American Heritage Quiz 3 prep

James Abercrombie

. British Major General waged war against his primary opponent, French Major General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm. In time, British general Jeffrey Amherst defeated the French at Louisourg. However, Montcalm's 4,000 soldiers defeated Abercrombie's force of 16,000 at Fort Ticonderoga. After this debacle, Abercrombie was recalled and replaced by Amherst.

Phillip II

...Known in Spain as "Felipe el Prudente" ('"Philip the Prudent'"), his empire included territories on every continent then known to Europeans, including his namesake the Philippine Islands. During his reign, Spain reached the height of its influence and power. This is sometimes called the Golden Age. The expression, "the empire on which the sun never sets," was coined during Philip's time to reflect the extent of his dominion.

Mary II

...was joint monarch of England, Scotland, and Ireland with her husband and first cousin, William of Orange, from 1689 until her death. William and Mary, both Protestants, became king and queen regnant following the Glorious Revolution, which resulted in the adoption of the English Bill of Rights and the deposition of her Roman Catholic father, James II and VII. William became sole ruler upon her death in 1694. Popular histories usually refer to their joint reign as that of "William and Mary".

Thomas Jefferson

3rd president of the United States, Jefferson was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and an influential Founding Father of the United States. He founded the Democratic-Republic Party and promoted the idea of a small federal government.

James Madison

4th president of the United States and Founding Father, Madison is often called the "Father of the Constitution" He co-authored The Federalist with Hamilton and Jay, and helped Jefferson create the Democratic Republican Party

Albany Plan of Union

A plan similar to Franklin's Albany Plan was proposed at the First Continental Congress. In the aftermath of the Revolutionary War, the Albany Plan of Union served as an inspirational primer for the writing of the Articles of Confederation. The Albany Plan was proposed by Benjamin Franklin at the Albany Congress in 1754 in Albany, New York. It was the first serious attempt at forming a union of the colonies "under one government as far as might be necessary for defense and other general important purposes." The Plan called for the general government to be administered by a President General appointed and supported by the Crown, and a Grand Council to be chosen by the representatives of the colonial assemblies

The invisible hand

Adam's term for the natural self-regulation of a market economy driven by self-interest and efficiency.

Mary Stuart

After Francis II's death, Mary returned to Scotland. Mary, a devout Catholic, was regarded with suspicion by many of her Scottish subjects, as well as by Queen Elizabeth I. Four years after her return, she married her first cousin, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. This marriage produced her only child, James. Elizabeth felt threatened by this marriage, because both Mary and Darnley were claimants to the English throne, being direct descendants of Margaret Tudor, the elder sister of Henry VIII. Their children would inherit both parents' claims, and thus, be next in line for the English throne. In addition, their marriage infuriated Elizabeth, who felt she should have been asked permission, as Darnley was an English subject. However, the union (Mary and Lord Darnley) was unhappy and in February 1567, Darnley was found dead (murdered) after a mysterious explosion.

Mercantilism

An economic theory that emphasized the importance of stockpiling gold and silver to the economic power of a nation. Mercantilists regulated the economy by encouraging exports and restricting imports.

French and Indian War

Britain and her colonies fought against the French with their respective native allies. The French were defeated solidifying British control of North America.

Louis-Joseph de Montcalm

British Major General James Abercrombie waged war against his primary opponent, 4,000 soldiers defeated Abercrombie's force of 16,000 at Fort Ticonderoga. British general James Wolfe defeated Montcalm at Quebec

Jeffrey Amherst

British general defeated the French at Louisourg,Abercrombie was recalled and replaced by Amherst. French Governor Marquuis de Vaudreuil negotiated a surrender with British General Amherst. Amherst granted Vaudreuil's request that any French residents who chose to remain in the colony would be given freedom to continue worshiping in their Roman Catholic tradition, continued ownership of their property, and the right to remain undisturbed in their homes. Amherst is best known as the architect of Britain's successful campaign to conquer the territory of New France during the Seven Years' War. Under his command, British forces captured the cities of Louisbourg, Quebec City and Montreal, as well as several major fortresses. He was also the first British Governor General in the territories that eventually became Canada. Numerous places and streets are named for him, in both Canada and the United States.

Montesquieu

Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brede et de Montesquieu, was a French political thinker who favored the British system of rule and lauded the idea of separation of powers.

Oliver Cromwell

Cromwell was born into the ranks of the middle gentry, and remained relatively obscure for the first 40 years of his life. At about this time he had a religious conversion to Puritanism. Cromwell was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Cambridge, and later entered the English Civil War on the side of the "Roundheads" or Parliamentarians. Cromwell became convinced that God had spoken against both the king and Parliament as lawful authorities. For Cromwell, the army was now God's chosen instrument. The episode shows Cromwell's firm belief in "Providentialism"—that God was actively directing the affairs of the world, through the actions of "chosen people" (whom God had "provided" for such purposes). Cromwell believed, during the Civil Wars, that he was one of these people, and he interpreted victories as indications of God's approval of his actions, and defeats as signs that God was directing him in another direction. He believed God wanted Charles executed so the civil wars would end. It was primarily at his request that Charles I was found guilty and beheaded. Cromwell's hostility to the Irish was religious as well as political. He was passionately opposed to the Roman Catholic Church, which he saw as denying the primacy of the Bible in favor of papal and clerical authority, and which he blamed for suspected tyranny and persecution of Protestants in Europe. Cromwell's invasion of Ireland turned into a bloodbath.invaded Scotland because they had proclaimed Charles I's son as King Charles II. Cromwell smashed the Scottish army at the Battle of Dunbar, Cromwell sought to have Parliament create a constitutional form of government. But his frustrations with them led him to dissolve Parliament by force. He ruled like a monarch with military governors the rest of his life. Cromwell was so occupied by wars and parliamentary issues, that he allowed the American Colonies to pretty much govern themselves. Many of his dissenters, including scores of Catholics, fled to the colonies during his reign.

