ANAT20006

Synovial joint accessory structures

- Articular disc, fibrocartilage that stabilises irregular joining of articular surfaces and allow serpent movements to occur simultaneously on each side of partition - Menisci, fibrocartilage that even out the joining surfaces of two bones and stabilise the lateral moments of joints - Labrum, fibrocartilage structure that acts as a lip that extends from the edge of the joint of the socket deepening the joint socket and increases the area of contact between bones - Fat pads, act as space fillers that help spread synovial fluid -Bursae and tendon sheaths are bags of lubricant that work like 'ball bearings' to reduce friction. The Bursae are flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial fluid that allow for absorption of force and to smooth out the articular surface. The tendon sheaths are stretch-out fibrous sacs that line tendons

Fascicle patterns and function

- Circular: fascicles arranged into concentric rings. Muscles surrounding external body opening are known as sphincters and contraction closes the opening - Convergent: fascicles converge towards a single tendon of insertion (indirect insertion), have a broad origin and are triangular or fan shaped. These muscles are able to produce the strongest contractions - Parallel: length of fascicles runs parallel to the long axis of the muscle, have the greatest shooting of length during contraction and are either straplike or spindle shaped with an expanded belly (fusiform) - Pennate: fascicles are short and attach obliquely, feather like fascicle arrangement.

Two ways of Sex specific development

- Common precursor, differentiate into either male or female structures - Anlage of both male and female structure, one or the other degenerates

Three main periods of human embryology

- Egg: fertilisation to end of 2nd week - Embryo: beginning of 3rd week to end of 8th week - Fetus: 3rd month to birth

Properties of muscle tissues enabling muscles to function

- Electrical excitability: respond to stimuli to produce action potential - Contractility: contracts forcefully when stimulated - Extensibility: ability to stretch without being damaged - Elasticity: ability to return to original length and shape after contraction and extension

three layers of intercostal muscles

- External intercostal muscles, most superficial extends from the inferior border of top rib to the superior border of the bottom rib. The muscle fibres of this muscle are directed inferomedially (towards the front, downwards, inwards). Contraction of this muscle pulls the rib below upwards and out, increasing the volume of the cage. It is most active in inspiration - Internal intercostal muscles, also insert between both borders of rib, and lie in the middle of the three layers, its muscle fibre is perpendicular to that of external intercostal muscles and contraction pulls inwards, however is not very active as expiration is passive process. - Innermost intercostal muscles, deepest layer covering the intercostal space and are patchy and discontinuous rather than continuous like internal and external intercostal muscles

Three types of cartilage

- Hyaline: most common type that covers bony articular surfaces and contains moderate amounts of collage (model for early metal skeleton is hyaline cartilage) - Elastic: flexible, forms discrete structures in external ear, auditory tube, parts of the larynx and contains bundles of elastic fibre - Fibrocartilage: forms in specialised joints, contributes to articular surfaces but does not cover articular surface. It is a mix of fibrous tissue and hyaline cartilage and contains a substantial amounts of cartilage.

Specialised deep fascia in upper limb

- Interosseous membrane found between the radius and ulna - Flexor retinaculum, a strong, fibrous band that covers the carpal bones on the palmar side of the hand near the wrist. It attaches to the bones near the radius and ulna - Aponeurosis, form of a sheet of pearly-white fibrous tissue that attaches sheet-like muscles needing a wide area of attachment. - Digital sheaths encases tendons in fingers

Types of arteries

- Large elastic arteries (conducting): contain many elastic layers resulting in smooth flow of blood. Found near the heart, aorta and its major branches - Medium muscular arteries (distributing): circular smooth muscle fibres, capable of vasoconstriction and blood flow regulation, majority of named arteries - Small arterioles: Narrow lumina, thick smooth muscle walls. Flow into capillary beds, tonus regulates arterial pressure in vascular system.

Classification of Bones

- Long Bones: longer than they are wide and can bear a lot of weight [femur, humerus] - Short Bones: have similar width and length and provide stability and support with little movement (sesamoid bone are a special type of bone that forms in a tendon) [carpal bone of wrist] - Flat Bones: Thin flattened, usually a bit curved, protect vital organs and provide surfaces for large muscle attachment [sternum, skull bone] - Irregular Bones: do not fit into other categories, complicated shapes [Vertebrae]

Three main hypotheses for breaking symmetry

- Morphogen hypothesis: signalling molecules pushed to the left bind to receptors to the cells activating single transduction pathways that signal they are left cells, lack of signalling molecules indicate they are right cells - Nodal Vesicular Parcel Hypothesis: vectors are carried in vesicles that are transported by the movement of fluid to the left cells - Two Cilia Hypothesis: two types of cilia, at the bottom of the node are rotating cilia and non motile cilia at the rim. The bending on the non motile cilia the rim on the left due to the leftward flow indicate they are left side cells, and the non motile cilia on the right do not bend as the fluid is pushed away from them, and as such indicate that they are cells on the right side

Divisions of Mesoderm and what they give rise too

- Paraxial mesoderm, gives rise to the dermis of the skin, axial skeleton, axial and limb muscle - Intermediate mesoderm, develops into the urogenital system, gonad and reproductive systems - Lateral mesoderm, develops into ventrolateral body wall, heart and vasculature, walls of gut and bones of limb

Classification of synovial joints

- Plane Joint: allow sliding or gliding movements when one bone moves across the surface of another - Hinge Joint: allow movement at right angles to the joint, produces flexion/extension - Pivot Joint: allows movement in line with longitudinal axis of the bones, produces rotation - Condylar Joint: allows movement around two axes at right angles, the articular surfaces are oval shaped and produces flexion, extension, adduction, abduction - Saddle Joint: allows movement around two axes at right angles, the bones are saddle shaped and produces flexion, extension, adduction and abduction - Ball and Socket Joint: allows movement around multiple axes, the bones are shaped like a ball and socket, and produces flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, circumduction and rotation

Four main functions of muscles

- Produces movement: skeletal muscles are responsible for all locomotion and manipulation, cardic muscle pumps blood, and smooth muscle propels substances such as food and urin - Maintains posture and body position: skeletal muscles maintain posture, counteract gravity - Stabilize joints: strengthen and stabilise joints - Generate heat: muscles generate heat as they contract

functions of integumentary system

- Regulating body temperature - Stores blood - Protection from external environment - Excretes and absorbs substances - Synthesises vitamin D - Detects cutaneous sensations

Types of muscle

- Skeletal muscle: attaches to and covers the skeleton; voluntary contraction for overall body motility - Cardiac muscle: only exists in the heart, not under voluntary controls and contracts without stimulation from the nervous system - Smooth muscle: present in the walls of hallow organs including the stomach, intestines and trachea, involuntary contraction governed by the autonomic nervous system

Four main rotator cuff muscles

- Supraspinatus, sits in the supraspinous fossa attaches superiorly - Infraspinatus, sits in theintraspinous fossa attaches posteriorly - Teres minor, lies below infraspinatus attaches posteriorly - Subscapularis, sits in subscapula fossa attaches anteriorly

Varieties of fibrous joints

- Sutures (thin layer of connective tissue called a sutural ligament, present in bones of skull) - Gomphosis (short collagen fibres running between root of a tooth and its boy socket) an - Syndesmosis (occurs where two adjacent bones are linked by a ligament, length of the ligament determines degree of movement).

