogs to our concept of love
As teens mature, their ________ lobes also continue to develop.
frontal
From ages 3 to 6, the most rapid growth was in your ________ lobes.
frontal
Modern brain-scanning techniques reveal that some people with chronic schizophrenia have abnormally low activity in the _____ lobes.
frontal
the principle that frustration - the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal - creates anger, which can generate aggression
frustration-aggression principle
the tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behavior, to overestimate the impact of persona disposition
fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
fundamental attribution error
According to the ____________ theory, the spinal cord contains a neurological gate that either blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain.
gate-control
The __________ theory of pain proposes that small spinal cord nerve fibers conduct most pain signals, but large-fiber activity can close access to those pain signals.
gate-control
Freud believed that identification with the same-sex parent provided what psychologists now call our __________ - our sense of being male, female, or a combination of the two
gender identity
A year after surviving a classroom shooting, Angie still responds with terror at the sight of toy guns and the sound of balloons popping. This reaction best illustrates:
generalization
How might conditioning magnify a single painful and frightening event into a full-blown phobia? The answer lies in part in two conditioning processes: __________ and __________
generalization and reinforcement
Unfocused tension, apprehension, and arousal are symptoms of __________ disorder.
generalized anxiety
anxiety disorder in which a person is unexplainably and continually tense and uneasy
generalized anxiety disorder
Erik Erikson proposed that at this stage of life, people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or else they may feel a lack of purpose.
generatively versus stagnation
psychological development: middle adulthood (40s to 60s)
generatively vs stagnation in middle age, people who discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually thought family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose
________ guide motor development. Identical twins typically begin walking on nearly the same day.
genes
At each prenatal stage, ____________________ factors affect our development.
genetic and environmental factors
biological influences on aggression
genetic, neural, biochemical
When people are ________, they are open with their own feelings, drop their facades, and are transparent and self-disclosing.
genuine
If one has too much _____, the brain's alarm centers may become overactive.
glutamate
(developmental psychology issue) Continuity and stages: What parts of development are ________________, like riding an escalator? What parts change _________________, like climbing rungs on a ladder?
gradual and continuous, like riding an escalator change abruptly in supra stages, like climbing rungs on a ladder
Sharing our opinions with like-minded others tends to strengthen our views, a phenomenon referred to as __________.
group polarization
The beliefs and attitudes we bring to a group grow stronger as we discuss them with like-midid others. The process, called __________, can have beneficial results, as when it amplifies a sought-after spiritual awareness or reinforces the resolve on those in a self-help group.
group polarization
When like-minded groups discuss a topic, and the result is the strengthening of the prevailing opinion, this is called __________.
group polarization
the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group
group polarization
social context of social loading
group projects
social context of deindividuation
group settings that fosters arousal and anonymity
therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits from group interaction
group therapy
Our tendencies to fill in the gaps and to perceive a pattern as continuous are two different examples of the organizing principle called
grouping
Studies have show that ________ - fed by overconfidence, conformity, self-justification, and group polarization - contributed to other fiascos as well. (ex: Bay of Pigs fiasco - JFK)
groupthink
The tragic decision to launch the space shuttle Challenger resulted in part from the minimal expression of dissenting views among NASA personnel and advisors. This best illustrates the dangers of __________.
groupthink
When a group's desire for harmony overrides its realistic analysis of other options, ________ has occurred.
groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives
groupthink
Adrenaline makes the heart ____________
grow fonder
Developmental psychologists use repeated stimulation to test an infant's ____________ to a stimulus.
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation (as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner)
habituation (with repetition, the response weakens)
Regarding the treatment of schizophrenia, therapeutic drugs that block dopamine receptors are most likely to reduce _____.
hallucinations
The last result, that ________ people are helpful people, is one of the most consistent findings in all of psychology
happy
Hakeem has a very clear memory of his daughter's birth. He remembers the weather, what he was wearing, the sounds in the hallway, and the joy he felt. Psychologists would say that:
he has a flashbulb memory for this event
Maslow's hierarchy of needs proposes that we must satisfy basic physiological and safety needs before we seek ultimate psychological needs, such as self-actualization. Maslow based his ideas on his study of ____________.
healthy, creative people
The younger sibling of a child with ASD is at a ________ risk.
heightened
Basic to Freud's theory was his belief that the mid is mostly ________.
hidden
Henry decided to organize what he is studying by paying attention to chapter outlines, headings, objectives, learning outcomes, and test questions. This best illustrates the use of:
hierarchical organization
Maslow proposed that we are motivated by a ____________.
hierarchy of needs
The ________ seems to function as a temporary processing site for explicit memories
hippocampus
Couples that share ________ and ________ are happier in their relationships and less divorce prone.
housework and child care
(Rogers, Maslow) rather than examining the struggles of sick people, it's better to focus on the ways healthy people strive for self-realization
humanistic
view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth
humanistic theories
(sensory memory) visual memory
iconic
According to Freud, this part of the personality contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that strives to satisfy the basic sexual and aggressive drives.
id
a reservoir of unconscious psych every that, accord to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification
id
To understand the mind's dynamics during the conflict between impulse and restraint, Freud proposed three interacting systems:
id, ego, and superego
the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos
identification
an identity status in which a person has struggled with and settled (at least provisionally) questions of identity and purpose and has formed a direction for the future
identity achievement
psychological development: (teen years to 20s)
identity vs role confusion teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are
Rogers and Maslow's humanistic view of personality
if our basic human needs are met, people will strive toward self-actualization. in a climate of unconditional positive regard, we can develop self-awareness and a more realistic and positive self-concept
Amnesia following hippocampus damage typically leaves people unable to learn new facts or recall recent events. However, they may be able to learn new skills, such as riding a bicycle, which is an __________ memory.
implicit
Hugenberg and Bodenhausen found that people who were more quickly to associate good things with White names or faces also were the quickest to perceive anger and apparent threat in Black faces. Their findings demonstrate ________ prejudice
implicit
the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life
imprinting
the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life.
imprinting
According to Freud, repression underlies all the other defense mechanisms. However, because repression is often __________, repressed urges may appear as symbols in dreams or as slips of the tongue in casual conversation.
incomplete
social context of social facilitation
individual being observed
Genes ________ aggression
influence (we know this because animals have been bred for aggressiveness)
Learning is defines as "the processes of acquiring throughout experience new and relative enduring ________ or ________."
information or behaviors
influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality
informational social influence
"us" - people with whom we share a common identity
ingroup
the tendency to favor our won group
ingroup bias
psychological development: preschool (3 to 6 years)
initiative vs guilt preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent
Marissa resents the burden and constraints of caring for her infant daughter. She frequently ignores her daughter's cries for attention. As a consequence, her daughter is most likely to display signs of:
insecure attachment
Other infants avoid attachment or show __________, marked either by anxiety or avoidance of trusting relationships. They are less likely to explore their surroundings; they may even cling to their mother. When she leaves, they either cry loudly and remain upset or seem indifferent to her departure and return.
insecure attachment
Disorders reflect genetic predispositions and physiological states, inner psychological dynamics, and social and cultural circumstances. The biopsycholsocial approach emphasizes that mind and body are ________.
inseparable
__________ therapies are designed to help individuals discover the thoughts and feelings that guide their motivation and behavior.
insight
a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person's awareness of underlying motives and defenses (humanistic therapies)
insight therapies
psychological development: young adulthood (20s to early 40s)
instantly vs isolation young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity of intimate love, or they feel socially isolated
Piaget believed that children construct their understanding of the world while __________.
interacting with it
Two examples of monocular depth cues are ________ and ________.
interposition and linear perspective
According to Erik Erikson, one positive outcome of the struggle for identity is a comfortable sense of who one is and a developing capacity for _____ with others.
intimacy
in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood.
intimacy
Which tow primary dimensions did Hans Eysenck and Sybil Eysenck propose for describing personality variation?
introversion-extraversion and emotional stability-instability
(19) a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
iris
Ashley feels that she has reached her full potential as a physician. According to Maslow, Ashley ____________.
is self-actulized
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is a popular inventory that classifies people into personality types based on their responses to a series of questions. According to one National Research Council report, this test lacks confirmation of its scientific worth as a predictor of ____________.
job performance
Freud also viewed __________ as expressions of repressed sexual and aggressive tendencies, and dreams as the "royal road to the unconscious."
jokes
Many researchers now believe that our early attachments form the foundation for our adult relationships and our comfort with affection and intimacy. People who report secure relationships with their parents tend to enjoy secure friendships. When leaving home to attend college—another kind of "strange situation"—those closely attached to parents tend to __________.
just well
The jury deliberated on the rape case for more than eight hours. Some of the jurors commented that the rape victim had a history of going out to various bars and had been dressed too provocatively. These jurors said that by looking like that, she had been asking to be assaulted. Their opinion is best explained in terms of the ________ phenomenon
just-world
the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get
just-world phenomenon
your sense of body position and movement
kinesthesia
the dreamer's unconscious wishes
latent content
Rats that explored a maze without any reward were later able to run the maze as well as other rats that had received food rewards for running the maze. The rats that had learned without reinforcement demonstrated __________.
latent learning
Self-defeating beliefs may arise from __________, the hopelessness and passive resignation animals and humans learn when they experience uncontrollable painful events.
learned helplessness
Participants in Stanley Milgram's obedience experiments were informed that they were involved in a study of:
learning
The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina is called the:
lens
Historical trends suggest that the world is becoming ________ violent over time.
less
Bipolar disorder is characterized by moods that alternate between the hopelessness and _____ of depression and the euphoric, hyperactive state of mania.
lethargy
Ebbinghaus' "forgetting curve" shows that after an initial decline, memory for novel information tends to
level out
Today's developmental psychologists see our development as __________, not fixed in childhood.
lifelong
Freud was right about a big idea that underlies today's psychodynamic thinking: We indeed have limited access to ____________.
limited access to all that goes on in our minds
A simple salt that often brings relief to patients suffering the highs and lows of bipolar disorder is __________.
lithium
this is a relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of your memory system
long-term memory
Sometimes called the "warrior gene," people who have ____ MAOA gene expression tend to behave aggressively when provoked.
low
a disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence if drugs or another medical condition, two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure
major depressive disorder
a persistent state of hopelessness and lethargy
major depressive disorder
A lawyer is distressed by feeling the need to was his hands 100 times a day. He has no time left to meet with clients, and his colleagues are wondering about his competence. His behavior would probable be labeled as disordered, because it is __________ - that is, it interferes with his day-to-day life.
maladaptive
Psychologis Simon Baron-Cohen argues that ASD represents an "extreme ________ brain."
male
the remembered part of the dreams Freud believed to be the censored expression of the dreamer's unconscious wishes (latent content)
manifest content
Mary's inability to toilet train her 10-month-old infant is most likely due to _____.
maturation
The biological growth process, called ________, explains why most children begin walking by about 12 to 15 months.
maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.
maturation
the orderly sequence of biological growth
maturation
________ (nature) sets the basic course of development; ________ (nurture) adjusts it.
maturation experience
(psychosexual stages) focus of genital (puberty on)
maturation of sexual feelings
Historically, there have been a variety of models used to explain psychological disorders. The _____ model assumes that mental disorders have physical causes that can be diagnosed and treated.
medical
the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital
medical model
The first menstrual period in girls in the United States occurs usually within a year of age 12, and it is known as _____.
menarche
Men do not experience anything equivalent to ___________; that is, they do not experience a cessation in fertility or a sharp drop in hormones.
menopause
Social scripts are culturally provided __________ for how to act
mental files
The more familiar a stimulus becomes, the more we tend to like it. This exemplifies the __________ effect
mere exposure
People tend to marry someone who lives or works nearby. The is an example of the __________ in action
mere exposure effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposed to novel stimuli increases liking of them
mere exposure effect
Our enemies often have many of the same negative impressions of us as we have of them. This exemplifies the concept of ____________ perceptions.
mirror-image
mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive
mirror-image perceptions
When people with ASD watch another person's hand movements, for example, their brain displays less than normal ________ activity
mirroring
Memory aids that use visual imagery (such as peg words) or other organizational devices (such as acronyms) are called
mnemonics
Elaine feels that her life is empty. She has lost interest in career and hobbies, and she wonders if she would be better off dead. She is most likely suffering from a(n):
mood disorder
(stage theories) Lawrence Kohlberg = ________ development
moral
The superego is the voice of our __________ that forces the ego to consider not only the real but the ideal
moral compass (conscience)
Research participants are presented with the following scenario: "There is a runaway trolley headed for five people. All will certainly be killed unless you throw a switch that diverts the trolley onto another track, where one person will die. Will you throw the switch?" What is this scenario measuring?
moral intuition
Psychologist Jonathan Haidt believes that much of our morality is rooted in __________ —"quick gut feelings, or affectively laden intuitions."
moral intuitions
an identity status in which a person tries out different roles and experiments with different lifestyles, without making commitments to any of them
moratorium
The other-race effect occurs when we assume that other groups are ________ homogeneous than our own group.
more
Those who express anxiety through unwanted repetitive thoughts or actions may have a(n) ____________ disorder.
obsessive-compulsive
a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
Thorndike's law of effect was the basis for Skinner's work on ________ and ________
operant conditioning and behavior control
In Freud's view, conflicts unresolved during earlier psychosexual stages could surface as maladaptive behavior in the adult years. At any point in in the ____________ stages, strong conflict could lock, of fixate, the person's pleasure-seeking energies in that stage.
oral, anal, or phallic
Those who experience unpredictable periods of terror and intense dread, accompanied by frightening physical sensations, may be diagnosed with __________ disorder.
panic
anxiety disorder in which a person experiences panic attacks - sudden episodes of intense dread - and fears the unpredictable onset of the next episode
panic disorder
People with schizophrenia also have disorganized, fragmented thinking, which is often distorted by false beliefs called delusions. If they have __________ tendencies, they may believe they are being threatened or pursued.
paranoid
Behavior and emotion arise from a particular ________ interacting with particular ________.
particular ENVIRONMENT interacting with particular GENES
an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship
passionate love
As we note in other modules, heredity does much of the heavy lifting in forming individual temperament and personality differences, and ________ influences do much of the rest.
peer
refers to the process of organizing and interpreting sensations
perception
the process of organizing and interpreting this information, enabling recognition of meaningful events
perception
In experiments, people have worn glasses that turned their visual fields upside down. After a period of adjustment, they learned to function quite well. This ability is called
perceptual adaptation
Perceiving a tomato as consistently red, despite lighting shifts, is an example of
perceptual constancy
In 2008, some men from Georgia claimed to have found Big Foot. They claimed to have the body of Big Foot in their possession and graciously provided photos as evidence. For many, these photos were proof of the existence of Big Foot. Others, however, saw a costume in the photos. The interpretation of the photos were influenced by the viewers' _____.
perceptual set
People perceive an adult-child pair as looking more alike when told they are parent and child. This best illustrates the impact of _____.
