American Government 310L: Exam One!

ii. Three waves of interest group formation: (a step function) society changes.

- Post Civil War (1865): very few national organizations, life was local, "social organization of the U.S. was one of "island communities" with few links between them... but then railroads came into the picture. 2 decade after war—national agriculture associations - Grange and trade unions - Knights of labor and the American Federation of Labor. - Progressive Era (1890-1917): U.S. Chamber of Commerce, the National Association of manufacturers, and the American Farm Bureau Federation. Intellectuals and activists founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) (black equality), conservationist founded the National Audubon Society - Post 1960s: by far the largest and most diverse. Protests, and riots. Excitement in politics. 1,000's of econ. Groups formed, but they were more narrowly based. Specialized associations like the American Soybean Association and others joined the more general agriculture associations. This too happened in commercial and manufacturing sectors. Older "government interest groups" were joined by new specialized groups EX: the National Association of Stat and Provincial Lotteries. - to 1970s: iii. Some groups advocate a particular political ideology. EX: Liberal groups like the National Organization for Women (NOW, a feminist group) & People for American Ways

b. Voter qualifications

- Set by states unless there is federal regulation - At first, property, race, gender, religion, taxation c. 15th Amendment (1870): extended the right to vote to black makes. Didn't get the right to vote in every state until the 1960's with the Voting Rights Act 1965 and Reconstruction - But followed by poll tax, literacy test, and white primary d. Suffrage, and Suffrage Movement - Wyoming= first state to allow women to vote in 1869 and 19th Amendment in 1920- granting women the right to vote. - Compare to other nations (France, 1945) e. Other franchise expansions - 23rd Amendment 1961 (DC receives Electoral College vote): granted residents of the District of Colombia the right to vote for president electors. - 26th 1971 (lowered voting age to 18 from 21) f. Restrictions today: 1/8th of the black male voting agae population is ineligible to vote, and proportion rises to 1/3 in some states.

f. Turnout comparisons can be misleading

-For instance, must factor in those not allowed to vote (non-citizens, some felons) and the requirement of voter registration - We vote usually on a Tuesday, Other nations: vote on weekend or holiday, and voting is sometimes mandatory, they can be subject to fines. Compulsory Voting: many countries force citizens to vote by imposing fines or other penalties on those who abstain.

c. Incentives: Three catagories-

1. Solidary: join a group for social reasons. They wish to associate with particular group. EX: Greek organizations. Non-political. 2. Material: economic rather than social. Join because membership confers tangible benefits. Play a role in some political groups. Material benefits. 3. Purposive: ppl. Are committed to and wish to advance the groups political goals. They want to "save the whales," or "end abortion."

b. Dillon's rule

: legal doctrine that local governments are mere creatures of the state. State leg. Can alter state boundaries of any local Gov. , expand or narrow its power, or abolish it altogether.

g. Political parties

= mobilizing chief... US has lower party mobilization since the 19th century. i. Progressive reforms undercut the mobilizing resources from the political parties ii. Personal registration system discouraged voter fraud iii. Primary elections weakened the parties control of nominations for office iv. Civil service reforms took away much of the patronage that parties once used to buy loyalty. v. Parties were generally stronger and more active elsewhere than here. h. "SES model" often does not apply abroad i. Differing electoral systems (PR) j. Also, US has higher non-electoral participation k. Declining turnout a global phenomenon

I. Democracy in America: The Big Picture

A. Democracy vs. dictatorship, aristocracy/oligarchy= Gov. by elite few 1. Dictatorship- Gov. by one. Lord Acton: "Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely" = true. a) Ex: Henry 8th started off as a nice man, then gained power, turned corrupt. 2. aristocracy/oligarchy= Gov. by elite few 3. Democracy: Gov. by the people 4. Direct- people directly vote for what they want, no middlemen vs. representative democracy- elect people to vote on behalf of a group. 5. Prospective (delegate) - try to think of it as close as possible to a direct democracy, they are really close to us so we elect them, and they go off and do exactly what they said they would do. When the reps. Feel like they are required to do exactly what they said they would. Always looking to the future, to the promises that they make. We evaluate them on if they do what they said they would. Requires a lot more effort on out part vs. retrospective (trustee) models of democracy- more general mandate, and trust, not specific, no research of the person. Vague connection.

II. Key Theme in The New American Democracy... The importance of Elections

A. Frequency of elections in America: a lot of them. 1. Why so many? So that the representatives stay connected to the people. Making them come back every so often and ask the people to keep their jobs. B. Large number of elected officials: 1. State, and local officials. ½ mill. Elected officials. Most out of local offices... school boards, police, city counsel. C. Primary and general elections: 1. Always a topic, cause they are always going on. D. Direct democracy features ( in some states): initiative: the initiative is a process that enables citizens to bypass their state legislature by placing proposed statutes and, in some states, constitutional amendments on the ballot. referendum: is a general term which refers to a measure that appears on the ballot. and recall:is a procedure that allows citizens to remove and replace a public official before the end of a term of office.

IV. Some "challenges" to our democracy: (The Power of the Few) things shifting power from majorities to specific groups (5)

A. Low trust, evaluating Government: citizens feel uneasy, popular evaluations soon turn sour as new problems arise, old ones resist resolution, and news media highlight failures more than successes. Only when comparing the U.S. to other countries do we see all its faults. B. Low voter participation: One vote doesn't count much, but collectively the vote is an important political resource. 1. Primary elections: a) lower voter turnout than general elections. They choose the reps. Who will be in the election. C. Campaign resources: 1. require hired help, a small minorities engage in political participation- giving money, attending campaign rallies. So candidates under pressure usually pay more attention to the few than the many. D. Uninformed citizens: 1. Most American people pay a little attention to political info. Politics often seem remote from people's everyday interests and concerns, and political controversies often complicated and confusing. 2. With people paying little attention to politics, this allows frequent opportunities to manipulate public opinion and elections, resulting with voters feeling ill-equipped to have a strong opinion. E. Single issue voters: 1. Voters who care so deeply about some particular issue that their votes are determined by a candidate's position on this one issue. Many interest groups try to convince candidates that their issue fits the profile... their issue speaks to thousands backing the.

V. Should American Democracy be reformed?: Majorities influence is greatest when they feel those in power have done a bad job.

A. Most proposals for major reforms encourage further moves away from representation toward an even more direct democracy. (Comes with plusses- improvements for women, minorities, racially mixed pres., but May not be a good thing- more primaries, initiative, referenda and recalls might only make officeholders even less reflective about certain issues, inc. in open public meetings or electronic town halls may only make Gov. by public opinion even more pervasive.) 1. Popular influence- may be part of problem not solution, can lead to policy deadlock (Each public official answers to a somewhat different constituency.)—America is a diverse country, so there are different opinions. It is impossible to reach decisions without resolving differences generated by these constituencies. Political leaders must either persuade their opponents or bargain for their support.

III. The Permanent Campaign: (there is always an election coming up) (7)

A. Separation of elections- Not all elections are held on the same day. They used to be but not anymore. This also means that elections are happening all the time. B. Decline of traditional party organizations- 1. Rep.= conservative, favoring small government, lower taxing, less regulation of business activity, and greater support for traditional family values. 2. Dem.= liberal, favoring strong government, extensive social programs, more regulation, and legal accommodation for alternative lifestyles. 3. Today's parties used don't deliver votes for all candidates running under label, so elected officials must build individual organizations and develop personal constituencies to achieve election and reelection. THUS: those in office must campaign constantly to maintain their position. C. Spread of primary elections- Didn't become a significant part of presidential nominating until after WWII. 1. They shorten the time between one election and the next. 2. Primaries aren't limited to the white house. House of Rep. face primaries. D. Rise of mass communications- 1. Candidates work constantly to get their names in papers, on the computer, and on TV. 2. Cheap phone rates, email, and video sharing sites give citizens and politicians more opportunities to communicate 3. TV commercials allows communication between audience and candidate. EX: C-SPAN allows citizens to watch congressional debates. 4. Radio talk-shows, Youtube, allows for people to hear candidates opinions. 5. Consequence= no line between public and private life. Any move politician makes could end up on TV or internet. Reporters and candidates can ask politicians any question imaginable... financial and medical records treated as public knowledge. This is known as "getting to know the candidate" but really its all about attracting more TV viewers, selling more papers. E. Profusion of interest groups- 1. Interest Groups= those who purport to represent their members and others with similar opinions and common interests that often provide a basis for political action. Range from business associations and trade unions to environmentalist groups and pro-choice and anti-abortion groups. Today those groups are supplemented by many newer groups that either spin-offs of social movements... a) Computer technology has enabled interest groups to mobilize resulting in a greater impact on gov. policy. 2. They can pressure candidates running, as well as those who are already elected. F. Proliferation of Polls- Many polls, and media coverage of polls, the media have made public opinion a much more important part of their coverage both by sponsoring polls and by incessant reporting of polling results. 1. Polls have limitations, but they undoubtedly seem more precise and scientific than old-fashioned guessing. Makes them difficult to ignore. G. Escalating cost of campaigns- the quest of money is continuous. Right after someone is elected they begin to raise money for the next election. Elections are so expensive.. in the House and in the Senate.

