AMERICAN HISTORY VOLUME 1 CH7-14

Who benefited under Jacksonian democracy? Who suffered?

§ Middle class and lower class benefited o Jackson portrayed himself as a "common man" § Tariff of Abominations o North benefits o South suffers o Regionalism § Suffer o Women o Native Americans o Southerners o Upper class

Jefferson Davis

An American statesman and politician who served as President of the Confederate States of America for its entire history from 1861 to 1865

American Fur Company

Founded by John Jacob Astor in 1808; grew to monopolize the fur trade in the United States by 1830, and became one of the largest businesses in the country; worked south of the Columbia River in Oregon

What was the issue at stake in "Bleeding Kansas" and how did events in Kansas reflect growing sectional division between North and South?

"Bleeding Kansas" was a term used to describe the violent hostilities between pro and antislavery forces in the Kansas territory during the mid and late 1850s. The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 set the scene by allowing the territory of Kansas to decide for itself whether it would be free or slave state (popular sovereignty) i. With the passage of the act, thousands of pro- and anti-slavery supporters flooded the state. One of the most publicized events that occurred in Bleeding Kansas was when Border Ruffians ransacked Lawrence, Kansas, which was known to be a staunch free-state area. ii. One day later, violence occurred on the floor of the U.S. Senate when Congressman Preston Brooks of South Carolina attacked Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts with a cane after Sumner spoke out against Southerners responsible for violence in Kansas. iii. Another major outbreak of violence was when abolitionist John Brown gathered six followers and in one night, murdered five pro-slavery settlers, leaving their mutilated bodies to discourage other supporters of slavery from entering Kansas.

Seneca Falls Convention

(1848) the first national women's rights convention at which the Declaration of Sentiments was written

Sherman's March to the Sea

1864 General William Tecumseh Sherman led Union troops through Georgia Sherman and Union Commander, Ulysses S. Grant, believed in a "total war" that would break the South's psychological capacity to fight; Sherman's army sought to eliminate civilian support of Southern troops Sherman captured and burned Atlanta in September of 1864 The purpose of destroying Atlantic was to lose Southern morale and diminish supplies Sherman led troops to Savannah, then on to South and North Carolina

Ulysses S. Grant

18th President — 1869-1877 Fought in the Mexican War, captured Vicksburg as a Union general, and accepted General Lee's surrender Appointed Secretary of War by Andrew Johnson in 1867; disagreed with Johnson's policies and won election through support of Radical Republicans Despite his personal honesty and honor, his administration war marred by scandals such as Credit Mobilier and the Whiskey Ring

Texas Annexation

1845. Originally refused in 1837, as the U.S. Government believed that the annexation would lead to war with Mexico. Texas remained a sovereign nation. Annexed via a joint resolution through Congress, supported by President-elect Polk, and approved in 1845. Land from the Republic of Texas later bacame parts of NM, CO, OK, KS, and WY.

Monroe Doctrine

A statement of foreign policy issued by President James Monroe in 1823 declared that the United States would not tolerate intervention by European nations in the affairs of nations in the Americas and would consider any foreign challenge to the sovereignty of existing American nations an unfriendly act. Monroe also promised that the United States would not interfere with European colonies already established or with governments in Europe. The doctrine was influenced by America's relationship with Europe, and American feared that Spain's European allies would assist Spain in an effort to retake part of its lost empire, mainly Cuba. Adams wanted Cuba to fall to the Americans. The Monroe Doctrine was also an expression of the growing spirit of nationalism in the United States in the 1820s.

Compare Lincoln and Davis as heads of government and commander in chief.

Abraham Lincoln: i. He was a successful commander in chief because he realized that numbers and resources were on his side, and because he took advantage of the North's material advantages ii. He realized, too, that the proper objective of his armies was the destruction of the Confederate armies and not the occupation of Southern territory 1. Lincoln had a good grasp of strategy Jefferson Davis i. He was an unsuccessful president ii. He was a reasonably able administer and the dominating figure in his government, encountering littler interference from the generally tame members of his unstable cabinet and serving as his own secretary of war iii. He rarely provided genuinely national leadership

Amistad

Africans destined for slavery in Cuba had seized the ship from its crew in 1839 and tried to return it to Africa. But the U.S. navy had seized the ship and held the Africans as pirates. But with abolitionist support, legal efforts to declare the Africans free finally reached the Supreme Court, where the antislavery position was argued by former president John Quincy Adams. The court declared the Africans free in 1841 and antislavery groups funded their passage back to Africa.

Adams—Onis Treaty

Also known as the Transcontinental Treaty or the Purchase of Florida, was a treaty between the United States and Spain in 1819 that gave Florida to the U.S. and set out a boundary between the U.S. and New Spain (now Mexico).

Spoils System

Andrew Jackson embraced the philosophy of the 'Spoils System,' which was present in several state governments and seen in Tomas Jefferson's admiration. The system employed and promoted civil servants who were friends and supporters of the group in power. Jackson's administration made the 'Spoils System' a feature of American politics. An example is Martin Van Buren and Jackson's relationship.

What was Andrew Jackson's political philosophy, and how was it reflected in the policies and actions of the administration?