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to receive one thing and not another
perceptual set
Celebrity endorsements in advertising often lead consumers to purchase products through ________ route persuasion
peripheral
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness
peripheral route persuasion
Knowing that public attitudes affect public policies, activists on both sides are aiming to persuade. Persuasion efforts generally take two forms:
peripheral route persuasion and central route persuasion
person experiences milder depressive feelings
persistent depressive disorder
Obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors cross the fine line between normality and disorder when they __________ with everyday living and cause distress.
persistently interfere
Fellow humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers agreed with much of Maslow's thinking. Rogers' ____________ perspective held that people are basically good and are endowed with self-actualizing tendencies.
person-centered perspective
the power of the individual
personal control
If our physiological needs are met, we become concerned with __________
personal safety
(fundamental attribution error) We overestimate the influence of ________ and underestimate the influence of situations (In class, Jack may be as quiet as Juliette. Catch Juliette at a part and you may hardly recognize your quiet classmate)
personality
an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling or acting
personality
Freud's psychoanalytic view of personality
personality consists of please-seeking impulses (it id), a reality-oriented executive (the ego), and internalized set f ideas (the superego)
a questionnaire (often with true-false of agree-disagree terms) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to asses selected personality traits
personality inventory
a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits
personality inventory
If a person is focusing anxiety on specific feared objects or situations, that person may have a __________.
phobia
Although _____ are more common, depression is the most common reason people seek mental health services.
phobias
anxiety disorder in which a person is intensely and irrationally afraid of a specific object, activity, or situation
phobias
With occasional exceptions, the sequence of __________ development is universal.
physical (motor)
(two factor theory) emotions have two ingredients (name the two)
physical arousal and cognitive appraisal
________ theory explains how we hear high-pitched sounds
place
Many of the zygote's otter cells become the _________. (life-link that transfers nutrients and oxygen from mother to embryo)
placenta
(psychosexual stages) focus of anal (18-36 months)
please focuses on bowel and bladder elimination comping with demands for control
(psychosexual stages) focus of oral (0-18 months)
pleasure centers on the mouth - sucking, biting, chewing
(psychosexual stages) focus of phallic (3-6 years)
pleasure zone is in the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings
Schizophrenia patients with ________ symptoms may experience hallucinations, talk in disorganized and deluded ways, and exhibit inappropriate laugher, tears, or rage
positive
To reduce the self-destructive behavior of some children, a therapist might squirt water in the children's faces whenever they bite themselves. The squirt of water is a:
positive punishment
In addition to equity and self-disclosure, a third key to enduring love is __________.
positive support
Those with symptoms of recurring memories and nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia for weeks after a traumatic event may be diagnosed with ____________ disorder.
post traumatic stress
You are organizing a meeting of fiercely competitive political candidates. To add to the fun, friends have suggested handing out masks of the candidates' faces for supporters to wear. What phenomenon might these masks engage?
The anonymity provided by the masks, combined with the arousal of the contentious setting, might create deindividuation (lessened self-awareness and self-restraint).
biological influences on aggressive behavior
- genetic influences - biochemical influences, such as testosterone and alcohol - neural influences, such as a severe head injury
biological influences on personality
- genetically determined temperament - autonomic nervous system reactivity - brain activity
Rogers believed that a growth-promoting climate required three conditions:
- genuineness - acceptance - empathy
psychological influences on personality
- learned responses - unconscious though processes - expectations and interpretations
Match the psychosocial development stage below (1-8) with the issue that Erikson believed we wrestle with at that stage (a-h). 1. infancy 2. toddlerhood 3. preschool 4. elementary school 5. adolescence 6. young adulthood 7. middle adulthood 8. late adulthood a. generatively vs stagnation b. integrity vs despair c. initiative vs guilt d. infamy vs isolation e. identity vs role confusion f. competence vs inferiority g. trust vs mistrust h. autonomy vs shame and doubt
1 G 2 H 3 C 4 F 5 E 6 D 7 A 8 B
two historically significant theirs that have become part of our cultural legacy
1) Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory proposed that childhood sexuality and unconscious motivations influence personality 2) humanistic approach focused on our inner capacities for growth and self-fulfillment
Formal operational stage: in Piaget's theory, the state of cognitive development (normally beginning about age ____) during with people being to think logically about abstract concepts
12
Children's anxiety over separation from parents peaks at around ____ months, then gradually declines.
13
Match the correct cognitive developmental stage (a-d) to each developmental phenomenon (1-6). a) sensorimotor b) preoperational c) concrete operational d) formal operational 1) Thinking about abstract concepts, such as "freedom." 2) Enjoying imaginary play (such as dress-up). 3) Understanding that physical properties stay the same even when objects change form. 4) Having the ability to reverse math operations. 5) Understanding that something is not gone for good when it disappears from sight, as when Mom "disappears" behind the shower curtain. 6) Having difficulty taking another's point of view (as when blocking someone's view of the TV).
1D 2B 3C 4C 5A 6B
The symptoms of schizophrenia begin to appear at a median age of about:
20
No one "autism gene" accounts for the disorder. Rather, many genes—with more than ____ identified so far—appear to contribute.
200
ASD afflicts about ________ for every ________.
4 BOYS for every GIRL
Around age ________, Freud theorized, a child's ego recognizes the demands of the newly emerging superego.
4 or 5
Tonya is interested in studying psychological disorders. If she wants to study the classification system most often used in the U.S., she should read the _____.
DSM-5
female version of Oedipus complex
Electra complex
warrior gene
MAOA gene
What does it mean to say that "depression is a whole-body disorder"?
Many factors contribute to depression, including the biological influences of genetics and brain function. Social-cognitive factors also matter, including the interaction of explanatory style, mood, our responses to stressful experiences, and changes in our patterns of thinking and behaving. The whole body is involved.
genetic markers for violence
Y chromosome and monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene
(psychosexual stages) focus of latency (6 to puberty)
a phase of dormant sexual feelings
Infancy's major social achievement is ________.
attachment
________ self-esteem is a healthier self-image that allows us to focus beyond ourselves and enjoy a higher quality of life
secure
Generally speaking, researchers who emphasize _____________ tend to see development as a sequence of genetically predisposed stages or steps.
biological maturation
To call psychological disorders "sicknesses" tilts research heavily toward the influence of ________ and away from the influence of our personal histories and social and cultural surroundings
biology
Aggressive behavior emerges from the interaction of ________ and ________.
biology and experience
prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person's physiology
biomedical therapy
Dr. Cobbs believes that psychological disorders are influenced by genetic predispositions and physiological states. He is also aware that inner psychological dynamics, social dynamics, and culture influence psychological disorders. Dr. Cobbs believes in a ________ model.
biopsychosocial
Mary and Bill are in a romantic relationship and met each other through an online dating service. Their relationship is likely to be:
both long lasting and satisfying
One famous personality inventory is the a) extraversion-intoversion scale b) person-simulation inventory c) MMPI d) Rorschach
c) MMPI
When we adjust our own behavior or thinking so that it coincides with a group standard, we are exhibiting a) the mere exposure effect b) reciprocal determinism c) conformity d) the self-serving bias
c) conformity
The minute you walk into your mother-in-law's house for a visit, you are struck by the strong smell of her perfume. However, after about 10 minutes, you no longer notice the smell. This is probably the result of:
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
sensory adaptation
Sensorimotor stage: (birth to nearly 2 years of age) infants know the world mostly in terms of their ________ impressions and ________ activities.
sensory impressions and motor activities
A food's aroma can greatly enhance its taste. This is an example of
sensory interaction
After surgery to restore vision, patients who had been blind from birth had difficulty recognizing objects by ________.
sight
(attribution theory) "We can attribute the the behavior to the the situation"
situational attribution
Alfred Adler and Karen Horney agreed with Freud that childhood is important. Hut they believed that childhood __________, not sexual, tensions are crucial for personality formation.
social
Secure attachment nurtures ________ competence.
social
People tend to exert less effort when working with a group than they would alone, which is called __________.
social loafing
culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations
social script
(Bandura) our traits and the social context interact to produce our behaviors
social-cognitive
People with schizophrenia sometimes have hallucinations - they see, feel, taste, or smell things that exist only in their minds. Most often, the hallucinations are ________, frequently voices making insulting remarks or giving orders.
sounds
a stimuli fetuses are exposed to in the womb
sounds
We may recognize a face at a social gathering but be unable to remember how we know that person. This is an example of
source amnesia
The tendency to overestimate others' attention to and evaluation of our appearance, performance, and blunders is called the ____________.
spotlight effect
overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders
spotlight effect
Research reveals that we experience both ________ and ________.
stability and change
Research reveals that we experience both stability and change. Some of our characteristics, such as temperament, are very ________.
stable
__________ traits guide our actions.
stable and enduring
Developmental researchers who emphasize biological maturation are supporting _________.
stages
Piaget's stages of cognitive development are to _____ as Kohlberg's levels of moral thinking are to a _____.
steps; ladder
Prejudice toward a group involves negative feelings, a tendency to discriminate, and overly generalized beliefs referred to as ________.
stereotypes
a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people
sterotype
Freud proposed that the development of the "voice of conscience" is related to the __________ which internalizes ideals and provides standards for judgements.
superego
focuses on how we ought to behave
superego
the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideas and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations
superego
One way of resolving conflicts and fostering cooperation is by giving rival groups shared goals that help them override their differences. These are called __________ goals.
superordinate
a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli commonly used to treat phobias
systematic desensitization
And, although the sexes overlap, he believes boys are more often "________"—better at understanding things according to rules or laws, as in mathematical and mechanical systems.
systemizers
The underlying source of ASD's symptoms seems to be poor communication among brain regions that normally work together to let us ____________________.
take another's viewpoint
The superego's demands often oppose ________.
the id's
adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
conformity
Developmental researchers who emphasize learning and experience are supporting ____________.
continuity
Behavior therapies often use __________ techniques such as systematic desensitization and aversive conditioning to encourage clients to produce new responses to old stimuli.
counterconditioning
Perception is the top-down process in which our brain ____________________ by organizing and interpreting what our senses detect
creates meaning
In many animals, attachments based on familiarity form during a __________—an optimal period when certain events must take place to facilitate proper development.
critical period
an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development.
critical period
The stage theories propose ____________________.
developmental stages
the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change study of how nurture shapes nature
epigenetics
the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors
false consensus effect
The most immediate and direct function of the rooting reflex is the facilitation of:
food consumption
We've seen that the presence of others can arouse people (social facilitation), or it can diminish their feelings of responsibility (social loafing). But sometimes the pressure of others does both. The uninhibited behavior that results can range from a __________ to ____________.
food right to vandalism or rioting
abstract reasoning
formal operational (12 - adulthood)
________ theory explains how we hear low-pitched sounds
frequency
our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.
identity
Sensory adaptation helps us focus on ____________________.
important changes in the environment
In Freud's view, human personality - including its emotions and strivings - arises from a conflict between ________ and ________ - between our aggressive, pleasure-seeking biological urges and our internalized social controls over these urges.
impulse and restraint
Because suicide is so often a(n) __________ act, environmental barriers can save lives
impulsive
What you do well, you are likely to do better when?
in front of an audience, especially a friendly one
People seldom commit suicide while ____________, when energy and initiative are lacking. The risk increases when they begin to rebound and become capable of falling through.
in the depths of depression
The learning of language (technically) begins __________.
in the womb
For Freud, all defense mechanisms function ________ and ________.
indirectly and unconsciously
Wilbur is 68 years old and is sitting in his recliner reflecting on the mistakes he's made and his dreams that went unfulfilled. Wilbur is in the stage of development called:
integrity versus despair
psychological development: late adulthood (late 60s and up)
integrity vs despair reelecting on his or her life, an older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure
The biopsychosocial approach enables psychology researchers to study how different factors ______ in a person to produce a psychological disorder.