III. International Comparisons of Voter Turnout:

America in Comparative Perspective a. Why do Americans vote at a lower level than citizens in other countries? b. International comparisons: procedures for calculating turnout differ from country to country. These differences lower American turnout figures somewhat. c. Number of people voting for president/ Number of people in the voting-age population d. Undervotes: ballots that indicate no choice for an office, whether because the voter abstained or because the voter's intention could not be determined. Vs. Overvote: ballots that have more than one choice for office, whether because voters cast a ballot for more than one candidate or wrote in a name as well as making a mark.

d. Marble-cake federalism:

Congressional power to tax and spend, on the other hand, provides the constitutional basis for what has become known as, ___________-__________ ______________ : theory that all levels of Gov. can work together to solve common problems. Also known as cooperative federalism.

e. Spending clause:

Constitutional provision that gives congress the power to collect taxes to provide for the general welfare. i. "general welfare": which provides that the governing body empowered by the document may enact laws to promote the general welfare of the people, sometimes worded as the public welfare. ii. Helvering v. Davis (1937): "discretion belongs to Congress unless the choice is clearly wrong". was a decision by the United States Supreme Court, which held that Social Security was constitutionally permissible as an exercise of the federal power to spend for the general welfare, and did not contravene the 10th Amendment.

1st party system (Jeffersonian system): 1790s to 1824:

i. Federalists vs. Republicans, 1790s-1810s Federalists, led by Hamilton and Adams, wanted a powerful national government to push for aggressive economic development Republicans, led by Jefferson and Madison, wanted a small national government to leave the citizens mostly free of taxation or government interference Federalists controlled government through 1790s, Republicans dominated after 1800; Federalists disintegrated as a national party after War of 1812 ii. By 1816 United states = one-party nation. "Era of good feeling" - 1824

II. Forming and Maintaining Interest Groups

a. An issue is that Many people just don't join or support associations whose interest they share. b. Why join?: keep in mind interest groups require resources, incentive to so do- expected benefits- justifying the investment,

f. Unfunded mandates:

Federal regulations that impose burdens on state and local governments without appropriating enough money to cover costs. They are not "direct orders" that states must follow, but instead are stipulations that accompany categorical grants from the fed. Gov.

ii. "Interstate" vs. "Intrastate" commerce:

If you perform trade, traffic, or transportation exclusively in your business's domicile state, this is considered intrastate commerce. If your trade, traffic, or transportation is between a place in a state and a place outside of such state (including a place outside of the United States); between two places in a state through another state or a place outside of the United States; or between two places in a state as part of trade, traffic, or transportation originating or terminating outside the state or the United States, this is considered interstate commerce.

The Virginia Plan:

Prepared by James Madison. 3 important decisions at the beginning of the convention: 1) Hold discussions behind closed doors. 2) Write an entirely new constitution. 3) Use the Virginia plan as the basis for initial discussions. (Favored by Larger states). i. Proposed a two chamber Congress. 1) lower= House of Rep. elected by voters, 2) upper= Senate, nominated by state leg. & elected by lower house. ii. Representation in Congress would change. The number of both reps. And senators would depend on a states population. iii. The new congress could legislate on all matters that affected the harmony of the U.S. and could negate all laws passed by the several states. Could use force to make sure States are doing their duties. iv. President chosen by Congress. Supreme court would have the authority to resolve disputes among people from diff. states.

3rd party system (Civil War, Reconstruction, and Industrialization): 1860 to 1892

i. Democrats vs. Republicans, 1850s-1890s ii. Sectional dispute over slavery led to collapse of Second Party System by 1850s iii. Whig Party collapsed, largely replaced in the North by the antislavery Republican Party after 1854 iv. Democrats became mainly a proslavery regional party based in the South v. Republican Abraham Lincoln's victory in 1860 election led to Civil War vi. Republicans mostly dominated national politics in decades after Civil War vii. Parties viewed as machines: a highly organized party under the control of a boss and based on patronage and control of government activities. Machines were common in many cities in the late 19th and early20th centuries.

VI. Measuring Public Opinion: Low Levels of Factual Information

Presidential approval question: "Do you approve or disapprove of the way [presidents name] is handling his job as president? - The Gallup organization was the first to ask this question, did so 15 times between 1950's and 1960's. a. Evaluating polling as a means of measuring public opinion. b. Sampling Error: the chance variation that arises in public opinion surveys as a result of using representative, but small, sample to estimate the characteristics of a larger population. Makes people suspicious about polls c. Selection Bias: distortion caused when a sampling method systematically includes or excludes people with certain attitudes from the sample. The trait that unites most sampling methods. Survey's that fail to guard against it, usually offer nothing of value. d. Focus Groups: small groups of people brought together to talk about issues or candidates at length and in depths. These groups are too small to provide good estimates of public opinion, but they are useful for testing the appeal of ads, terms, slogans, symbols, and so forth. e. Measurement Error: the error that arises from attempting to measure something as subjective as opinion. Opinions are tangible. - People tend to give more consistent answers to questions that allow graduated responses, (agree strongly, agree somewhat, neither agree nor disagree... etc.) People use "don't know," or "not sure." Opinions are hard to pin down when person doesn't know the issue. i. The wording of survey questions may be the most important source of measurement error. Peoples answers are based on what they think the question is asking. ii. Questions may: 1) confuse respondents EX: Holocaust poll, could be fake the Roper poll was considered a serious error due to the question. (was a double negative) 2) prompt respondents to think about an issue in a certain way EX: The welfare policy Mystery "welfare" and "assistance to the poor." 3) oversimplify complex social issues EX: Public opinion on Abortion, Roe vs. wade. These questions predispose people to answer in one direction. f. Canvassing vs. polling g. Literary Digest episode - Question wording and order - Tone of wording - Familiarity with issue - Open ended vs. close ended

The New Jersey Plan:

Supported by small states. i. Separated powers into 3 branches. Kept one-chamber of congress- each state had a single vote. ii. More limited national Gov. it did not grant Congress general legislative power, instead gave them specific powers= levying taxes on imported goods, compelling states to pay their share of taxes, & regulating trade and commerce with foreign nations and among the states. iii. Judicial branch could hear only specific types of cases, such as those involving treaties or foreigners. iv. Still gave national Gov. more power than they had in the Articles of Confed.