Andrew Jackson was a democrat, an anti-elitist, and embraced egalitarianism that was sweeping American life. Jackson worked to represent those who wanted to make the government responsive to the will of the people and not the power of special interests. Jackson ushered in the age of the common man, the two-party system, the Democratic Republican Party, dislike of the National Bank, When Jackson ran in the 1828 election, he was portrayed as a common man during the election being depicted as being uncorrupt, natural, and plain. At this time, all white men had access to the polls. Jackson believed in equal protection and equal benefits for all its white male citizens and favored no region or class over another. During Jackson's eight years as president, there was a formation of a two-party system. The two parties consisted of the Democratic Republican Party and the Whigs. Jackson and Jacksonian Democrats supported an attack on the privileged class, widening opportunities for the middle class, and opposed economic aristocracy. Jackson and his followers were vehemently against nullification and the national Bank. Jackson's presidency saw a solidification of the Spoils System and the formation of his 'Kitchen Cabinet.' The Spoils System was employing and promoting civil servants who were friends and supporters of the group in power. Jackson's 'Kitchen Cabinet' was an informal group of partisan supporters for advice while ignoring his appointed cabinet officers. Martin Van Buren was a member of the Kitchen Cabinet and then a part of the official cabinet. A defining part of Jackson's presidency was his fight with Nicholas Biddle, operator of the Bank of the United States, to close the National Bank. Their dispute would lead to a national recession. Jackson opposed the Bank because it was big and powerful, and he disputed its constitutionality. Jackson tried to abolish the Bank by vetoing a new charter put forward by Biddle to recharter the Bank before it actually expired in 1836. Biddle turned to Henry Clay and Daniel Webster for advice and support. Jackson's third secretary of the treasury Attorney General Roger B. Taney, removed the federal government's deposits from the Bank and put them into various state and local banks. This action destabilized the financial system, and the previous secretary of the treasuries refused to do it. Biddle, in return, tightened up on credit and called in loans, hoping for a retraction by Jackson, which never occurred. The recession caused by the bank war is referred to as the Panic of 1837. During this recession, hundreds of banks and businesses failed, while unemployment grew. There were also bread riots, falling prices of land, and failed railroad and canal projects. Meanwhile, some debt-ridden state governments ceased paying interest on their bonds. It is important to note that England and western Europe were in a panic of their own, leading to investors pulling out funds in America. Additionally, there were crop failures on American farms, which reduced farmers purchasing powers requiring larger imports. The Panic of 1837 fell under Martin Van Buren's presidency, and the Democrats paid the political price.

What was the significance of Andrew Jackson's victory in the election of 1828?

Andrew Jackson's victory was significant because of his different ideas and views on how America should be run was different than most of the preceding presidents. Andrew Jackson and his followers, the Democratic Republicans, had completely opposite views of those that followed John Quincy Adams, the National Republicans. Andrew Jackson will occupy the White House and restore liberty to the people and to the economy. Some people saw this time period under Jackson as the "era of the common man."

William Henry Harrison

As the 1840 campaign approached, the Whig party needed to settle on one national nominate. They chose William Henry Harrison over Henry Clay (he was too controversial). John Tyler of Virginia was picked to be Vice President. Harrison was elected the first Whig President in 1840, but before he had been in office a month, he caught a cold that developed into pneumonia. His nickname was "Old Tippecanoe" because he led the battle against the Shawnees at Tippecanoe.

Brook Farm

Brook Farm is the most famous of all nineteenth-century experiments in communal living with some inspiration from transcendentalism. Brook Farm was started by Boston transcendentalism George Ripley and established in West Roxbury, Massachusetts, in 1841. Individuals gathered to form a social organization where all residents shared equally in the community's labor for two reasons. First, so they could all share equally in leisure. The group thought leisure was the first necessity for cultivating the self. Second, manual labor helped individuals connect intellect and learning to instinct and nature. The conflict between individual freedom and the demands of communal society was the downfall of the society, which was dissolved by 1841.

Fredrick Douglass

Fredrick Douglass escaped slavery and became an outspoken abolitionist, spending two years in England exposing American slavery. When he returned to the United States in 1847, he purchased his freedom from his Maryland own and went on to publish his newspaper, the North Star. Douglass was in favor of the use of political methods of reform. His autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, in which he presented a damning picture of slavery. Douglass's voice helped Black abolitionists to become more influential and form an alliance with white, antislavery leaders like William Lloyd Garrison. He is considered the most significant African American abolitionist of all.

Assess the advantages of the North and those of the South at the beginning of the Civil War. How did the advantages of each side change throughout the war?

By the end of the Civil War, each side had lost thousands of their men and much of their morale, both the Union and the Confederate States of America had advantages through the beginning years of the war. The North had many advantages over the South. The North had more dominance over the Confederate States of America in available resources for war. The Union had the advantage of having a setup government and backing system to strategize and fund the war. Since most of the factories were located inside the remaining states of the Union, the North could manufacture and produce their supplies for war, while the South was less privileged in this sense. The Union also had four times the population of the Confederate States of America, which meant a more significant number of possible enlistees for war. In addition, almost seventy percent of the former nation's railroads were located inside the remaining Union, which helped the North spread their armies more efficiently than their counterpart. The navy was also an asset in moving supplies and soldiers. Additionally, the navy was used to set up a blockade of the southern coast. The Confederate States of America had some advantages themselves. For example, many military officers in the South, Robert E. Lee, had had experience fighting in previous wars, and many of the best officers from previous wars were in the South as well. The Confederacy was fighting a defensive war as well. Hence, the Confederate army was familiar with the territory that they were battling on, while Union soldiers were alien to the area. Additionally, the Confederacy had a large advantage because of their strong will to fight to stay out of the Union to keep slavery and way of life. As the war progressed, the Union continued to have the advantages of a more stable political system, a much larger population, a far more developed industrial economy, superior financial institutions, better railroad lines, and more established trade routes. The Union army was a strong force when Ulysses S. Grant took over for George McClellan. As for the Confederate States of America, they maintain the advantage of strong military leaders like Robert E Lee and Thomas Jackson. The advantage of home territory lasted for a bit until William Sherman started his March to the Sea. The souths lack of an established government, banking system, factories, and railroads played into their demise.

George McClellan

George McClellan was a northern general during the Civil War. He was the commander of the Army of the Potomac and the most controversial general of the war. McClellan seemed to never take advantage of opportunities to engage his troops in battle. He believed Washington would be safe as long as his army was advancing to Richmond. Unexpectedly, Thomas (Stonewall) Jackson made a rapid march north through Shenandoah Valley on his way to attack Washington. McClellan was finally removed from command after not attacking Lee's army with copies of his orders and not pursuing Lee's army on their retreat from the Battle of Antietam on September 17, 1862.

Deskilling

Deskilling occurred as the factory system threatened the lively hood of printers, masons, carpenters, and other artisans. Few artisans were able to transition to small-scale industry. New technology deskilled the role of textile workers and others, allowing them to be replaced by cheaper and less-skilled workers. As a result, factory goods were sold at a fraction of the cost of artisan goods. The displacement caused by an industrial movement led to workingmen political parties and American Labor Unions.

Dred Scott

Dred Scott, an enslaved person, was taken by his enslaver from Missouri (a slave state) to Illinois (a free state). After Scott had been returned to Missouri, he sued for freedom for himself and his family, stating that by residing in a free state, he had ended his slavery. Two of the three branches of government, Congress and President Buchanan, had failed to resolve the issue. Supreme Court Justus Judge Taney ruled that Scott did not have the right of citizenship, which he would need to be able to bring forth a suit, and further ruled that the Missouri Compromise itself was unconstitutional because Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the territories, as enslaved people were property. Missouri Compromise is now null and void because private property was taken from owners, so now slavery could expand. The Supreme Court decision was only accepted in the southern half of the country, widening the divide of the north and south.