Varieties of cartilaginous joints

- Synchhondrosis (a bar or plate of hyaline cartilage between two ossification centres of developing bone [growth plates], primary cartilage) - Symphysis (fibrocartilage connects two seperate bones, permits limited movement, found in intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, secondary cartilage)

three types of joints

- Synovial (moveable), two bones separated by a fluid filled cavity that allows movement. The joint capsule contains am inner synovial membrane which is highly vascular and produces synovial fluid, and a outer fibrous membrane which is a dense connective tissue made up of collagen fibres that may thicken to form ligaments. - Fibrous (solid), bones united by fibrous tissue, the degree of movement depends on length of fibres that extend between the two bones. - Cartilaginous (sold), bones united by hyaline or fibrocartilage, provides strength and shock absorption and also lack a joint cavity.

Three layers (tunics) of lumen of blood vessels

- Tunica intima, innermost lining, flattened epithelial cells supported by delicate connective tissue Capillaries have only this tunic + basement membrane - Tunica media, middle layer, mainly smooth muscle Most variable - thickness relative lumen differentiates arteries, veins, lymphatic ducts - Tunica adventitia, outermost connective tissue layer or sheath

Variety of pennate fascicles

- Unipennate: fascicles insert onto only one side fo the tendon - Bipennate: fasciles insert onto the tendon from opposite sides of the muscle, feather appearance - Multipennate: fascicles insert onto the tendon from many directions, many feathers side by side

Types of veins

- Venules + small veins: Venules are smallest drain capillary. Small veins unite to form venous plexuses, are unnamed - Medium veins: Drain venous plexuses, accompany medium arteries, often named according to artery that they accompany, contain valves where blood flow opposed gravity (ie. limbs) - Large veins: Wide bundles of longitudinal smooth muscle Well-developed tunica adventitia

Factors affecting bone growth and remodelling

- Vitamins and minerals levels: calcium hardens bone extracellular matrix and vitamin D (calcitrol) increases calcium reabsorption - Exercise: weight bearing activities stimulate osteoblasts to lay down more bone tissue - Hormones: estrogen and testosterone stimulate bone deposition by osteoblasts, slows bone resorption by osteoclasts - Age: demineralisation begins earlier in females due to reduced estrogen

components of large intestine

- distal ileum enters at the ileocaecal junction - proportion of caecum sits allium and converges into appendix - ascending column which turns into the transverse column at the hepatic flexure - transverse column transitions into the descending column at the splenic flexure - descending column turns towards midline transitioning into the sigmoid colon, and descends into the rectum, creating a s shaped column. - terminates at the anal cavity

Key components of the larynx

- epiglotis which sits at the back on the tongue and is pushed down to close off the laryngeal inlet, which allows air to flow to the lungs, when bolus of food comes from the top of the tongue and allows passage to the oesophagus - thyroid cartilage (adams apple) and below that the cricoid cartilage). There are two folds of mucosa, the vestibular fold and vocal fold which surround the vocal ligament. The vocal ligament attaches to the arytenoid cartilage found on the inside, posterior aspect of the cricoid cartilage. These ligaments need to be adducted for phonation and deducted for breathing. Sound is created through the adduction and movement of this vocal ligament, the two ligaments vibrating against each other produces sound.

Supporting structures of glenohumeral joint

- glenoid labrum, a fibrocartilaginous extension of the glenoid fossa itself that extends the surface area of the joint by around 30% - coroacoacromial ligament, runs between the coracoid process and acromion process on the same bone which prevents superior dislocation - rotator cuff muscules, muscles above, behind and infront, that blend with the joint capsule and pull the humeral head towards the glenoid and compresses it - long head of biceps, extends over the groove and attaches to the scapula

Key components of Nasal Cavity

- highly vascularised muscous membrane that increases temperature of air moving into the airways - olfactory area containg fine nerve teminals including the olfactory nerve to detect smell - three turbinates or concha that hang of each of the lateral wall, underneath which are meauts, which are openings for the paranasal sinuses

Key components of oral cavity

- lips that act as a barrier for entry into the oral cavity and are functionally important in speaking, grasping food or sucking liquid - hard plate rood formed by maxilla and palatine bone - uvula hangs off soft palate and acts in speech and prevents food from entering the nasal cavity - tongue important for speech, shaping a bolus of food, and the embed taste buds on the wall of papillae detect taste, has a v shaped groove centrally known as the sulcus terminalis, separating the posterior lingual tonsil from the anterior oral tongue - teeth responsible for chewing and ripping food, There are 32 teeth in total, 16 embedded in the dental arch of the maxilla, and 16 embedded in the dental arch of the mandible. There are 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars, and 3 molars on each side of the dental arch.

Visible structures from anterior view of the heart

- right atrium identified by the right atrium appendage, - anterior atrioventricular sulcus separating the right ventricle and right atrium - right border of the heart formed mainly from the right atrium - anterior interventricular sulcus separating the right ventricle form the left ventricle - left ventricle is visible forming the left border of the heart - superior vena cava returning deoxygenated blood from the systemic circulation - ascending aorta and aortic arch between the SVC and pulmonary projecting from the right ventricle under the aortic arch

Factors affecting range of motion

- structure/shape of articulating bones - strength and tension of joint ligaments - arrangement and tension of muscles - contact of soft parts - hormones - disuse

Visible structures from posterior view of the heart

- the majority of the left ventricle is visible forming the left border of the heart - atrioventricular sulcus separating the left ventricle from the left atrium - small portion of the aright atrium present - left upper and lower, right upper and lower pulmonary vein - inferior vena cava

right ventricle

- thicker wall than right atrium - pulmonary valve preventing back flow from pulmonary trunk - mostly covered by muscular ridges known as trabeculae carnae. - There are three specialised trabeculae carnae present in the right venatical called papillary muscle, which has its base attached to the ventricular wall and the apex projecting in the lumen. It attaches to the chordae tendinae of the tricuspid valve

left ventricle

- thickest wall - covered in trabeculae carnae, - there are two specialised capillary muscles that attache to the chordae tendinae of the cusps of the mitral valve. - aortic valve (three cusps) preventing back flow fro aorta

left atrium

- thin walled - four pulmonary veins returning oxygenated blood - fossa ovalis allowing blood to flow form right atrium during development - mostly smooth?

right atrium defining features

- thin walled - smooth internal surface except for the anterior wall which is covered by muscular ridges known as musculi pectinati - coronary sinus allowing venus blood from the heart to enter the right atrium - fossa ovalis, fibrous layer covering it after birth, but allows blood to flow into the left atrium during development due to absense of pirated flow -tricuspid valve, atrioventricular valve preveing back flow from right ventricle

Key components of pharynx

- three constrictor (external layer) of muscles which have attachment on the lateral aspect of the nasal cavity, oil cavity and larynx, each projects posteriorly and meet in the midline, aid in coming posterior aspect of nose, mouth lynx, contract sequently during swalloiwng and allows air to pass through - pharyngeal tonsil in roof of nasopharynx - opening on lateral wall of nasopharynx to communicate with the middle ear to allow for equalisation of pressure - palatin tonsiles in lateral wall of oropharynx

components of typical (lumbar) vertebrae

- vertebral body surround by epiphyseal ring - vertebral arch, which generates the ventrebal foramen where the spinal cord runs. The arch itself is comprised of two components: the pedicle (bit that comes off the back of the body) and the lamina (runs more oblique). - single spinous, two transverse, and four articular processes

12 cranial nerves

1. Olfactory 2. Optic 3. Oculomotor 4. Trochlear 5. Trigeminal 6. Abducens 7. Facial 8. Vestibulocochlear 9. Glossopharyngeal 10. Vagus 11. Accessory 12. Hypoglossal

bony framework of thoracic cage

12 pairs of ribs and costal cartilage , the sternum and 12 thoracic vertebrae and discs.