VI. Articles of Confederation (1781-1789) =

The first basic governing document of the U.S. and forerunner of the Constitution. Proved increasingly unworkable. a. No division of powers, Congress was granted all national powers. b. But it wasn't "all-powerful" it relied on cooperation from all states, if it wanted to so anything. c. Could declare war, but could raise an army only by requesting states provide soldiers. Could raise revenues, but it had to rely on voluntary contributions from the states rather then on a direct tax on citizens. Could coin money, but it could not prevent states from also doing so. (leaving the country with many diff. currencies.) could not prevent states from interfering with interstate commerce. Followed by... couldn't ask the states for contribution. big problem was that states could tax other states. Wasn't beneficial, and made the system weak. d. Congress: Congress members were elected annually by state leg. Each state had delegates, 9 out of 13 states had to agree before they could take action. No president. No federal judges. National Gov. = weak!! Couldn't tax e. they couldn't felt they could figure it out without the Gov.'s help. Gov. asked the states to create a central army, had to ask states, Virginia responded. Couldn't make a military to defend themselves. f. Needed 3/4th of the state to agree on things g. Problems became to arise. VII. Shays' rebellion (1786): this conflict in Massachusetts caused many to criticize the Articles of Confederation and admit the weak central government was not working; uprising led by Daniel Shays in an effort to prevent courts from foreclosing on the farms of those who could not pay the taxes. VIII. Annapolis Convention (1786): Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and 10 other met to discuss reforms. But there were only 5 states represented, so they would purpose major constitutional changes. a. Met in Philadelphia b. Wanted to make it a secret, not let everyone know c. States sent delegates, besides Rhode Island. Some state delegates who were chosen to go, didn't go because they were scared of the country being ruined by tyranny. d. This group met later during the Constitutional Convention.

iv. Yet US v. Lopez (1995):

a case involving a young man with no criminal record who brought a .38 caliber handgun (and five bullets) to school, Congress didn't have the power to enact this law. States alone had authority to govern this type of activity.

d. Confederation:

a form of Gov. in which subunits retain all of their sovereignty, delegating only a few specific tasks to the central government. e. When Supreme Courts declare law unconstitutional, its decisions often have the reverse effect—expanding national power at the expense of state sovereignty.

iv. Single- issue group:

a interest group narrowly focused to influence policy on a single issue. EX: NARAL (pro-choice group) & Operation Rescue (pro-life group) v. Almost any group can become involved in politics. vi. Interest groups produced during this generation, were from change in politics and technology.

e. Civic Republicanism:

a political philosophy that emphasizes the obligation of citizens to act virtuously in pursuit of the common good. i. Emphasis on obligations of individuals to act virtuously in pursuit of the welfare of the community relative to the rights of the individual. Called "communitarian". ii. JFK: "Ask not what your country can do for you..." iii. Liberal traditions could only go so far. Didn't extend to Indians who had their houses destroyed, or African Americans until after the civil war. As well as not till women till way later, and still not to homosexuals.

b. Pluralism:

a school of thought holding that politics is the clash of groups that represent all important interests in society and that check and balance each other. Believe in the play of numerous interests. Out of fashion today. i. Critics: have many problems with it. 1. unrepresentativeness of the interest group universe. 2. The interest of the whole nation is not equal to the sum of the interests parts 3. A politics dominated by interests groups distorts political discussion and the political process. Because groups reinforce extremism and undercut comderation.

I. Interest Groups in the U.S. :

a. "organizations or associations of people with common interest that participate in politics on behalf of their members." (Fiorina et al.) b. These associations allow citizens to participate indirectly in politics.

Bill of Rights: came about due to the Virginia Assembly

a. 1. Religion and free speech b. 2. Right to bear arms c. 3. Quartering of soldiers d. 4. Warrant for searches and seizures e. 5. Criminal justice rights (e.g. double jeopardy) f. 6. Speedy trial, legal representation, witnesses g. 7. Trial by jury h. 8. No cruel or unusual punishment i. 9. Enumerated rights do not preclude other rights j. 10. Powers not to U.S. are reserved to states/people

IX. Constitutional Convention (1787)

a. Agreed they wanted to have a stronger government. b. They entirely changed the form of government they had. Everything didn't need to me unanimous, they only needed 9 states to agree. It wasn't exactly legally valid. c. Could have been a big failure.

XII. The Anti-Federalist- Federalist Debate

a. Anti-Federalists: attacked Const. for laying groundwork for a national tyranny. Shift from states to national Gov. took power from ppl. b. Federalists: (Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay) wrote The Federalists Papers- tyranny could come from outside or inside the country, external danger= Europe that would divide the new nation so that sections could be controlled. The Const. would help prevent that with a strong national Gov. that would help defend them. c. Checks and Balances: precautions against tyranny, a division of Gov. power among separate institutions, giving each the power to block the actions of the other. d. Amendments to the Constitution: simplest and most frequent way= 2/3rds vote in both houses of Congress, and then ratification by three-quarters of the state legislatures. Amendments are hard to get ratified.

III. Fundamental American beliefs

a. Classical Liberalism: elevates and empowers the individual as opposed to religious, hereditary, governmental, or other forms of authority. Sought to free individuals from a society structured by heredity and religious privilege and to empower them. b. Modern-day conservatives: champion keeping government out of economic decisions... Modern-day Liberals: champion keeping Gov. out of moral decisions, both have root in "liberal" philosophy i. Focus on individual rather than group—gave liberal thinkers a unique perspective on society and Gov. c. John Locke: political principles i. Individuals have basic rights,-life, liberty, and property- that precede the existence of government which they can't violate. ii. Individuals are equal under law; no distinction based on heredity or religion. iii. To safeguard rights, Gov. must be limited. iv. Gov. is instrumental—not an ends to itself but a means to the end of ensuring people's rights. v. When Gov. threatens rights or fails to protect citizens, it can be replaced.

VII. Is Low turnout a problem?

a. Conservative view: Low U.S. turnout levels are reassuring—a sign of political health, not disease. High turnout may indicate tension or conflict, belief loosing is not acceptable. b. Elitist view: High turnout may bring lost of uninformed voters to the polls. Well who cares? If people don't want to vote, why do we want them to? Let them not go. Why bring these sleep walkers to the poll, if they don't know their info, or have no interest? Keep them away. c. Cynical view: Higher turnouts= harmful. The real decision in U.S are made behind the scenes by powerful elites. Election= symbolic. Pick a guy, they are all the same. d. Unconcerned view: moderate levels of participation means the U.S. is okay. If people are ALL participating would mean that there is something wrong in the U.S., that something needs to change. - High turnout may even indicate social turmoil e. Statistical view: if everyone voted would it matter? No, even 100% voting would rarely matter. There is a much closer split between voting, and if everyone voted people would cancel each other out. f. Civic and educational view: there are benefits of voting that go beyond whether they matter statistically. By voting we are learning to be better citizens and just my being involved learn more about the candidates. Low voter turnout is a decline in our civic duty. Makes us more educated, and better citizens.

II. Americans Political Culture

a. Core beliefs i. Different from everyday political opinions ii. "broad orientation toward how government should and should not operate, creating a set of expectations about how it should treat its citizens and how it should treat others" iii. Durable, a long-lasting tradition, in contrast to political preferences, which are more temporary iv. Layer cake vs. marble cake federalism

III. The Colonial Experience with Democracy

a. Divine Right vs. Mayflower Compact- King James claimed the territory by divine right, a doctrine stating that God selects the sovereign for the people. The pilgrims didn't agree with the King and believed that people should decide both religious and political matters for themselves. i. Mayflower Compact- the first document in colonial A<Erica in which the people gave their express consent to be governed. Believed in a principle that government resulted from the people's consent was thus established from the very beginning of colonial settlement. b. Proprietary: how colonies were organized, governed by a prominent English noble (the proprietor) or by a company. Found almost exclusively for economic gain EX: Jamestown. vs. royal colonies: Run by the king. i. Both colony types divided power between governor (appointed by the proprietor or the king) and two-chamber legislature. 1) The colonial assembly: lower leg. Chamber elected by male property owners in a colony. 2) The colonial council: upper leg. Chamber whose members were appointed by Brit. Officials upon the recommendation of the Governor. ii. The assemblies had the power to levy taxes. As time went on the colonial council lost prestige and became more as an advisory body. iii. Governor: could veto any measure passed by the leg. , but usually just utilized their patronage power: appointment of individuals to public office in exchange for their political support. Widely practiced in the 18th and 19th centuries and continues in the present. iv. Voting qualifications: Excluded women, slaves, and indentured servants. White males had to meet qualifications. EX: in Virginia, had to own 25 acres and a house.

IV. Political Participation: Declining Turnout

a. Education is the single strongest predictor of turnout. Our turnout should have risen, not declined.

XIII. The Federalism Debate: It's New but Old

a. Federalism: divides sovereignty- fundamental authority- between at least two different levels. Lies in between Confederations and Unitary system. Has helped the U.S. adapt to other cultural and economic conditions. Each fundamental Gov. must have: 1) Its own set of elected officials. 2) Its own capacity to raise revenues by means of taxation. 3) Independent authority to pass laws regulating the lives of its citizens.