Temperance

Evangelical Protestantism brought forth one of the most influential reforms; The Temperance Crusade, better known as the crusade against drunkenness. Women were very active in this growing crusade because they said alcoholism placed a unique burden on wives. As the movement gained in strength, it also became divided in purpose. Some temperance advocates now urge that abstinence includes liquor and beer and wine, and not everyone agrees. Some began to demand state legislation to restrict the sale and consumption of alcohol, and Maine passed a law in 1851. However, others insisted that temperance must rely on the individual's conscience. Reformers were attempting to promote the moral self-improvement of individuals because they wanted to impose discipline on society.

John Quincy Adams

He was the son of former president John Adams and became president himself in the election of 1824. He was the first minority president and was not liked by many, which subjected him to many hostilities leaving it near impossible for him to accomplish much as president. Quincy's election was said to have been accomplished by an agreement with Henry Clay to make him Secretary of State. This form of corruption plagued the country in its early days, but an effort was made to end it when Jackson was elected in a landslide during the 1828 election.

Compromise of 1850

Henry Clay led the charge in finding a compromise during the winter of 1849-1850. Multiple pieces of legislation were put together into a single piece which included: the admission of California as a free state, the formation of territorial governments in the rest of the lands acquired from Mexico without restrictions on slavery, the abolishment of the slave trade in the District of Columbia, and more effective fugitive slave laws. Arguments continued in two phases; phase one was dominated by the old men in Congress agreeing over the basis of broad ideas. Phase two was dominated by the voices of William Seward, Jefferson Davis, and Stephen Douglas, who were focused on what their sections of the country needed. Douglas controlled the conversation by breaking a large bill into a series of separate measures to be passed individually and then signed by the president.

Wilmot Proviso

In August 1846, the Mexican War was ongoing, and President James Polk asked Congress for $2 million to buy peace with Mexico. In response, Democrat Representative David Wilmot of Pennsylvania introduced an amendment to the appropriation bill. His amendment would become known as the Wilmot Proviso, which prohibited slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico. This amendment passed in Congress but failed in the Senate. President Polk was in favor of extending the Missouri Compromise line through new territories to the Pacific Coast. Out of these debates, a new political party emerged called the Free-Soil Party.

Fort Sumter

In January 1861, Fort Sumter was located on an island in the harbor of Charleston, controlled by a Major Anderson. South Carolina sent a commissioner to Washington to ask for the fort's surrender, but Buchanan refused to yield it. Buchanan ordered an unarmed merchant ship to proceed to the fort with additional supplies and troops. Confederate guns on shore fired at the vessel, the first shots fired between the North and South. The Union forces were running out of supplies; without fresh provisions, they would have to evacuate. Lincoln believed that if he surrendered Fort Sumter, his commitment to preserving the Union would no longer be credible. So, he sent a relief expedition to the fort, informing the South Carolina authorities that there would be no attempt to send troops or munitions unless the supply ships met with resistance. The new Confederate States of America felt to appear cowardly would be worse than being aggressive, so Commander Beauregard sent forces to take the island. Anderson refused to surrender the fort. Confederates then bombarded it for two days, April 12-13, 1861. On April 14, Anderson surrendered, and the Civil War began.

What events and issues led to the War of 1812?

In both the North and South, the threatened tribes mobilized to resist white encroachments. They began as well to forge connections with British forces in Canada and Spanish forces in Florida. The Indian conflict on land therefore became intertwined with the European conflict on the seas, and ultimately helped cause the War of 1812. First, a series of trade restrictions introduced by Britain to impede American trade with France, a country with which Britain was at war (the U.S. contested these restrictions as illegal under international law); second, the impressment (forced recruitment) of U.S. seamen into the Royal Navy; third, the British military support for American Indians who were offering armed resistance to the expansion of the American frontier to the Northwest; fourth, a possible desire on the part of the United States to annex Canada. An implicit but powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honor in the face of what they considered to be British insults (such as the Chesapeake affair).

How and why did white attitudes toward Naïve Americans change, and how did these changes lead to the Indian Removal Act and the Trail of Tears?

In the eighteenth century, many white Americans had considered the Indians"noble savages," people without real civilization but with an inherent dignity that made civilization possible among them. By the first decades of the nineteenth century, this vaguely paternalistic attitude (the attitude of Thomas Jefferson, among others) was giving way to a more hostile one, particularly among the whites in the western states and territories whom Jackson came to represent. Such whites were coming to view Native Americans simply as "savages," not only uncivilized but uncivilizable. Whites, they believed, should not be expected to live in close proximity to the tribes. White westerners favored removal as well because they feared that continued contact between the expanding white settlements and the Indians would produce endless conflict and violence. Most of all, however, they favored Indian removal because of their own insatiable desire for territory.

James Fenimore Cooper

James Fenimore Cooper was the first great American novelist, publishing over 30 novels in three decades. His work, along with his contemporaries in the nineteenth century, was a part of an effort to produce truly American literature. He became known for mastering adventure, suspense, and recreation of the American wilderness. Cooper was fascinated with man's relationship to nature and with the challenges and dangers of America's expansion westward. His works like the "Leatherstocking Tales" showcased American spirit and landscape with a central character who encompassed the independent individual with natural inner goodness. To juxtapose the main character were characters who embodied the vicious, landing-grabbing nature of the nation's western front, alluding to the need for social discipline in the wilderness.

Nullification

John Calhoun introduced the idea of nullification in his South Carolina Exposition and Protest. He argued that states which suffered from the tariff of 1828 had the right to nullify or override the law within their borders. Andrew Jackson proclaimed that nullification was treasonous and that the Constitution established "a single nation," not a league of states. Jackson strengthened the federal forts in South Carolina and ordered a warship and several revenue ships to Charleston. Henry Clay was newly elected to the senate and devised a compromise by which the tariff would be lowered gradually so that, by 1842, it would reach approximately the same level as in 1816. On March 1, 1833, the compromise was passed.