Hessians

Germans mercenaries (Hessians) made up about one-third of the British troop strength in North America

Samuel Prescott

He probably was an express courier for the Sons of Liberty and Committees of Correspondence. On April 18, the evening Paul Revere and William Dawes were dispatched by Joseph Warren to warn the countryside that the British were coming, Prescott was in Lexington reporting on Concord's readiness. When Prescott left Lexington (about 1 A.M April 19) he met up with Revere and Dawes who had just left Lexington on their way to warn Concord. The three road toward Concord where they were cut off by four British horsemen who were patrolling the road for messengers. Revere was captured but both Prescott and Dawes succeeded in making a daring run for it. Prescott carried Revere's warning to his townsmen. Prescott witnessed the Battle of Concord, then returned to Lexington to help with the wounded. He remained at Lexington as a volunteer surgeon for about two weeks, then seems to have disappeared into the war.

Horatio Gates

He took credit for the American victory in the Battles of Saratoga (1777) - a matter of contemporary and historical controversy - and was blamed for the defeat at the Battle of Camden in 1780. Gates has been described as "one of the Revolution's most controversial military figures" because of his role in the Conway Cabal, which attempted to discredit and replace George Washington; the battle at Saratoga; and his actions during and after his defeat at Camden.[1][2] Though his troops were with Washington at the Battle of Trenton, Gates was not. Always an advocate of defensive action, Gates argued to Washington that, rather than attack, Washington should retreat farther. Gates had always been of the opinion that he, not Washington, should command the army.

Anne Boleyn

Henry's desires for Anne hurried his need to secure an annulment from Catherine of Aragon. When it became clear Thomas Wolsey could not convince Pope Clement VII to give Henry an annulment, Henry took steps to dismiss Wolsey and break the power of the Roman Catholic Church in England. The Boleyn family's chaplain, Thomas Cranmer, was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. The wedding between Henry and Anne (probably pregnant) took place on 25 January 1533. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void. Five days later Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be valid.

Marquis de Vaudreuil

In 1755, he became the governor of Canada, replacing the Marquis Duquesne. requested that any French residents who chose to remain in the colony would be given freedom to continue worshiping in their Roman Catholic tradition, continued ownership of their property, and the right to remain undisturbed in their homes. The British provided medical treatment for the sick and wounded French soldiers and French regular troops were returned to France aboard British ships with an agreement that they were not to serve again in the present war.

2nd treatise of government

John Locke's work arguing that true political authority comes not from God or precedent but from the people

James I

King England, Scotland, Ireland first king of britain, served in Scotland as James VI, claimed political legitimacy through a "divine right of kings"

James II

King of England and Ireland as James II, and Scotland as James VII, from 6 February 1685. He was the last Catholic monarch to reign over the Kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. James was the second surviving son of Charles I and Henrietta Maria of France. He returned to England when his older brother, Charles II, was restored to the throne after the death of Oliver Cromwell. James secretly converted to Catholicism with his wife Anne Hyde (a commoner) in 1668 or 1669. In spite of his conversion, James continued to associate primarily with Anglicans. When his conversion was made public, his brother King Charles II ordered that James's two surviving daughters, Mary and Anne, be raised as Protestants. In addition, James reluctantly consented to his daughter Mary's marriage to the Protestant William of Orange (who was also James's nephew). James acquiesced after his brother Charles and William had agreed upon the marriage. Despite the Protestant marriage, fears of a potential Catholic monarch persisted, intensified by the failure of Charles II and his wife, Catherine, to produce any children. Due to the fear of another Catholic king, Parliament attempted to have James excluded from the line of succession.

George I

King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1714 until his death, and ruler of Hanover in the Holy Roman Empire During George's reign the powers of the monarchy diminished and Britain began a transition to the modern system of Cabinet government led by a Prime Minister. The British perceived him as too German.

George II (

King of Great Britain and Ireland, Duke of Hanover, and Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire from 11 June 1727 until his death. He was the last British monarch to have been born outside Great Britain, and was famous for his numerous conflicts with his father and, subsequently, with his son. As king, he exercised little control, and was the last British monarch to lead an army in battle Worked with Walpole he later put down a rebellion led by the Bonnie Prince Charlie. At the Battle of Culloden, the last battle ever fought on British soil. George II's last prime minister was William Pitt, the Elder

Daniel Morgan

Morgan had been a teamster during the French and Indian War (Braddock's Defeat). In 1756, during the advance on Fort Pitt, he was scourged with four hundred ninety-nine lashes (a usually fatal event) for punching his superior officer. A young officer named John Burgoyne (Saratoga) ordered the lashing. It was an affront he never forgave. When the Revolution started, the Virginia House of Burgesses chose Morgan to form one of two Virginia regiments and to serve as its captain. He recruited ninety-six men in ten days and then marched them to Boston in only twenty-one days. He led an outstanding group of snipers nicknamed "Morgan's Sharpshooters". Later that year, Congress authorized an Invasion of Canada. Colonel Benedict Arnold placed Morgan over three Virginia companies of riflemen. Morgan's cunning plan at Cowpens is widely considered to be the tactical masterpiece of the war and one of the most successfully executed double envelopments of all of modern military history. For his actions, Virginia gave Morgan land and an estate that had been abandoned by a Tory

Laissez-faire

Policy in which there is little or no interference with exchange, trade, or market prices by the government

Due Process

Rule of law principle that states when laws are applied they must be administed impartially.