Composition of bones

35% organic components (collagen) and 65% inorganic hydroxyapatitesAll bone consists of dense outer compact bone and inner spongy bone (trabecular)

Organisation of nerves

Afferent neurons originate from dorsal (posterior) root of spinal cord, and the motor originate from the ventral (anterior root). Both efferent and afferent roots combine to form the mixed spinal root. Mixed spinal nerves branch soon after forming into two structures called the anterior rami, which wraps around to innovate things found in the front on the body, and the posterior rami, which wraps around to innovate things in the back of the body

Human classification

Animalia, Coelomate, Chordata, Vertebrate, Mammalia, Primates, Hominidae, Homo, Homo Sapiens

Stabilising ligaments of vertebral column

Anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments, which run against the vertebral bodies and over the intervertebral disks Interspinous and supraspinous ligaments, between the spinous process are the interspinous ligaments, and over the supraspinous ligament Ligamenta flava, highly elastic permitting movement, runs between the lamina

Muscle compartments of arm

Anterior compartment muscles contain three main muscles, biceps brachii, coracobrachialis and brachialis that all act as elbow flexors Posterior compartment muscles contains the triceps brachii, that act as elbow extensors

Muscle compartments of forearm

Anterior compartment muscles include the wrist and finger flexors Posterior compartment muscles include the wrist and finger extensors. There are 19 muscles in the forearm, 8 in the anterior compartment and 11 in the posterior compartment. Muscles in the anterior compartment are found in three layers: superficial, intermediate and deep group, the posterior compartment is divided into muscles into superficial and deep ayer

Anterior Muscles of pelvic girdle

Anteriorly, there are iliopsoas muscles including the psoas major, which attaches to the lumbar spine and comes anteriorly into the pelvis and extends into the lesser trochanter, the iliacus is another broad muscle that takes attachment to the ilium and joins the psoas major in attaching to the lesser trochanter. Psoas minor is a smaller muscle associated wit the psoas major. Together these three muscles act as the strong hip flexors.

Bony trabecular

As the femur grows, the bone fibres allied with forces, forming a bony trabecular. It creates two main systems that intersect to resist weight bearing forces

Division of skeletal system

Axial skeleton, comprising of the bones of head, neck and trunk, and the appendicular skeletal, which comprises of bones of limb, pelvis and shoulder girdles

Collection of nerve

Axons in the periphery cluster together to form nerves, collections of thousands of individual axons within a common external connective tissue sheath (epineurium). Within the nerve axons are sub-grouped into fascicles, surrounded by a perineurial sheath. Within the perineurium there are endoneuriums which hold the nerve fibres

Cephalic flexure

Bending of the rostra-caudal neuraxis anteriorly at the rostral end that allows for head to be upright

Stage 5 Embryology

Blastocyst: by day 6, the pre-embyro becomes a blastocyst, a hallow ball of cells with a fluid filled cavity, containing two types of cells, an outer trophoblast (epithelial) layer and a inner cell mass

Bone growth before 25

Bone growth occurs in two directions (longitudinal and appositional growth), Interstitial growth of cartilage on the epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate and replacement of cartilage on the diaphysial side with bone via endochondral ossification. There are four zones where cnodrocytes proliferate on the epiphyseal side. The zone of resting cartilage where the chondrocytes are not active, zone of proliferating cartilage where the chondrocytes move and become more active, a zone of hypertrophic cartialge where chondrocytes increase in size laying down cartilage model, and a zone of calcified cartilage where calcification occurs and chondrocytes replace older ones.

endochondral ossification, and critical steps

Cartilage models of bones form from mesenchyme during fetal development and bone replaces cartilage. Occurs in formation of most bones except most flat bones of the skull. chondroblasts develop which form the cartilage model of the bone. That model grows and lengthens by cell division of chondrocytes until the rough shape of the bone is made, from here the development of the primary ossification centre occurs initiated by a nutrient artery that provide the required nutrients for the chondrocytes to further differentiate into different cell types that allow bone formation to occur. Following this there is specialisation of cells to osteoclasts thats break down the bone allowing for the development of the medullary cavity. Secondary ossification occurs at the proximal and distal epiphysis by the arrival of epiphyseal artery. Finally the formation of articular cartilage occurs at the distal and proximal epiphysis

Formation of three germ layers

Cells of epiblast migrate medially and into primitive groove, the first cells move into the hypoblast to form embryonic endoderm (yolk sac) pushing the hypoblast to the side), later cells move into the space between epiblast and endoderm to become embryonic mesoderm, the remaining cells in epiblast become embryonic a ectoderm

Stage 3 Embryology

Cleavage: Zygote undergoes rapid mitotic cell division as it moves along the oviduct towards the uterus, becoming a pre-embryo that consists of two cells, the four cells, then eight cells and so on until sufficient cells are produced to form a morula

Muscles in superficial layer of posterior compartment of forearm

Contains the brachioradialis, which does not cross the wrist and has its main action at the elbow, three muscles that extend the wrist: extensor carpi radialis longus (ECRL), extensor carpi radialis brevis (ECRB) and extensor carpi ulnaris (ECU); and two muscles that extend digits: extensor digitorum communis (EDC) and extensor digiti minimi (EDM). Long muscles arise from common extensor origin (CEO) tendons pass under the extensor retinaculum

Muscles in deep layer of posterior compartment of forearm

Deep layer: contains the - extensor indicis (EI), extensor pollicis longus (EPL), extensor pollicis brevis (EPB), abductor pollicis longus (APL) and supinator. These arise from the ulna, radius and interosseous membrane. The EPL, EPB and APL are called snuffbox tendons, creates a triangular deepening on the radial, dorsal aspect of the hand

Primitive Streak

Defines all major body axis and appears as a line of thickened cells on the upper surface of bilaminar disc on the epiblast. The primitive streak invaginates to form the primitive groove

Transverse

Divides body into upper and lower parts

Eight taxonomic categories

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

Formation of digestive tract

Embryo folding initiates the fusion of digestive tract, first the folding creates two membranes, the Buccophyaryngeal (cranial) and Cloacal membrane (caudal). The Cloacal membrane differentiates into the hindgut, and the Buccophyaryngeal membrane differentiates into the foregut, the connective tissue is the midgut

Epiphysis

End of a long bone that contain articular cartilage forming joint surface

Venous return of abdominal viscera

Everything below the diaphragm is drained into the inferior vena cava. Paired viscera and abdominal walls directly drain into the IVC, whereas unpaired viscera (except the liver) drain into the IVC via the portal vein. The abdominal gastrointestinal tract, spleen pancreases and gallbladder drain to the portal vein present at the hilum of the liver, once metabolised, the blood is collected by hepatic vein which brings the blood back to the IVC.

Stage 2 Embyrology

Fertilisation: a single sperm penetrations the secondary oocyte, fusing to form a zygote.