interact
another term for difference threshold
just noticeable difference
the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
mere exposure effect
Theory of mind: people's ideas about their own and others' __________ - about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.
metal states
When a police officer pulls over a car because the driver is an African-American male in an expensive car, the police officer has committed a __________
microaggression
the power of one or two individuals to sway majorities
minority influence
Some scientists believe that the brain has ________ neurons that enable empathy and imitation
mirror
Schizophrenia patients with ________ symptoms may have toneless voices, expressionless faces, or mute and rigid bodies
negative
________ emotions nourish prejudice
negative
Macy gave her dog a treat each time she came to Macy when she called her by name. Soon the dog came every time Macy called the dog by name. This is an example of:
operant conditioning
The blind spot in your retina is located where the __________ leaves the eye.
optic nerve
the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races
other-race effect (cross-race effect or own-race bias)
Our scores on personality tests best predict ____________.
our average behavior across many situations
Group interaction can influence ____________
our personal decisions
Sensation is the bottom-up process by which ____________________ receive and represent stimuli.
our sensory receptors and our nervous system
"them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
outgroup
The brain's ability to process many aspects of an object or a problem simultaneously is called
parallel processing
Reinforcing a desired response only some of the times it occurs is called __________.
partial reinforcement
the process by which we organize and interpret sensory information
perception
Clarissa and Julio are in English class together and have been assigned to sit next to each other. What will affect their first impression of each other?
physical attractiveness
representing thoughts with words and images; using intuitive rather than logical reasoning
preoperational (2-6/7)
Sigmund Freud proposed that, beginning in childhood, people repress intolerable impulses, ideas, and feelings. Freud's theory uses a(n) _____ perspective.
psychoanalytic
(Adler, Horney, Jung) the unconscious and conscious minds interact. childhood experience and defense mechanisms are important
psychodynamic
(theory) view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences
psychodynamic theories
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
psychophysics
the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's please-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones
psychosexual stages
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.
puberty
What are the three components of evidence-based practice?
research evidence, clinical expertise, and knowledge of the patient
According to Freud's ideas about the three-part personality structure, the ____________operates on the reality principle and tries to balance demands in a way that produces long-term pleasure rather than pain; the____________operates on the pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification; and the____________represents the voice of our internalized ideals (our conscience).
ego; id; superego
Piaget contended that preschool children are ________: They have difficulty receiving things from another's point of view.
egocentric
Michelle is hiding under her blanket so that she is invisible. She believes that if she cannot see her parents they cannot see her. Michelle is demonstrating _____.
egocentrism
in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view.
egocentrism
psychological influences on aggressive behavior
- dominating behavior (which boosts testosterone levels in the blood) - believing that alcohol has been ingested (whether it has or not) - frustration - aggressive role models - rewards for agressive behavior - low self-control
biological influences on psychological disorders
- evolutions - individual genes - brain structure and chemistry
times when people are more likely to conform
- made to feel incompetent or insecure - are in a group with at least three people - in a group in which everyone else agrees (if just one other person disagrees, the odds of disagreeing greatly increase) - admire the groups status and attractiveness - have not made a prior commitment to any response - know that others in the group will observe our behavior - are from a culture that strongly encourages respect for social standards
Developmental psychology examines our physical, cognitive, and social development across the life span with a focus on three major issues:
- nature and nurture - continuity and stages - stability and change
developmental phenomena: brith to nearly 2 years (sensorimotor)
- object permanence - stranger anxiety
causes of social loafing
- people acting as pert of a group feel less accountable, and therefore worry less about what others think - group members may view their individual contributions as dispensable - when group members share equally in the benefits, regardless of how much they contribute, some ay slack off (as you perhaps have observed on group assignments). Unless highly motivates and strongly identified with the gruel, people may free ride on others' efforts
In psychiatry and psychology, classification aims to
- predict the disorder's future course - suggest appropriate treatment - prompt research as its causes
developmental phenomena: about 2 years to about 6 or 7 years (preoperational)
- pretend play - egocentrism
social-cultural influences on psychological disorder
- roles - expectations - definitions of normality and disorder
psychological influences on psychological disorders
- stress - trauma - learned helplessness - mood-related perceptions memories
three specific ways individuals and environments interact
1) different people choose different environments 2) our personalities shape how we interpret and react to events 3) our personalities help create situations to which we react
two important ways that neo-Freudians broke off from Freud
1) placed more emphasis on the conscious mind's role in interpreting experience and in coping with the environment 2) doubted that sex and aggression were all-consuming motivations (instead, they tend to emphasize loftier motives and social interactions)
The most heavily researched aspect of parenting has been how, and to what extent, parents seek to control their children. Investigators have identified three parenting styles: (list)
1. authoritarian 2. permissive 3. authoritative
If one identical twin is diagnosed with ASD, the chances are ____ to ____ percent that the co-twin will be as well
50 to 70
Infants younger the ____ months seldom understand that things continue to exist when they are out of sight.
6
By about the age of ____, said Piaget, children enter the concrete operation state
7
short term memory is limited to about ____ items
7
Infants as young as ________ show some knowledge of others' beliefs. (understand what made a playmate angry, when a sibling will share, and what might make a parent buy a toy)
7 months
As we know from twin and adoption studies, our genes have much to say about the __________ and behavioral style that help define our personality.
?temperament
Why is there controversy over attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
A child (or, less commonly, an adult) who displays extreme inattention and/or hyper-activity and impulsivity may be diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and treated with medication and other therapy. The controversy centers on whether the growing number of ADHD cases reflects overdiagnosis or increased awareness of the disorder. Long-term effects of stimulant-drug treatment for ADHD are not yet known.
Severe depression that has not responded to other therapy may be treated with __________ __________ , which can cause brain seizures and memory loss. More moderate neural stimulation techniques designed to help alleviate depression include__________ __________ magnetic stimulation , and __________-__________ stimulation.
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT ); repetitive transcranial; deep-brain
a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent thought the brain of an anesthetized patient
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
The goal of behavior therapy is to
eliminate the unwanted behavior
The time between those two prenatal periods is considered the period of the _________.
embryo
The zygote's inner cells become the ________.
embryo
the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.
embryo
a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults.
emerging adulthood
Frontal lobe maturation nevertheless lags behind that of the emotional __________.
emotional limbic system
When people are ________, they share and mirror other's feelings and reflect their meanings.
empathic
Automatic mimicry helps us to ________ - feel what others are feeling. This explains why we feel happier around happy people than around depressed people.
empathize
Girls are naturally predisposed to be "________," he contends. They tend to be better at reading facial expressions and gestures, though less so if given testosterone.
empathizers
a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups
empirically derived test
a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups
empirically derived test
taking in information
encoding
the processing of information into the memory system
encoding
The more alike people are, the more their liking ________.
endures
In class, Juliette seldom talks. Over coffee, Jack talks nonstop. Juliette must be shy and Jack outgoing. Such attributions - to their dispositions - can be valid, because people do have ________ personality traits.
enduring
For 1 in about 800 infants, the effects are visible as fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), marked by lifelong physical and mental abnormalities. The feta damage may occur because alcohol has a(n) ________________: it leaves marks on DNA that switch genes abnormally on or off.
epigenetic effect
a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give it
equity
Two vial components for maintaining companionate love are __________ and __________
equity and self disclosure
Central route persuasion offeres ________ and ________ that aim to trigger favorable thoughts. It occurs mostly when people are naturally analytical or involved in the issue.
evidence and arguments
What is the best way to predict a person's future behavior?
examine the person's past behavior patterns in similar situations
Generally speaking, researchers who emphasize ________________ see development as a slow, continuous shaping process.
experience and learning
Our perceptual set influences what we perceive. This mental tendency reflects our ____________________.
experiences, assumptions, and expectations
behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization and virtual reality exposure therapy, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actual situations) to the things they fear and avoid
exposure therapies
Veda is sociable, fun-loving, and affectionate. She would likely score very high on a personality test that measures:
extraversion
psychologist who proposed cognitive dissonance theory
Leon Festinger
Do psychological disorders predict violent behavior?
Mental disorders seldom lead to violence, but when they do, they raise moral and ethical questions about whether society should hold people with disorders responsible for their violent actions. Most people with disorders are nonviolent and are more likely to be victims than attackers.
the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriated use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes
Minnesota Multiphastic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
_____ gave Stanford nursery school children a choice between a marshmallow now and two later. He found that the children who were able to wait had higher completion rates and incomes and were less likely to experience addiction as an adult. He also found that this tendency to wait or not persisted even 40 years later.
Mischel
_____ is a statistical procedure that can be used to identify clusters of behaviors that are related to a trait.
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that has also been used to identify clusters (factors) of test items that tap basic components of intelligence (such as spatial ability or verbal skill_
factor analysis
therapy that treats the family as a system views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members
family therapy
Infants who lack a caring mother are said to suffer "maternal deprivation"; those lacking a father's care merely experience "________."
father absence
The cells in the visual cortex that respond to certain lines, edges, and angles are called
feature detectors
What are the positive and negative effects of high self-esteem?
People who feel confident in their abilities are often happier, have greater motivation, and are less susceptible to depression. Excessive optimism and very high self-esteem can lead to blindness to one's own incompetence, self-serving bias, and narcissism.
What brain abnormalities are associated with schizophrenia?
People with schizophrenia have increased dopamine receptors, which may intensify brain signals, creating positive symptoms such as hallucinations and paranoia. Brain abnormalities associated with schizophrenia include enlarged, fluid-filled cerebral cavities and corresponding decreases in the cortex. Brain scans reveal abnormal activity in the frontal lobes, thalamus, and amygdala. Interacting malfunctions in multiple brain regions and their connections may produce schizophrenia's symptoms.
How do our expectations, contexts, motivation, and emotions influence our perceptions?
Perceptual set is a mental predisposition that functions as a lens through which we perceive the world. Our learned concepts (schemas) prime us to organize and interpret ambiguous stimuli in certain ways. Our physical and emotional context, as well as our motivation, can create expectations and color our interpretation of events and behaviors
What is OCD?
Persistent and repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both characterize obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).
What are personality inventories, and what are their strengths and weaknesses as trait-assessment tools?
Personality inventories (such as the MMPI) are questionnaires on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors. Test items are empirically derived, and the tests are objectively scored. But people can fake their answers to create a good impression, and the ease of computerized testing may lead to misuse of the tests.
What historically significant and current theories inform our understanding of personality?
Personality is an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. Psychodynamic theories view personality from the perspective that behavior is a dynamic interaction between the conscious and unconscious mind. These theories trace their origin to Sigmund Freud's theory of psychoanalysis. The humanistic approach focused on our inner capacities for growth and self-fulfillment. Trait theories examine characteristic patterns of behavior (traits). Social-cognitive theories explore the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.
role playing affects attitudes example
Philip Zimabardo prison simulation study (42.2) ** every time we act like the people around around us we slightly change ourselves to be more like them, and less like who we used to be
How did Piaget, Kohlberg, and later researchers describe adolescent cognitive and moral development?
Piaget theorized that adolescents develop a capacity for formal operations and that this development is the foundation for moral judgment. Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a stage theory of moral reasoning, from a preconventional morality of self-interest, to a conventional morality concerned with upholding laws and social rules, to (in some people) a postconventional morality of universal ethical principles. Other researchers believe that morality lies in moral intuition and moral action as well as thinking. Some critics argue that Kohlberg's postconventional level represents morality from the perspective of individualist, middle-class people.
What prenatal events are associated with increased risk of developing schizophrenia?
Possible contributing factors include viral infections or famine conditions during the mother's pregnancy; low weight or oxygen deprivation at birth; and maternal diabetes or older paternal age.
What is the relationship between poverty and psychological disorders?
Poverty-related stresses can help trigger disorders, but disabling disorders can also contribute to poverty. Thus, poverty and disorder are often a chicken-and-egg situation, and it's hard to know which came first.
What is prejudice? What are its social and emotional roots?
Prejudice is an unjustifiable, usually negative, attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice's three components are beliefs (often stereotypes), emotions, and predispositions to action (discrimination). Overt prejudice in North America has decreased over time, but implicit prejudice—an automatic, unthinking attitude—continues. The social roots of prejudice include social inequalities and divisions. Higher-status groups often justify their privileged position with the just-world phenomenon. We tend to favor our own group (ingroup bias) as we divide ourselves into "us" (the ingroup) and "them" (the outgroup). Prejudice can also be a tool for protecting our emotional well-being, as when we focus our anger by blaming events on a scapegoat.
How might Rogers explain how environment influences the development of a criminal?
Rogers might assert that the criminal was raised in an environment lacking genuineness, acceptance (unconditional positive regard), and empathy, which inhibited psychological growth and led to a negative self-concept.
the most widely used projective test a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots
Rorschach inkblot test
What is the rough distinction between sensation and perception?
SENSATION is the bottom-up process by which our sensory receptors and our nervous system receive and represent stimuli PERCEPTION is the top-down process in which our brain creates meaning by organizing and interpreting what our senses detect
How do chronic and acute schizophrenia differ?
Schizophrenia typically strikes during late adolescence, affects men slightly more than women, and seems to occur in all cultures. In chronic (or process) schizophrenia, the disorder develops gradually and recovery is doubtful. In acute (or reactive) schizophrenia, the onset is sudden, in reaction to stress, and the prospects for recovery are brighter.
How do children's self-concepts develop?