Adam Smith

Smith is the author of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. It earned him an enormous reputation and would become one of the most influential works on economics ever published. Smith is widely cited as the father of modern economics and capitalism.

James Wolfe

Soon thereafter, British general James Wolfe defeated Montcalm at Quebec (in a battle that claimed the lives of both commanders).

Baron von Steuben

Steuben reported to Washington at Valley Forge offering his military services for free. Steuben offered to train Washington's rag-tag soldiers and make them into an army. Steuben's training technique was to create a "model company", a group of 120 chosen men who in turn successively trained other personnel at Regimental and Brigade levels.

Half King

Tanacharison or Tanaghrisson helped washington in the battle

Concord and Lexington

The Battles of Lexington and Concord, fought on April 19, 1775, kicked off the American Revolutionary War (1775-83). Tensions had been building for many years between residents of the 13 American colonies and the British authorities, particularly in Massachusetts. On the night of April 18, 1775, hundreds of British troops marched from Boston to nearby Concord in order to seize an arms cache. Paul Revere and other riders sounded the alarm, and colonial militiamen began mobilizing to intercept the Redcoat column. A confrontation on the Lexington town green started off the fighting, and soon the British were hastily retreating under intense fire. Many more battles followed, and in 1783 the colonists formally won their independence.

Proclamation of 1763

The proclamation created a boundary line (often called the proclamation line) between the British colonies on the Atlantic coast and American Indian lands (called the Indian Reserve) west of the Appalachian Mountains. The proclamation line was intended to be a temporary boundary which could be extended further west in an orderly, lawful manner. The proclamation outlawed private purchase of Native American land; instead, all future land purchases were to be made by Crown officials. Furthermore, British colonists were forbidden to move beyond the line and settle on native lands, and colonial officials were forbidden to grant lands without royal approval. The proclamation gave the Crown a monopoly on all future land purchases from American Indians.

George Washington

Virginia militia,

Fort Necessity

^^^Fearing an attack by the French and their Indian allies from Fort Duquesne, Washington hastily erected a log fort named Fort Necessity at Great Meadows and awaited reinforcements.

Comte de Rochambeau

a French aristocrat who joined a French cavalry regiment, and served in the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War. In 1780, Rochambeau was appointed commander of land forces in America and was given command of some 6,000 French troops and sent to join the Continental army, under George Washington. He landed at Newport, Rhode Island, on 10 July, but was held there inactive for a year, owing to his reluctance to abandon the French fleet blockaded by the British in Narragansett Bay. At last, in July 1781, Rochambeau's force finally left Rhode Island, marching across Connecticut to join Washington on the Hudson River. From there the two armies marched to Yorktown. On 22 September, they combined with Marquis de Lafayette's troops and forced Lord Cornwallis to surrender on 19 October. Upon his return to France, he was honored by King Louis XVI and was made governor of Picardy. During the French Revolution, he narrowly escaped the guillotine during the wasReign of Terror

John Locke

argued for the notion of the "social contract." Locke accepted Hobbes' basic theory of the social contract, but also argued that individuals would agree to form a state that would provide a "neutral judge" and a ruler who must protect the lives, liberty, and property of those who lived within the contract. He also said that laws could only be legitimate if they sought to achieve the common good. Additionally, Locke believed that people had natural rights, including the right and duty to rebel if the political authority became a tyrant.

Edward VI

became King of England and Ireland on 28 January 1547 at the age of nine. The son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, Edward was the third monarch of the Tudor dynasty and England's first truly Protestant ruler. During Edward's reign, the realm was governed by a Regency Council, because he never reached maturity. The Council was led from 1547 to 1549 by his uncle Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, and from 1550 to 1553 by John Dudley, 1st Earl of Warwick, who in 1551 became 1st Duke of Northumberland.

John Rolfe

began to successfully harvest tobacco. Prosperous and wealthy, he married Pocahontas, daughter of Chief Powhatan, bringing several years of peace between the English and natives. (Through their son, Thomas Rolfe, many of the First Families of Virginia trace both Virginia Indian and English roots.)

Martin Luther

changed the course of Western civilization by initiating the Protestant Reformation. As a priest and theology professor, he confronted indulgence salesmen with his The Ninety-Five Theses in 1517. Luther strongly disputed their claim that freedom from God's punishment of sin could be purchased with money. His refusal to retract all of his writings at the demand of Pope Leo X in 1520 and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms meeting in 1521 resulted in his excommunication by the pope and condemnation as an outlaw by the emperor. Luther taught that salvation is not from good works, but a free gift of God, received only by grace through faith in Jesus as redeemer from sin.

Federalist Papers

collection of 85 articles and essays written (under the pseudonym Publius) by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay promoting the ratification of the United States Constitution. Seventy-seven were published serially in The Independent Journal and The New York Packet between October 1787 and August 1788. A compilation of these and eight others, called The Federalist: A Collection of Essays, Written in Favour of the New Constitution, as Agreed upon by the Federal Convention, September 17, 1787, was published in two volumes in 1788 by J. and A. McLean.[1] The collection's original title was The Federalist; the title The Federalist Papers did not emerge until the 20th century.

sam Adams

devised the system or network of committees of correspondence in the towns of Massachusetts. founded sons of liberty, organized boston tea party, served in continental congress, signed DOI, was an American statesman, political philosopher, and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. As a politician in colonial Massachusetts, Adams was a leader of the movement that became the American Revolution, and was one of the architects of the principles of American republicanism that shaped the political culture of the United States.