Dural folds

Folded inner layer of dura mater that stabilises and support brain. Includes Falx cerebri, tentorium cerebelli and falx cerebelli

vas deferens

From the epididymus the sperm enters the vas deferens (ductus deferens). It takes a complicated pathway due to the testicular descent. From the testes, the vans references goes up through the inguinal canal, descends along the lateral wall of the pelvic cavity, and meets the duct of seminal vesicle to form ejaculatory duct. The vans deferences is muscular duct composed of smooth muscle wall, which transport spermatozoa to ejactulaotry duct

Development of heart

Fusion of two endocardial tubes with two inlets and two outlets causes swilling and elongation eating nodes. The swelling accentuates into the formation of the left and right atrium and ventricles.

Stage 7 Embryology

Grastulation: once the blastocyst has implanted onto the uterine wall and two layers of cell have formed, the primitive streak forms giving rise to the three germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm

Different tissue type in brain

Grey matter (location of cell bodies of neurons) and white matter (location of myelinated axons). Grey matter is found on the outside of white matter in the brain, this is inverted in the spinal cord.

Components of hair

Hair consists of dead keratinised cells organised into three concentric layers. The root of the hair is surrounded by the follicle, downward continuation of the of epidermis. Sebaceous glands and smooth muscle also associated with hair. Arrector pili muscle pulls hair shaft perpendicular to skin surface (goose bumps).

Stage 6 Embryology

Implantation: between 5 and 10 days, the blastocysts implants into the uterine wall and further differentiation takes place where the inner cell mass splits forming epiblast and hypoblast separated by embryonic disc (two germ layer stage)

primitive gut

In the developing foetus, inferior to the aorta is the primitive gut, which initially appears as a straight tube suspended in the abdominal cavity, which later develops into all its derivatives. It is divided into the foregut, midgut and hindgut. The foregut is supplied by the celiac trunk, the midgut supplied by the superior mesenteric artery, and the hindgut supplied by interior mesenteric artery.

formation of gonads and respective duct systems

Invagination of intraembryonic cavity results in the formation of genital ducts, a Mullerian duct (female) which forms oviduct, uterus, upper vagina, or a Wolffian/Nephric duc (male) which forms the epididymis, vans deferens, seminal vesicle. In males (XY), SRY on Y drives genital ridge to develop into testes, which produces AMH (causes the degeneration of Mullerian duct) and Testosterone causing the Wolffian duct to develop into epididymus, vans deferens and the seminal vesicle In females (XX), there is no SRY, and the genital ridge develops into ovary, therefore there is no AMH, so mullein duct develops into oviduct, uterus and the upper part of the vagina, and there is no testosterone so the Wolffian duct disappears.

Anastomoses

Link between two different arteries or between arterioles. It provides potential detours for blood flow if usually pathway is obstructed

Anatomic Sphincters

Localised muscle thickening around walls of tubular viscera controlling the passage and prevents reflux of contents. These are also found at distal ends of ducts near an external orifice. Anatomical sphincters can be involuntary sphincters made of smooth muscle, supplied by autonomic NS, or Voluntary sphincters made of skeletal muscle, under voluntary control, supplied by somatic nervous system. Involuntary sphincters 1st line of defence; voluntary sphincters 2nd line of defence

drainage of lymph

Lymph vessels merge and unite to form the right lymphatic duct or thoracic duct. Ducts drain into venous system at the neck at the subclavian trunk. Lymph from right side of head and neck, r. upper limb, r. side of thorax, r. upper abdomen drain into veins on right. All other regions drain into veins on left side

Support structures for knee joint

Menisi, cruciate ligaments, collateral ligaments

intramembranous ossification, and critical steps

Models of bone form directly from mesenchym during fetal development. Occurs in flat bone of skull, facial bones, mandibles and part of clavicle. There are four steps involved in this process depicted on the right: development of ossification centre, calcification, formation of trabeculae, and development of periosteum. Occurs in four stages: Development of ossification centre, calcification, formation of trabeculae and development of periosteum

Stage 4 Embryology

Morula: By day 4, successive divisions produce a morula, a solid ball of cells that enters the uterus

jejunum vs ilium

Most of the absorption occurs in the proximal jejunum, to accomodate this the jejunum is wider in diameter and contains more circular (mucosal) folds for increased surface area, this makes the wall of jejunum thicker. It is also more vascularised to increase vascular supply where maximum absorption is occurring. There is less fat deposit in the inner mesentery of jejunum, giving it a more transparent appearance compared to the opaque mesentery of the ileum due to its greater fat deposit. The wall of the small intestine are two completely muscle layers, a outer longitudinal and inner circular muscle layer.

posterior axioappendicular muscles

Muscles that arise on the axis that attach to the upper limb, includes the trapezius, latissimus dorsi, levator scapulae, rhomboid minor and rhomboid major. These are not 'true' back muscles as they only have one attachment on the back, and the other attachment is to the upper limb.

Scapulo-humeral muscles

Muscles that attach from the shoulder girdle to the humerus, includes the four rotator cuff muscles, deltoid and biceps. Rotator fixator muscles blend with the capsule of joint and pull humeral head towards glenoid, compressing it and providing stability, Prime movers which allow for rotation and abduction

component parts of the stomach

Near the cardiac orifice is the cardia region, the superior part above the cardia region is the fundus, where gas is found, inferior to this is the body of the stomach. Where the body start to narrow towards the pyloric orifice is the pyloric part, which is further subdivided into the pyloric entrance (wider region) and the narrowing point is the pyloric canal.

Development of cardiovascular system

Occurs in two main processes: - Vasculogenesis, de novo assembly of blood vessels from mesodermially derived cells. It requires both recruitment of mesodermal progenitors to the endothelial cell linage and organisation of their progeny into microvessels. Occurs only during embryogenesis. - Angiogenesis, blood vessels formation from pre existing vasculature, organisation into a precise spatial patter with a particular tissue. Occurs during embryogenesis and in the adult The endoderm sends signals to the mesodermal cells to cluster and form Haaemangioblast. These cells then differentiate into angioblasts (give rise to Endothelial cells) and haematopoeitic cells (gives rise to blood cells). This is followed by Pericyte recruitment which stabilises the blood vessel

Trochlea notch

On the ulna where it articulates with trochlea of humerus

Stage 1 Embryology

Ovulation: a secondary oocyte is released from the ovary per month through ovulation and swept into the oviduct

Formation of muscle, bone and dermis

Paraxial mesoderm forms somites, which give rise to muscle, bone and dermis. Somites form through the transition of mesenchymal cells to epithelial cells. Somites reorganise into epithelial dermamyotome and mesenchymal sclerotome. The dermamyotome differentiate into dermis and muscle, whereas the sclerotome differentiate into skeletal elements

Vascular supply for somatic system

Parietal vascular system

quadrants of abdomen

RUQ, LUQ, RLQ, LLQ, separated by medial plane (sagittal) and transumbelical plane (horizontal)

True Ribs

Ribs 1-7 articulate directly (via their own costal cartilage) with the sternum.

Floating ribs

Ribs 11 and 12 do not articular with the sternum or costal cartilage of the the rib above, they do not have costal cartilage and have a greater capacity to expand and increase volume of the thorax

False ribs

Ribs 8-10 do not directly attach to the sternum. Instead the costal cartilage of each rib articulates with the costal cartilage above forming the costal margin

Primary vs secondary cortices

Secondary cortices integrate information coming from the primary sensory areas.