I. Political Parties

a. George Washington: "it agitates the community with ill-founded jealousies and false alarms, kindles the animosity of one part against another, foments occasional riots and insurrection." b. Definition: groups of like-minded people who band together in an attempt to take control of government. They represent the primary connection between ordinary citizens and the public officials they elect.

VI. Who votes and Who Doesn't? : Does Declining Turnout Matter?

a. Highly educated people= more likely to vote. b. Income also matters- wealthy= more likely to vote. c. Turnout increases with age d. Women used to vote less, but now they vote more, and help close the generation gap.

IV. Public Opinion - More Concepts

a. Ideologically: (a system of beliefs in which one or more organizing principles connect the individual's views on a wide range of particular issues.) structured vs. unstructured opinions b. Ideology as social vs. logical construction c. Political elites: (Activists and officeholders who have well-structured ideologies that bind together their positions on different policy issue.) vs. mass publics: ordinary people for whom politics is peripheral concern. Their views on specific issues do not cluster together like those of elites, nor do their evaluations of party leaders or political groups d. Given that people often have not thought about issues, and given that most of them do not think ideologically, it is not surprising that the public sometimes send contradictory messages. e. Ignorance explains some of the contradictions. f. Inconsistent public opinion g. Electoral mandates: An electoral mandate is the perception that the voters strongly support the president's character and policies. It can be a powerful symbol in politics. h. General principles vs. their specific application i. Opinion intensity j. Single-issue voters k. Collective vs. individual-level coherence V. More on Polling a. Types of polls -Regular, benchmark, tracking, panel, push, and internet polls -Focus groups b. Goals of polls -Discern the truth or... -Promote candidate or issue

II. Obstacles and Encouragement to Voting

a. Individual motivations - Some people use cost-benefit analysis: if one is paid by the hour, and you take off time to vote you lose $$, or you may lose time that you could be doing your work. - For instance, bad weather reduces turnout - the possibility that your vote might swing an election - Psychological benefit of voting (such as sense of duty): one receives psychological benefits regardless of the closeness of an election - In past, people were sometimes bribed to vote: "walking-around money" b. Voter (Outside) mobilization: efforts of parties, groups, and activists to encourage their supporters to turn out for elections. - Efforts of parties, groups, and activists - This assistance reduces the costs of voting -- For instance, if party offers you a ride to the polls, you may vote even if it rains. Or babysitters. - Peer pressure and social pressure: find citizens who haven't voted yet and remind them to. -- For example, neighbors or friends ask you to vote

V. Possible Contributing Factors to Declining Turnout

a. Lack of interest: people feel less connected to politics, and feel they can't actually make a difference. Their votes don't really matter. b. Declining political competition (incumbency advantage): if there is real competition than people will feel more interested, but competition has been lacking. c. The "air war": using the internet to replaces the "ground war": face-to-face campaigning people to vote. d. Generational effects: young people. May stay out of politics because they have less desire to impose their will on others. e. Declining social connectedness: if people aren't connected to their society then they don't feel the need to vote or add their opinion/ballot to the community or election. f. Declining party mobilization (including machines and patronage)

III. How interest groups influence Government:

a. Lobbying: interest group activists intended to influence directly the decisions that public officials make. Group representatives try to influence those who make governmental decisions.

III. Characteristics of Public Opinion:

a. People don't have time to keep up with politics. b. The general point is that the act of gathering, digesting, and storing information is neither effortless nor free; it is costly. Information cost: the time and mental effort required to absorb and store information, whether from conversations, personal experiences, or the media. This brings them to immediate benefits. c. Issue publics: a group of people particularly affected by, or concerned with, a specific issue. d. Public Affairs Act (1975): 16 % agree, 17% disagreed) which is noteworthy because there was, in fact, no such act. e. When people invent opinions. "nonattitudes" or "doorstep opinions." A measure of prevalence of such doorstop opinions comes from using screen or filter questions in public opinion surveys—phrases or sentences added on at the beginning or end of survey questions in order to exclude those who do not know about an issue or do not have a clear position.

IV. Why a Liberal Political Culture?

a. Potential explanations for "liberal" U.S. political culture i. European "middle class" values: they usually weren't peasants, but weren't rich nobles. Merchants, professionals, and artisans among whom liberal ideas flourished, and carried their political philosophy with them to north America, where they found little to contradict it. The U.S. took form among a while pop. For whom classical liberalism could be taken "self-evident." ii. Movement and geography: had a great deal of land, if they didn't like the conditions, they could pack up and move. iii. Ambitious could succeed: lots of land and a scarcity of labor meant that ambitious individuals could and did succeed. iv. Political socialization: the set of psychological and sociological processes by which families, schools, religious organizations, communities, and other societal units inculcate beliefs and values in their members. Could have pushed immigrants in a direction different from the liberal tradition. v. Government policies create "liberal" ideas vi. Immigration selection effects b. Newer Explanations i. People who immigrated already were—relative to their own societies—usually individualistic.

VII. Example of Poor Question Wording

a. Problematic Roper poll on the Holocaust: - "Does it seem possible, or does it seem impossible to you that the Nazi extermination of the Jews never happened?" - 34% said it might not have happened or were unsure b. Better subsequent Gallup poll: - "Does it seem possible to you that the Nazi extermination of the Jews never happened, or do you feel certain that it happened?" - Now, less than 10% said it did not happen or were unsure

I. Public Opinion and Polling

a. Public Opinion: "the aggregation of people's views about issues, situations, and public figures" (Fiorina et al.), opinions held by private persons which Gov. find it prudent to heed because of elections. b. Can be active or latent "law of anticipated reactions," whereby public opinion influences government even though it does so indirectly and passively.

5th Party System (New Deal): 1932 to 1964

i. Democrats vs. Republicans, 1930s-? ii. President Franklin Roosevelt built new Democratic voter coalition of union workers, southerners, immigrants, Catholics, Jews, urbanites, and intellectuals iii. Republicans became more strongly identified as the party of business and the wealthy iv. Democrats dominated national politics into 1960s v. Republicans gained upper hand in national politics after 1960s; scholars disagree over whether or not to call the Republican-dominated recent period the Sixth Party System

II. Sources of Public Opinion (6)

a. Socialization: the end result of all the processes by which social groups give individuals their beliefs and values. They particularly influence American public opinion. i. Family: ii. School iii. Work iv. Community v. Military service b. Key events (e.g. Great Depression): forced many to focus on the importance of economic issues, after depression lifted, cemented loyalty to the Democratic party. c. Group affiliations (race, gender, churches, geography): church goers- hostility to homosexuality. African Americans- endorse gov. involvement in health care at higher level than whites do. All are probably result from differences in public opinion: different interests, life experiences, forms of socialization, and levels of schooling. d. Life experiences: may differ because of how a community treats different sorts of people. Which can profoundly influence not only how we think about specific parties or policy proposals, but also how we feel about fundamental concepts such as fairness, authority, freedom.. etc. e. Higher education: people are especially tolerant of minority groups and practices, more likely to accept people different from themselves and practice different from their own. Also more likely to view political involvement as a duty rather than a chore, they are associated with a greater sense of political efficacy: belief that the citizens can make a difference in politics by expressing an opinion or acting politically. f. Media: can sway public opinion. Can be presented to the extremes and unrepresentative views.

IV. Start of the American Rev. (1774-1783)

a. Stamp Tax: passed by parliament in 1765, required colonists to purchase a small stamp to be affixed to legal and other documents. Colonists opposed what this was which is known as taxation without representation: levying of taxes by a Gov. in which the people are not represented by their own elected officials. b. Stamp Act: To organize their protest, nine colonies sent delegates to New York. First political organization that brought together leaders from throughout the colonies for a common purpose. Eventually parliament repealed the legislation. (but ignored Americas demand for representation.) c. Tea Tax: replaced the stamp tax with a tax on tea. Colonists= mad. The merging of the Patriots: political group defending colonial American liberties against Brit. Infringements. (John Hancock, & Sam Adams) They organized the Boston Tea Party. Brit. Responded closing a lot of stuff in Boston. (1765, 1773) d. First Continental Congress: the first quasi-governmental institution that spoke for nearly all the colonies. Attended by delegates from 12 of 13 colonies, they called for rights and a boycott on all Brit. Goods. (1774, 1775). i. In response to boycott, Brit. Soldiers marched from Boston Harbor. Warned the patriots, Paul Revere, & "Shot heard round the world." e. Second Continental Congress: delegates from all 13 colonies went to Philadelphia. Political authority that directed the struggle for independence beginning in 1775.