Benedict Arnold V

distinguished himself early in the war through acts of cunning and bravery. His many successful actions included the Capture of Fort Ticonderoga in 1775, successful defensive and delaying tactics while losing the Battle of Valcour Island on Lake Champlain in 1776, the Battle of Ridgefield, Connecticut (after which he was promoted to Major General), and the pivotal Battles of Saratoga in 1777, in which he suffered leg injuries that effectively ended his combat career for several years. In spite of his success, Arnold was passed over for promotion while other officers (especially Horatio Gates) took credit for his many accomplishments. Frustrated, bitter, and strongly opposed to the new American alliance with France, Arnold decided to change sides in 1779. In July 1780, he sought and obtained command of West Point in order to surrender it to the British. Arnold's scheme was exposed when American forces captured British Major John André carrying papers that revealed the plot. Upon learning of André's capture, Benedict Arnold escaped down the Hudson River to the British narrowly avoiding capture. Arnold received a commission as a brigadier general in the British Army, and led British forces at Blanford, Virginia and Groton, Connecticut before the war effectively came to an end with the Siege of Yorktown.

John Calvin

expounded the doctrine of predestination, was an influential French theologian and pastor during the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism. Originally trained as a humanist lawyer, he broke from the Roman Catholic Church around 1530.

Puritans

felt that Elizabeth's English Reformation had not gone far enough, and that the Church of England was too tolerant of practices they associated with the Catholic Church. Puritans often wanted to "purify" the Church of England from within. However, many wanted a complete and total break with the Church of England in favor of churches under autonomous Puritan control. Even though the Church of England was Calvinistic, Puritans were "more" ardent Calvinists. Separatists (Pilgrims) were the "most" ardent Calvinists of all.

Robert Dinwiddie

governor of virginia during french indian war, demanded an immediate French withdrawal from the Ohio Country, Virginia Governor Robert Dinwiddie ordered Washington to train and equip 100 militiamen. Dinwiddie went to the House of Burgesses and obtained a loan of 10,000 pounds to raise paid volunteers for the new regiment. Dinwiddie ordered Washington to march to the frontier with any volunteers he could get and it was planned that Fry would meet him along the way,

John Adams

his unequivocal belief in the importance of the rule of law led him to defend the British soldiers involved in the Boston Massacre. His defense demonstrated to the world that the colonists were civilized and could therefore govern themselves. was an American politician and the second President of the United States (1797-1801), after being the first Vice President (1789-1797) for two terms. He is regarded as one of the most influential Founding Fathers of the United States. Adams came to prominence in the early stages of the American Revolution. As a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress, he played a leading role in persuading Congress to adopt the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776. As a representative of Congress in Europe, he was a major negotiator of the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain, and chiefly responsible for obtaining important loans from Amsterdam. During his one term as president, he was frustrated by battles inside his own Federalist party against a faction led by Alexander Hamilton, and he signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts. The major accomplishment of his presidency was his peaceful resolution of the Quasi-War crisis with France in 1798

Elizabeth I

inherited the throne. One of the most important concerns during Elizabeth's early reign was religion. Communion with the Roman Catholic Church had been reinstated under Mary, but was again severed by Elizabeth. At Elizabeth's urging Parliament eventually reinstated most of Edward VI's reforms including allowing ministers to marry, banning images from churches, and also confirming Elizabeth as Supreme Head of the Church of England. The queen also appointed a new Privy Council, removing many Roman Catholic counselors in doing so. Under Elizabeth, factionalism in the Council and conflicts at court greatly diminished. Elisabeth next pushed through Parliament the Act of Uniformity 1559 which forced people to attend Sunday service in an Anglican church

fed 51

is an essay by James Madison, the fifty-first of The Federalist Papers. It was published on February 6, 1788, under the pseudonym Publius, the name under which all The Federalist Papers were published. One of the most famous of The Federalist Papers, No. 51 addresses means by which appropriate checks and balances can be created in government and also advocates a separation of powers within the national government. One of its most important ideas is the often quoted phrase, "Ambition must be made to counteract ambition".

fed 10

is an essay written by James Madison as the tenth of The Federalist Papers, a series of essays initiated by Alexander Hamilton arguing for the ratification of the United States Constitution. Hamilton chose and invited John Jay and James Madison to contribute as co-authors under the pseudonym "Publius" (the pseudonym under which all of The Federalist Papers were published, and under which Alexander Hamilton started the series with the Federalist No. 1). Published on November 29, 1787, Federalist No. 10 is among the most highly regarded of all American political writings.[1]

Edward Braddock

led about 2,000 army troops and provincial militia on an expedition in June 1755 to take Fort Duquesne, troops were completely surprised and routed,, rallying his men time after time, fell at last, mortally wounded by a shot through the right arm and into his lung. was carried off the field by Washington and another officer, and died on 13 July 1755, just four days after the battle.

Louis Coulon de Villiers

only military opponent to force George Washington to surrender. Jumonville's half-brother, quickly mounted an expedition to drive the British out, in the end sent an officer under a white flag to negotiate. Villiers said that all he wanted was the surrender of the garrison and the Virginians could go back to Virginia. He warned, however, that if they did not surrender now, the Indians might storm the fort and scalp the entire garrison. Washington agreed to surrender.

