American Homicide Discussion Question 2-7
What are some factors of various criminology theories that may help prevent homicides? What are the policy implications of these theories?
** know each theory and basically to prevent the homicide is by preventing putting yourself in that situation. For example to prevent getting raped or killed walking home from a bar at 3am alone you could order an uber or not go alone. The implications to this would be people just aren't quite that smart.
What standards must a theory meet in order to be usable by researchers and policymakers?
A theory in science must be testable, and this certainly sets it apart from mere opinion, conjecture, and the like. To be testable, there must be a viable and ethical way to gather data and measure it. The research gathered must be examined to see if it supports the theory. If not, the theory is not correct. Another aspect of scientific theories, especially perhaps in the social sciences, is that findings from one study or research effort to another on the same question may be inconsistent. Some studies may support a theory while others do not fully support the theory or show no support whatsoever. This leads to many people assessing the weight of the existing evidence. Theory and research can be thought of through the experiential learning cycle lens of What? So what? and Now what? Selection of a topic or phenomenon to study is in response to some issue appearing on someone's agenda. The parameters of what is to be studied are established as the what. Recognition by others or agreement on the relevance or value of studying the topic or issue satisfies the So what? question. The connection of theory and research to policies and practices is when criminologists, criminal justice specialists, and policymakers address Now what? Policy analysis and evaluation research offers the additional step (among others) of determining whether an intervention achieved some level of effectiveness. Ideally, modifications will then be made as needed and a new iteration will begin.
Which demographic group by age and race is most represented as homicide victims and offenders?
AFRICAN AMERICAN MEN 18 and over - The majority of murders are intraracial. That is, both the victim and the offender are of the same race. This is not apparent in either the news media coverage decided on by news outlets or in the fictional crime dramas of television and movies. An African American, for example, is disproportionately more likely to be the victim of a homicide. An African American is also more likely to be the victim of a violent assault. In explaining why whites are less likely to be victims of homicide than blacks, many researchers identify the ability of whites to live in "better" neighborhoods, away from crime. Whites can be segregated from blacks by seeking out these living situations. The concentrated advantage and, conversely, the group disadvantage may result from the continuous segregation of blacks and whites in U.S. society as well as the separation of those in differing socioeconomic classes. A common misperception about victimization is that the elderly are victimized at a higher rate than other age groups. Some people may see this as natural or logical since we assume people are more vulnerable to physical attack as they get older. This notion of vulnerability to violent victimization is appealing but does not account for the realistic intrusion of the general habits (routine activities) of various demographic groups.
While the United States does not have the world's highest homicide rate, it ranks top among Western nations. What are some of the countries with higher rates of homicide?
According to the Intentional Homicide Rate per 100,000 select countries diagram in the book, there are 3 different rates from the year 2000, 2005, and 2010. The United States is actually the lowest rate with 5.5 in 2000, 5.6 in 2005, and 4.7 in 2010. Mexico is right behind it with 10.3 in 2000, 9.0 in 2005, and 21.8 in 2010. The highest crime rate in 2000 was performed in Columbia with 66.5 which dropped to 32.3 in 2010. In 2005 the highest was 62.4 which was Jamaica and El Salvidore was right below it with 6.2. In Honduras the crime rate was 81.8 in 2010. It jumped from 50.9 in 2000, to 46.6 in 2005, and practically doubled 5 years later.
How does the cycle of violence apply to family violence?
As with cases of intimate partner violence (IPV), other forms of family violence are often explained (in part at least) by what is called the cycle of violence and the intergenerational transmission of violence. The cycle of violence describes a pattern of abuse. The pattern progresses through phases of tension building, acting out, reconciliation, and calm. As discussed in the chapter on intimate partner homicide, the acting-out phase can signal the most dangerous time for lethal violence. Family members, such as children, exposed repeatedly to the cycle of abuse or violence cannot help but be affected. The intergenerational transmission of violence concept explains that behaviors, including violent behavior, are passed from one generation to the next as the accepted or expected norms of a family. The abuse or harsh treatment of children in a family does not create a certainty of future abusive behavior toward others, yet it is a risk factor. The abuse-violence association has been noted in the case histories of murderers, notably ones who killed their parents.