Self-concept, an understanding and evaluation of who we are, emerges gradually. By 15 to 18 months, children recognize themselves in a mirror. By school age, they can describe many of their own traits, and by age 8 or 10 their self-image is stable.
What is the function of sensory adaptation?
Sensory adaptation (our diminished sensitivity to constant or routine odors, sounds, and touches) focuses our attention on informative changes in our environment.
How do social exchange theory and social norms explain helping behavior?
Social exchange theory is the view that we help others because it is in our own self-interest; in this view, the goal of social behavior is maximizing personal benefits and minimizing costs. Others believe that helping results from socialization, in which we are taught guidelines for expected behaviors in social situations, such as the reciprocity norm and the social-responsibility norm.
What do social psychologist study? How do we tend to explain others' behavior and our own?
Social psychologists use scientific methods to study how people think about, influence, and relate to one another. They study the social influences that explain why the same person will act differently in different situations. When explaining others' behavior, we may—especially if we come from an individualist Western culture—commit the fundamental attribution error, by underestimating the influence of the situation and overestimating the effects of stable, enduring traits. When explaining our own behavior, we more readily attribute it to the influence of the situation.
According to Jonathon Haidt, moral intuition is associated with _____ first, followed by _____ second.
feelings; reasoning
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features.
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking (in severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head an abnormal facial features)
fetal alcohol syndrome (fas)
The _____ is the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.
fetus
The period of the _________ lasts from 9 weeks after conception until birth.
fetus
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
fetus
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.
fetus
In listening to a concert, you attend to the solo instrument and perceive the orchestra as accompaniment. This illustrates the organizing principle of
figure-ground
In the psychoanalytic view, conflicts unresolved during one of the psychosexual stages may lead to ________ at that stage.
fixation
according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved
fixation
A restaurant is running a special deal. After you buy four meals at full price, your fifth meal will be free. This is an example of a ________ schedule of reinforcement.
fixed-ratio
Using Asch's procedure, conformity to group judgments would be LEAST likely when a) participants announce their own answers only after the other group members have done so b) participants are not observed by other group members when giving their answers c) it is ver difficulty for anyone to make correct perceptual judgments d) judgments are made in a group that has more than three people
b) participants are not observed by other group members when giving their answers
National crime data demonstrate that the majority of violent crimes are alcohol influenced. Why might this be the case?
both aggressive-prone people are more likely to drink alcohol and
sensory analysis that begins at the entry level, with information flowing from the sensory receptors to the brain
bottom-up processing
Brain-activity scans of extraverts add to the growing list of traits and mental states now being explored with brain-imaging procedures. Such studies indicate that extraverts seek stimulation because their normal __________ is relatively low.
brain arousal
Cones are the eye's receptor cells that are especially sensitive to ________ light
bright
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
bystander effect
The aspect of pornographic films that most directly influences men's aggression toward women seems to be the a) length of the film b) eroticism portrayed c) depictions of sexual violence d) attractiveness of the actors
c) depictions of sexual violence
The bystander effect states that a particular bystander is less likely to give aid if a) the victim is similar to the bystander in appearance b) no one else is present c) other people are present d) the incident occurs in a deserted or rural area
c) other people are present
Some antipsychotic drugs, used to calm people with schizophrenia, can have unpleasant side effects, most notably a) hyperactivity b) convulsions and momentary memory loss c) sluggishness, tremors, and twitches d) paranoia
c) sluggishness, tremors, and twitches
Researchers have found that a person is most likely to conform to a group if a) the group members have diverse opinions b) the person feels competent and secure c) the person admires the group's status d) no one else will observe the person's behavior
c) the person admires the group's status
Classifying people as one or another distinct personality type fails to __________.
capture their full individually
occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts
central route persuasion
Maturation -- including the rapid development of the ________ at the back of the brain -- creates our readiness to learn walking at about age 1.
cerebellum
(concrete operational state) Understanding that change in ________ does not mean change in ________. (!! no longer fooled by the different sized glasses of milk)
change in FORM does not mean change in QUANTITY
(cognitive dissonance theory ex) When we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by ____________.
changing our attitudes
taste is a(n) __________ sense
chemical
Developmental psychologist Jean Piaget studies ____________________ - all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
children's cognitive development
Three-year old Sam is talking to his grandmother on the phone. He says, "Look what I got today." Sam's mom explains that his grandmother can't see him. Is Sam's mom wasting her time explaining?
Yes, Sam has not developed a theory of mind yet.
A fortune cookie advises, "love yourself and happiness will follow." Is this good advice?
Yes, if that self-love is of the secure type. Secure self-esteem promotes a focus beyond the self and a higher quality of life. Excessive self-love may promote artificially high or defensive self-esteem, which may lead to unhappiness if negative external feedback triggers anger or aggression.
Two theories together account for color vision. The Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory shows that the eye contains _______, and the opponent-process theory accounts for the nervous system's having _______.
Young-Helmholtz = eyes have three types of color receptors (blue green red) Opponent-process = nervous system has opponent-process cells
In Pavlov's experiments, the tone started as a neutral stimulus, and then became __________.
a conditioned stimulus
Elijah scored high on conscientiousness when given a personality inventory. What would one expect to see in terms of his brain?
a larger frontal lobe
Babies roll over before the sit unsupported, and they usually crawl on all fours before they walk. These behaviors reflect not imitation but ____________________; blind children, too, crawl before they walk.
a maturing nervous system
A half-century spent with children convinced Piaget that a child's mind is not ____________________
a miniature model of an adult's
In 1877, biologist Charles Darwin offered the idea that that: self-awareness begins when we recognize ourselves in __________.
a mirror
Piaget's studies led him to believe that a child's mind develops thought a series of stages, in an upward march from a newborn's __________ to the adult's __________.
a newborn's simple reflexes to the adult's abstract reasoning power
Childhood's major social achievement is ____________________
a positive sense of self
In promoting personal growth, the person-centered perspective emphasizes each of these EXCEPT: a) altruism b) acceptance c) genuineness d) empathy
a) altruism
Which of the following strengthens conformity in a group? a) finding the group attractive b) feeling secure c) coming from an individualist culture d) having made a prior commitment
a) finding the group attractive
If we encounter a person who appears to be high on drugs, and we make the fundamental attribution error, we will probably attribute the person's behavior to a) moral weakness or an addictive personality b) peer pressure c) the easy availability of drugs on city streets d) society's acceptance of drug use
a) moral weakness or an addictive personality
* Which of the following is NOT part of the contemporary view of the unconscious? a) repressed memories of anxiety-provoking events b) schemas that influence our perceptions and interpretations c) parallel processing that occurs without our conscious knowledge d) instantly activated emotions and implicit memories of learned skills
a) repressed memories of anxiety-provoking events
The fundamental attribution error best illustrates that we may often underestimate the importance of: a) social control b) hindsight bias c) personality traits d) cognitive dissonance
a) social control
Gregory is an impoverished African-American teen who finds school stressful but performs at a moderate level academically. He has no relationship with his father but a close relationship with his mother and grandmother. Which of these factors most increases his vulnerability to developing a mental disorder? a) socioeconomic status (SES) b) stressful school experience c) lack of relationship with father d) race
a) socioeconomic status (SES)
In Milgram's experiments, the rate of compliance was highest when a) the "learner" was at a distance from the "teacher" b) the "learner" was close at hand c) other "teachers" refused to go along with the experimenter d) the "teacher" disliked the "learner"
a) the "learner" was at a distance from the "teacher"
Modern-day psychodynamic theorists and therapists agree with Freud about a) the existence of unconscious mental processes b) the Oedipus complex c) the predictive value of Freudian theory d) the superego's role as the executive part of personality
a) the existence of unconscious mental processes
The social-cognitive perspective proposes our personality is shaped by a process called reciprocal determinism, as personal factors, environmental factors, and behaviors interact. An example of an environmental factor is a) the presence of books in a home b) a preference for outdoor play c) the ability to read at a fourth-grade level d) the fear of violent action on television
a) the presence of books in a home
Shantay is a 37-year-old African-American female previously diagnosed with bipolar disorder. She currently appears to be experiencing an episode of mania. Her psychiatrist orders bloodwork and a PET scan. The imaging is likely to show ____________.
abnormally high level of activity across the brain
Subliminal stimuli are below our __________ for conscious awareness
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation necessary to detect a particular light, sound, pressure, taste, or odor 50 percent of the time
absolute threshold
When people are ________, they offer unconditional positive regard, an attitude of grace that values us even knowing our failings.
accepting
A conference of social scientists studying the effects of pornography unanimously agreed that violent pornography leads views to me ____________.
accepting of coercion in sexual relations
in developmental psychology, adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.
accommodation
in developmental psychology, adapting our current understandings (scheme) to incorporate new information
accommodation
post conventional morality (adolescence and beyond)
actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles "people have a right to live"
A therapist who restates and clarifies the client's statements is practicing
active listening
Children are __________ in making sense of the world
actively engaged
a form of schizophrenia that can begin at any age, frequently occurs in response to an emotionally traumatic event, and has extended recovery periods (recovery much more likely)
acute schizophrenia
(module 16) the years spent morphing from child to adult
adolescence
the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.
adolescence
Young children are incapable of ________ logic.
adult
In psychology, ________ is any unwanted behavior intended to harm someone, whether done out of hostility or as a calculated means to an end.
aggression
There is no one spot in the brain that controls ________.
aggression
an physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally
aggression
any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally
aggression
(when schizophrenia is a slow-developing process) a form of schizophrenia in which symptoms usually appear by late adolescence or early adulthood. as people age, psychotic episodes last longer and recovery periods shorten.
chronic schizophrenia
It is easier to remember information that is organized into meaningful units than information that is not. This is known as:
chunking
If you have a frightening experience immediately after hearing a strange sound, your fear may be aroused when you hear that sound again. This best illustrates:
classical conditioning
Lightning is associated with thunder and regularly precedes it. Thus, when people see lightning, they often anticipate that they will hear thunder soon afterward. This is an example of:
classical conditioning
Exposure therapies and aversive conditioning are applications of ___________ conditioning . Token economies are an application of __________ conditioning.
classical; operant
a humanist therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth
client-centered therapy (person-centered therapy)
In the Milgram experiments, the level of obedience was highest when the "teacher" was __________ the experimenter and __________ the "learner."
close to; far from
The snail-shaped tube in the inner ear, where sound waves are converted into neural activity, is called the
cochlea
Authoritarian parents are ________. They impose rule and expect obedience. "Don't interrupt." "Keep your room clean." "Why? Because I said so."
coercive
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
cognition
(stage theories) Jean Piaget = ________ development
cognitive
____________ therapy helps people to change their self-defeating ways of thinking and to act out those changes in their daily behavior.
cognitive behavioral
Actions can affect attitudes, sometimes turning prisoners into collaborators, doubters into believers, and complaint guards into abusers. (Why?) One explanation is that when we become aware that our attitudes and actions don't coincide, we experience tension or ____________.
cognitive dissonance
When people act in a way that is not in keeping with their attitudes, and then change their attitudes to match those actions ____________.
cognitive dissonance
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) when two of our thought (cognitions) are inconsistent
cognitive dissonance theory
Evidence that cognitive processes play an important role in learning comes in part from studies in which rats develop __________.
cognitive maps
fear or avoidance of situations in which escape might be difficult when panic strikes (associated with panic disorder)
agoraphobia
The attitudes-follow-behavoir principle has a heartening implication: We cannot directly control ____________, but we can influence them by altering our behavior.
all our feelings
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
altruism
The __________ of a light wave determines of perception of brightness.
amplitude
Stereotyped beliefs are a by-product of how we ___________
cognitively simplify the world (ex: One way we simplify our world is to categorize.)