Cicero

orator, statesman, political theorist, lawyer, and philosopher, of Ancient Rome

Calvinists

predestination, followed john calvin

Benjamin Franklin

proposed albany plan

Anti-Federalists

refers to a movement that opposed the creation of a stronger U.S. federal government and which later opposed the ratification of the 1787 Constitution. The previous constitution, called the Articles of Confederation, gave state governments more authority. Led by Patrick Henry of Virginia, Anti-Federalists worried, among other things, that the position of president, then a novelty, might evolve into a monarchy.

Joseph de Coulon de Jumonville

sent to the British colonial (Washington's) troops to order them out of the French frontier territory, Jumonville called Washington over to him and handed him some papers stating that Jumonville was on a diplomatic mission. As Washington looked over the papers, the Half King approached Jumonville and tomahawked him to death. The skirmish was later called the Battle of Jumonville Glen, and was the start of the French and Indian War.

Patrick Henry

served as the first post-colonial Governor of Virginia from 1776 to 1779. A prominent figure in the American Revolution, Henry is known and remembered for his "Give me Liberty, or give me Death!" speech, and as one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Along with Samuel Adams and Thomas Paine, he is remembered as one of the most influential (and radical) advocates of the American Revolution and republicanism, especially in his denunciations of corruption in government officials and his defense of historic rights.

George III

son of Frederick Prince of Wales, was King of Great Britain and King of Ireland until the union of these two countries, after which he was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, but unlike his two predecessors he was born in Britain and spoke English as his first language. George was on the throne at the end of the Seven Years' War (1763) when the Peace of Paris 1783 ended the American Revolutionary war. both his life and his reign were longer than any of his predecessors.

John Paul Jones

started his maritime career at the age of 13. During a voyage to the West Indies in 1770, John Paul viciously flogged one of his sailors, leading to accusations of his discipline being "unnecessarily cruel." His reputation was destroyed when the disciplined sailor died a few weeks later. On another voyage, John killed a member of his crew, a mutineer, Blackton, with a sword in a dispute over wages. Paul went on the run to America and assumed the surname of Jones. It wasn't long afterwards that John Paul 'Jones' joined the American navy to fight against Britain. He was now safe from his past troubles and he gained a glorious reputation fighting the enemy of America through her navy, an enemy which was already a part of his own personal 'past troubles'. Jones soon captured sixteen prizes (enemy ships) and created significant damage along the coast of Nova Scotia. Despite his successes at sea, Jones's disagreements with those in authority lost him his ship. He was later assigned the smaller command, the newly constructed USS Ranger, on June 14, 1777 (the same day the new Stars and Stripes flag was adopted). The Ranger's capture of the British ship the Drake was one of the American Navy's few significant military victories during the Revolution, and was of immense symbolic importance, demonstrating as it did that the Royal Navy was far from invincible.

William Pitt

the Secretary of State, took over most planning of the war. He embarked on a three-part campaign involving large numbers of regular troops, supported by provincial militias, aimed at capturing the heartlands of New France.

bicameralism

the idea that the legislative branch should have two houses or bodies (bicameralism) and should serve as checks to the power of the other.

Charles I

the second son of James I. Charles famously engaged in a struggle for power with the Parliament of England. He was an advocate of the Divine Right of Kings. Many of his English subjects feared that he was attempting to gain absolute power. Many of his actions, particularly the levying of taxes without Parliament's consent, caused widespread opposition. Charles was shy, inept, tactless, self-righteous, stubborn, opinionated, determined and confrontational. It was also said that his stuttering and thick Scottish accent made a poor impression on others. Charles believed he had no need to compromise or even explain his rules and that he was answerable only to God. He famously said, "Kings are not bound to give an account of their actions but to God alone," His actions spread fears as early as 1626 that he was a potential tyrant.

Rogers' Rangers

the unit was informally trained by Major Robert Rogers as a rapidly deployable light infantry force tasked with reconnaissance and conducting special operations against distant targets. Their military tactics were so bold and effective that the unit became the chief scouting unit of British Crown forces in the late 1750s. The British valued them highly for gathering intelligence about the enemy. became influential leaders in the American Revolutionary War and a large number of ex-rangers were militiamen at the Battle of Concord Bridge.

Pontiac's Rebellion

unsuccessful effort by Native Americans to prevent Great Britain from occupying the land previously claimed by France.

The French and Indian War

war primarily fought in North America between 1754 and 1763. also known as the Seven Years' War The name French and Indian War refers to the two main enemies of the British: the French forces and the various Native American forces allied with them. This traditional name remains standard in the United States, although it obscures the fact that American Indians fought on both sides of the conflict.

Henry VIII

was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. Henry was the second monarch of the House of Tudor, succeeding his fatherVII, . Even though VIII, in the great part of his reign, brutally suppressed the influence of the Protestant Reformation in England, he is more popularly known for his role in the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church. Henry's struggles with Rome ultimately led to the separation of the Church of England from papal authority, the Dissolution of the Monasteries, and establishing himself as the Supreme Head of the Church of England. Henry, however, continued to practice a form of Catholicism throughout his life, even after his excommunication from the Roman Catholic Church following the divorce of his first wife and the marriage of his second wife. On 18 February 1516, Queen Catherine bore Henry his first child to survive infancy, Princess Mary of England, who later reigned as Mary I of England.