I. The "franchise": right to vote

a. Term for the vote i. "electors" for the House of Rep. were to have the "Qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature." Voters eligibility was left up to the states, which could set any standard they wanted, as long as they applied those same standard to the lower houses of their own state legislature. ii. Expansion and contraction and expansion over time

IV. How influential are Interest Groups?

a. The U.S. Suffers from "Demosclerosis" : a condition in which interest groups clog the veins and arteries of the body politic and thereby prevent action of any kind on many important problems. b. Another claim that Americans have the "Best Congress money can buy". c. Self-canceling: However a lot of what groups do for congress gets canceled out.

X. Constitution: Random facts.

a. There are some things in it that are vague. Congress has a lot of power. For the most part it gave everyone something they wanted. b. What happens when a person doesn't get enough electoral college votes for presidency? - The house chooses who is president. Last time it happened was 1824 c. If one wins the electoral vote, it doesn't mean you win all the popular vote. d. Candidates don't try hard to win the popular vote, they care about the electoral college vote. Nobody cares about the popular vote. e. Who was the first president that won without winning the popular vote? - Rutherford B Hayes.

I. The First National Election

a. Voters chose delegates to ratification conventions in each of the 13 states. If nine of the 13 states approved the proposed constitution, its supporters asserted, it would become the law of the land. b. Federalists- those who wrote and campaigned for ratification of the Constitution. i. Appealed to different concerns of the voters, stressing that the new system and its strengthened central gov. would resolve costly economic conflicts among states and would enable the U.S. to negotiate more effectively with foreign countries. c. Anti-Federalists- appealed to voters' suspicions about the structure of the new system. Claimed that a strong government would lead to suppression of the rights of states and of individual citizens.

e. Voting-age population: vs. Voting eligible population:

all people in the U.S. over the age of 18, including those may not be legally eligible to vote. voting-age population with groups such as felons and noncitizens subtracted. -Americans vote less than Europeans but... -Americans are more proud of political institutions and constitutional history than are Europeans - Poll taxes and Literacy tests = outlawed... Literacy test outlawed by "MotorVoter" bill: if you go get your drivers license, you can register to vote at the same time. - between 1972-2000 voter turnout declined

d. Subgovernment:

alliance of a congressional committee, an executive agency, and a small number of allied interest groups that combine to dominate policy making in some specified policy area. - congressional committee- executive agency and budget support - executive agency- produce outcome favored by interest group - interest group- provide members of cong. Committee with campaign contributions and votes. i. Iron triangles: most extreme cases of subgovernment, in recognition of the difficulty outsiders face who wished to break into the relationship. vs. e. Issue networks: bigger broader and looser collection of interest groups, politicians, bureaucrats, and policy experts who have a particular interest in or responsibility for a policy area. Much more open than sub-Govs. But also less stable

2nd party system (Jacksonian Democracy): 1832 to 1850s

i. Democrats vs. Whigs, 1820s-1850s ii. Competing factions within the old Republican Party split into two new opposing parties during Andrew Jackson's presidency iii. Jackson's faction, now known as Democrats, was rooted in the West and South and favored small national government iv. Jackson's opponents, rooted in the Northeast, called themselves Whigs and favored government action to improve American society v. National nominating convention: quadrennial gathering of party officials and delegates that selects presidential level after 1968 has greatly reduced the importance of the conventions.

V. Declaration of Independence: issued by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776,

asserting the political independence of the U.S. from Great Britain. 7 long years patriots fought the Brits. And in 1783, Britain recognized American independence in the Treaty of Paris. People have Inalienable rights (including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness). Right to change government: people create Gov. so that these fundamental rights may be preserved and protected, and if a Gov. fails to safeguard them, people may and should abolish the old Gov. and create a new one. a. Consent of the governed: If power is divided among more than one person, conflict among them becomes inevitable. People need an all- powerful ruler to avoid conflicts. But individuals are selfish and short sighted. (Thomas Hobbes) b. Separation of power: John Locke rejected that all-powerful ruler was the only stable system, needs a system of Gov. in which different institutions exercise the diff. components of governmental power. i. Legislative power: making of laws, to be exercised by an assembly of two chambers, the upper consisting of the aristocracy and the lower chosen by the people. ii. Executive power: enforcement of law, exercised by a single person. iii. Judicial power: the application of the law to particular situations, exercised by independent judges.

b. Grassroots lobbying:

attempts by groups and associations to influence elected officials indirectly through their constituents. EX: a Washington association communicates with its grassroots supporters, who in turn put pressure on their elected representatives. Scholars believe its grown in importance and traditional lobbying has faded. Grassroots mobilizers Can create an image of popularity. - "grass- tops" interest group makes an ad featuring a prominent local personality, and plays the ad in the members district. VS. i. "astroturf" lobbying: fake grass... EX: twitter account and you pay for fake followers. Make it look like you have more grass support than you actually do.

f. American individualism:

balance strike between individual responsibility on the one hand and Gov. responsibility on the other. i. Americans favor self-reliance more than other citizens of other democracies. (besides Swiss) they believe that hard work and perseverance pays off. ii. Americans are suspicious of governmental power and skeptical about governmental competence, attitudes that reinforce their emphasis on individual responsibility. iii. Belief in individual responsibility isn't closely tied to social and economic circumstances. There is little or no relationship between income and belief in the benefits of hard work. Poor Americans are as likely or more likely to embrace the "work ethic," and are likely to take personal responsibility for their condition. iv. Most powerful illustration of American Individualism lies in the attitudes of minorities.

f. Debate over economic impact

g. Costs not evenly distributed across nation and government levels

b. Commerce Clause:

gives Congress power to regulate commerce among the states. EX: National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 allowed Pres. To regulate most businesses in an effort to restrict "unfair competition."= unconstitutional. i. NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Co. (1937): With the National Labor Relations Act of 1935, Congress determined that labor- management disputes were directly related to the flow of interstate commerce and, thus, could be regulated by the national government. In this case, the National Labor Relations Board charged the Jones & Laughlin Steel Co. with discriminating against employees who were union members. Was the Act consistent with the Commerce Clause? Conclusion : Decision: 5 votes for NLRB, 4 vote(s) against. Legal provision: US Const. Art 1, Section 8, Clause 3; US Const. Amend 5; National Labor Relations Act of 1935, 29 U.S.C. § 151 et seq. Yes. The Court held that the Act was narrowly constructed so as to regulate industrial activities which had the potential to restrict interstate commerce. The justices abandoned their claim that labor relations had only an indirect effect on commerce. Since the ability of employees to engage in collective bargaining (one activity protected by the Act) is "an essential condition of industrial peace," the national government was justified in penalizing corporations engaging in interstate commerce which "refuse to confer and negotiate" with their workers.

i. One Nation, Under God?

i. "Americans are more religious than the citizens of most other democracies" ii. Americans do not separate their religions from their politics. iii. No religion receives direct governmental support. iv. "positivism"= American's are suppose to show a trust in logic, in science, in technology, and in evidence. v. Religious competition explanation: Liberal traditions encourage economic entrepreneurship, so it encourages religious entrepreneurship. They compete to retain loyalty of their existing "customers" and adapt their "product" to the changing interests and values of potential new customers. (provide services and activities: youth clubs, sports clubs, and single clubs, that people value.) results of all this religious enterprise= greater supply of religion in the U.S. vi. Robert Booth Fowler: argues there is a greater demand for religion in the U.S. because the liberal traditions create a deep need for religion. Sees religion as a filling gap in American life. vii. But rise of the "nones" in survey research

a. The Party-System Interpretation of American History

i. "realignment": shift occurring when the pattern of group support for political parties change in a significant and lasting way. Four Stable Characteristics: 1) identities of the major parties. 2) The parties relative balance of strength. 3) The major issues. 4) The party coalitions. ii. Critical election: election that marks the emergence of a new, lasting alignment of partisan support within the electorate. The end of one political system and the beginning of another.

f. The Connecticut Compromise: "The Great Compromise".