Two types of neurons

Sensory neurons and motor neurons

Diaphysis

Shaft/long axis of long bone

Serous membrane and divisions

Single membrane that lines a body cavity and contains a space within it. It produces fluid which lubricates the cavity. Subdivided into parietal and visceral layers Parietal layer lines body wall & receives nerve & blood supply from body wall (somatic) Visceral layer covers viscera & receives same nerve & blood supply as viscera

Nerve Supply for somatic system

Somatic nervous system

Thoracolumbar outflow

Sympathetic outflow is all from the thoracic and lumbar part of the spinal cord. A sympathetic pre ganglia neuron has its cell body in the lateral horns of the spinal cord, the axon leaves the spina cord through lateral root and enters the mixed spinal nerve but instead of going to the tissue, it enters into the sympathetic chain of ganglia, where it synapses with it post ganglionic partner which then leaves the sympathetic chain and goes out to the tissue of interest.

four modalities of somatosensation

Tactile (touch, pressure, vibration, itch, tickle); Thermal (warm, hot, cold); Pain; Proprioceptive (sensory organs located mainly in muscle and joints).

Aortic branch and blood supply to body

The ascending part of the aorta, after leaving the heart, is very short, and arches superiorly, posteriorly and to the left, at the level of T4/T5, resulting in the aortic arch. The thoracic aorta is the descending aorta, it is found in the thorax, but after transverse the diaphragm down into the abdomen, it becomes the abdominal aorta. The aortic arch sends to branches at the superior aspect of the arch to supply the head, neck and upper limb. The first brand is known as the brachiocephalic trunk which provides blood supply to the head, neck and upper limb but only on the right side. It further branches into the right common carotid artery (neck and head from the right) and the right subclavian artery (right upper limb). The second branch arising from the aortic arch, is the left common carotid artery (neck and head from the left) and the left subclavian artery (left upper limb). The descending artery provides blood supply to everything in the thorax except for the heart itself including the oesophagus and lung. It branches heavily, parietal branches include intercostal, pericardial and phrenic arteries, and visceral branches include bronchial and esophageal arteries.

femoral nerve

The femoral nerve arrises from lumbar roots L2,3,4 and converges in the body of the psoas major and emerges at the lateral border of psoas and runs with iliopsoas under the inguinal ligament. This nerve supplies the psoas and iliacus and also the extensor (anterior) compartment of the thigh. It travels distally down the thigh and branches to innervate all muscles of the anterior compartment including all four quadricep muscles and the sartorius muscle. The femoral nerve as it extends more distally provides sensory elements to the skin on the anterior thigh and the medal leg and foot

kidneys

The kidneys are a solid viscera that contains a hilum allowing structures such as nerves, arteries and veins to pass through it, it is the site of blood filtration and creation of urine. It is located laterally to the T12-L3 vertebrae, in the paravertebral gutter, lateral to psoas major, and anterior to quadratus lumborum and ribs 11-12. The kidney is surrounded belayers of fat that helps keep the kidney in position. It is also surrounded by peritoneal anteriorly (retroperitoneal). All urinary viscera are retroperitoneal.

bone remodeling

The ongoing replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue. Every week around 5-7% of our bone mass is recycled by a combination of bone deposit (by osteoblasts) and bone resorption (by osteoclasts). Spongy bone is replaced every 3-4 years and compact bone is replaced every 10 years.

Epidermis

The outermost, thinner layer composed of epithelial cells. The epidermis consists of five distinct layers (deep to superficial): Stratum basale (basal layer) Stratum spinosum (prickly layer) Stratum granulosum (granular layer) Stratum lucidum (clear layer) Stratum corneum (horny layer)

Two main joints of pelvic girdle

The sacroiliac joint between the sacrum and ilium is a synovial plane joint, however are not smooth plane joints, and tends to lock together limiting movement. The pubic symphysis (joint) is a cartilaginous joint which is reinforced by a disc. This is a stable joint reinforced by ligaments.

tibial nerve

The sciatic nerve divides at the apex of the popliteal fossa into two branches, the tibial nerve and the common perineal nerve. The tibial nerve continues in to posterior compartment, while the common perineal (fibular) nerve branches laterally and hooks around the head of the fibula and heads anteriorly. The common fibular nerve branches once it has emerged anteriorly into a superficial branch. The tibial nerve supplies all posterior compartment leg muscles and arises at the back of the knee (politeal fossa) and branches extensively to supply both superficial and deep muscles of that compartment. The tibial nerve continues down into the feet through the tarsal tunnel and divides into plantar nerves, to innervate all the intrinsic muscles of the planar aspect of the foot.

aortic valve

The semilunar valve separating the aorta from the left ventricle that prevents blood from flowing back into the left ventricle. Distinguishable from the pulmonary valve due to the presence of two orifices of the left coronary artery on the base of the aorta

Femur

The single long bone of the thigh, contains two articular ends, which tapers down to a neck and the shaft. On the shaft are traction epiphysis, forming two trochanters, lesser and greater trochanters for muscle attachment. Distally are two condyles, medial and lateral condyle that are rounded structures that act as attachment points at the knee. The anterior of the femur is smooth, whereas the posterior is rigid

lung root

The structure connecting the lung to the mediastinum

Inguinal canal

The testes do not need to traverse through the skin and superficial fascia as these layers cover the scrotum. It must transverse through the transversalis fascia by creating a hole/deficiency, and descend infromediately beneath the arches fibre of the TA. This circular hole in the transversalis fascia is known as the deep (internal) inguinal ring. Where it leaves the anterior abdominal wall, by the fibrous split of the EO aponeurosis, known as the superficial (external) inguinal ring. The inguinal canal therefore has two openings (Deep and Superficial inguinal rings). When the testes descend, it also takes neurovascular bundle down with it and too travels down the inguinal canal

Venous return of lower limb

The veins of the lower limb are divided into superficial and deep veins. Deep veins run with the arteries following the principle of venae comitantes. The superficial veins have a more variable network and are all embedded in superficial fascia. On the feet most of the venous network is found on the dorsal surface to prevent constriction when standind, there is a dorsal venous arch which give rises to two major superficial veins, the great saphenous, which runs up the medial side of the lower limb and small saphenous, which runs laterally and converges into the popliteal vein at the back of the knee.

Four main functional groups in the intrinsic muscle of the hand

Thenar muscles (x4) Hypothenar muscles (x3) Lumbricals (x4) and Interossei (x7)

Ligaments of hip joint capsule

There are there main ligaments in the hip join capsule each associated with the three hip bones, the iliofermoral ligament, the itchiofemoral ligament and the pubofemorial ligament. The iliofemoral ligament is one of the strongest ligaments, it spirals and tightens with the hip and allows for extension, adding to maximum stability

Venous return in upper limb

There are two types of vein: Superficial Veins found within the superficial fascia, and are highly variable in their location. Begin on back of hand as dorsal venous arch and converge into the cephalic and basillic veins. These two veins are jointed together by the median cubital, and later both veins join the axillary vein Deep Veins accompany major arteries, venal comitantes (a vein that is usually paired, with both veins lying on the sides of an artery). The pulsatile energy of the arterial system absorbed in the venous system and valves ensure unidirectional flow. The deep veins of the upper extremity include the paired ulnar, radial, and interosseous veins in the forearm; paired brachial veins of the upper arm; and axillary vein

Bone growth after 25

There is only growth in bone width, new bone is deposited on the outer surface and the old bone lining medullary cavity is destroyed

Typical (Middle) rib structure

Typical ribs have two ends, and curved body. The posterior end articulates with the thoracic vertebrae, and the anterior with the coastal cartilage. At the posterior end, is contains a head tapering down into a anatomical neck. The head of the rib there are two demi-facets, which both articulate with the vertebrae. Further laterally past the neck is a tubercle with a smooth and rough part. The smooth part is a articular facet and forms part of a joint. The rough part does not form a joint but provides an attachment point for a ligament or muscle.The body of the rib curves and is thinner, with a vertical orientation due to its superior and inferior border. At the internal surface of the body, near the inferior border, is the costal groove, providing a pathway for neuromuscular bundles

Solid viscus

Typically do not have a tube running through the middle and tend to be glands, clusters of secretory (or excretory) cells eg. pancreas, liver, thyroid gland.