What improvements are needed in data collection to improve the accuracy and completeness of the data?
Concerns exist about missing or inaccurate data. Some inaccurate classification of deaths occurs based on lack of evidence to support identifying a death as a criminal homicide. In a significant percentage of murder cases, the offender is unknown, and this leaves police and researchers without important information. Improvements in data gathering include developing strategies to encourage states and individual agencies to contribute information to the Supplemental Homicide Report. The UCR, SHR, and NIBRS all suffer some level of inaccuracy. While the gathered data are comprehensive, they suffer from several limitations. First, the data represent only crimes reported to law enforcement. Many crimes are never reported to officials, for various reasons. Some people fear retribution, some want to handle the matter themselves, some do not want to trouble police with seemingly trivial crimes, or they believe the police will not do anything about their report. Second, of those crimes reported, the FBI currently uses what is known as the hierarchy rule for UCR reported crime. This means that only the most serious offense within an incident reported to local law enforcement will be tabulated in the UCR. Therefore, if during the course of a murder, the offender stole a car, broke into a home, kidnapped the eventual victim of the homicide, and also raped her, the UCR will only count the murder. However, if the subject is caught, he will likely be charged with all the various crimes, and these will be tabulated in the UCR as cases cleared by arrest. A third problem is the UCR providing only crime data by certain groupings and not by individual community. The use of such aggregate reports in policy formulation is currently necessary but must be used with a cautionary note.
Describe and discuss the effects criminological theory has on court proceedings.
Criminological theory is also situated in the current times. We build upon the efforts of past observers and recognize that future researchers will do the same to our work. How we think about crime causation influences how we believe we should proceed in controlling crime. How we currently view the state of the American family may influence how some people (and policymakers) believe crime control methods should be fashioned. To what extent others see the economy affecting the choices made by people to commit crime is another example. Again, social context has a significant impact on what we do about crime. Comparative studies that look at multiple cultures or periods of time are also instructive.
How should criminologists approach the causation of homicide?
Criminologists study homicide in micro and macro ways, including the examination of the individual offender, examination of the area or society in which offender and victim live, and analysis of the various factors involved in individual cases. As we pursue one general line of inquiry or another, we must remember that violent behavior—all behavior—is complex and not to be categorized simplistically. How we think about crime causation influences how we believe we should proceed in controlling crime. How we currently view the state of the American family may influence how some people (and policymakers) believe crime control methods should be fashioned. To what extent others see the economy affecting the choices made by people to commit crime is another example. Again, social context has a significant impact on what we do about crime. Comparative studies that look at multiple cultures or periods of time are also instructive.
What are the limitations of the various national crime data sources?
Data limitations are expected in the gathering of data. "Despite the SHR's widespread use by researchers and policy-makers alike, these data are not completely without their limitations, the most important of which involves missing or incomplete incident reports." Fox and Swatt (2009) talk about how the use of supplemental homicide reports by the FBI have been a valuable source of information regarding certain trends and patterns in homicide. There are concerns with the reliability of these data due to incompleteness and the lack of mandatory reporting. If information in reports is missing, cases may not be completely resolved, and they may be incorrectly categorized. A study by Pampel and Williams (2000), addressed the SHR data problems that often result from "the failure to file, inconsistent filing of reports to the FBI by local police agencies, or incomplete records ... even when reports are filed" There are certainly current limitations of NIBRS. One significant limitation is that not all states have this system in place. Further, not all of the law enforcement agencies in those states participate in the system. Without having this system in place universally, it is hard to measure the clearance rates that need to be determined (Chilton & Jarvis, 1999)
How can agencies utilize lethality assessment to improve outcomes for battered persons?