According to Carl Jung, humans have a reservoir of images that are derived from our universal experiences. This is known as our:
collective unconscious
Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from other species' history
collective unconscious
Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history
collective unconscious
Cones are the eye's receptor cells and they are responsible for ________ vision
color
If love endures, temporary passionate love will mellow into a lingering __________.
companionate love
the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
companionate love
A happy couple celebrating their 50th wedding anniversary is likely to experience deep ________ love even though their ________ love has probably decreased over the years.
companionate; passionate
psychological development: elementary school (6 years to puberty)
competence vs inferiority children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior
Concrete operational state: in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during with children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about __________.
concrete events
According to Piaget, at which stage do children become capable of true logical thought?
concrete operational
thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and preforming arithmetical operations
concrete operational (7 - 11 years)
If a pregnant woman experiences extreme stress, the stress hormones flooding her body may indicate a survival threat to the fetus and produce __________.
an earlier delivery
Long-term potentiation (LTP) refers to
an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid simulation
Agression varies too widely from culture to culture, era to era, and person to person to be considered ____________.
an unlearned instinct
Drugs like Xanax and Ativan, which depress central nervous system activity, can become addictive when used as ongoing treatment. These drugs are referred to as __________ drugs.
anti anxiety
drugs used to control anxiety and agitation
antianxiety drugs
drugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and post traumatic stress disorder
antidepressant drugs
The drugs given most often to treat depression are called __________. Schizophrenia is often treated with __________.
antidepressants; antipsychotic
drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe though disorder
antipsychotic drugs
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.
concrete operational stage
According to Carl Rogers ______________ is an attitude of provisional acceptance toward another person. This attitude prevents growth in others.
conditional positive regard
In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus (NS) is called the:
conditioned response (CR)
a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas
conflict
Suggestibility and mimicry are subtle types of ________ - adjusting our behavior or thinking toward some group standard.
conformity
Authoritative parents are ________. They are both demanding and responsive. They exert control by setting rules, but, especially with other children, they encourage open discussion and allow exceptions.
confrontive
Geneva has an extremely clean dorm room. She keeps no clutter on her desk, she awakens very early to keep up with her schoolwork, and her car is spotless. Given your knowledge of her behavior, which of the following Big Five personality traits does she exhibit MOST?
conscientiousness
Freud believed that defense mechanisms are unconscious attempts to distort or disguise reality, all in an effort to reduce our __________.
anxiety
psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that deduce anxiety
anxiety disorders
The key ingredient of passionate love is ________
arousal
We've seen that the presence of others can arouse people (___________), or it can diminish their feelings of responsibility (__________). But sometimes the pressure of others does both.
arouse = social facilitation dimes responsibility = social loafing
interpreting our new experiences in strong of our existing schemas
assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.
assimilation
The brain's __________ areas - those linked with thinking, memory, and language - are the last cortical areas to develop.
association
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.
attachment
One-year-olds typically cling tightly to a parent when they are frightened or expect separation. Reunited after being apart, they shower the parent with smiles and hugs. This __________ is a powerful survival impulse that keeps infants close to their caregivers.
attachment bond
a psychological disorder marked by extreme inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
feelings, often influenced by our beliefs that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
attitude
feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
attitude
Persuaders try to influence our behavior by changing our ________. But other factors, including the situation, also influence our behavior.
attitudes
According to ________ theory, people explain behavior by crediting either the situation of the person's disposition
attribution
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition
attribution
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation of the person's disposition
attribution theory
Sharon's father demands total obedience from his children. When he speaks, he expects his children to listen. There is no discussion and no arguing. He has zero tolerance for anyone breaking the rules he has decreed. Sharon's father has a(n) _____ type of parenting style.
authoritarian
No one "________ gene" accounts for the disorder. (ASD)
autism
a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors.
autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
a disorder that appears in childhood and is married by significant deficiencies in communication and social interactional, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors
autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
psychological development: toddlerhood (1 to 3 years)
autonomy vs shame and doubt toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities
Your friend yells at you for being five minutes late for lunch. Rather than believe your friend is a rude jerk, you decide that she may be having difficulties with her partner. Thus, her behavior is the result of: a) your personality traits b) a situational attribution c) a dispositional attribution d) none of these would be an explanation for why your friend yelled at you
b) a situational attribution
Freud's psychoanalytic theory includes ideas about: a) a characteristic pattern of behavior or disposition. b) an unconscious region of the mind, psychosexual stages, and defense mechanisms. c) trait dimensions (for example, introverted-extraverted or stable-unstable). d) self-actualization and fulfilling one's potential.
b) an unconscious region of the mind, psychosexual stages, and defense mechanisms.
Which of the following is NOT one of the Big Five personality factors? a) conscientiousness b) anxiety c) extraversion d) agreeableness
b) anxiety
In family therapy, the therapist assumes that a) only one family member needs to change b) each person's actions trigger reactions from other family members c) dysfunctional families must improve their interactions or give up their children d) all of the above are true
b) each person's actions trigger reactions from other family members
According to the psychoanalytic view of development, we all pass through a series of psychosexual stages, including the oral, anal, and phallic stages. Conflicts unresolved at any of these stages may lead to a) dormant sexual feelings b) fixation at that stage c) preconscious blocking of impulses d) a distorted gender identity
b) fixation at that stage
Juan loves horseback riding. What would be a behavioral factor associated with horseback riding for Juan? a) having friends that also ride horses b) learning how to ride horses c) his thoughts and feelings about riding horses d) selecting where he is going to ride horses
b) learning how to ride horses
Which of the following is a social-cultural influence on the expression of aggressive behavior? a) rewards for aggressive behavior b) minimal paternal involvement in the lives of children c) lower than normal levels of serotonin in the brain d) frustrating situations
b) minimal paternal involvement i the lives of children
Basic to Freud's theory was his belief that the mind is mostly hidden. Our ________ awareness is like the part of an iceberg that floats above the surface.
conscious
Operant conditioning strengthens behavior through the:
consequences that occur
the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.
conservation
________ is one key to attachment
contact
Both perceptual set and _____ indicate how experiences help to construct perception.
context
Today's researchers see development as more ________ than did Piaget. By detecting the beginnings of each type of thinking at earlier ages, they have revealed conceptual abilities Piaget missed. Moreover, they see formal logic as a smaller part of cognition than he did.
continuous
Sensations and perception are parts of one __________.
continuous process
The visual cliff experiments suggest that drawing human infants and very young animals perceive __________.
depth
(developmental psychology issue) Nature and Nurture: how does our genetic inheritance (our nature) interact with out experiences (our nurture) to influence our ____________?
development
Dr. Spoleto's research examines cognitive changes that occur as people progress from young adulthood to late adulthood. Dr. Professor is a _____ psychologist.
developmental
Stage theories contribute a __________ perspective on the whole life span by suggesting how people of one age think and act differently when they arrive at a later age.
developmental
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.
developmental psychology
Weber's law: the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must ____________________.
differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time **experienced as a just noticeable different
difference threshold
What you normally find ________ may seem all but impossible when you are being watched
difficult
an identity status in which a person is relatively apathetic and uninterested in questions of identity and is not ready to commit to a set of values or beliefs
diffusion
When more people share responsibility for helping - when there was a __________ - any single listener was less likely to help.
diffusion of responsibility
Two crucial tasks of childhood and adolescence are __________ and __________ — the psychological muscles for controlling impulses.
discerning right from wrong and developing character
(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an on condition stimulus. (2) in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members
discrimination
Dogs have been taught to salivate to a circle but not to a square. This process is an example of
discrimination
Boris was raised in a Russian orphanage where he was given minimal care. At age 6, he was adopted by a loving American family. As he matures, it is likely that Boris will:
display anxiety
(attribution theory) "We can attribute the behavior to the person's stable, enduring traits"
dispositional attribution
Depth perception underlies our ability to judge ________.
distances
One possible answer emerged when researcher examined schizophrenia patients' brains after death. They found an excess of receptors for __________ - a sixfold excess for the receptor D4
dopamine
_____ overactivity may underlie schizophrenic patients' overreactions to irrelevant external and internal stimuli.
dopamine
Most experts agree that repeated viewing of media violence
dulls viewers' sensitivity to violence
(sensory memory) auditory memory
echoic
an approach to psychotherapy that uses techniques from various forms of therapy
eclectic approach
contains our partly conscious perceptions, thoughts, judgment, and memories
ego
the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain
ego
According to Freud's view of personality structure, the "executive" system, the _________, seeks to gratify the impulses of the __________ in more acceptable ways.
ego; id
fertilized egg
zygote
Infants who lack a caring mother are said to suffer __________
"maternal deprivation"
What findings in psychology support (1) the stage theory of development and (2) the idea of stability in personality across the life span? What findings challenge these ideas?
(1) Stage theory is supported by the work of Piaget (cognitive development), Kohlberg (moral development), and Erikson (psychosocial development), but it is challenged by findings that change is more gradual and less culturally universal than these theorists supposed. (2) Some traits, such as temperament, do exhibit remarkable stability across many years. But we do change in other ways, such as in our social attitudes.
the "Big Five" personality factors
(CANOE) conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion)
examples of egocentrism (having difficulty perceiving things from another's point of view) in children
- 2year old holds up picture by facing her own eyes - 3yearold makes himself "invisible" by putting his hands over his eyes, assuming that if he can't see his grandparents, they can't see him
developmental phenomena: about 12 through adulthood (formal operational)
- abstract logic - potential for mature moral reasoning
social-cultural influences on personality
- childhood experiences - influence of the situation - cultural expectations - social support
developmental phenomena: about 7 to 11 years (concrete operational)
- conservation - mathematical transformations
social-cultural influence on aggressive behavior
- deindividuation, or lose of self-awareness and self-restraint - challenging environmental factors, such as crowding, heat, and direct provocations - parental models of aggression - minimal father involvement - rejection from a group - exposure to violent media
How do social traps and mirror image perceptions fuel social conflicts?
A conflict is a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. Social traps are situations in which people in conflict pursue their own individual self-interest, harming the collective well-being. Individuals and cultures in conflict also tend to form mirror-image perceptions: Each party views the opponent as untrustworthy and evil-intentioned, and itself as an ethical, peaceful victim. Perceptions can become self-fulfilling prophecies.
How do major depressive disorder, persistent depressive disorder, and bipolar disorder differ?
A person with major depressive disorder experiences two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure. Persistent depressive disorder includes a mildly depressed mood more often than not for at least two years, along with at least two other symptoms. A person with the less common condition of bipolar disorder experiences not only depression but also mania—episodes of hyperactive and wildly optimistic, impulsive behavior.
Does research support the consistency of personally traits over time and across situations?
A person's average traits persist over time and are predictable over many different situations. But traits cannot predict behavior in any one particular situation.
What might a psychodynamic therapist say about Mower's therapy for bed-wetting? How might a behavior therapist reply?
A psychodynamic therapist might be more interested in helping the child develop insight about the underlying problems that have caused the bed-wetting response. A behavior therapist would be more likely to agree with Mowrer that the bed-wetting symptom is the problem, and that counterconditioning the unwanted behavior would indeed bring emotional relief.
An influential cognitive therapy for depression was developed by _________________ _________________.
Aaron Beck
How should we draw the line between normality and disorder?
According to psychologists and psychiatrists, psychological disorders are marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior.
How is adolescence defined, and how do physical changes affect developing teens?
Adolescence is the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to social independence. Boys seem to benefit (though with risks) from "early" maturation, girls from "late" maturation. The brain's frontal lobes mature and myelin growth increases during adolescence and the early twenties, enabling improved judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning.
How do social-cognitive theorists view personality development, and how do they exile behavior?
Albert Bandura first proposed the social-cognitive perspective, which emphasizes the interaction of our traits with our situations. Social-cognitive researchers apply principles of learning, cognition, and social behavior to personality. Reciprocal determinism is a term describing the interaction and mutual influence of behavior, internal personal factors, and environmental factors.
According to _____, the majority of children younger than age 9 have a preconventional morality.
Kohlberg
When are people most - and least - likely to help?
Altruism is unselfish regard for the well-being of others. We are most likely to help when we (a) notice an incident, (b) interpret it as an emergency, and (c) assume responsibility for helping. Other factors, including our mood and our similarity to the victim, also affect our willingness to help. We are least likely to help if other bystanders are present (the bystander effect).
How do parent-infant attachment bonds form?
At about 8 months, soon after object permanence develops, children separated from their caregivers display stranger anxiety. Infants form attachments not simply because parents gratify biological needs but, more important, because they are comfortable, familiar, and responsive. Many birds and other animals have a more rigid attachment process, called imprinting, that occurs during a critical period.
How have psychologists studied attachment differences, and what have they learned?
Attachment has been studied in strange situation experiments, which show that some children are securely attached and others are insecurely attached. Infants' differing attachment styles reflect both their individual temperamentand the responsiveness of their parents and child-care providers. Adult relationships seem to reflect the attachment styles of early childhood, lending support to Erik Erikson's idea that basic trust is formed in infancy by our experiences with responsive caregivers.
What distinguishes imprinting from attachment?
Attachment is the normal process by which we form emotional ties with important others. Imprinting occurs only in certain animals that have a critical period very early in their development during which they must form their attachments, and they do so in an inflexible manner.
How do attitudes and actions interact?
Attitudes are feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in certain ways. Peripheral route persuasion uses incidental cues (such as celebrity endorsement) to try to produce fast but relatively thoughtless changes in attitudes. Central route persuasion offers evidence and arguments to trigger thoughtful responses. When other influences are minimal, attitudes that are stable, specific, and easily recalled can affect our actions. Actions can modify attitudes, as in the foot-in-the-door phenomenon (complying with a large request after having agreed to a small request) and role playing (acting a social part by following guidelines for expected behavior). When our attitudes don't fit with our actions, cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we will reduce tension by changing our attitudes to match our actions.
What is autism spectrum disorder?
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a disorder marked by social deficiencies and repetitive behaviors. By age 8, 1 in 68 U.S. children now gets diagnosed with ASD, though the reported rates vary by place. The increase in ASD diagnoses has been offset by a decrease in the number of children with a "cognitive disability" or "learning disability," suggesting a relabeling of children's disorders.
What is automatic mimicry, and how do conformity experiments reveal the power of social influence?
Automatic mimicry (the chameleon effect)—our tendency to unconsciously imitate others' expressions, postures, and voice tones—is a form of conformity. Solomon Asch and others have found that we are most likely to adjust our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard when (a) we feel incompetent or insecure, (b) our group has at least three people, (c) everyone else agrees, (d) we admire the group's status and attractiveness, (e) we have not already committed to another response, (f) we know we are being observed, and (g) our culture encourages respect for social standards. We may conform to gain approval (normative social influence) or because we are willing to accept others' opinions as new information (informational social influence).
What are some newborn abilities, and how do researchers explore infants' mental abilities?
Babies are born with sensory equipment and reflexes that facilitate their survival and their social interactions with adults. For example, they quickly learn to discriminate their mother's smell and sound. Researchers use techniques that test habituation, such as the novelty-preference procedure, to explore infants' abilities.