i. Called for the House proportionate to population and the Senate in which all states were represented equally. ii. Gov. with 3 branches- legislative, executive, and judicial and divided powers among them, but also limited them. iii. Gave Congress and number of specific powers= power to tax, coin money, regulate commerce, declare war, and maintain an army. ALSO included the necessary and proper clause: says that Congress has the power to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution" its other powers. - very ambiguous, so everyone could see it in terms of their own liking. iv. House of Rep.- chosen by voters and re-elected every 2 years. v. Senate- elected by state legislatures (who were elected by popular vote from the people), serve 6 yr. terms. vi. President- Commander of Chief of the armed force, but only Congress can declare war. Can call Congress into session and speak to them, but cannot dissolve Congress or keep them from meeting. Can vito legislation, but Cong. Can override that vito with 2/3rds vote of each chamber. Other Pres. Powers can be exercised only with senatorial advice and consent—support for a presidential action by a designated number of senators. The House of Rep. can impeach the Pres. For "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and Misdemeanors." If impeached, Pres. Is tried in the Senate. No pres. Has been removed this way. (Clinton- tried, not convicted 1999, Nixon- chose to resign 1974, & Andrew Johnson- impeached and avoided conviction only by one vote 1868. vii. Electoral College- electors chosen to cast a direct vote for president by a process determined by each state (this was not by accident). Is part of a complicated two-stage procedure, that still remains today. 1st Stage- selection of the electoral college, gives advantage to larger states. Each state chooses same # of electors as senators and Reps. In Cong. If candidate receives majority electoral vote, person= Pres. If no candidate receives a majority in Elec. College actions move to House of Rep. 2nd Stage- smaller states have advantage, each state delegation has a single vote. viii. Judicial Compromise: Congress created a system of lower level courts, still intact today. Supreme Courts have power of judicial review- court authority to declare law null and void on the grounds that they violate the Constitution, (Still sketchy), so they have supremacy clause- part of the Constitution that says the constitution is the "supreme law od the land" to which all judges are bound. ( to some, told judges to be mindful of the Const., to others it gave judges power to declare federal and state laws unconstitutional.) Judges= elected by Pres. Approved by Senate. ix. Compromising the issues of Slavery: Had different opinions on the matter, came up with the three-fifths compromise- a Const. provision that counted each slave as 3/5th of a person when calculating rep. in the House of Rep; repealed by the 14th amendment.

c. Growth and Development of Groups

i. De Tocqueville: "Americans...are forever forming associations": American political system encouraged the formation of groups. Different "points of access" or "pressure points" in which groups can influence policy. "can do" people.

b. "A Contradictory People?"

i. Diversity, yet "striking consistency in political beliefs" ii. Americans agree on fundamentals and share basic assumptions about the nature of a god society. iii. Disagreement between political parties are much narrower in the U.S. than in other democracies.

d. A Nation of Immigrants

i. Few restrictions in 18th and 19th centuries: If you could get here, you could come here. ii. Benjamin Franklin quote; "Know Nothings"(came from secret code, "I know nothing about it."): anti-Catholic party won 43 seats in the House of Rep., almost a fifth of the chamber at the time. iii. Changing immigration patterns. iv. Midwest, & East = Republican base lay in native Protestant communities, Democrats = deep roots in Catholic communities. German Lutherans = important "swing" group in Midwestern states, generally voted Republican, but cultural conflict sometimes swung them to the Democratic side. v. Chinese= first Asians to immigrate on a significant scale. vi. Progressives- reformist political movement, opposed futher immigration because they viewed immigrants as the foundation of corrupt urban political machines. vii. Restrictions on immigration: broke out after WWI ... Reform in 1920s; - national quota limits - national literacy test in order to come into the Country, (1917) was intended to disable the people who couldn't read." However, many immigrants DID know how to read. Needed something stronger to keep the doors closed. - series of laws passed in the 1920's, restricted immigration both quantitatively (the total was limited) and qualitatively (quotas gave northern and western Europeans preference over people from other areas.) by 1930's era of open door had ended. - Exception for Western hemisphere residents (included Mexico and Latin American) for agricultural purposes viii. 1965 The Immigration Hart-Celler Act overturned national quotas; created framework still in operation. Opening door to larger surge of immigration since the 1900's.

g. Why groups use Particular tactics

i. Group Characteristics: how groups decide to deploy its resources depends on what kind of group it is, what kind of resources it has, and how much it has in the way of resources. EX: mass-membership group= use of grassroots lobbying effective way to use resources, public-interest law firm with no citizen membership = litigation strategy, social movement thinking of the poor= direct action ii. Situational Characteristics: various situational characteristics- party control of Congress and the presidency, the economic situation, the mood in the country, what the interest group seeks to achieve and the resources it has to meet its goals- interact with the characteristics of interest groups to determine what mix of strategies the groups adopt.

h. Tension between individualism and equality

i. Inequalities exist in the U.S today. EX: large gulf between the incomes of the poor and rich has inc. since the early 1970's ii. 1st liberty and equality were thought to be complimentary. After Civil War, economic development weakened the association between liberty and equality. Industrial Rev. they became detached. iii. First glance= Americans do not value equality very much, but actually, America's political culture only supports a limited kind of equality. iv. Most Americans regard economic inequality as not only inevitable but also generally fair. v. Strongly supported -- Equality of opportunity: notion that individuals should have an equal chance to advance economically through their talent and hard work. (After competition starts, may the best man win!) vs. Equality of condition: notion that all individuals have a right to a more or less equal part of the material good that society produces. Strongly rejected b/c may involve rewarding people who are undeserving at the expense of those who work harder.  EX: survey data probing attitudes about affirmative action reflect this distinction.  90% agree we should do whatever it takes to make sure everyone has equal opportunity to succeed. AND 79% agree fair to set up programs to make sure women and minorities are given every chance to have equal opportunities.  Americans oppose affirmative action when questions indicate that equality of outcome is the goal.  86% don't think blacks and other minorities should receive preference in college admission to make up for past inequalities. AND 80% don't think blacks and other minorities should receive preference in hiring to make up for past. vi. Equality of opportunity should be enough. Rest is up to individual. vii. Education= not considered welfare in the U.S., it is a means to create equal opportunity, a way for individuals to improve their skills and become better economic competitors. FITS CORE VALUE

d. Persuading the Public:

i. Issue advocacy: advertising campaigns that attempt to influence public opinion in regard to a specific policy proposal. Monitored Spending is called spending by "527 committees", provision in the federal tax code that governs activities. These committee organizations set up for the purpose of influencing the nomination and election of candidates for public office. ii. Direct mail: product of modern electronic communications. Computer generated letters, faxes, and other communications by interest groups to people who might be sympathetic to an appeal for money or support. Groups compile computerized mailing lists of people who might be favorably disposed toward their leader or cause and then send out computer-generated letters, emails, and other communications soliciting financial contributions. e. Direct action: everything from peaceful sit-ins and demonstrations to riots and even rebellion. Appeals to the members of social movements. Organized for the purpose of gaining sympathetic coverage in the news media and thereby influencing public opinion. f. Litigation, including amicus curiae ("friends of the court"): Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. Drawing lessons from the success of the civil rights movement, environmentalist, feminists, advocates for the disables, poor people, and other groups followed suit. i. The U.S. Chamber of Commerce established a National Chamber Litigation Center to support business interests in court. ii. It's not right to lobby a judge directly, so groups demonstrate outside of court houses, generate letters and telegrams to judges, and file amicus curiae briefs in cases which they are not otherwise directly involved.

c. Positive features (6)

i. Operate and organize the government: parties coordinate the actions of thousands of public officials. Role is particularly noticeable in legislature which are explicitly partisan (besides Nebraska). The Presiding officer, who determines agenda, is almost always the leader of the majority party. Committee Chair, controls committee agendas and hire most of staff, also apart of majority party. ii. Focusing Responsibility for Governmental Action: Allow for collective accountability: Party labels operate like brand names, and both brands get judged. The actions or performances of one leader influences the reputation of fellow party members seeking office. So, parties strive to fashion a record they can defend at the polls, need to be unified. iii. Developing issues and Educating the Public: They identify problems, publicize them, and advance possible solutions. Motivation= adversarial. Generates info, educates the public, and shapes the policy agenda. iv. Synthesizing Interests: Promote compromise: They develop platforms that offer a mix of benefits and burdens to all. v. Recruit politicians: parties are always on the lookout for promising candidates. "You can't beat somebody with nobody." vi. Simplify the electoral system: if the absence of parties, voters would have to work much harder before knowing how to vote, because they would be faced with a multitude of choices.