Dr. Jacquelyn Campbell, a faculty member at the Johns Hopkins School of Nursing. She has worked for decades in refining and developing a tool for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners to use to help victims assess their own risk for lethal violence. The tool is intended to be used by a trained advocate to help victims take steps to protect themselves and is based on a growing body of research that indicates the factors most associated with lethal violence in domestic violence situations. Initially, a 15-item danger assessment was developed to help previously battered women assess their danger of being murdered by an intimate or ex-intimate partner (Campbell et al., 2009), but the tool has been updated to include more questions. Dr. Campbell and her team have also been conducting evaluation research funded by the National Institute of Justice across the country to test the validity of another lethality tool, the Lethality Screen, which is an evidence-based assessment tool used by law enforcement and that includes a process for referral to trained victim advocates for high-risk victims.
How can we reduce the potential for homicide and violence attributed to confrontational situations? What are the policy implications?
Education programs in the K-12 setting can take the form of both social awareness and driver education training. Such training can sensitize young people not only to the dynamics of confrontational violence but the quick and sometimes deadly consequences of reacting to trivial friction, especially when alcohol is involved. From a theoretical perspective, subcultural violence and differential association theory can partly explain violent responses. The expectations of peers and saving face in front of an audience often have a multiplier effect on the emotions driving the behavior of the combatants. Educational approaches focused on immediately diffusing an honor contest, audience mitigation of such contests, the impact of alcohol on behavior, and early driver awareness of dangerous practices may yield a reduction of confrontational violence and homicide.
What role does research have in understanding and reducing crime and homicide?
Greater understanding of killing is helpful to researchers as they investigate the causes and motivations of people harming one another. Insights into motivations and patterns of behavior can aid criminal investigators as they seek evidence to offer the courts about who is accountable for taking a human life. Research and data can be a tremendous aid to legislators and other policymakers as they attempt to craft legislation and programs to prevent violence in society. Citizens have their own reasons for watching news programs and entertainment shows that focus on murder. Sometimes studying a topic can better prepare us to deal with such matters or lower our risk of becoming a victim. We also mentioned that it seems part of the human psyche to want to experience fear, even if vicariously.
What has happened to the involvement of girls and women in violent crime, including murder, in the last 20 years? What does this mean for society?
In 2012, 11.3% of those arrested for murder and non-negligent manslaughter were women, and 22.9% of those arrested for aggravated assault were women. In 2002, females arrested for murder constituted 7% of known offenders, 17.7% for aggravated assault (FBI, 2003). This includes crimes of violence and murders perpetrated by females in American society. Women have made gains in social and economic domains vis-à-vis men. Some patriarchal effect may still result in fewer women being killed by criminal homicide than men. Women are victims of violent crimes, though research continues to show that a woman in our changing world is still less likely to be a victim of murder than a man.
List and discuss several risk factors that appear to contribute to intimate partner homicide.
In the study by Breitman et al., it was found that if a man is at least 16 years older than his female partner, the risk is greater; it is also greater if the female is at least 10 years older than the man. The researchers also found in their sample of intimate partner homicide cases other factors that may affect risk, including race; socioeconomic status; marital status and the length of a relationship; substance use or abuse, including alcohol; and, unsurprisingly, the availability of weapons. In some cases of intimate partner homicide, the act is followed by the suicide of the perpetrator, though it has been found that this is more common among older individuals than those under 40 (Lund & Smorodinsky, 2001). The excessive use of alcohol and recreational drugs has been observed as a risk factor in IPV. Relationship problems, jealousy, and a lack of social support have also been noted
Discuss the dynamics of familicide.
Most commonly the homicide of an intimate partner and at least one child. There are two major motivations for familicide: anger and revenge for a partner threatening to leave or leaving and the male believing he is saving family members from from a future disappointment. Sometimes considered a mass killing due to at least 2 murders and amount of family members killed. Familicide is a statistically rare event. The first is a response of anger and revenge for a partner leaving or threatening to leave. The second motivation finds the male believing he is "saving" family members from a future of disappointment and destitution following, typically, a setback or series of setbacks he has encountered. Thus, he kills them and himself. These multiple murders often involve the suicide of the killer after he has murdered family members (Alder & Polk, 2001; Wilson, Daly, & Daniele, 1995). This has been referred to as intimate partner homicide-suicide The clusters developed from the preceding factors consisted of two that have been examined by various researchers and two more offered by Liem and Reichelmann for future research. The clusters respectively are despondent fathers, spousal revenge, extended parricide, and diffuse conflict. The clusters offer important focal points to help broaden our understanding of familicide, including the impact on and inclusion of secondary victims
How does feminist theory contribute to our understanding of intimate partner homicide?