How does the basic assumption of behavior therapy differ from the assumptions of psychodynamic and humanistic therapies? What techniques are used in exposure therapies and aversive conditioning?
Behavior therapies are not insight therapies. Their goal is to apply learning principles to modify problem behaviors. Classical conditioning techniques, including exposure therapies (such as systematic desensitization or virtual reality exposure therapy) and aversive conditioning, attempt to change behaviors through counterconditioning—evoking new responses to old stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors.
After a near-fatal car accident, Rico developed such an intense fear of driving on the freeway that he takes lengthy alternative routes to work each day. Which psychological therapy might best help Rico overcome his phobia, and why?
Behavior therapies are often the best choice for treating phobias. Viewing Rico's fear of the freeway as a learned response, a behavior therapist might help Rico learn to replace his anxious response to freeway driving with a relaxation response.
How does being physically attractive influence others' perceptions?
Being physically attractive tends to elicit positive first impressions. People tend to assume that attractive people are healthier, happier, and more socially skilled than others are.
What factors contribute to the onset and development of schizophrenia?
Biological factors include abnormalities in brain structure and function, prenatal exposure to a maternal virus, and a genetic predisposition to the disorder. However, a high-risk environment, with many environmental triggers, can increase the odds of developing schizophrenia.
Researchers believe that conditioning and cognitive processes contribute to anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD. What biological factors also contribute to these disorders?
Biological factors include inherited temperament differences and other gene variations; learned fears that have altered brain pathways; and outdated, inherited responses that had survival value for our distant ancestors.
What is the biopsychosocial approach, and why is it important in understanding of psychological disorders?
Biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences combine to produce psychological disorders. This broad perspective helps us understand that our well-being is affected by our genes, brain functioning, inner thoughts and feelings, and the influences of our social and cultural environment.
What are the basic themes of humanistic therapy? What are the specific goals and techniques of Rogers' client-centered approach?
Both psychoanalytic and humanistic therapists are insight therapies—they attempt to improve functioning by increasing clients' awareness of motives and defenses. Humanistic therapy's goals have included helping clients grow in self-awareness and self-acceptance; promoting personal growth rather than curing illness; helping clients take responsibility for their own growth; focusing on conscious thoughts rather than unconscious motivations; and seeing the present and future as more important than the past. Carl Rogers' client-centered therapy proposed that therapists' most important contributions are to function as a psychological mirror through active listening and to provide a growth-fostering environment of unconditional positive regard, characterized by genuineness, acceptance, and empathy.
Driving to school one snowy day, Marco narrowly misses a car that slides through a red light. "Slow down! What a terrible driver," he thinks to himself. Moments later, Marco himself slips through an intersection and yelps, "Wow! These roads are awful. The city plows need to get out here." What social psychology principle has Marco just demonstrated? Explain.
By attributing the other person's behavior to the person ("he's a terrible drive") and his own to the situation ("these roads are awful"), Marco has exhibited the fundamental attribution error
How do the humanistic and cognitive therapies differ?
By reflecting clients' feelings in a nondirective setting, the humanistic therapies attempt to foster personal growth by helping clients become more self-aware and self-accepting. By making clients aware of self-defeating patterns of thinking, cognitive therapies guide people toward more adaptive ways of thinking about themselves and their world.
How does childhood neglect or abuse affect children's attachments?
Children are very resilient, but those who are severely neglected by their parents, or otherwise prevented from forming attachments at an early age, may be at risk for attachment problems.
Jamal's therapist has suggested that Jamal should "act as if" he is confident, even though he feels insecure and shy. Which social psychological theory would best support this suggestion, and what might the therapist be hoping to achieve?
Cognitive dissonance theory best supports this suggestion. If Jamal acts confident, his behavior will contradict his negative self-thoughts, creating cognitive dissonance. To relieve the tension, Jamal may realign his attitudes with his actions by viewing himself as more outgoing and confident.
How has modern research developed our understanding of the unconscious?
Current research confirms that we do not have full access to all that goes on in our mind, but the current view of the unconscious is that it is a separate and parallel track of information processing that occurs outside our awareness. This processing includes schemas that control our perceptions; priming; implicit memories of learned skills; instantly activated emotions; and stereotypes that filter our information processing of others' traits and characteristics.
the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders
DSM-5
How, by taking care of themselves with a healthy lifestyle, might people find some relief from depression? How does this reflect our being biopsychosocial systems?
Depressed people who undergo a program of aerobic exercise, adequate sleep, light exposure, social engagement, negative thought reduction, and better nutrition often gain some relief. In our integrated biopsychosocial system, stress affects our body chemistry and health; chemical imbalances can produce depression; and social support and other lifestyle changes can lead to relief of symptoms.
What three issues have engaged developmental psychologists?
Developmental psychologists study physical, mental, and social changes throughout the life span. They focus on three issues: nature and nurture (the interaction between our genetic inheritance and our experiences); continuity and stages (whether development is gradual and continuous or a series of relatively abrupt changes); and stability and change (whether our traits endure or change as we age).
How do parents and peers influence adolescents?
During adolescence, parental influence diminishes and peer influence increases, in part because of the selection effect—the tendency to choose similar others. But adolescents also do adopt their peers' ways of dressing, acting, and communicating. Parents have more influence in religion, politics, and college and career choices.
How are brain stimulation and psychosurgery used in treating specific disorders?
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient, is an effective, last-resort treatment for severely depressed people who have not responded to other therapy. Newer alternative treatments for depression include repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and, in preliminary clinical experiments, deep-brain stimulation that calms an overactive brain region linked with negative emotions. Psychosurgery removes or destroys brain tissue in hopes of modifying behavior. Radical psychosurgical procedures such as lobotomy were once popular, but neurosurgeons now rarely perform brain surgery to change behavior or moods. Brain surgery is a lastresort treatment because its effects are irreversible.
How does the two-factor their of emotion help explain passionate love?
Emotions consist of (1) physical arousal and (2) our interpretation of that arousal. Researchers have found that any source of arousal (running, fear, laughter) may be interpreted as passion in the presence of a desirable person.
What are the social tasks and challenges of adolescence?
Erikson theorized that each life stage has its own psychosocial task, and that a chief task of adolescence is solidifying one's sense of self—one's identity. This often means trying out a number of different roles. Social identity is the part of the self-concept that comes from a person's group memberships.
How do excessive optimism, blindness to one's own incompetence, and self-serving bias reveal the costs of self-esteem, and how do defensive and secure self-esteem differ?
Excessive optimism can lead to complacency and prevent us from seeing real risks, while blindness to one's own incompetence may lead us to make the same mistakes repeatedly. Self-serving bias is our tendency to perceive ourselves favorably, as when viewing ourselves as better than average or when accepting credit for our successes but not blame for our failures. Narcissism is excessive self-love and self-absorption. Defensive self-esteem is fragile, focuses on sustaining itself, and views failure or criticism as a threat. Secure self-esteem enables us to feel accepted for who we are.
How did Freud think people defended themselves against anxiety?
For Freud, anxiety was the product of tensions between the demands of the id and superego. The ego copes by using unconscious defense mechanisms, such as repression, which he viewed as the basic mechanism underlying and enabling all the others.
What was Freud's view of personality?
Freud believed that personality results from conflict arising from the interaction among the mind's three systems: the id (pleasure-seeking impulses), ego (reality-oriented executive), and superego (internalized set of ideals, or conscience).
What are three big ideas that have survived from Freud's work in psychoanalytic theory? What are three ways in which Freud's work has been criticized?
Freud first drew attention to (1) the importance of childhood experiences, (2) the existence of the unconscious mind, and (3) our self-protective defense mechanisms. Freud's work has been criticized as (1) not scientifically testable and offering after-the-fact explanations, (2) focusing too much on sexual conflicts in childhood, and (3) based on the idea of repression, which has not been supported by modern research.
Which of Freud's ideas did his followers accept or reject?
Freud's early followers, the neo-Freudians, accepted many of his ideas. They differed in placing more emphasis on the conscious mind and in stressing social motives more than sex or aggression. Most contemporary psychodynamic theorists and therapists reject Freud's emphasis on sexual motivation. They stress, with support from modern research findings, the view that much of our mental life is unconscious, and they believe that our childhood experiences influence our adult personality and attachment patterns. Many also believe that our species' shared evolutionary history shaped some universal predispositions.
proposed the attribution theory in 1958
Fritz Heider
What psychological and social-cultural factors may trigger aggressive behavior?
Frustration (frustration-aggression principle), previous reinforcement for aggressive behavior, observing an aggressive role model, and poor self-control can all contribute to aggression. Media portrayals of violence provide social scripts that children learn to follow. Viewing sexual violence contributes to greater aggression toward women. Playing violent video games increases aggressive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
a strategy designed to decrease international tensions
GRIT (Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction)
Rules for organizing stimuli into coherent groups were first identified by:
Gestalt psychologists
What are the aims and benefits of group and family therapies?
Group therapy sessions can help more people and costs less per person than individual therapy would. Clients may benefit from exploring feelings and developing social skills in a group situation, from learning that others have similar problems, and from getting feedback on new ways of behaving. Family therapy views a family as an interactive system and attempts to help members discover the roles they play and to learn to communicate more openly and directly.
What developed stages did Freud propose?
He believed children pass through five psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital). Unresolved conflicts at any stage can leave a person's pleasure-seeking impulses fixated (stalled) at that stage.
Hussein is concerned because he cannot remember events before he was about 4 years old. What is the most likely cause for this infantile amnesia?
His hippocampus was not developed enough.
How have humanistic theories influenced psychology? What criticisms have they faced?
Humanistic psychology helped renew interest in the concept of self. Critics have said that humanistic psychology's concepts were vague and subjective, its values self-centered, and its assumptions naively optimistic.
Some maladaptive behaviors are learned. What hope does this fact provide?
If a behavior can be learned, it can be unlearned, and replaced by other more adaptive responses.
The most widely used test to measure implicit attitudes and preferences is the _____, developed by psychologist Anthony Greenwald and his colleagues.
Implicit Association Test (IAT)
What are group polarization and groupthink, and how much power do we have as individuals?
In group polarization, group discussions with like-minded others strengthen members' prevailing beliefs and attitudes. Internet communication magnifies this effect, for better and for worse. Groupthink is driven by a desire for harmony within a decision-making group, overriding realistic appraisal of alternatives. The power of the individual and the power of the situation interact. A small minority that consistently expresses its views may sway the majority.
From the perspectives of Piaget, Vygotsky, and today's researchers, how does a child's mind develop?
In his theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget proposed that children actively construct and modify their understanding of the world through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. They form schemas that help them organize their experiences. Progressing from the simplicity of the sensorimotor stage of the first two years, in which they develop object permanence, children move to more complex ways of thinking. In the preoperational stage (about age 2 to about 6 or 7), they develop a theory of mind. In the preoperational stage, children are egocentric and unable to perform simple logical operations. At about age 7, they enter the concrete operational stage and are able to comprehend the principle of conservation. By about age 12, children enter the formal operational stage and can reason systematically. Research supports the sequence Piaget proposed, but it also shows that young children are more capable, and their development more continuous, than he believed. Lev Vygotsky's studies of child development focused on the ways a child's mind grows by interacting with the social environment. In his view, parents and caretakers provide temporary scaffolds enabling children to step to higher levels of learning.
How does psychology's definition of aggression differ from everyday usage? What biological factors make us more prone to hurt one another?
In psychology's more specific meaning, aggression is any act intended to harm someone physically or emotionally. Biology influences our threshold for aggressive behaviors at three levels: genetic (inherited traits), neural (activity in key brain areas), and biochemical (such as alcohol or excess testosterone in the bloodstream). Aggression is a complex behavior resulting from the interaction of biology and experience.
How is our behavior affected by the presence of others?
In social facilitation, the mere presence of others arouses us, improving our performance on easy or well-learned tasks but decreasing it on difficult ones. In social loafing, participating in a group project makes us feel less responsible, and we may free ride on others' efforts. When the presence of others both arouses us and makes us feel anonymous, we may experience deindividuation—loss of self-awareness and self-restraint.
Why didn't anybody help Kitty Genovese? What social psychology principle did this incident illustrate?
In the presence of others, an individual is less likely to notice a situation, correctly interpret it as an emergency, and take responsibility for offering help. The Kitty Genovese case demonstrated this bystander effect, as each witness assumed many others were also aware of the event.
How did Sigmund Freud's treatment of psychological disorders lead to his view of the unconscious mind?
In treating patients whose disorders had no clear physical explanation, Freud concluded that these problems reflected unacceptable thoughts and feelings, hidden away in the unconscious mind. To explore this hidden part of a patient's mind, Freud used free association and dream analysis.
If two tech-minded systemizers mate, then does that increase both the rate of this type of cognitive talent—and also ASD—among their offspring?
Indeed, Baron-Cohen (2012) reports, ASD rates are higher not only among elite math students, but also among the children and grandchildren of engineers and MIT graduates.
How does romantic love typically change as time passes?
Intimate love relationships start with passionate love—an intensely aroused state. Over time, the strong affection of companionate love may develop, especially if enhanced by an equitable relationship and by intimate self-disclosure.
What are some common misunderstandings about introversion? Does extraversion lead to greater success than introversion?
Introversion is often misunderstood as shyness, but introverted people often simply seek low levels of stimulation from their environment. Introversion is also sometimes thought to be a barrier to success, but in fact introverts often experience great achievement, even in sales, through characteristics such as their superior listening skills.