John C. Calhoun

John Calhoun was the Vice President of Andrew Jackson and a champion of the controversial constitutional theory of nullification. He argued that the Tariff of 1828 was unconstitutional, and adversely affected states had the right to nullify or override the law within their borders. Calhoun also argued that since the federal government was a creation of the states, the states, not the courts or Congress, were the final arbiters of the constitutionality of federal laws. While his ideas gained him some popularity among statesmen, it was not enough to keep Martin Van Buren, his political opponent, from becoming more influential than him. Calhoun resigned as Vice President in 1828, and Martin Van Buren was his successor.

Battle of Gettysburg

July 1-3, 1863 Lee invaded Pennsylvania from Virginia, pursued by Northern General Meade Lee was defeated and retreated to Virginia The bloodiest, most decisive of the Civil War Farthest northern advance of the Confederacy

Emancipation Proclamation

Lincoln made the emancipation proclamation effective January 1, 1863. This declared all enslaved people free in areas under rebel control but exempted conquered areas of the South. Lincoln was criticized for not abolishing slavery everywhere. The proclamation caused enslaved people in the South to leave their plantations and increased morale in the North. A part reason for issuing the proclamation was designed to keep England from joining the war on the side of the South. This act changed the perception of the war from a conflict of preserving the Union to a war to end slavery.

Manifest Density

Manifest Density was an ideology upheld by advocates of expansion in the 1840s. Manifest Density was based on the belief that God and history destined the United States to expand its boundaries over a vast area. Westward expansion was defended by citing the superiority of the 'American Race' (white people) over 'non-Americans.' There was disagreement in the movement on how far and by what means the nation should expand. Politicians like Henry Clay were nervous about expansion because they thought it would lead to controversy over slavery.

Martin Van Buren

Martin Van Buren was a Democratic-Republican Senator from New York. He became Andrew Jackson's Vice President after John Calhoun resigned. Van Buren soon established himself as a member of the official cabinet and the president's unofficial circle of political allies, known as the 'Kitchen Cabinet.' He would go on to be the eighth president of the United States and was president during the Panic of 1837. Unfortunately, his administration did little to fight the depression. One of his most important and controversial policies was creating a new financial system to replace the Bank. Van Buren's plan was known as Independent Treasury; the government would place its funds in an independent treasury at Washington and other cities' subtreasuries. Therefore, no private bank would have the government's money, effectively divorcing the banks and the government.

How did the Civil War affect the west?

Most of the states and territories of the American West were far removed from the major fighting, but they still played a continuing political, diplomatic, and military part in the conflict. Except for Texas, which joined the Confederacy, all the western states and territories remained officially loyal to the Union—but not without controversy and conflict i. Southerners and Southern sympathizers were active throughout the West ii. In some places there was actual combat between Unionists and secessionists 1. The same pro-slavery and free-state forces who had fought one another in the 1850s continued to do so, with even more deadly results In the beginning of the war, Confederate agents tried to negotiate alliances with the Five Civilized Tribes living in Indian Territory, in hopes of recruiting their support against Union forces in the West i. The Indians themselves were divided. Some wanted to support the South, both because they resented the way the U.S. government had treated them and because some tribal leaders were themselves slaveholders. But other Indians supported the North out of a general hostility to slavery. ii. One result of these divisions was something of a civil war within Indian Territory itself. Another was that Indian regiments fought for both the Union and the Confederacy during the war.

Nat Turner

Nat Turner was an enslaved preacher who led a slave rebellion in 1831 in Southampton County in Virginia. The group armed themselves with guns and axes, killing sixty white men, women, and children. The state and federal troops stopped the group. In the aftermath, a hundred black people were executed. Nat Turner led the only large-scale slave insurrection in the South during the nineteenth century. The rebellion further fueled fear of slave conspiracies which led to renewed violence against black people.

Nicholas Biddle

Nicholas Biddle was the president of the Second Bank of the United States. He had a tight money policy, and he struggled to keep the bank functioning when President Jackson tried to destroy it. Under the advice of Henry Clay and Danial Webster, he applied for a new charter for the Bank expired in 1836 in the United States, but Andrew Jackson vetoed it. Jackson opposed the Bank because it was big and powerful, and he disputed its constitutionality. Jackson removed the federal government's deposits from the Bank and put them into various state and local banks. Biddle, in return, tightened up on credit and called in loans, hoping for a retraction by Jackson, which never occurred. A recession followed the fighting of Biddle and Jackson.

Battle of Bull Run

On July 21, 1861, the Union and Confederate armies had a battle near Manassas Junction, Virginia. The First Battle of Bull Run was the first major land battle during the Civil War. After fighting for most of the day, the rebels assembled and were able to break the Union right flank, sending the Federals into a retreat towards Washington. The Confederate victory gave the South a confidence boost and shocked many people in the North, who then realized that the war would not be brief. The Battle of 2nd Bull Run took place in Northern Virginia in 1862. The confederates had stationed themselves in the woods and were ready to fight for the base. It was on August 29, 1862, when Pope's Union army clashed with Jackson's confederate army. Jackson's men refused to retreat and held their ground, but Pope's army had the victory. This battle proved to be the deciding battle of the Civil War campaign.

What is "romanticism" and how was it expressed in American literature and art?

One result of the conflicting attitudes towards America's expansion was the emergence of a broad array of movements intended to adapt society to its new conditions, to "reform" the nation. Many of these movements rested on an optimistic faith in human nature, a belief that within every individual resided a spirit that was basically good and that society should attempt to unleash. This assumption—which spawned in both Europe and America—was a movement known as romanticism. Romanticism emphasizes emotions and feelings over rationality. It is the reaction against the excesses of the Enlightenment and it led to a growing push for social reform. In literature, in philosophy, in art, even in politics and economics, American intellectuals were committing themselves to the liberation of the human spirit. The most important and popular American paintings of the first half of the nineteenth century set out to evoke the wonder of the nation's landscape. Unlike their European counterparts, American painters did not favor gentle scenes of carefully cultivated countrysides. They sought instead to capture the undiluted power of nature by portraying some of the nation's wildest and most spectacular areas—to evoke what many nineteenth-century people call the "sublime," the feeling of awe and wonderment and even fear of the grandeur of nature. American readers in the first decades of the nineteenth century were relatively indifferent to the work of their nation's own writes. But the effort to create a distinctively American literature—which Washington Irving and others had advanced in the first decades of the century—made considerable progress with the emergence of the first great American novelist: James Fenimore Cooper. What most distinguished his work was its evocation of the American wildness. Cooper retained throughout his life a fascination with man's relationship to nature and with the challenges (and dangers) of American's expansion westward. His novels were a continuation, in many ways a culmination, of the early-nineteenth century effort to produce a truly American literature.