Most cultures have been or are patriarchal, and as such, societies accept or at least recognize some of the historically designated roles and behaviors of men and women. Inequality of the sexes has resulted in power imbalance in opposite-sex relationships and explains part of the domineering treatment of women by men. The physiological weakness of women vis-à-vis men introduces consideration of a biological connection for theoretical examination. Literature too numerous to review informs us about the acceptance, approval, and encouragement of male aggressiveness in society. This biological and psychological state of affairs is a backdrop to the abuse of women, even where there are a small percentage of cases where a woman is the physical abuser of her partner. Same-sex partner abuse and cases of female-perpetrated violence show the limitations of feminist theory.
What are the sources of homicide information?
Once a determination is made of the manner of death, usually by the medical examiner or coroner, law enforcement will include the incident within the reporting forwarded to the state's reporting agency. The information is subsequently collected by the Uniform Crime Reporting Program. In homicide cases, there are secondary sources of data that provide additional information. These include the Supplemental Homicide Report (SHR) of the FBI, the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), the National Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS), and the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The UCR reports that are generated are aggregations of 12-month data submitted by the various states.
Discuss one of the types of parricide.
Parricide typically has just one victim. To be sure, there are notable examples of more than one child taking part in the murder of a parent as well as a child or children killing both parents. The killer is often the adult child of his victim (Heide & Petee, 2007). Some patricides are not initially identified as such because a scene may be staged to appear as suicide or a claim of self-defense is made (Campobasso, Laviola, Grattagliano, Strada, & Dell'Erba, 2015). Hart and Helms (2003) also examined and compared cases of parricide involving adolescent offenders to the adult children of victims. In their research, they noted that the characteristics of adolescent parricide offenders differed from juveniles who killed strangers. Their argument proposes consideration of battered child syndrome as a basis for a legal selfdefense claim by juvenile offenders. While this policy consideration would be a state-bystate matter, it continues an important discussion of the differences in maturity and psychosocial development between children and adults.
Explain why eliminating honor killings is particularly challenging.
So-called honor killings evoke an image of a religious or ethnic cultural practice that aspires to legitimacy not due to it. The dynamics of the interactions between, typically, a female family member, most likely a daughter, and, generally, the patriarch or father of the family shows the same pattern of controlling dominance exhibited across most cultures when someone is psychologically abused in a relationship. This assertion of unquestioned power and the dramatic, uncivilized action of killing one's child or relative does not logically invite a debate over modernity. Rather, all cultures should view such killings as the murders they are under criminal code and contemporary religious beliefs. Immigrant communities in the United States see instances of this type of homicide typically in first- or second-generation immigrants. Terman states that while law enforcement needs specific training in regard to honor-based violence, policymakers need to understand the topic so as to respond effectively to this form of violence that stems from longtime cultural practices. Women from various cultures, ethnic backgrounds, and religious practices are rightly proud of their identity and choices. It is important that we not get caught up in unfair and inaccurate stereotyping and risk losing sight of fundamentally abusive practices against girls and women, including murder. Kremen (2014) points out that honor-related violence remains present around the world and continued legal changes are in order. The United Nations cites as many as 5,000 honor killings around the world each year while noting these are just the reported instances.
In what ways does social learning theory connect to intergenerational transmission of violent behavior?
Social learning sees individuals as rationally acting in their own interests, including controlling family members. The theory is also used to explain intergenerational transmission of such behaviors to children, who observe and adopt the practices of abusive and abused parents. Some connection has also been found to IPV for some males who had witnessed or been subjected to physical or sexual abuse in childhood
Can unofficial sources of information help researchers?