Developmental rotation

Upper limbs and lower limbs rotate developmentally, rotation of the UL brings flexor surfaces anteriorly and rotation of the LL brings flexor surfaces posteriorly

Formation of the Respiratory System

Ventral out pocketing of endoderm (respiratory diverticulum forms the trachea and lungs. It grows ventro-caudally and then bifurcates, this will form the right and left primary trachael buds and will form the bronchi. The next bifurcation results in the secondary bronchial buds (3 on right, 2 on left) and the lung lobes. The third bifurcation forms the tertiary bronchial buds, the bronchopulmonary segments. This is followed by 14 more branchings that form the terminal bronchioles.

Joints of the vertebral column

Zygapophyseal (facet) joints and Intervertebral discs. intervertebral joints form from the stacking of vertebral bodies and the facet joints occur between the articular facets. Collectively they form the intervertebral foramen that allows spinal nerve roots, vessels and dorsal root ganglia to projection from them. The collective joints allow movement in three planes: Extension/flexion, Lateral Flexion in coronal plane, Rotation

cauda equine

a bundle of nerve roots that occupies the vertebral canal below L2, looks like a horse's tail, hence the name

Notochord

a cartilage like, transient structure, important for induction. Forms following the formation of the three germ layers and defines the cranial midline of the embryo, extending from the primate node to forma hollow tube

flexor retinaculum

a fibrous band found anterior of the carpels which acts as fulcrum point that stops the tendons from stringing

gubernaculum

a fibrous cord that connects the fetal testis with the bottom of the scrotum. Hormones released by the testes signal these chords to shorten and thicken which initiates testicualr descent. Testes descend towards inguinal canal by seven months gestation, and pass through the inguinal canal into scrotum just before birth. It drags blood vessels, nerves, duct system (vas deferens) and layers of abdominal wall into the scrotum

Talocucral joint

a hinge type synovial joint that connects the distal ends of the tibia and fibula in the lower limb with the proximal end of the talus, produces movement in one plane, plantar flexion (flexion) and dorsi flexion (extension).

bladder

a hollow viscus that is highly distensible to accomodate storage of urine (rugae). It is the most anterior viscera within the pelvis and its shape changes significantly from empty to full. The bladder has two different surfaces, a Trigone refers to the smooth triangular section, the corners of which are the two ureter entry points and the internal urethral orifice, Rugae refer to the bumpy surface of urinary Bladder musculature which can expand to facilitate more urine.

Humerus

a long bone with a shaft and two ends, articulating with the glenoid cavity proximally. The head of the humorous tapers down into two necks, the anatomical neck, defined by where the hyaline cartilage that lines the articular surface finished and the line where the joint capsule attaches, and the surgical neck, defined by the constriction below the tubercles of the greater tubercle and lesser tubercle, and above the deltoid tuberosity.

Supporting ligaments of the ankle

a medial deltoid ligament (very strong) and a lateral ligament (commonly injured as in inversion sprain, not as strong). The most distal aspect to the medial ligament is a spring ligament or plantar calcaneonvicular ligament, which maintains the apex of the arch

serosa

a membrane that covers the external surface of hollow viscera. It usually is derived from lining of body cavities and minimises friction generated by viscera originating in moving body cavities. Can be continuous with mesentery attaching viscera to body wall

Joint/articulation

a point of contact between two bones, bone and cartilage or between bone and teeth

Peritoneum

a serious membrane that lines the abdominal cavity, where it covers the surface of the abdominal viscera is the visceral peritoneum (continuous). Where it covers the kidney however is considered as parietal peritoneum as the kidney is considered a wall structure. There is a space between the two layers of peritoneum forming a peritoneal cavity, a potential space contain a small volume of serious fluid, allowing friction free movement during abdominal viscera

peritoneum

a serous membrane that folds over the top of pelvic viscera and provides protection and support for the abdominal organs. The folds come together over uterine tubes to form broad ligament. The ligament of ovary formed by folds over ovarian vessels, and the ovary is situated behind the peritoneum. The peritoneum also forms pouches including the vesico-uterine pouch, which projectiles over the bladder and under the uterus, and the recto-uterine pouch, projects between the uterus and rectum.

Articulations between tibia and fibula

a superior tibiafibia joint, which is a plane synovial joint that allows some gliding movement, and an inferior tibiafibia joint, which is a fibrous (syndesmosis) joint, a very strong joint that prevents the tibia and fibular from separating.

superior

above

lymph nodes

act as filters to trap particles in lymph and defend against foreign antigens

vertebral column and division

acts a supporting axis and provides movement and protection of the nervous system. The first seven vertebra are denied as cervical vertebrae (CI-CVII), following twelve are thoracic vertebrae (TI-TXII), distal to that are five lumbar vertebrae (LI-LV), below which are five sacral vertebrae (IV) that fuse to become a single bony structure known as the sacrum. The Coccyx is the most distal vertebra and is formed from 3-4 fused coccygeal vertebrae

minor duodenum papilla

acts as a small opening for pancreatic enzymes

major duodenum papilla

acts as an entrance for gastrointestinal enzyme and bile produced by pancreas, liver and gallbladder. The main pancreatic duct enters the major duodenal papilla and direct secretes pancreatic enzymes. The common bile duct also connects to the duodenum through the major dudoenum papilla.

3rd degree burn

affects full thickness of skin

intrinsic muscles of back

all attach to and act on the back, these are innervated by posterior rami. There are two groups: Erector spinal which are superficial, long and powerful muscles that run vertically along the back and are the prime movers. Produces the movement or extension, concentrically (shorten) return the flexed trunk to the upright posture. Also work eccentrically (lengthen) to control flexion. They have common facial origin at the thoracolumbar fascia. Transversospinalis which are the deeper and are shorter muscles. These act as stabilisers and prevent excess movement. They not strong and often atrophy rapidly after injury

Extrinsic muscles of back

all attach to and act on the upper limb, and only has one attachment to the back. Their primary action is to move the upper limb. Innervation of which also arises from the brachial plexus

oesophagus hiatus

allows passage of oesophagus levelled at T10 in the muscular part of the diaphragm

aortic hiatus

allows passage of the aorta Rhein the diaphragm and emerges between the two crus of the diaphragm

cava hiatus

allows passage of the inferior vena cava through the hole in the central tendon

bulbourethreal glands

also known as Cowper's gland, is a paired, pea-shaped gland found in the deep perineal pouch. The duct opens into spongy urethra, and secrete a mucous type secretion that lubricates the urethra and forms pre-ejaculation

Position of uterus when bladder is empty

anteverted (AV) relative to vagina [Rotated forward, towards the anterior surface of the body], or anteflexed (AF) over bladder [Flexed, towards the anterior surface of the body]

Dermatome

area of skin mainly supplied by a single spinal nerve

dermatomes

area of skin supplied by one spinal cord segment (sensory); segmental cutaneous innervation.

intercostal nerve

arise from the anterior rami of spinal nerves (T1-T11), these nerves run between the internal and innermost intercostal muscles. These provide innveration to these intercostal muscles and also branch to the superficial part proving innervation to the covering tissue of the thorax including the skin.

filtration and collection in kidney

arterial supply enters the kidney via the hilum and progressively divides via the renal columns. After nephrotic filtration, the collecting tubule drains urine from the renal pyramid (3) into the tubular system, to he minor calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis and onto the ureter. Filtered blood returns to the rest of the body via the renal vein

anterior axis-appendicular muscles

attach to and act on the upper limb. There are three of these muscles that sit on the anterior chest wall, the pectoralis major (red), pectoralis minor (green) and serrates anterior (red on lateral view).