Does perceptual set involve bottom-up or top-down processing? Why?
It involves top-down processing. Our perceptual set influences our interpretation of stimuli based on our experiences, assumptions, and expectations.
What is the most serious problem with Freud's theory?
It offers after-the-fact explanations of any characteristic (of one person's smoking, another's ear of horses, another's sexual orientation)yet fails to predict such behaviors and traits. A good theory makes testable predictions!
Object permanence, pretend play, conservation, and abstract logic are developmental milestones for which of Piaget's stages, respectively?
Object permanence for the sensorimotor stage, pretend play for the preoperational stage, conservation for the concrete operational stage, and abstract logic for the formal operational stage.
accord to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father
Oedipus complex
What is the main premise of therapy based on operant conditioning principles, and what are the views of its proponents and critics?
Operant conditioning operates under the premise that voluntary behaviors are strongly influenced by their consequences. Therapy based on operant conditioning principles uses behavior modification techniques to change unwanted behaviors through positively reinforcing desired behaviors and ignoring or punishing undesirable behaviors. Critics maintain that (1) techniques such as those used in token economies may produce behavior changes that disappear when rewards end, and (2) deciding which behaviors should change is authoritarian and unethical. Proponents argue that treatment with positive rewards is more humane than punishing people or institutionalizing them for undesired behaviors.
How do our attitudes and actions affect each other?
Our attitudes often influence our actions as we behave in ways consistent with our beliefs. However, our attitudes also follow our actions: we come to believe in what we have done
What biological, psychological, and social-cultural influence interact to produce aggressive behaviors?
Our biology (our genes, neural systems, and biochemistry—including testosterone and alcohol levels) influences our aggressive tendencies. Psychological factors (such as frustration, previous rewards for aggressive acts, and observation of others' aggression) can trigger any aggressive tendencies we may have. Social influences, such as exposure to violent media or being ostracized from a group, and cultural influences, such as whether we've grown up in a "culture of honor" or a father-absent home, can also affect our aggressive responses.
How well do personality test scores predict our behavior? Explain.
Our scores on personality tests predict our average behavior across many situations much better than they predict our specific behavior in any given situation.
What three steps are basic to all our sensory systems?
Our senses (1) receive sensory stimulation (often using specialized receptor cells); (2) transform that stimulation into neural impulses; and (3) deliver the neural information to the brain. Transduction is the process of converting one form of energy into another. Researchers in psychophysics study the relationships between stimuli's physical characteristics and our psychological experience of them.
What are three parenting styles, and how do children's traits relate to them?
Parenting styles—authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative—reflect varying degrees of control. Children with high self-esteem tend to have authoritative parents and to be self-reliant and socially competent, but the direction of cause and effect in this relationship is not clear. Child-raising practices reflect both individual and cultural values.
How can we transform feelings of prejudice, aggression, and conflict into attitudes that promote peace?
Peace can result when individuals or groups work together to achieve superordinate (shared) goals. Research indicates that four processes—contact, cooperation, communication, and conciliation—help promote peace.
Why are some ways to reconcile conflicts and promote peace?
Peacemakers should encourage equal-status contact, cooperation to achieve superordinate goals (shared goals that override differences), understanding through communication, and reciprocated conciliatory gestures (each side gives a little).
What is the rationale for preventive mental health programs, and why is it important to develop resilience?
Preventive mental health programs are based on the idea that many psychological disorders could be prevented by changing oppressive, esteem-destroying environments into more benevolent, nurturing environments that foster growth, self-confidence, and resilience. Struggling with challenges can lead to posttraumatic growth. Community psychologists are often active in preventive mental health programs.
What are the projective tests, how are they used, and what are some criticisms of them?
Projective tests attempt to assess personality by showing people ambiguous stimuli (open to many possible interpretations) and treating their answers as revelations of unconscious motives. One such test, the Rorschach inkblot test, has low reliability and validity except in a few areas, such as hostility and anxiety.
Why do we befriend or fall in love with some people but not others?
Proximity (geographical nearness) increases liking, in part because of the mere exposure effect—exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of those stimuli. Physical attractiveness increases social opportunities and improves the way we are perceived. Similarity of attitudes and interests greatly increases liking, especially as relationships develop. We also like those who like us.
What is the difference between preventive mental health and psychological or biomedical therapy?
Psychological and biomedical therapies attempt to relieve people's suffering from psychological disorders. Preventive mental health attempts to prevent suffering by identifying and eliminating the conditions that cause disorders.
How many people have, or have had a psychological disorder? Is poverty a risk factor?
Psychological disorder rates vary, depending on the time and place of the survey. In one multinational survey, rates for any disorder ranged from less than 5 percent (Shanghai) to more than 25 percent (the United States). Poverty is a risk factor: Conditions and experiences associated with poverty contribute to the development of psychological disorders. But some disorders, such as schizophrenia, can drive people into poverty.
What are the drug therapies? How do double-blind studies help researchers evaluate a drug's effectiveness?
Psychopharmacology, the study of drug effects on mind and behavior, has helped make drug therapy the most widely used biomedical therapy. Antipsychotic drugs, used in treating schizophrenia, block dopamine activity. Side effects may include tardive dyskinesia (with involuntary movements of facial muscles, tongue, and limbs) or increased risk of obesity and diabetes. Antianxiety drugs, which depress central nervous system activity, are used to treat anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. These drugs can be physically and psychologically addictive. Antidepressant drugs, which increase the availability of serotonin and norepinephrine, are used for depression, with modest effectiveness beyond that of placebo drugs. The antidepressants known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (often called SSRI drugs) are now used to treat other disorders, including strokes and anxiety disorders. Lithium and Depakote are mood stabilizers prescribed for those with bipolar disorder. Studies may use a doubleblind procedure to avoid the placebo effect and researcher's bias.
How do psychotherapy and the biomedical therapies differ?
Psychotherapy is treatment involving psychological techniques; it consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth. The major psychotherapies derive from psychology's psychodynamic, humanistic, behavioral, and cognitive perspectives. Biomedical therapy treats psychological disorders with medications or procedures that act directly on a patient's physiology. An eclectic approach combines techniques from various forms of therapy.
How do researchers evaluate the effectiveness of particular drug therapies?
Researchers assign people to treatment and no-treatment conditions to see if those who receive the drug therapy improve more than those who don't. Double-blind controlled studies are most effective. If neither the therapist nor the client knows which participants have received the drug treatment, then any difference between the treated and untreated groups will reflect the drug treatment's actual effect.
What criticisms have social-cognitive theorists faced?
Social-cognitive theorists build on well-established concepts of learning and cognition. They tend to believe that the best way to predict someone's behavior in a given situation is to observe that person's behavior in similar situations. They have been faulted for underemphasizing the importance of unconscious motives, emotions, and biologically influenced traits.
Are psychological disorders universal, or are they cultural? Explain with examples.
Some psychological disorders are culture-specific. For example, anorexia nervosa occurs mostly in North American cultures, and taijin-kyofusho appears largely in Japan. Other disorders, such as schizophrenia, are universal-occurring in all cultures.
How did humanistic psychologists assess a person's sense of self?
Some rejected any standardized assessments and relied on interviews and conversations. Rogers sometimes used questionnaires in which people described their ideal and actual selves, which he later used to judge progress during therapy.
What did Milligram's obedience experiments teach us about the power of social influence?
Stanley Milgram's experiments—in which people obeyed orders even when they thought they were harming another person—demonstrated that strong social influences can make ordinary people conform to falsehoods or give in to cruelty. Obedience was highest when (a) the person giving orders was nearby and was perceived as a legitimate authority figure; (b) the research was supported by a prestigious institution; (c) the victim was depersonalized or at a distance; and (d) there were no role models for defiance.
Does subliminal sensation enable subliminal persuasion?
Subliminal stimuli are those that are too weak to detect 50 percent of the time. While subliminal sensation is a fact, such sensations are too fleeting to enable exploitation with subliminal messages: There is no powerful, enduring effect.
What factors increase the risk of suicide and what do we know about nonsuicidal self-injury
Suicide rates differ by nation, race, gender, age group, income, religious involvement, marital status, and (for gay and lesbian youth, for example) social support structure. Those with depression are more at risk for suicide than others are, but social suggestion, health status, and economic and social frustration are also contributing factors. Environmental barriers (such as jump barriers) are effective in preventing suicides. Forewarnings of suicide may include verbal hints, giving away possessions, withdrawal, preoccupation with death, and discussing one's own suicide. Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) does not usually lead to suicide but may escalate to suicidal thoughts and acts if untreated. People who engage in NSSI do not tolerate stress well and tend to be self-critical, with poor communication and problem-solving skills.
What is PTSD?
Symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) include four or more weeks of haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or sleep problems following some traumatic experience.
What patterns of perceiving, thinking, and feeling characterize schizophrenia?
Symptoms of schizophrenia include disturbed perceptions, disorganized thinking and speech, and diminished, inappropriate emotions. Delusions are false beliefs; hallucinations are sensory experiences without sensory stimulation. Schizophrenia symptoms may be positive (the presence of inappropriate behaviors) or negative (the absence of appropriate behaviors).
How and why do clinicians classify psychological disorders, and why do some psychologists criticize the use of diagnostic labels?
The American Psychiatric Association's DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition) contains diagnostic labels and descriptions that provide a common language and shared concepts for communication and research. Most U.S. health insurance organizations require a DSM diagnosis before paying for treatment. Some critics believe the DSM editions have become too detailed and extensive. Others view DSM diagnoses as arbitrary labels that create preconceptions, which bias perceptions of the labeled person's past and present behavior.
What are the Big Five personality factors, and why are they scientifically useful?
The Big Five personality factors are conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism (emotional stability vs. instability), openness, and extraversion (CANOE). These factors may be objectively measured, and research suggests that these factors are relatively stable over the life span and apply to all cultures in which they have been studied.
Which traits seem to provide the most useful information about personality variation?
The Big Five personality factors—conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion (CANOE)—currently offer the clearest picture of personality. These factors are quite stable and appear to be found in all cultures.
The three parenting styles have been called "too hard, too soft, and just right." Which one is "too hard," which one "too soft," and which one "just right," and why?
The authoritarian style would be too hard, the permissive style too soft, and the authoritative style just right. Parents using the authoritative style tend to have children with high self-esteem, selfreliance, and social competence.
How can the biological and social-cognitive perspectives help us understand depressive disorders and bipolar disorder?
The biological perspective on depressive disorders and bipolar disorder focuses on genetic predispositions and on abnormalities in brain structures and function (including those found in neurotransmitter systems). The social-cognitive perspective views depression as an ongoing cycle of stressful experiences (interpreted through negative beliefs, attributions, and memories) leading to negative moods and actions and fueling new stressful experiences.
During infancy and childhood, how do the brain and motor skills develop?
The brain's nerve cells are sculpted by heredity and experience. As a child's brain develops, neural connections grow more numerous and complex. Experiences then trigger a pruning process, in which unused connections weaken and heavily used ones strengthen. This process continues until puberty. Early childhood is an important period for shaping the brain, but our brain modifies itself in response to our learning throughout life. In childhood, complex motor skills—sitting, standing, walking—develop in a predictable sequence, though the timing of that sequence is a function of individual maturation and culture. We have no conscious memories of events occurring before about age 3½. This infantile amnesia occurs in part because major brain areas have not yet matured.
What are the cognitive roots of prejudice?
The cognitive roots of prejudice grow from our natural ways of processing information: forming categories, remembering vivid cases, and believing that the world is just and that our own and our culture's ways of doing things are the right ways.
What are the goals and techniques of cognitive therapy and of cognitive-behavioral therapy?
The cognitive therapies, such as Aaron Beck's cognitive therapy for depression, assume that our thinking influences our feelings, and that the therapist's role is to change clients' self-defeating thinking by training them to view themselves in more positive ways. The widely researched and practiced cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) combines cognitive therapy and behavior therapy by helping clients regularly act out their new ways of thinking and talking in their everyday life.
How did humanistic psychologists view personality, and what was their goal in studying personality?
The humanistic psychologists' view of personality focused on the potential for healthy personal growth and people's striving for self-determination and self-realization. Abraham Maslow proposed that human motivations form a hierarchy of needs; if basic needs are fulfilled, people will strive toward self-actualization and self-transcendence. Carl Rogers believed that the ingredients of a growth-promoting environment are genuineness, acceptance (including unconditional positive regard), and empathy. Self-concept was a central feature of personality for both Maslow and Rogers.
What are the insight-therapies, and how do they differ from behavior therapies?
The insight therapies—psychodynamic and humanistic therapies—seek to relieve problems by providing an understanding of their origins. Behavior therapies assume the problem behavior is the problem and treat it directly, paying less attention to its origins.
How do psychologists use traits to describe personality?
Trait theorists see personality as a stable and enduring pattern of behavior. They describe our differences rather than trying to explain them. Using factor analysis, they identify clusters of behavior tendencies that occur together. Genetic predispositions influence many traits.
How do conditioning, cognition, and biology contribute to the feelings and thoughts that mark anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD?
The learning perspective views anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD as products of fear conditioning, stimulus generalization, fearful behavior reinforcement, and observational learning of others' fears and cognitions (interpretations, irrational beliefs, and hypervigilance). The biological perspective considers the role that fears of life-threatening animals, objects, or situations played in natural selection and evolution; genetic predispositions for high levels of emotional reactivity and neurotransmitter production; and abnormal responses in the brain's fear circuits.