The NCHS is an example of an official source but there are two categories of unofficial data sources: social-science and private-agency records. The first of these is much more important and useful. Among the social-science sources, there are two major, significant measures, both utilizing survey methods. The first is self-reports of criminal involvement, which were initially used in the 1940s to "expose" the amount of hidden crime. The second is surveys of victimization, the most recent and probably the most important and influential of the unofficial crime statistics. Victimization surveys were initiated in the mid-1960s to "illuminate"-that is, to specify rather than simply to expose—the dark figure and to depict crime from the victim's perspective. There are also two minor, much less significant sources of social-science data: observation studies of crime or criminal justice, and experiments on deviant behavior. Among the sources of private-agency records are those compiled by firms or industries to monitor property losses, injuries, or claims; by private security organizations; and by national trade associations. The focus here will be on the social-science sources of unofficial crime statistics, particularly victimization and self-report surveys.
How have the rates of intimate partner homicide changed in the last 25 years and why?
The U.N. report found that women account for the majority of deaths in domestic-violence homicides. An international comparison of 66 countries found that, overall, 13.5% of homicides were committed by intimate partners, and the proportion of female homicides to male homicides was 6:1 "From 1993 to 2010, the relationship between the victim and offender was not known or missing in 24% to 32% of homicide incidents involving female victims and 40% to 51% of homicide incidents involving male victims" (Catalano, 2013, p. 3). Nonlethal violence between partners is also common and frequently fraught with the data errors brought about by nonreporting. Eriksson and Mazerolle (2013) reports that surveys of international victimization estimate lifetime prevalence rates of between 20% and 70%. But with only a small proportion of these incidents resulting in homicide, a lethal outcome is not a frequent outcome of the larger number of violent acts.
What does it mean to have a UCR clearance in a homicide case?
The Uniform Crime Reporting Program provides for closing crimes via two main categories: arrest and exceptional means. Arrest may be an actual physical arrest based on probable cause, charging someone with the crime, or turning the case over to the prosecutor's office. Clearance by exceptional means acknowledges that law enforcement agencies may not always be able to charge the offender. According to the UCR guidelines, for agencies to clear offenses exceptionally, they must have done the following: Identified the offender Gathered enough evidence to support an arrest, make a charge, and turn over the offender to the court for prosecution Identified the offender's exact location so that the suspect could be taken into custody immediately Encountered a circumstance outside the control of law enforcement that prohibits the agency from arresting, charging, and prosecuting the offender. (FBI, 2013, p. 2)
Describe and discuss the effects that homicide and violence data have on forming public policy?
The examination of quantitative data has the benefit of numerical clarity. The insights needed to understand violent crime and how to craft public policy to address such crime may not flow easily from such numerical summations of complex and emotional events. Qualitative research uses case studies and interviews with offenders, criminal justice personnel, witnesses, and others to fill in crucial details not captured by a percentage or number. Such approaches can address some data concerns. The dynamics of a conflict situation may involve the ongoing relationship issues of the participants, the setting and time of day, the use or influence of drugs or alcohol or both, the presence and subsequent threat or use of weapons, and the "audience" presence or interaction. Mixed methods that combine aspects of quantitative and qualitative research have also yielded useful information to both describe homicide and other violent crime and to help suggest methods to address such crime. While most studies examine the effect of variables individually, attention has turned to examination of the interactive effects of significant elements of homicide events. This may take the form of examining offense pathways in homicide offenders (Crabbe, Decoene, & Vertommen, 2008). This view joins psychological concepts underlying the offense and characteristics of the homicide offender in casting the homicide as a process that develops over time. Miethe and Regoeczi (2004) examined homicide situations using qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) to assess the structural context of homicide events. Using a significant sample in several major cities, they also investigated the process features in homicides. This approach is beneficial and further bridges the gap between the succinct yet limited summary provided by quantitative counting of correlates to homicide and the sometimesanecdotal case study of individual events.