Acetabular labrum

attachment point for the femur to the pelvic girdle

Nerve supply for visceral system

autonomic nervous system

distal

away from centre of body

caudal

away from head

abduction

away from midline

lateral

away from midline

ventral

back

Hip Joint

ball and socket joint that allows movement in three plains. It Is very stable unlike the shoulder joint, deepened by the labrum and reinforced by strong ligaments in the hip joint capsule.

posterior

behind

inferior

below

Blood supply for abdominal organs

blood is supplied by the abdominal aorta which starts at T12 and descends at the midline, where it gives rise to two common illac arteries at L4. The abdominal aorta has branches on both inferior and posterior sides. From the anterior surface of the aorta, there are three unpaired branches, the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery and the inferior mesenteric artery, providing blood supply to tubular gastrointestinal tract. There are also three paired branches anteriorly, one pair of suprarenal artery (Adrenal gland), renal artery (kidneys), and testicular/ovary artery (gonads). Generally the paired branches supply paired viscera and abdominal walls, and unpaired branches supply unpaired viscera. Posteriorly, there are a series of parietal branches that provide blood supply to the abdominal walls

Osteoblasts

bone building cells, which synthesis and secrete collagen fibres, laying down organic components to build extracellular matrix of bone and also initiate calcification (hardening of bone tissue)

Osteoclasts

bone reabsorbing cells, which break down bone extra cellular matrix. They release lysosomal enzyme and acids to digest protein and minerals components of the extracellular matrix

Aponeurosis

broad, flat connective tissue linking muscle belly to site of attachment, spread over a greater area than tendon

Periosteal arteries

carry oxygenated blood to supply nutrients to the periosteum and out compact bone through many canals that penetrate the bone

liver accessory lobes

caudate and quadrate lobes separated by sagittal fissures and transverse portal hepatis

Major divisions of the brain

cerebrum, diencephalon (includes thalamus), brain stem (includes midbrain, pons, medulla), cerebellum (controls movement)

Bones of the shoulder girdle

clavicle and scapula

lymphatic system

clears interstitial spaces of surplus fluid, leaked plasma proteins, cellular debris and returns lymphocytes from lymph organs to blood. Comprised of lymphatic plexuses (capillaries), vessels, major trunks (ie. thoracic duct), lymph nodes and lymphoid organs running alongside the venous system

proximal

close to centre of body

Synergist

complements the action of prime mover by adding extra force to he same movement and reducing undesirable unnecessary movement

erectile tissues of the external genitalia of men

composed of two corpora cavernosa and one corpus spongiosum. The corpus spongiosum expands distally to form glans penis. The urethra pierces perineal membrane and enters corpus spongiosum and opens at glans penis.

Cardiac skeleton

composed of two fibrous ring and two fibrous coronets providing attachment for the cusps of valves and the myocardium. Also acts as a electrical insulation separating the atria musculature from the ventricular musculature. The right fibrous ring surrounds the tricuspid valve and the left ring surrounds the mitral valve, together these ring provides attachment for the atria and ventricular muscle. The fibrous coronets provide attainment for the valves of the great vessels

Pelvic girdle

comprised to two hip bones known as os coaxae, that come together at the midline to form a joint. These hip bones attach at the sacrum and coccyx. Developmentally, the pelvis is made of three distinct bones: illium, ischium and pubis, all classified as flat bones. During development these three fuse together to form the hip bone.

Visceral System

comprises of cardiovascular and respiratory system, gastrointestinal system, urinary system and reproductive system

Nervous system of vertebrate

comprises of central division and peripheral system, the CNS includes the brain and spinal cord, and the PNS is defined as the nerves connecting the CNS to the periphery

Somatic System

comprises of the skeletal system (bone), articular system (joints), muscular system (muscles) and Integumental system (skin and lymphatic)

Knee Joint

comprises of two synovial joint within one capsule: femur with patella (patellofemoral) and the femur with tibia (tibiofemoral). The knee joint is classified as a hinge joint, but is not a true hinge joint as some rotation occurs

congenital diseases

conditions present at or before birth caused by genetic, infectious, nutritional and/or environmental factors (birth defects)

radiocarpal joint

condyloid type synovial joint producing movement in two plane between the radius and two carpels, the scaphoid and lunate

ligament of ovary

connects the ovary to the uterus

Pectoral girdle

connects the upper limb to the axial skeleton

intrinsic muscles of the foot

consist of three groups/layers of plantar muscles including: hallucis muscle (base of the big toe), digiti minimi muscles (base of little toe) and central muscles. These muscles flexes the digits and help maintain the arches. Long tendons including plantar aponeurosis and ligaments that support arche

Functional sphincters

contain no localised muscular thickening, skeletal or smooth muscle. They achieve their sphincteric action through muscle contraction around (extrinsic) or within (intrinsic) the structure

Muscularis

contains mostly circular and longitudinal smooth muscle and provides motility (e.g. peristalsis) and expansion (e.g. smooth muscle may be stretched without changing force of contraction to allow for storage of large volumes of liquids (e.g. bladder) or solids (e.g. rectum). At critical point of storage (stretch) reflexes are initiated to cause micturition or defecation

pleura

continuous, serous membrane covering each lung and the walls of pleural cavity, divided into parental and visceral layers.

visceral pleura

covers the surface of the lung

parietal pleura

covers the walls of the thoracic cavity, including the cervical, costal, mediastinal and diaphragmatic pleura of the thoracic cage

clavicle

curved long bone that supports the upper limb. It has two ends, the medial and sternal end, at the sternal end the upper limb attaches to the axial joint, and the lateral end has a broad thickening that will articulate with the scapula.

tranversus abdominus (TA)

deepest layer, transverse fibre direction, takes attachment medially at the linear alba, superiorly at the costal margin and posteriorly with postally abdominal muscles. The lowermost fibres also arise from the inguinal ligaments, arch up and inert into pubic crest via a conjoint tendon

esophagogastric junction (Z-line)

denotes the start of the stomach, and where oesophageal mucosa transitions to gastric mucosa

Development of the external genitalia for males

derive from the three fetus structures, the genital tubercle, urogenital fold and labioscrotal swelling/fold. In males, the production of testosterone cause these structures to grow; the urogenital folds extend and grow to form the penis shaft, and start fusing at the midline. The labioscrotal swelling/fold also grows and fuse at the midline to form the scrotum, and genital tubercle forms into the glans penis.