How did Polk's decisions and actions as president intensify the sectional conflicts?

President James Polk supported the reoccupation of Oregon and the reanimation of Texas at the earliest practicable period and claimed that they were great American measurers. These were two points that got him elected to office as the eleventh president of the United States. Polk asserted the American claim to all of Oregon, which brought an end to the 1818 Treaty with Britain. On June 15, 1846, the Senate approved a treaty that fixed the boundary at the 49th parallel, where it remains today. As President Polk did not get as much more out of Oregon, and people got upset because he was focusing more on Texas and "supporting" slavery. Northerners turned their back on him, and Southerners began to love him. Polk's political opponents believed that his underestimation of the Mexican War's potential for disunion over the issue of slavery and his lack of concern with matters relating to the modernization of the nation would contribute to the further sectional crisis. President Polk underestimated how big of an issue slavery actually was in the country and the issues that could arise because of it. President Polk would end up giving more power to the south because he would expand into Mexico. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed on February 2, 1848, this was a treaty between Mexico and the United States in which Mexico gave up California and New Mexico and honored the Rio Grande as the border of Texas, and the United States paid $15 million to Mexico. The same old disagreements around slavery accompanied the new land. President Polk supported the proposal to extend the Missouri Compromise line through the new territories to the Pacific coast, therefore, banning slavery north of the line and permitting it south of the line. In Polk's final months of his presidency, he signed the individual pieces of legislation that would become known as the 1850 Compromise just before leaving office. The bills that admitted California as a free state formed territorial governments in the rest of the lands acquired from Mexico with no restrictions on slavery abolished the slave trade in the District of Columbia, and enacted more effective fugitive slave laws. The comprise was a victory for those who bargained in their self-interest. The comprise kept the nation together but the division surrounding slavery were still at large.

Battle of Antietam

September 17, 1862 A Civil War battle that offered the North an opportunity to defeat General Lee and shorten the war Northern General George McClellan had discovered detailed plans for Lee's entire operation but ignored the opportunity because of over-cautiousness Lee's army was forced to retreat to Virginia after a bloody battle at Antietam McClellan's failure to pursue Lee led Lincoln to remove him from command

How did religion affect movements, and what was the effect of these movements on religion?

Redefining gender roles: The Shakers made a redefinition of traditional sexuality and gender roles central to their society. They openly endorsed the idea of sexual equality; they even embraced the idea of a God who was not clearly male or female. Within the Shaker society as a whole, it was women who exercised the most power. The Shakers were not motivated only by a desire to escape the burdens of traditional gender roles. They were trying as well to create a society separated and protected from the chaos and disorder that they believed had come to characterize American life as a whole. Protestant revivalism: The Protestant revivalism was the movement that had begun with the Second Great Awakening early in the century and had, by the 1820s, evolved into a powerful force for social reform. Although the New Light revivalists were theologically far removed from the transcendentalists and Unitarians, they had come to share the optimistic belief that every individual was capable of salvation. The Temperance Crusade: Evangelical Protestantism added major strength to one of the most influential reform movements of the era: the crusade against drunkenness.

Know-Nothings

Rising from the tensions and prejudices of immigrants brought a rise to secret societies. The first of these secret societies were formed in 1837 and was called the Native American Association and originated in the Northeast. In 1845, an association of nativists held a convention in Philadelphia, forming the Native American Party. Many nativist groups joined together to form the Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner and adopted a strict code of secrecy. A secret password was used across the country to gain access to lodges. The password was "I know nothing," which is where the movement got its name of Know-Nothings. When this group turned to party politics in 1854, their significant vote won them control of Massachusetts. Know-Nothings supported banning Catholics or the foreign-born from holding public office, more-restrictive naturalization laws, and literacy tests for voting. The strength of the group declined by 1854.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

Signed February 2, 1848, this was a treaty between Mexico and the USA in which Mexico gave up California and New Mexico. They also had to honor the Rio Grande as the border of Texas. On the other side of this, the USA paid 15$ million to Mexico. This treaty ended the Mexican War.37. Wilmot Proviso - an antislavery politician from PA. Proviso was hired by Polk to try and make peace with Mexico in an attempt to end the Mexican war. He was paid 2$ Million and he introduced a new amendment to the antislavery bill surrounding Mexico. However, the bill never passed and this attempt was a failure

What was the Dred Scott decision? What was the decision's impact on the sectional crisis?

Supreme Court case involving a slave, Scott, who was taken by his master from Missouri, a slave state, to Illinois, a free state After Scott had been returned to Missouri, he sued for freedom for himself and his family, stating that by residing in a free state he had ended his slavery President Buchanan meant for the case's decision to serve as the basis for the slavery issue Pro-South Judge Taney ruled that Scott did not have the right of citizenship, which he would need to be able to bring forth a suit Ruled further that the Missouri Compromise itself was unconstitutional because Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the territories, as slaves were property The Scott decision would apply to all African Americans, who were regarded as inferior and, therefore, without rights. Two of the three branches of government, the Congress and the President, had failed to resolve the issue. Now the Supreme Court rendered a decision that was only accepted in the southern half of the country. i. The only remaining national political institution with both northern and southern strength was the Democratic Party, and it was now splitting at the seams. The fate of the Union looked hopeless. Missouri Compromise is now null and void because we were taking private property from owners (taking away slaves when they cross the line) so now slavery could expand.

American System

The American System was the base of Secretary of State Henry Clay's campaign for the presidential election of 1824. The American System was the proposal for creating a great home market for factory and farm producers by raising the protective tariff, strengthening the national bank, and financing internal improvements. When it became clear that Clay would not become president, he chose to support John Quincy Adams. He chose to support Adams because Adams was a devote nationalist and the most likely supporter of the American System. Adams was elected president and chose Clay to be his Secretary of State. Adams proposed a nationalist program reminiscent of Clay's American System, but the Jacksonians in Congress blocked most of the bill from passing.

What were the consequences of the War of 1812?