How should researchers consider the factors in a homicide situation so that they can determine if the killing was confrontational?
The largest category of murder is that involving a conflict or confrontation between noninti-mates. Almost half of all homicides are preceded by a fight or argument. Male-onmale homicides arising from such friction are the most common homicide situation. The lethal event may result from a brief, albeit emotionally charged, encounter or be a culmination of long-standing animosities. While not exclusively the province of men, confrontational homicide is overwhelmingly synonymous with men reacting to perceived slights, threats to honor, or encroachment on something that one or both view as theirs. The so-called contest of honor results in innumerous fights and significant numbers of homicides in the United States and in cultures around the world. This has been true throughout history. Consider the news reports of an argument erupting into a violent confrontation at a party or the theater shooting in Tampa where a former police officer shot another moviegoer over texting. A disagreement over the last beer results in a friend shooting another friend. This is followed by felony-related murders at 23.1%. For cases with unknown circumstances, the percentage was 35.8. Evidence would also suggest that many of the unknown-cause homicides resulted from circumstances that could be characterized as exhibiting confrontational dynamics. It is also likely that a number of the gang killing homicides would fit under the rubric of confrontational homicide.
What role does alcohol play in violence?
The link between alcohol and aggressive behavior is well established. The involvement of alcohol in crime generally is noted by various monitoring programs, such as the Drug Use Forecasting (DUF). As a public policy matter, the use of alcohol by young people, including minors, continues to merit significant attention. There continue to be studies regarding the impact of alcohol or drug use on both behavior, generally, and criminal behavior, specifically. Reduced inhibitions, increased aggressiveness, and dulled sensitivity to the immediate physical effects of violence clearly results in many bad outcomes. Drug use has not been documented in as many homicide events as alcohol. The relative prevalence of alcohol may, in part, be an artifact of other behaviors and lifestyle issues correlated with alcohol abuse.
How might data on victims and offenders of homicide inform agency policies?
The relevance of data regarding all murders and aggravated assaults may give an overall bigpicture sense of violence. The same data must be disaggregated to be helpful as we consider different types of murder. Knowing that most murderers are male is informative. Knowing the age groupings, ethnicity and race breakdowns, and the settings where homicides occur provides critical information to begin a discussion of crime reduction strategies as well as possible insights for investigators conducting the retroactive investigation of a murder. I feel that it is important to know if the offender has had a past of a bad household with a alcoholic or abusive relationship with any of their parents, if they ever lashed out and got into fights when they were kids because if not handled at a young age could potentially lead to a serial killer in the future without thinking that much about it.
Describe and discuss the effects audience can have on violent confrontations
The role of an audience of other young men seems to have an amplifying effect on the emotions and feelings of the individual(s), such that there is a need to respond with a show of "manhood." Polk (1994) views this situation as one in which the individuals mutually agree to the forthcoming aggression. Whether the slight was intended or accidental, the audience causes one or both participants to feel a pressure to posture. The interaction escalates through words and gestures to a physical altercation that may incorporate weapons if they are available. While neither person may have had the initial intention to kill anyone, the dynamic of the situation carries the context to a lethal conclusion. Males may act out their concept of masculinity by an aggressive response to establish or reestablish reputation or save face in different settings, such as the street, school, or a social event, which vary the influence of others who are present.
What agencies and groups should be part of a fatality review team or process? Why?
Today, nearly 80% of states have one or more active teams, but most are regional or county-wide only. This means that even though some parts of a state are served by a DVFRT, large portions of a state may not be. Many teams are focused on helping spread information on best practices in fatality review in addition to the actual review of individual cases. The recommendations offered by teams are intended to improve policies, practices, and overall response without blaming. An important point made by Wilson and Websdale. Some support does appear for helping move agencies away from past practices in assessing and intervening in IPV and toward more contemporary research through the vehicle of active fatality teams who meet to examine and discuss dynamics and agency responses.
What are the reasons parents kill their children?