Jane Seymour

was Queen Consort of England as the third wife of King Henry VIII. She succeeded Anne Boleyn as Queen Consort following the latter's execution in 1536. Jane Seymour and King Henry VIII were fifth cousins three times removed. She was a second cousin to her predecessor Anne Boleyn through their mutual great-grandmother, Elizabeth Cheney. Jane became a maid-of-honor in 1532 to Queen Catherine and later to Queen Anne Boleyn. King Henry VIII was betrothed to Jane Seymour on 20 May 1536, the day after Anne Boleyn's execution, and married her ten days later. She was publicly proclaimed as Queen Consort on 4 June. She was never crowned, due to a plague in London where the coronation was to take place.

Mary I

was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 19 July 1553 until her death. The fourth crowned monarch of the Tudor dynasty, she is remembered for restoring England to Roman Catholicism after succeeding her short-lived half brother, Edward VI. In the process, she had almost 300 religious dissenters burned at the stake earning her the title of "Bloody Mary." Mary was the only child of Henry VIII and his first wife Catherine of Aragon to survive infancy.

William Tyndale

was a 16th century scholar, translator, and leading figure in the Protestant reformism. He was influenced by the work of Desiderius Erasmus, who made the Greek New Testament available in Europe, and Martin Luther. Tyndale was a gifted linguist who became fluent in French, Greek, Hebrew, German, Italian, Latin, and Spanish, in addition to his native English. He was the first to translate considerable parts of the Bible into English, for a public, lay readership. The fifty-four independent scholars who revised extant English bibles, drew significantly on Tyndale's translations to create the King James Version (or final "Authorized Version") of 1611 (still in mainstream use today).

Marquis de La Fayette

was a French aristocrat and military officer. In the American Revolution, Lafayette escaped to America and offered to serve in the army without pay. Congress, impressed by Lafayette's offer to serve without pay, commissioned the rank of major-general on 31 July 1777. Benjamin Franklin wrote to Washington recommending he accept Lafayette as his aide-de-camp, hoping it would influence France to commit more aid. Lafayette's first battle was at Brandywine on 11 September 1777, which was lost. Lafayette was shot in the leg, but aided his men's retreat before being treated for his wound. Washington cited him for bravery and, recommended him for the command of a division. Lafayette later defeated a numerically superior Hessian force in Gloucester, and informed Washington of the Conway Cabal.

Marquis de Lafayette

was a French aristocrat and military officer. In the American Revolution, Lafayette escaped to America and offered to serve in the army without pay. Congress, impressed by Lafayette's offer to serve without pay, commissioned the rank of major-general on 31 July 1777. Benjamin Franklin wrote to Washington recommending he accept Lafayette as his aide-de-camp, hoping it would influence France to commit more aid. Lafayette's first battle was at Brandywine on 11 September 1777, which was lost. Lafayette was shot in the leg, but aided his men's retreat before being treated for his wound. Washington cited him for bravery and, recommended him for the command of a division. Lafayette later defeated a numerically superior Hessian force in Gloucester, and informed Washington of the Conway Cabal. In February 1779, Lafayette returned to Paris. For disobeying the king by going to America, he was placed under house arrest for two weeks. Nevertheless, his return was triumphant. Lafayette used his influence to lobby for more French aid to America. Working with Franklin, Lafayette secured another 6,000 soldiers to be commanded by General Rochambeau.

John Knox

was a Scottish minister, theologian, and writer who was a leader of the Reformation and is considered the founder of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland.

David Hume

was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, known especially for his philosophical empiricism and skepticism. He is regarded as one of the most important figures in the history of Western philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment. Beginning with his A Treatise of Human Nature (1739), Hume strove to create a total naturalistic "science of man" that examined the psychological basis of human nature. In stark opposition to the rationalists who preceded him, most notably Descartes, he concluded that desire rather than reason governed human behavior, saying: "Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions. Hume advocated a compatibilist theory of free will that proved extremely influential on subsequent moral philosophy. In addition, Adam Smith acknowledged Hume's influence on his economics and political philosophy.

Battle of Guilford Courthouse

was a battle fought on March 15, 1781 inside the present-day city of Greensboro, North Carolina. Following the Battle of Cowpens, Cornwallis was determined to destroy Greene's army. However, the loss of his light infantry at Cowpens led him to burn his supplies so that his army would be nimble enough for pursuit. He chased Greene in the Race to the Dan, but Greene escaped across the flooded Dan River to safety in Virginia. Greene re-crossed the Dan and camped at Guilford Court House. Even though Cornwallis only had 1,900 men to Greene's 4400, he still decided to give battle. Greene had prepared his defense resembling the deployment successfully used by Daniel Morgan at Cowpens. Cornwallis moved his men forward and broke through Greene's first two lines, but at a high cost to his men. Eventually, the Americans broke off and retreated from the field. The battle had lasted only ninety minutes, and although the British technically defeated the American force, they lost over a quarter of their own men. Greene reported his casualties as 79 killed, 185 wounded and 1,046 missing. With his small army, Cornwallis declined to follow Greene into the back country, but marched to Virginia

Cow pens

was a decisive victory by American Revolutionary forces under Brigadier General Daniel Morgan. General Cornwallis instructed Tarleton and his Legion, who had been successful at battles such as Camden and Waxhaw, to destroy Morgan's command. American commander Nathanael Greene had taken the daring step of dividing his army, detaching Morgan away from the main Patriot force. Morgan called Americans to gather at the cow pens (a grazing area), which were a familiar landmark. Tarleton attacked with his customary boldness but without regard for the fact Morgan had much more time to prepare. Tarleton was consequently caught in a textbook double envelopment.