The Americans, and especially the Federalist party, faced severe blows as a result of the War of 1812. The United States army faced a great number of defeats against Great Britain. The federalist government, as a result, was oppressed and became unpopular in New England. The federalists tried to secede from New England, but their failed attempt led to the downfall of the Federalist party. The United States and Britain made peace offerings after the war was over. The Americans would no longer need impressments for the war, and recognized Canada as a separate nation from the United States. The British were so in debt that they did not need to buy territory from the United States, and would only request small territorial claims. These agreements were established in the Treaty of Ghent and signed on Christmas Eve of 1814. The English and American relationships improved; they were allowed to trade freely with Britain after the war. The British gave up their territory in the Great Lakes region and the border separating Canada and the U.S. became a large and unsettled frontier. The Native Americans had to cope with white expansion into their territories. They faced the worst consequences from the war, as they had no alliances and no right to defend their land.

Cult of Honor

The Cult of Honor was the southern male code of chivalry. Two systems upheld the Cult of Honor; one part being ideas of ethical behavior and bravery and the other part being a public appearance of dignity and authority. Also included were dueling, protecting women, and conventional courtesy and respect when dealing with white men. Southern men fiercely protected their honor, the most public example being South Carolina congressman Preston Brooks, who attacked Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts with his cane. Brooks was upheld as a hero and became very popular among southern men.

Lowell System

The Lowell System relied mostly on young unmarried women. The Lowell workers received clean boardinghouses, food, and generous wages. However, due to breaking social norms, workers were carefully supervised and required to attend church, and strict curfews were enforced. Compared to work in Europe, the Lowell System was vastly better. While the textile was competitive, it was not immune to the boom-and-bust cycle. Manufacturers sometimes found it hard to maintain the living and working standards; this led to Lowell mill works unionizing in 1834. The young women working the Lowell System were gradually moved out of the system by marriage, moving to other occupations, and immigrants who would work for lower wages.

Oregon country

The Oregon Country was a predominantly American term referring to a disputed ownership region of the Pacific Northwest of North America. The region was occupied by British and French Canadian fur traders from before 1810, and American settlers from the mid-1830s, with its coastal areas north from the Columbia River frequented by ships from all nations engaged in the maritime fur trade, most of these from the 1790s through 1810s being Boston-based. The Oregon Treaty of 1846 ended disputed joint occupancy pursuant to the Treaty of 1818 and established the British-American boundary at the 49th parallel.

Panic of 1819

The Panic of 1819 was an economic crisis. It was on the heels of high foreign demand for American farm goods and exceptionally high prices for the American farmer. European agriculture was disrupted at this time due to the Napoleonic Wars. Rising prices for farm goods stimulated a land boom in the western United States, where a bust followed risky land investments with soaring prices. The previous availability of easy credit for settlers and speculators caused the bust. In 1819 new management at the national bank was beginning to tighten credit and started calling in loans.

Why did the Lincoln issue the Emancipation Proclamation and what were its effects?

The Republican Party's unifying principle was that slavery should be banned from all the nation's territories and not permitted to spread any further to established states and Lincoln had a moral opposition to uphold this principle Effects: i. It led to slaves in the South leaving their plantations ii. Increased morale in the North iii. Kept England from joining the war on the side of the South iv. Changed perception of the war from a conflict to preserve the Union to a war to end slavery

Trails of Tears

The Trails of Tears was the trek of 'Five Civilized Tribes' for relocation. The five tribes are Cherokee, Creek, Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw. Beginning in the winter of 1838, the Cherokee Indians were the first to walk to "Indian Territory" (Oklahoma). An eighth or more of the Cherokees died before reaching the new territory. When they arrived, they named their walk "The Trail Where They Cried." Between 1830 and 1838, virtually all the "Five Civilized Tribes were forced from the southern states and to relocate to the new Indian territory.

Shakers

The United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing, aka the Shakers, is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Mother Ann Lee in the 1770s, the society of the Shakers survived throughout the 19th century into the 20th Attracted a large following in the antebellum period and established more than 20 communities throughout the Northeast and Northwest in the 1840s They derived their name from a unique religious ritual, a sort of ecstatic dance, I which members of a congregation would "shake" themselves free of sin while performing a loud chant

Indian Removal Act

The United States government worked steadily to negotiate treaties with southern tribes to move them to the west. The Removal Act was passed in 1830 to appropriate funds to finance federal negotiations with the southern tribes. The southern tribes were pressured by both federal and state governments; many tribes could not resist seceding their lands for token payments.

How did the U.S. population change between 1820 and 1840, and how did the population change affect the nation's economy, society, and politics?

The United States population increased rapidly between 1820 and 1840. In 1820 the population was 10 million people, and in 1840 the population was 17 million. There was a lot of population moving from the countryside into the industrializing cities of the Northeast and Northwest, and much of it was migrating westward. Three trends characterizing the American population boom were public health improvements, high birth rates, and increased immigration. One reason for this substantial population growth was improvements in public health. The number and ferocity of epidemics slowly declined, as did the nation's mortality rate as a whole. The population increase was also due to a higher birth rate. The average white woman bore 6.14 children in her lifetime in 1840. More children were expected to make it to adulthood than a generation or two before them. Wars choked off immigration in Europe and economic crises in America, which contributed little to the American population in the first three decades of the nineteenth century, but rapidly revived beginning in the 1830s, when the number of immigrants rose to 60,000 in 1832. In 1837, there were almost 80,000 immigrants. The influx of immigration was related to reduced transportation costs, increasing economic opportunities in the United States coupled with declining economic opportunities in Europe. The a significant increase in immigrant-led nativism beliefs. Nativism was a defense of native-born people (not actual Native Americans), and hostility to foreign-born people was usually combined with a desire to slow or stop immigration. The most known group was the Know-Nothings, which embraced land speculators, political leaders, industrialists, and employers because immigrants would work for less money. The population increase along with advances in technology, transportation, and communications systems capable of sustaining commencer over a sizeable geographical area led to the American Industrial Revolution. The most known advances in technology and transportation are steamboats, railroads, the telegraph, and the associated press. These advancements led to a better connect the Northern part of the country. Increased expansion and diversification of agriculture were also prevalent between 1820 and 1840. Thanks to transport improvements, famers now had the ability to ship goods to urban markets by rail from distant regions significantly increased the variety of food available in cities. However, it did not last long because agriculture in the Northeast after 1840 declined and transformed. The reason for the decline was that farmers of the section could not compete with the new and richer soil of the Northwest. This moved enters of production as they gradually shifted westward for many of the farm goods that had in the past been most important to northeastern agriculture.