What is the course of prenatal development, and how do teratogens affect that development?
The life cycle begins at conception, when one sperm cell unites with an egg to form a zygote. The zygote's inner cells become the embryo, and the outer cells become the placenta. In the next 6 weeks, body organs begin to form and function, and by 9 weeks, the fetus is recognizably human. Teratogens are potentially harmful agents that can pass through the placental screen and harm the developing embryo or fetus, as happens with fetal alcohol syndrome.
How do the medical model and the biopsycholosocial approach influence our understanding of psychological disorders?
The medical model assumes that psychological disorders are mental illnesses with physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured through therapy, sometimes in a hospital. The biopsychosocial perspective assumes that three sets of influences—biological (evolution, genetics, brain structure and chemistry), psychological (stress, trauma, learned helplessness, mood-related perceptions and memories), and social and cultural circumstances (roles, expectations, definitions of "normality" and "disorder")—interact to produce specific psychological disorders. Epigenetics also informs our understanding of disorders.
How does the placebo effect bias patients' attitudes about the effectiveness of drug therapies?
The placebo effect is the healing power of belief in a treatment. When patients expect a treatment to be effective, they may believe it was.
Dr. Huang, a popular music professor, delivers fascinating lectures on music history but gets nervous and makes mistakes when describing exam statistics in front of the class. Why does his performance vary by task?
The presence of a large audience generates arousal and strengthens Dr. Huang's most likely response: enhanced performance on a task he has mastered (teaching music history) and impaired performance on a task he finds difficult (statistics).
Why has psychology generated so much research on the self? How important is self-esteem to psychology and to human well-being?
The self is the center of personality, organizing our thoughts, feelings, and actions. Considering possible selves helps motivate us toward positive development, but focusing too intensely on ourselves can lead to the spotlight effect. Self-esteem is our feeling of self-worth; self-efficacy is our sense of competence on a task. High self-esteem correlates with less pressure to conform, with persistence at difficult tasks, and with happiness. But the direction of the correlation is not clear. Psychologists caution against unrealistically promoting children's feelings of self-worth. It's better to reward their achievements, which leads to feelings of competence.
Why is it that after wearing shoes for a while, you cease to notice them (until questions like this draw your attention back to them)?
The shoes provide constant stimulation. Sensory adaptation allows us to focus on changing stimuli.
What is emerging adulthood?
The transition from adolescence to adulthood is now taking longer. Emerging adulthood is the period from age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many young people are not yet fully independent. But observers note that this stage is found mostly in today's Western cultures.
a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
What does theory of mind have to do with autism spectrum disorder?
Theory of mind focuses on our ability to understand our own and others' mental states. Those with autism spectrum disorder struggle with this ability.
What is the value, and what are the dangers of labeling individuals with disorders?
Therapists and others use disorder labels to communicate with one another using a common language, and to share concepts during research. Clients may benefit from knowing that they are not the only ones with these symptoms. The dangers of labeling people are that (1) people may begin to act as they have been labeled, and (2) the labels can trigger assumptions that will change our behavior toward those we label.
How do contemporary psychologists view Freud's psychoanalysis?
They give Freud credit for drawing attention to the vast unconscious, to the struggle to cope with our sexuality, to the conflict between biological impulses and social restraints, and for some forms of defense mechanisms (false consensus effect/projection; reaction formation) and unconscious terror-management defenses. But his concept of repression, and his view of the unconscious as a collection of repressed and unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories, cannot survive scientific scrutiny. Freud offered after-the-fact explanations, which are hard to test scientifically. Research does not support many of Freud's specific ideas, such as the view that development is fixed in childhood. (We now know it is lifelong.)
What is social facilitation and why is it more likely to occur with a well-learned task?
This improved performance in the presence of others is most likely to occur with a well-learned task, because the added arousal caused by an audience tends to strengthen the most likely response. This also predicts poorer performance on a difficult task in others' presence.
What is cognitive-behavioral therapy, and what sorts of problems does this therapy best address?
This integrative therapy helps people change self-defeating thinking and behavior. It has been shown to be effective for those with anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depressive disorders, bipolar disorder, and eating disorders.
Lee is an 8-month-old infant who is already walking and even running around his house. What would his pediatrician likely say to Lee's parents?
This is actually rare as most babies do not start walking until around their first birthday.
How did humanistic psychology provide a fresh perspective?
This movement sought to turn psychology's attention away from drives and conflicts and toward our growth potential, with a focus on the way healthy people strive for self-determination and self-realization, which was in contrast to Freudian theory and strict behaviorism.
If several well-publicized murders are committed by members of a particular group, we may tend to react with fear and suspicion toward all members of that group. What psychological principle can help explain this reaction?
This reaction could occur because we tend to overgeneralize from vivid memorable cases
What are the goals and techniques of psychoanalysis, and how have they been adapted in psychodynamic therapy?
Through psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud tried to give people self-insight and relief from their disorders by bringing anxiety-laden feelings and thoughts into conscious awareness. Psychoanalytic techniques included using free association and interpretation of instances of resistance and transference. Psychodynamic therapy has been influenced by traditional psychoanalysis but differs from it in many ways, including the lack of belief in id, ego, and superego. This contemporary therapy is briefer, less expensive, and more focused on helping the client find relief from current symptoms. Psychodynamic therapists help clients understand how past relationships create themes that may be acted out in present relationships. Interpersonal therapy is a brief 12- to 16-session form of psychodynamic therapy that has been effective in treating depression.
What does it mean to be empathic? How about self-actualized? Which humanistic psychologists used these terms?
To be empathic is to share and mirror another person's feelings. Carl Rogers believed that people nurture growth in others by being empathic. Abraham Maslow proposed that self-actualization is the motivation to fulfill one's potential, and one of the ultimate psychological needs (the other is self-transcendence).
Which elements of traditional psychoanalysis have modern-day psychodynamic theorists and therapists retained, and which elements have they mostly left behind?
Today's psychodynamic theorists and therapists still rely on the interviewing techniques that Freud used, and they still tend to focus on childhood experiences and attachments, unresolved conflicts, and unconscious influences. However, they are not likely to dwell on fixation at any psychosexual stage, or the idea that resolution of sexual issues is the basis of our personality.
Do genes influence schizophrenia? What factors may be early warning signs of schizophrenia in children?
Twin and adoption studies indicate that the predisposition to schizophrenia is inherited. Multiple genes probably interact to produce schizophrenia. No environmental causes invariably produce schizophrenia, but environmental events (such as prenatal viruses or maternal stress) may "turn on" genes for this disorder in those who are predisposed to it. Possible early warning signs of later development of schizophrenia include both biological factors (a mother with severe and long-lasting schizophrenia; oxygen deprivation and low weight at birth; separation from parents; short attention span and poor muscle coordination) and psychological factors (disruptive or withdrawn behavior; emotional unpredictability; poor peer relations and solo play).
states that two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (not a constant amount) to be perceived as different.
Weber's law
Researchers have found that low self-esteem tends to be linked with life problems. How should this link be interpreted? a) life problems cause low self-esteem b) the answer isn't clear because the link is correlational and does not indicate cause and effect c) low self-esteem leads to life problems d) beaus of the self-serving bias, we must assume that external factors cause low self-esteem
b) the answer isn't clear because the link is correlational and does not indicate cause and effect
according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.
basic trust
Children - unlock duckings -do not imprint. However, they do ____________________.
become attached to what they've known
Discrimination is a negative ___________, whereas prejudice is a negative ___________.
behavior; attitude
Although our personality traits may be both stable and potent, the consistency of our specific __________ from one situation to the next is another matter.
behaviors
Research reveals ________, ________, and ________ influences on aggressive behavior
biologica, psychological, and social-cultural
There is evidence that behavior is the result of the interplay between external and internal influences, and that behavior is the product of biology, social experience, and unconscious thought processes. This evidence suggests that personality should be studied from a _____ approach.
biopsychosocial
Today's psychological science views individuals as __________ organisms.
biopsychosocial
person alternates between depression and overexcited hyperactivity
bipolar disorder (manic-depressive disorder)
In a psychology class debate on the social-cognitive perspective, students need to take the opposing view and rebut its positive aspects. Which of the following criticisms of the social-cognitive perspective can they cite? a) This perspective has not built on psychological research on learning and cognition. b) This perspective focuses too much on the personality traits and fails to consider the situation. c) People do not act with predictable consistency and behavior varies from one situation to the next. d) This perspective focuses too much on the situation and fails to appreciate a person's inner traits.
d) This perspective focuses too much on the situation and fails to appreciate a person's inner traits.
Evidence of a biochemical influence on aggression is the finding that a) aggressive behavior varies widely from culture to culture b) animals can be bred for aggressiveness c) stimulation of an area of the brain's limbic system produces aggressive behavior d) a higher-than-average level of the hormone testosterone is associated with violent behavior in males
d) a higher-than-average level of the hormone testosterone is associated with violent behavior in males
Studies show that __________ therapy is the most effective treatment for most psychological disorders. a) behavior b) humanistic c) psychodynamic d) no one type of
d) no one type of
After vigorous exercise, you meet an attractive person, and you are suddenly seized by romantic feelings for that person. This response supports the two-factor theory of emotion, which assumes that emotions, such as passionate love, consist of physical arousal plus a) a reward b) proximity c) companionate love d) our interpretation of that arousal
d) or interpretation of that arousal
People often commit the fundamental attribution error, especially when they explain a) why someone's attitude is ever-changing b) animal pack behavior c) the behavior of close friends d) the behavior of strangers who have been observed in only one time of situation
d) the behavior of strangers who have been observed in only one time of situation
According to psychologists, memory refers to all of the following measures of retention EXCEPT: a. relearning information b. storage of information c. retrieval of information d. categorizing information
d. categorizing information
Which of the following ESP phenomena is supported by solid, replicable scientific evidence? a. telepathy b. clairvoyance c. precognition d. none
d. none
Encoding is to _____________ as storage is to _____________.
data input into a computer; data saved on the hard drive
Children with autism spectrum disorder had difficulty understand that Sally's state of mind differed from their own - that Sally, not knowing the ball had been moved would return to the red cupboard. (15.2) ________ children with ________ parents and minimal communication opportunities have had similar difficulty inferring others' states of mind.
deaf children with hearing parents
According to Freud, repression underlies all the other other __________.
defense mechanisms
in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
defense mechanisms
__________ self-esteem correlates with aggressive and antisocial behavior
defensive
In a group situation that fosters arousal and anonymity, a person sometimes loses self-consciousness and self-control. This phenomenon is called __________.
deindividuation
The process of losing self-awareness and self-restraint, called __________, often occurs when group participation makes people both aroused and anonymous.
deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that voter arousal and anonymity
deindividuation
trait are associated with becoming more socially responsible and productive
delayed gratification
All our senses ________ the neural information to our brain.
deliver
Cognitive therapy has been especially effective in treating
depression
As teens mature, their frontal lobes also continue to develop. The growth of ________, the fatty tissue that forms around axons and speeds neurotransmission, enables better communication with other brain regions
myelin
excessive self-love and self-absorption
narcissism
Matt regularly buckles his seatbelt simply because it turns off the car's irritating warning buzzer. This best illustrates the value of:
negative reinforcement
Your dog is barking so loudly that it's making your ears ring. You clap your hands, the dog stops barking, your ears stop ringing, and you think to yourself, "I'll have to do that when he barks again." The end of the barking was for you a __________.
negative reinforcer
A person with schizophrenia who has __________ (positive/negative) symptoms may have an expressionless face and toneless voice. These symptoms are most common with __________ (chronic /acute) schizophrenia and are not likely to respond to drug therapy. Those with __________ (positive/negative) symptoms are likely to experience delusions and to be diagnosed with __________ (chronic /acute) schizophrenia, which is much more likely to respond to drug therapy.
negative; chronic; positive; acute
On the day you were born, you had most of the brain cells you would ver have. However, your ____________________ was immature.
nervous system
Frequently, we conform to avoid rejection or to gain social approval. In such cases, we are spending to ____________.
normative social influence
While Wendy disagrees with her boss, she laughs at her joke anyway to gain her approval. Wendy's behavior illustrates:
normative social influence
influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
normative social influence
Maria has been invited to a new church by one of her closest friends. When she first attends, everyone seems so nice and friendly. She begins attending regularly. After a few weeks, sexual activity is discussed during one of the lectures where the women are told that they are forbidden to resist the sexual advances of any of the men associated with the church. Maria looks around and sees several women nodding their head in agreement but Maria feels extremely uncomfortable. At what point is Maria most likely to resist this teaching?
now, since it was first brought up
Today's researchers believe __________ unfolds gradually and they see development as more continuous that Piaget did.
object permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.
object permanence
In contrast to the subjectivity of most projective tests, personality inventories are scored __________.
objectively
Studies show that parents of delinquent young people tend to use beating to enforce discipline. This suggests that aggression can be learned though __________.
observation of aggressive models
Children learn many social behaviors by imitating parents and other models. This type of learning is called __________.
observational learning
Triplett's claim - of strengthened performance in others' presence - is called social facilitation. But on tougher tasks (learning nonsense syllables or solving complex multiplication problems), people perform worse when ____________.
observers or others working on the task are present
Social-cognitive theorists believe we learn many of our behaviors either thought conditioning or by ____________ others.
observing and imitating others