When the perpetrator is the mother, some of the same motivations as men are discovered. Some factors may appear more gendered. Not uncommon in many cultures are the factors of social isolation of women and the limited resources these women possess to change or better their circumstances. An all-too-familiar theme of lacking self-confidence combined with the stressors women suffer from physical and psychological abuse may result in violence acted out toward family members, notably children. As previously established, while not all killings are the result of mental illness or delusion, the killing of children by a parent may be the result of an extension of an existing delusion. The view by a mother may be altruistic. She may believe that killing her children is part of her self-image as a good mother. These circumstances are supported in research as the actions of someone possibly suffering from psychosis or delusion. The theme again is someone believing she is caring for and protecting her loved ones by ending their lives (Scott & Fleming, 2014). Sillito and Salari (2011) suggest depression as one motive that can explain a family murder. This may be the homicide of a child followed by the suicide of the parent.
Why is it said that confrontational homicide is a man's crime?
While not exclusively the province of men, confrontational homicide is overwhelmingly synonymous with men reacting to perceived slights, threats to honor, or encroachment on something that one or both view as theirs. The so-called contest of honor results in innumerous fights and significant numbers of homicides in the United States and in cultures around the world. The perceived slight, the public location, and the frequent involvement of alcohol mix for a rapidly escalating violent situation that may end in homicide. Polk's observations also support the approach that the victim-offender relationship and dynamics resulting in a death should be examined as a social interaction affected by a number of factors Nearly half of all homicides committed by men or women were preceded by some sort of argument or fight, such as conflict over money or property, anger over one partner cheating on another, severe punishment of a child or abuse of a partner, retaliation for an earlier dispute, or a drunken fight over an insult or other affront. (p. 283)
What weapon is most used to commit murder in the United States? Why?
While there are not exact numbers on the use of firearms in violent crime (Leshner, Altevogt, Lee, McCoy, & Kelley, 2005), there is ample documented evidence that firearms are used in the overwhelming number of murders and are represented significantly in suicides and accidental death and injury circumstances. Law enforcement-generated reports of crime that are submitted to the UCR Program confirm the number of incidents police are aware of. The NCVS (as discussed in the previous chapter) provides additional confirmation of the presence of firearms in unreported acts of violence as well. Offenders use guns to intimidate or overpower their victims in robberies, sexual assaults, and aggravated assaults and batteries. In committing homicide, it is clear that a killer armed with several firearms or a single automatic or high-capacity firearm can inflict more damage (kill more humans) than a similarly motivated offender with a knife or blunt instrument.
If there are both biological and environmental factors that influence the commission of crime, what implications does this have for sentencing offenders?
Within the biological perspective are examinations of brain injuries or developmental issues involving different areas of the human brain. The study of brain activity and structure remains a promising and fascinating endeavor (Caldwell, Calhoun, & Kiehl, 2014). One issue studied is minimum brain dysfunction, or MBD. This condition can be the result of a brain injury, or it can be inherited. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and the behavioral challenges associated with it are related to neurological issues. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional MRI (fMRI), and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) all offer methods to examine brain images, often while the subject performs a task to determine what functions are controlled by which areas of the brain. This has implications for possible biomarker identification of high-risk youth as well as pharmaceutical or therapeutic interventions to treat or reduce violence. Allergic reactions to foods can also affect behavior, as can environmental pollutants such as lead and inorganic gases. High and low blood sugar levels have also been shown to affect behavior, attention span, and test taking. For instance, diet and nutrition continue to be researched as factors that influence behavior but not in isolation. Lack of chemicals and minerals can result in behavior disorders and learning blockages.
If an undergraduate student wants to examine the cause(s) of homicide, how should she proceed?
determine the causes of crime, the people who commit crime, responses to crime, the consequences of crime, and the punishment of offenders onto a large canvas indeed. The study of crime so defined is not one intended for pure reflection but as an applied science that draws upon many disciplines to seek answers that may be formed into laws, policies, and strategies to prevent, reduce, or solve crimes. As such, the efforts of criminologists are examined not just by fellow researchers but by legislators, courts, and agency administrators within criminal justice, health, social work, education, and other domains.