Virginia Dynasty

The Virginia Dynasty refers to Thomas Jefferson's two terms in office, James Madison's two terms in office, and James Monroe's two terms. All three were from Virginia, holding office from 1800 to 1824. James Monroe chose John Quincy Adams, a New Englander and former Federalist, as his Secretary of State. This appointment suggested the Virginia Dynasty would end when John Quincy Adams became president. The assumption is based on Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe, all serving as Secretary of State before the coming president.

Whigs

The Whig Party opposed Jackson's leadership style and policies. It favored expanding the federal government's power, encouraging industrial and commercial development, and knitting the country together into a consolidated economic system. The Whigs presented themselves as opponents of aristocracy and exclusivity. They were cautious about westward expansion, fearful that rapid territorial growth would produce instability. Their vision of America was a nation embracing the industrial future and rising to world greatness as a commercial and manufacturing power. They were attacking the Democrats with the Democrats' issues. The Whig Party was more successful at defining its positions and attracting a constituency than uniting behind a national leader. Whigs tended to divide their loyalties among three figures, each of whom was so substantial a figure that together they became known as the "Great Triumvirate": Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John Calhoun.

How did the growing sectional crisis affect the nation's major political party?

The debates between slave state and free state interests raged in Congress i. Many people in the North and South began to mirror similar divisions, and these various political organizations began to combine into distinct camps. ii. The Republicans became the party of the North, promoting industry and business while also attracting the anti-slavery factions. 1. The core platform of the Republican Party was opposition to the expansion of slavery into new territories in order to protect the interests of yeoman farmers and industrialists seeking new land and investments. 2. Republicans come into power (northern democrats give them more votes) iii. The Democrats were split between North and South. Northern 1. Democrats hoped for a long-term compromise between slave and free states in new territories, while Southern Democrats demanded federal protections of slavery and threatened secession if Congress refused to meet their demands. 2. Split in the Democratic Party in the south

How did the War of 1812 stimulate the national economy?

The end of the War of 1812 allowed the United States to resume the economic growth and territorial expansion that, despite the Republicans' hopes for a simple agrarian society, had characterized the first decade of the nineteenth century. The War of 1812 stimulated the growth of manufacturing by cutting off imports, but it also produced chaos in shipping and banking, and it exposed dramatically the inadequacy of the existing transportation and financial systems. The wartime experience also underlined the need for another national bank.

Robert E. Lee

The general of the Confederate troops Was defeated at Antietam in 1962 when he retreated across the Potomac; this halt of Lee's troops justified Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation Was defeated at Gettysburg by General Mead's Union troops Surrendered to General Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865

What were the aims of the women's movement of the 19th century? How successful were women in achieving these goals?

The reform ferment of the antebellum period had a particular meaning for American women. Women played central roles in a wide range of reform movements and particularly important roles in the movements on behalf of temperance and the abolition of slavery. In the process, they expressed their awareness of women's problems in a male-dominated society. Women in the 1830s and 1840s suffered not only all the traditional restrictions imposed on members of their sex by society, but when the doctrine of separate spheres became prominent, family-like transformed. The separate sphere was based on the idea that women and men are inherently different, biology determines gender roles, and women should avoid the public sphere. As a result, many women who began to involve themselves in reform movements in the 1820s and 1830s came to look at such restrictions with rising resentment. Many feminists were also Quakers. Quakerism had long supported the idea that the sexes were equal and tolerated the emergence of women as preachers. Women who were raised in Quaker communities were taught to expect the absence of gender-based restrictions; therefore, when they left the community, they resented the restrictions put on them. One prominent Quaker feminist was Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who helped draft the Declaration of Sentiments. Other notable women in the feminist movement were the Grimke sisters, Sarah and Angelina. They were born in South Carolina and were outspoken abolitionists. Men claimed their activism and actions were inappropriate for their sex. The Grimke sisters argued that men and women were created equal. They also spoke about both sexes being moral and accountable begins; therefore, whatever is suitable for a man to do was also right for a woman. Margaret Fuller was also a women's rights advocate associated with the American transcendentalism movement and journalist. She drew issues of gender into the larger discussion of individual liberation. Because she was a transcendentalist and close associate of Ralph Waldo Emerson, she suggested an essential relationship between the discovery of the self, which was so central to antebellum reform, and the questioning of gender roles. A group of American female delegates, rejected at a world antislavery convention in London, began drawing parallels between the plight of women and the plight of enslaved people. In 1848, they organized a convention in Seneca Falls, New York, to discuss the question of women's rights. The "Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions" was created at the convention, which stated that "all men and women are created equal" and that women no less than men have certain inalienable rights. Women should have the right to vote. While women would not receive the right to vote until 1920, the feminist movement benefited from their association with reform movements like abolitionism.

"Burned Over District"

The religious scene in the western and central regions of New York in the early 19th century, where religious revivals and Pentecostal movement of the Second Great Awakening took place The term was coined by Charles Grandison Finney The name was inspired by the notion that the area had been so heavily evangelized as to have no "fuel" left over to "burn"

What were the reasons for the rise of sectional differences in this era? What were made to resolve these differences? How successful were those attempts?

The rise of sectional differences in this era was caused by what Jacksonians called the Corrupt Bargain and the Missouri Compromise. The Corrupt Bar as a result of Andrew Jackson receiving more popular and electoral votes than any other candidate but not being elected president. The Missouri Compromise came about because of differences between the North and the South over slavery. When Missouri applied for admission to the Union in 1819, slavery was already established throughout the territory. The Tallmadge Amendment was a bill that would prohibit the further introduction of slaves into Missouri and provide slow emancipation of those already there. The bill provoked controversy that lasted for two years. Also, the addition of Missouri as a 'free' state would mean that Maine's admission would like to be blocked because that would be two free states adding to the Union. Therefore, upsetting the balance of 11 free and 11 slave states. The Senate agreed to admit Maine as a free state and Missouri as a slave state. Congress went on to adopt the Thomas Amendment prohibiting slavery in the rest of the Louisiana Purchase territory and averting a sectional crisis for a time. The votes for this compromise were based on sectional lines. The Missouri Compromise was successful at the time because it appeased most people. However, over time as nationalism grew, so did sectionalism. After a while, The Missouri Compromise was ineffective. In the presidential election of 1824, the King Caucus was overthrown. Four candidates in the election were Republican nominee William H. Crawford, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, Speaker of the House Henry Clay, and Andrew Jackson. Jackson received more popular and electoral votes than any other candidate, but he did not have the majority. Jackson had 99 electoral votes, Adams's had 84, Crawford's had 41, and Clay's 37. The Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution required the House of Representatives to choose among the three candidates with the largest numbers of electoral votes. Crawford was ill and not a serious candidate. Jackson was a political rival to Clay, so he sided with Adams, which allowed Adams to win the election in the House. The Jacksonians believed large popular and electoral votes entitled their candidate to the presidency. They were furious when he lost and grew angrier when Adams named Clay his Secretary of State. Corrupt Bargain was a term created by Jacksonians to taunt Adams throughout his presidency. Attempts to unify the Southern and Northern states in what is now known as the Missouri Compromise was successful in the short term. Jacksonians remained enraged throughout the presidency of John Quincey Adamas. In the large scheme, attempts to unify the nation were unsuccessful.