d. Five Tenets of liberal Philosophy

i. Political equality ii. Instrumental Gov. iii. Limited Gov. iv. And the right to rebel.

d. Negative features

i. Political machines: not always perform the valuable functions that they are capable of. They give structure to political life in order to gain power. ii. Ignore some issues: iii. Prevent third party and independent candidacies iv. Nominate less than qualified people

4th Party System (Industrial Republican): 1896 to 1928

i. Republicans vs. Democrats, 1890s-1930s ii. Democrats remained strong in South, also gained support from western farmers and northern urban immigrant communities iii. Pro-business Republicans dominated presidential politics iv. After 1896, Democrats co-opted some of the farmer radicalism of the Populist Movement v. Middle-class reformers of Progressive Movement belonged to both parties vi. Progressives: loose aggregation of politicians, political activists, and intellectuals of the late 19th and early 20th centuries who promoted political reforms in an effort to clean up elections and government. vii. Direst primary: a method of choosing party candidates that allows voters instead of party leaders to choose nominees for office; it weakened party control of nominations and the influence that parties could exercise over officeholders. This method of nominating candidates is virtually unknown outside the U.S.

d. The Nature and Variety of "Interest Groups":

i. Some have dues, journals, meetings, and conventions. ii. "membership groups" EX: Common Cause, private individuals who make voluntary contributions. iii. 2/3rds of interest groups have a presence in D.C. representing corporations, professional groups, governments, and unions. Because these groups are divided between profit seeking and non-profit, they do not influence the governments taxing and spending policies. iv. Other American interest groups= activists of citizens, lead social movements.

6th Party System (Divided Government): 1968 to 2000 i. 7th Party System (or continuation of 6th?): 2001 to present

i. Ticket-splitting: voters selection of candidates from different parties at the same election EX: republican presidential candidate but a democratic candidate for House of Rep. ii. Divided government: Now in a divided party system. One party runs this while the other party runs another.

b. Multiparty politics

i. Two-party system: system in which only two significant parties compete for office. Such systems are in the minority among world democracies. ii. Electoral system: the way in which a country's constitution or laws translate popular votes into control of public offices.

c. Social diversity

i. Varied ethnic and religious communities in early America ii. "notions of diversity are relative to time and place"...EX: a few centuries ago a Protestant and Catholic looked upon each other with no more understanding than that with which Christians look upon Muslims today. iii. E Pluribus Unum "out of many, one" recognizes our diversity. iv. Multiculturalism: the idea that ethnic and cultural groups should maintain their identity within the larger society and respect one another's differences.

g. Three Arguments Why Low Turnout Is a Problem:

i. Voters are unrepresentative: concern is that the electorate= unrepresentative. Electorate= wealthier, whiter, older, better educated, more conservative, than pop. Therefore, elections are biased. ii. Low turnouts reflects a "Phony" Politics: low turnouts of middle-class Americans reflects a party system that fails to address "real" issues of concern to such people. They should be interested in economic issues like jobs, housing, income distribution, and education. But Middle class obsessed with "Phony issues" = flag burning, Gun control, abortion, obscenity, prayer in school, capital punishment, gay rights, and evolution. Social issues: reflect personal values more than economic interests. iii. Low turnout discourages individual development: participation in democratic politics stimulates individual development. Low turnout signifies a lost opportunity to improve both nonparticipants and politics itself. iv. Evaluating the Arguments: Low turnout is cause for concern, but not despair.

e. Immigration as a Contemporary Issue.

i. in 1994, Cali passed Proposition 187, an initiative that denied state service to illegal immigrants and their children. , this was struck down by court, the question of eligibility for governmental benefits- food stamps, scholarships- have remained in the national agenda ever since. ii. One aspect of Contemporary immigration: the distinction between legal and illegal iii. Net impact of immigration on the economy, both negative or positive, is small. iv. U.S slowly moving away from manufacturing to a globally integrated service and information economy. v. Cost of immigration= higher today, than in the past. vi. Second economic difference between immigration today and in the past is the geographical and jurisdictional mismatch between the costs and benefits of immigration. Past- people with most immigrants enjoyed most economic growth, and costs they incurred = low. Recently- large majority of immigrants have gone to few states, Cali, NY, TX, FL, NJ, and Illinois. Most taxes paid by immigrants are federal income and social security taxes that go to national Gov. rather than directly to the state the immigrant lives. However, the localities are still responsible for providing education and social services to the new immigrants. This focus the cost og immigration more narrowly than the benefits. vii. Heavy immigration= cut services, rasie taxes, and plead for money from higher level. UNPLEASANT. Also a cultural threat. viii. "familiar to Americans of earlier eras" ix. new issue: legal status

g. How Voting spread:

iii. Separate states extend suffrage in different ways at different times. iv. Could receive suffrage as a reward for military service v. Electoral pressures caused voting rights to spread quickly, not apparent in women suffrage though. vi. WWI stalled suffrage movement temporarily.

a. Pendleton Act (civil service reform):

instituted examinations to appoint people based on merit rather than patronage. The Pendleton Act essentially created "classified" positions that would be filled from a list of eligible applicants based on the results of their examinations. The act also established the United States Civil Service Commission to administer federal government employment. Initially, the act covered only approximately ten thousand federal positions. Presidents, however, were authorized to add to these positions. Try to make cleaner politics.

iii. Coalition government:

is a cabinet of a parliamentary government in which several parties cooperate. The usual reason given for this arrangement is that no party on its own can achieve a majority in the parliament. A coalition government might also be created in a time of national difficulty or crisis, for example during wartime, to give a government the high degree of perceived political legitimacy it desires whilst also playing a role in diminishing internal political strife. In such times, parties have formed all-party coalitions (national unity governments, grand coalitions). If a coalition collapses, a confidence vote is held or a motion of no confidence is taken.

f. Cooperative federalism:

its democratic. The involvement of all levels of government ensures that many different interests in society are represented. i. Categorical grants: federal grants to a state and/or local government that impose programmatic restrictions on the use of funds. Fund construction of transportation and sanitation infrastructure, and social welfare purposes. Provide education for from disadvantage backgrounds, fund special educational programs for disables, and train the unemployed. Was used during Pres. Lyndon Johnson's War on Poverty. ii. Block Grants: intergovernmental grants with a broad set of objectives, a minimum of federal restrictions, and maximum discretion for local officials. First wave of block grants began after Pres. Nixon won election to the White House in 1968. General revenue sharing: gave state and local governments a share of federal tax revenues to be used for any purpose whatsoever. 1st wave: block grants didn't replace categorical grants so much as supplement them. 2nd wave: came after Ronald Reagans 1980 defeat of jimmy carter, Reagan converting a broad range of categorical grants to block grants. This came with fewer restrictions, and at a reduced price. 3rd wave: took place after congressional election of 1944, congress=republican. Transformed the AFDC. iii. Layer cake vs. marble cake federalism: Cooperative federalism is known as "marble cake Federalism"... and is based on a mixing of authority and programs among the national, state, and local governments. Dual Federalism is known as "layer cake Federalism" and is based on a clear delineation of authority and programs among the levels of government. Both have been altered and we are now using a system called "New Federalism" iv. Devolution: return of governmental responsibilities to state and local governments.

d. Declining Social Connectedness:

ix. The decline in voter turnout is what social scientist call compositional effect: a shift that results from a change in group composition rather than a change in the behavior of individuals already in the group. x. Social connectedness: degree to which individuals are integrated into society—extended families, neighborhoods, religious organizations, and other social units. Nostalgia "good old days" e. Electoral vs. non-electoral participation f. Long-term trend in presidential and mid-term elections g. Mystery: declining participation vs. lower costs and higher education levels

c. State sovereign immunity:

legal doctrine based on the eleventh amendment, that says states cannot be sued under federal law by private parties.