Huldrych Zwingli

was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. Zwingli was a pastor and a believer of humanism and Erasmus. In 1519, Zwingli advocated to his flock reforming the Catholic Church. He attacked the custom of fasting during Lent, corruption in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, promoted clerical marriage, and attacked the use of images in places of worship. They met at the Marburg Colloquy and although they agreed on many points of doctrine, they could not reach an accord on the doctrine of the presence of Christ in the Eucharist.

Nathanael Greene

was a major general of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War, known for his successful command in the Southern Campaign, forcing British Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis to abandon the Carolinas and head for Virginia. When the war began, Greene was a militia private, the lowest rank possible; he emerged from the war with a reputation as George Washington's most gifted and dependable officer. Many places in the United States are named after him. Greene suffered financial difficulties in the post-war years and died in 1786.

Sons of liberty

was a secret organization of American patriots which originated in Boston. Sam Adams founded it in Boston with 22 original members. British authorities and their supporters, known as Loyalists, considered the Sons of Liberty as seditious rebels, referring to them as "Sons of Violence" and "Sons of Iniquity." Patriots attacked the apparatus and symbols of British authority and power such as property of the gentry, customs officers, East India Company tea, and as the war approached, vocal supporters of the Crown.

George Rogers Clark

was a soldier from Virginia and the highest-ranking American military officer on the frontier during the American Revolutionary War. captures of Kaskaskia (1778) and Vincennes (1779) during the Illinois Campaign, which greatly weakened British influence in the Northwest Territory. Because the British ceded the entire Northwest Territory to the United States in the 1783 Treaty of Paris, Clark has often been hailed as the "Conqueror of the Old Northwest".

John Winthrop

was a wealthy English Puritan lawyer, and one of the leading figures in the founding of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Winthrop led the first large wave of migrants from England in 1630, and served as governor for 12 of the colony's first 20 years of existence. His writings and vision of the colony as a Puritan "city upon a hill" dominated New England colonial development, influencing the government and religion of neighboring colonies.

Henry Knox

was an American bookseller from Boston who became the chief artillery officer of the Continental Army and later the nation's first Secretary of War. Knox was present at the Boston Massacre, and joined the Sons of Liberty, and served under General Artemas Ward at the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775. Knox offered his services to Washington, who had him commissioned a Colonel and gave him command of the Continental Regiment of Artillery. Washington and Knox soon became good friends. DRAGGED CANNONS 300 miles

Joseph Warren

was an American doctor, soldier, a member of the Sons of Liberty and the Committee of Correspondence.President of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, the highest position in the revolutionary government. His commission had not yet taken effect three days later when the Battle of Bunker Hill was fought. He fought in the redoubt, remaining until the British made their third and final assault on the hill. Warren was killed instantly by a musket ball in the head.

Paul Revere

was an American silversmith and a patriot in the American Revolution. He was glorified after his death for his role as a messenger in the battles of Lexington and Concord, and Revere's name and his "midnight ride" are well-known in the United States as a patriotic symbol. In his lifetime, Revere was a prosperous and prominent Boston craftsman, who helped organize an intelligence and alarm system to keep watch on the British military. Revere later served as an officer in the Penobscot Expedition, one of the most disastrous campaigns of the American Revolutionary War, a role for which he was later exonerated. After the war, he was early to recognize the potential for large-scale manufacturing of metal

John Jay

was an American statesman, Patriot, diplomat, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, signer of the Treaty of Paris, and first Chief Justice of the United States. served as the President of the Continental Congress, first Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court, cowrote the federalist with Hamilton and Madison

Edmund Burke

was an Anglo-Irish statesman, author, orator, political theorist, and philosopher who, after relocating to England, served for many years in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom as a member of the Whig party. He is mainly remembered for his opposition to the French Revolution. leading figure of the Whig party, which he dubbed the "Old Whigs", in opposition to the pro-French-Revolution "New Whigs" led by Charles James Fox. Burke lived before the terms "conservative" and "liberal" were used to describe political ideologies. Burke was praised by both conservatives and liberals in the nineteenth-century and since the twentieth-century he has generally been viewed as the philosophical founder of modern conservatism. Burke was born in Dublin, Ireland to a prosperous solicitor father who was a member of the Protestant Church of Ireland. In December 1765 Burke entered the British Parliament as a member of the House of Commons.

William Bradford

was an English leader of the settlers of the Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts, and was elected thirty times to be the Governor after John Carver died. His journal (1620-1647) was published as Of Plymouth Plantation. When Bradford was 12 years old, he became a believer in Separatism (extreme Puritanism/Calvinism) and befriended William Brewster. Brewster, 24 years older than Bradford, became a father figure to the young man. Brewster and Bradford's congregation decided in 1607 to leave England illegally for the Dutch Republic (where religious freedom was permitted). By the summer of 1608, however, the Scrooby congregation, including 18 year-old William Bradford, had managed to escape England in small groups and relocated in Amsterdam. In 1613, Bradford married Dorothy May, the daughter of a well-off English couple living in Amsterdam.

John Smith

was an English soldier, explorer, and author. He was a leader of the Virginia Colony between September 1608 and August 1609, and led an exploration throughout the region. Smith's books and maps may have been as important as his deeds, as they encouraged more Englishmen and women to colonize the New World. Smith left home at the age of sixteen and set off to sea. He served as a mercenary, trader, pirate, slave, and warrior. In 1606 Smith became involved with plans to colonize Virginia. Smith was reported to be a troublemaker on the voyage, and Captain Christopher Newport

John Wycliffe

was an English theologian, lay preacher, translator and reformist. Wycliffe was an early dissident in the Roman Catholic Church during the 14th century. His followers are known as Lollards, an Evangelical movement which preached a New Testament Gospel. Wycliffe was also an early advocate for the translation of the Bible in the common tongue. He completed his translation directly from the Vulgate into vernacular English in the year 1382, now known as the Wycliffe Bible.