War with Mexico

The war with Mexico had several causes. The new Mexican republic would not address the grievances of United States citizens, who claimed property losses and personal injuries resulting from conflicts during the Mexican revolution. Additionally, Mexico and the United States were in dispute over their border, with the United States saying it was the Rio Grande and Mexico insisting it was the Nueces River. The United States had aided Texas in its revolt against the Mexican government, and there was growing momentum toward a United States annexation of Texas. Manifest Destiny led to an increased American interest in Mexican-held Western territory. When Congress annexed Texas, Polk sent John Slidell to negotiate a settlement for that land, California, and western Mexico territory; the Mexican government first rejected Slidell, but the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 gave the United States land originally sought by Slidell and ended the war.

Tariff of Abominations

This was an open protest of the new Tariffs established by Jackson for the south who felt that they were being cheated by the northern states. This was partly true as it heavily taxed the southern crops while not impacting the northern states very much. So protest broke out, especially in South Carolina, which went as far as threatening to separate from the Union. Although this bill angered the Southerners because of the finical impact, the real issue was further dividing between North and South. This time it was there economies because of the successful industries of the north the Southerners felt that the real issue behind the tariff was the abolition of slavery.

Oneida Community

Utopian community established in upstate New York in 1848 by John Humphrey Noyes and his followers. One of the more radical utopian communities established in the nineteenth century, it advocated "free love," birth control, and eugenics. Utopian communities reflected the reformist spirit of the age.

Panic of 1837

When Jackson was president, many state banks received government money withdrawn from the Bank of the U.S. These banks issued paper money and financed wild speculation, especially in federal lands. Jackson issued the Specie Circular to force the payment for federal lands with gold or silver. Many state banks collapsed as a result. The recession caused by the bank war is called the Panic of 1837. During this recession, hundreds of banks and bossiness failed, while unemployment grew. There were also bread riots, land prices falling, and failed railroad and canal projects. It is important to note that England and western Europe were in a panic of their own, leading to investors pulling out funds in America. Additionally, there were crop failures on American farms, which reduced farmers purchasing powers requiring more significant imports.

Corrupt Bargain

When the 1824 election ended without any candidate receiving a majority in the Electoral College, the House of Representatives awarded the election to John Quincy Adams. Andrew Jackson's outraged supporters claimed that a corrupt bargain had been struck whereby Henry Clay supported Adams in the House vote in return for the office of secretary of state. The corrupt bargain later resulted in Andrew Jackson being elected in the election of 1828 in a landslide because rigorous campaigning on how unfair it was that he had won the popular vote but Adams had been elected becoming the first minority president.

William Lloyd Garrison

William Lloyd Garrison brought new support to the antislavery movement. He opened the newspaper, The Liberator, in 1831 to espouse his views that enslaved people should be immediately emancipated, which varied from other antislavery advocates of the 1830s and 1840s who proposed a gradualist approach to ending slavery. Garrison also spoke out against colonization, saying they were not emancipationists, but their real aim was to strengthen slavery by removing already free African Americans from the country. In 1832, he founded the Anti-Slavery Society in New England, and in 1833 founded the American Anti-Slavery Society. In 1838, over 1,350 chapters of these societies were established. The antislavery movement was gaining more strength than any other point in the country's past.

William T. Sherman

William Sherman was commander of the Union forces in western GA, who would advance east toward Atlanta and destroy the remaining Confederate force. He took Atlanta on September 2, 1864. Then he began his famous March to the Sea, where he went almost unstopped until he was well inside North Carolina. Sherman believed in "total war," meaning that war should be made as horrible and costly as possible for the opponent. He wanted to break the South's psychological capacity to fight and eliminate civilian support for Southern troops. The result was the army living off the land, destroying supplies it could not use, and making a sixty-mile-wide swath of desolation across Georgia.

John Brown

a. Brown and his sons killed five pro-slavery settlers in Kansas in an incident known as the "Pottawattamie Creek Massacre" (1856) b. He was supported by some Northern abolitionists in order to start a countrywide revolution c. He led followers to seize a federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, hoping to start the rebellion (1859) d. Brown was arrested and hanged e. Brown was often referred to as "God's Angry Man"

Kansas-Nebraska Act 1854

a. Legislation introduced by Stephen Douglass to organize the area west of Missouri and Iowa b. One goal was to facilitate the building of a transcontinental railroad that ran west from Chicago c. Called for two territories to be created (Kansas and Nebraska) and the issue of slavery to be decided by popular sovereignty d. The act revoked a provision of the Missouri Compromise, allowing everything above 36°30' to be free e. Kansas's status was impacted by fighting between pro- and anti-slavery groups who moved to the area f. The conflict was termed "Bleeding Kansas"

Mormons

a. Religion founded by Joseph Smith Jr. b. Smith c lamed to have received sacred writing; he organized the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints c. Smith described a vision from God in which God declared specific tenets of Christianity to be abominations d. Because of these claims and unusual practices such as polygamy, Mormons were shunned e. Eventually, Mormons formed community near Great Salt Lake under Brigham Young's leadership f. Settlement became the State of Utah

Civil Disobedience

the refusal to comply with certain laws or to pay taxes and fines, as a peaceful form of political protest. A form of political participation that reflects a conscious decision to break a law believed to be immoral and to suffer the consequences.