I. Local Government:

maintain roads; take care of parks; provide police, fire, and sanitation services; run the schools; and perform many other functions that affect the everyday lives of citizens. a. Local Numbers constitute: 76,000 in 2007 b. Expenditures: almost as large as the federal government c. Policy: "Laboratories of democracy" d. Social programs: "race to the bottom" e. Organization: states reflect national government and national party system

i. Lobbyist:

ones who engage in lobbying, especially as his or her primary job. So called "hired- guns" people will use their contacts and expertise in the service of just about anyone willing to pay their price. ii. Direct lobbying iii. Providing information: scholars believe lobbyists spend more time providing sympathetic public officials with information and supporting arguments than they do trying to persuade skeptical officials to change their minds. They have little incentive to lie. Cause that would destroy their credibility.

a. The Free Rider Problem:

problem that arises when people can enjoy the benefits of group activity without bearing any of the cost. "free-ride" on the efforts of others. Goods are provided at lower than optimal levels. i. Example: Donating $20 to environmental group to help climate change, and donate several hours of time to march for the end of hunger... is your contribution going to really fix both of those.. NO. ii. Examples reflect two common elements/ major obstacles group formation and survival: 1) people realize contribution it is so small as to be unnoticed, nothing with change.. why contribute? 2) if others contribute and you don't and the problems are fixed, without contributing people fixed the problem and you got to same benefits, so why contribute? iii. Two considerations affecting severity of free-ride problem: 1) social pressure, showing up to ones volunteer position for the city, less effective where people don't know each other. 2) the problem is more serious the greater the distance and abstractness of the benefit the group seeks to achieve. EX: cleaning a vacant lot in neighborhood vs. cleaning up the atmosphere. Feeding the poor in specific locale vs. ending world hunger. iv. Public goods: goods enjoyed simultaneously by group, as opposed to a private good that must be divided up to be shared. Ex: clean air, law or policy Private good: ex- an apple, if you eat it , others can't.

c. Political Action Committees (PACs):

specialized organizations for raising and spending campaign funds; often affiliated with an interest group or association. Realtors= RPAC and doctors= AMPAC represent big economic interests. Smaller interests - the beer wholesalers, have SixPac. Represent far more business and commercial interests than labor or citizen interests. - play an increasingly prominent role in congressional finance.

i. Doctrine of nullification:

that says that states have the authority to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional. First used in 1798. i. Rejected in McCullough vs. Maryland (1819): Decision of 1819 in which the Supreme Court declared unconstitutional the sate's power to tax a federal government entity. Involved a dispute over the Bank of the U.S., an institution that national commercial interests thought was vital to economic prosperity but that many local farmers, small businesses, and debtors blamed for causing a recent financial crisis. The state of Maryland imposed a tax on the bank of $15,000/year, which cashier James McCulloch of the Baltimore branch refused to pay. The case went to the Supreme Court. Maryland argued that as a sovereign state, it had the power to tax any business within its borders. McCulloch's attorneys argued that a national bank was "necessary and proper" for Congress to establish in order to carry out its enumerated powers. ii. Chief Justice John Marshall wrote, "Although, among the enumerated powers of government, we do not find the word 'bank,'...we find the great powers to lay and collect taxes; to borrow money; to regulate commerce...Let the end be legitimate, let it be within the scope of the constitution, and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consist with the letter and spirit of the constitution, are constitutional." iii. Further, the Court ruled that Maryland could not tax the national bank: "That the power to tax involves the power to destroy. . . . If the states may tax one instrument, employed by the [federal] government in the execution of its powers, they may tax any and every other instrument....This was not intended by the American people. They did not design to make their government dependent on the states." iv. Marshall also noted an important difference between the Constitution and the Articles of Confederation (the United States' first governing document that had been replaced by the Constitution). The Articles said that the states retained all powers not "expressly" given to the federal government. The Tenth Amendment, Marshall noted, did not include the word "expressly." This was further evidence, he argued, that the Constitution did not limit Congress to doing only those things specifically listed in Article I. XIV. Tariff and slavery: after half a million soldiers had died and the southern countryside had been laid to waste was the doctrine of nullification finally repudiated. After civil war- dual sovereignty didn't mean that state leg. Could declare null and void the decisions of the federal government. XV. Growth in Federal Power: Necessary and Proper clause, and Commerce Clause- define the boundaries of national power, as allowing much more federal intervention into areas that were previously the domains of the state. a. Necessary and Proper (elastic) Clause: gives Congress the power to take all actions that are "necessary ad proper" to the carrying out of its delegated powers. Also known as the elastic clause. i. McCullough vs. Maryland (1819) ii. Yet US v. NY (1992)- a federal law passed in 1985 told states either to dispose of waste themselves or to face legal consequences for any damage the waste must might cause. NY sued to prevent enforcement of this law, the Supreme Court ruled in states favor, saying that constitutional principles prevent Congress from using "outright coercion" to solve the waste disposal problem.

h. Dual sovereignty:

theory of federalism saying that both the national and state governments have final authority over their own policy domains. Challenges Thomas Hobbes's argument that there could be only one sovereign. i. Federal and state "final authority over their own policy domains" ii. Tyranny of the majority: suppression of rights imposed by those voted into power by a majority.= worst kind of tyranny because it is stifling, complete, and seemingly legitimate.

b. How to overcome free-riders?

v. Coercion: social pressure and violence have been used to compel reluctant workers to join unions. Unions prefer to rely on strategy of negotiating "closed shops" with management, such agreements require worker to join the union as a condition of employment. Milder form= people lobby Gov. jurisdictions to hire and certify only their members, membership of working and practicing in that jurisdiction. Professions requiring a state license that reward those people, while denying benefits to potential free-riders. - it's a declining way of dealing with free-riders. People don't tolerate informal violence, and state Gov. no longer regulate many occupations and professions they once did. Results= occupational interests- lost influence and members, union movement- fallen on hard times. vi. Social movements: broad-based demand for government action on some problem or issue, such as civil rights for blacks, equal right for women, or environmental protection. Build on emotional and moral favor. Has a tendency to "run down" as its emotional basis subsides. For it to go long term it must "institutionalize" itself. vii. Increasing the Perceived impact: a group getting people to donate just a little, and then the group will update them on the progress they've made because of their contribution. "personal connections" although partly fictional, are effective way of solving free-rider problem by making donor's impact seem significant. viii. Selective benefits: specific private goods that an organization provides only to its contributing members. Not limited to direct economic benefits or to info. That produces economic benefits. -EX: trade association informs members- only their members- about important technological advances. The American Association of Retired People offer most notable example, for $16 a year members gain access to largest mail-order pharmacy. The AARP issues statement and lobbies congress on issues the affect elderly. ix. Patrons and Political Entrepreneurs: people willing to assume the costs of forming and maintaining an organization even when others may free-ride on them. A wealthy individual with a deep commitment to the group goal may be able to make a difference. Some of these people set up and maintain groups for their own reasons. Some good motives, some with ulterior motives. - evidence suggests that the top-down activities of patrons and political entrepreneurs are a more important means of overcoming the free-rider problem than the provision of selective benefits.

e. Why form groups?

v. Reaction to expansion of government activity: if Gov. is more powerful, and more active, the more interest groups will form. With more policies, comes more groups that want to lobby them. vi. Advances in communication technologies: made groups easier to form, permit generation of all kinds of specialized mailing lists. Could communicate freely and easily on the internet. vii. Reaction to formation of competing groups: EX: Pro-life groups forming, creates more Pro- Choice groups to oppose them.

c. Unitary Government:

vast majority of countries in the world reject federalism in favor of this—all authority is held by a single, national government. Regional and local governments are simply administrative outposts of the national Gov.

b. Declining Personal Benefits:

vi. People are not informed about politics, but do care about who wins. vii. Elections have been less competitive. When person wins by a large margin, one vote making a difference seems outlandish, so why even vote.

c. Declining Mobilization:

viii. "grassrooted" campaigns: door-to-door campaigning = effective. Don't do it anymore. New campaigning = less effective.

f. Many different types of groups:

viii. Mass vs. small membership ix. People vs. organizations as members: some people are actual members, and some are groups. x. Small donors vs. large sponsors: some groups have lot of money, some don't. it matters how they get that money. xi. Elaborate organizational structure vs. limited leadership xii. Active vs. passive membership xiii. Incentives for people or organizations to join groups