Thomas Paine

was an author, pamphleteer, radical, inventor, intellectual, revolutionary, and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Born in England, Paine emigrated to the American colonies in 1774 at the suggestion of Benjamin Franklin. In January, 1775, he became editor of the Pennsylvania Magazine and published Common Sense on January 10, 1776. In three months, 100,000 copies sold throughout the colonies (with only two million free inhabitants), making it a best-seller. Paine's great contribution was in initiating a public debate about independence, which had previously been rather muted. Loyalists vigorously attacked Common Sense; and even some American revolutionaries objected to Common Sense. John Adams disagreed with the type of radical democracy promoted by Paine, and published Thoughts on Government in 1776 to advocate a more conservative approach to republicanism.

William III

was born in The Hague in the Dutch Republic on 14 November 1650. He was the only child of William II, Prince of Orange, and Mary, Princess Royal. Mary was the eldest daughter of King Charles I, and sister of King Charles II. Eight days before William's birth, his father died from smallpox; thus William was the Sovereign Prince of Orange from the moment of his birth. participated in several wars against the powerful Catholic king of France, Louis XIV, in coalition with Protestant and Catholic powers in Europe.

Alexander Hamilton

was born on the British West Indian island of Nevis. During the Revolution he joined the New York militia and was chosen as an artillery captain. He and his unit took part in the campaign of 1776 around New York City, particularly at the Battle of White Plains; at the Battle of Trenton, it was stationed at the high point of town, the meeting of the present Warren and Broad Streets, to keep the Hessians pinned in the Trenton Barracks. Hamilton was invited to become an aide to Nathanael Greene and to Henry Knox; however, he declined these invitations in the hopes of obtaining a place on Washington's staff. Hamilton did receive such an invitation, and joined as Washington's aide on March 1, 1777 with the rank of Lieutenant Colonel.

bunker hill

was fought on June 17, 1775, during the Siege of Boston in the early stages of the American Revolutionary War. The battle is named after Bunker Hill in Charlestown, Massachusetts, which was peripherally involved in the battle. It was the original objective of both the colonial and British troops, though the majority of combat took place on the adjacent Breed's Hill.

Ben Franklin

was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. Franklin was a leading author and printer, satirist, political theorist, politician, scientist, inventor, civic activist, statesman, soldier, and diplomat. As a scientist, he was a major figure in the Enlightenment and the history of physics for his discoveries and theories regarding electricity. He invented the lightning rod, bifocals, the Franklin stove, and a carriage odometer. He formed both the first public lending library in America and the first fire department in Pennsylvania. He was an early proponent of colonial unity, and as a political writer and activist, he supported the idea of an American nation. As a diplomat during the American Revolution, he secured the French alliance that helped to make independence of the United States possible. Franklin became a newspaper editor, printer, and merchant in Philadelphia, becoming very wealthy writing and publishing Poor Richard's Almanack and The Pennsylvania Gazette.

valley forge

was the military camp 18 miles northwest of Philadelphia [1] where the American Continental Army spent the winter of 1777-78 during the American Revolutionary War. Starvation, disease, malnutrition, and exposure killed more than 2,500 American soldiers by the end of February 1778.[2]

Catherine of Aragon

was the wife of Arthur, Prince of Wales, and Queen of England as the first wife of King Henry VIII. Henry's attempt to have their 24-year marriage annulled set in motion a chain of events that led to England's break with the Roman Catholic Church. Henry was dissatisfied because their sons died in infancy, leaving their daughter, the future Queen Mary I, as heiress presumptive, at a time when there was no established precedent for a woman on the throne. When Pope Clement VII refused to annul the marriage, Henry defied him by assuming supremacy over religious matters. This allowed him to marry Anne Boleyn on the judgment of clergy in England, without reference to the Pope. Catherine refused to accept Henry as Supreme Head of the Church of England and considered herself the King's rightful wife and Queen until her death.

Townshend Act

were a series of acts passed beginning in 1767 named for Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, who proposed the program. The purpose of the Townshend Acts was to raise revenue in the colonies to pay for governors and judges who would be independent of colonial control, to create a more effective means of enforcing compliance with trade regulations, to punish the province of New York for failing to comply with the 1765 Quartering Act, and to establish the precedent that the British Parliament had the right to tax the colonies. The Townshend Acts met with resistance in the colonies, prompting the occupation of Boston by British troops in 1768, which eventually resulted in the Boston Massacre of 1770.

Committees of correspondence

were bodies organized by the local governments of the Thirteen Colonies before the American Revolution for the purposes of coordinating written communication outside of the colony. In 1772 Sam Adams and his colleagues devised the system or network of committees of correspondence in the towns of Massachusetts. Committees of correspondence soon formed in the other colonies as well. These served an important role in the Revolution, by disseminating the colonial interpretation of British actions between the colonies and to foreign governments. The committees of correspondence rallied opposition on common causes and established plans for collective action, and so the group of committees was the beginning of what later became a formal political union among the colonies. As news during this period was typically spread in hand-written letters to be carried by couriers on horseback or aboard ships, the committees were responsible for ensuring that this news accurately reflected the views of their parent governmental body on a particular issue and was dispatched to the proper groups. Many correspondents were also members of the colonial legislative assemblies, and were active in the secret Sons of Liberty organizations