stomach

dilated part of the gastrointestinal tract positioned in the left upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity. It is a hallow, intraperitoneal structure allowing mobility. It features two orifices, the cardiac orifice (opens to oesophagus) and pyloric orifice (opens to duodenum). The stomach is J shaped, with two curvatures, a lesser curvature on the right, and a greater curvature on the left. It has two surfaces, an anterior surface and posterior, and is composed of four component parts. An internal view of the stomach shows that stomach contains mucosa/gastric folds known as rugae that allows for expansion of the stomach after the consumption of foods and liquids

testes

divided into approximately 250 lobules by connective tissue septa, each lobule contains 3-10 seminiferous tubules that forms a highly convoluted loop within the lobule. Tubules end as straight tubule (tubule erectus) at mediastinum, that connects to rete testis (anastomosing channel system). From there the spem enters the efferent ducts to the epididymis where if matures and becomes motile. There are two layers around the testes, the tunica vaginalis, which is an extension of the abdominal peritoneum and is poured into the scrotum during testicular descent, and next to it the tunica albuginea which is a dense connective tissue capsule

Coronal

divides body into front and back

Sagital

divides body into left and right

The anterior compartment of leg

dorsiflexors of the ankle and extensors of the toe. It contains the tibialis anterior, the extensor hallucis longus (EHL) and extensor digitorum longus (EDL). The EDL extends down the into the foot and attaches to four lateral toes.

pulmonary ligament

double folds pleura found inferior to the lung root

Thoracic venous pump

double pump mechanism linked to respiration whereby descent of diaphragm during inspiration shortens IVC (emptying it) and lengthens SVS (filling it) In expiration diaphragm ascends, SVC shortens and empties, IVC lengthens and fills

bronchopulmonary segments

each lung has 11 segments, each segments relieves independent blood supply, venous drainage and segmental bronchus

Two layers of skin

epidermis and dermis

Two layers of skin and formation

epidermis and dermis. The epidermis forms from the embryonic endoderm and are colonised by melanocytes (neural crest) and langerhan cells (immune cells). The Inner layer dermis is formed from the mesodermal cells

Organisation of skeletal muscle

epimysium --> perimysium --> fascicles --> endomysium --> muscle fibres The entire muscle group is wrapped in a connective tissue called epimysium. Within the muscle, there are numerous fascicles, bundles of individual muscle cell which are wrapped in perimysium. The fascicles contain the muscle fibre, the individual muscle cells wrapped in endomysium

The lateral muscle compartment of the leg

evertors of the foot. It contains two different muscles: the peritoneal (febularis) longus and brevis. These muscles extend down the lateral compartment and behind the lateral malleolus, and attaches to the plantar side of the medial cuneiform and first metatarsal bone.

extension

extend angle in relation of joint angle

Three layers of abdominal wall muscles

external oblique muscles, internal oblique muscle and transversus abdominus

Collateral Ligaments

extracapsular ligaments, adds to the taut in extension and medio-lateral stability, the lateral collateral ligament aches to the head of the fibula and the lateral aspect of the fibula, and has a rounded, more narrow appearance. It resists varus stress, adduction and abduction. The medial collateral ligaments have a more flatter, broader banded appearance, and is adherent to the joint capsule and medial meniscus. It takes an attachment to the medial meniscus and reduces the mobility of the medial meniscus on the tibial plateau. MLC resists valgus stresses, mainly abduction and adduction.

specialised fascia of the thigh

fascia late which thickens laterally to form the iliotibial band (ITB). The intermuscular septa divides the thigh and leg into compartments

vulva/pendendum

female external genitalia, describes the erectile tissues and overlying skin. The labia minor are the two thin skin folds next to the midline, these are more vascularise and appear more pink in colour. In-between the labia minora is the vestibule which contains openings of the urethra and vagina (urethra is more anterior to vagina). The labia minor comes together anteriorly at the at glans clitoris. Lateral to this is the labia majora which are large skin folds. there are two corpora cavernosa and two bulbs of vestibule which connect to the glans clitoris (anterior to urethra, not covered by skin). Posterior to the bulbs are the greater vestibular glands that open into the vestibule and secrete mucous secretions that lubricates the

Menisci

fibro-cartilaginous discs that are attached on top of the tibial plateau. It contains both a medial and lateral aspect, the lateral one is smaller and rounder, the medial menisci is larger and more oval shaped. These structures attach to the bony ridge at horns. They are wedge shaped, thicker around the periphery and reaper down towards the knee such that they terminate. Menisci increase the surface area of contact by around 30% and also act as shock absorber and spread the weight forces. Also spread synovial fluid

Ligaments

fibrous connections between bones, composed of collagen fibres

pericardium

fibrous membrane that covers the heart and the great vessel root, composed of an outer fibrous pericardium that continues with the central tendon of the diaphragm, and the inner serous pericardium divided into the parental and visceral layer.

Tendon

fibrous tissue linking muscle belly to attachment site of the bone

duodenum

first part of the small intestine, very short and is found right against the posterity abdominal wall and is c shaped. It is covered by parental peritoneum (retroperitoneal) and is divided into four parts.

scapula

flat bone that contains two fossae (depressions) for muscle attachments that are separated by a spine (big ridge of bone extending laterally). It contains a process called the coracoid directed towards anterior of the body and at the glenoid fossa is the attachment point for head of humerus

terms of movement

flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, medial/lateral

Primitive node

fluid filled end of the primitive streak containing cilia which rotating in the same direction creating leftward fluid flow. Fluid pushed away from the cells on right signal to the cell that they are 'right cells' and similarly fluid pushed towards the cells on the left signal they are 'left cells'

Gyri

folds in the brain

Development of external genitalia

formed by three structures in the fetus, the genital tubercle, urogenital fold and labioscrotal swelling/fold. In females, the genital tubercle develops into the glans clitoris, the urogenital folds develop into the labia minora and the labioscrotal folds develop into the labia majora.

diaphragm

forms the inferior aspect of the thoracic cavity, it is a muscle that has circumferential origins and insets into the central tendon.It is doubled domed (right higher than the left) and domes up into the thorax. The right is positioned higher due to the position of the liver pushing the dome higher up form underneath. When the diaphragm contracts it pulls towards the origin and descends increasing the volume of the thorax and decreases the pressure of the cage allowing air to flow in.

seminal vesicles

found on the posterior surface of the bladder and ducts of which join the vas deferns producing the ejaculatory duct which empties into prostatic urethra. It secretes alkaline, viscous fluid (55-61% of seminal fluid) that aid in the neutralisation of acidic female reproductive tract environment.

anterior

front

dorsal

front

Lobes of the cerebrum

frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, insula

foregut

gives rise to the abdominal oesophagus, the stomach, and terminates at major papilla of the duodenum. The major papilla of the duodenum represents an absolute demarkation deviating the derivatives of the foregut from the midgut. It also gives rise to the liver, gall bladder, pancreases and spleen.

Supporting cells of the nervous system

glial cell include: astrocytes (important in creating the blood/brain barrier and supporting synaptic transmission between cells), oligodendrocytes (forms myelin that insulates axons of neurons increasing conduction rates) and microglia (immune cells).

site of filtration

glomuerli located in the renal cortex

Posterior Muscles of pelvic girdle

gluteal muscles including the gluteus Maximus, gluteus medius and gluteus minimus. the gluteus Maximus migrated more posteriorly and is only recruited in power extension and acts a hip extensor. Located more laterally is the gluteus medius and gluteus minimus which are the muscles that abduct the hip and are primarily maintain the position of pelvis in locomotion. These gluteal muscles act as the extensor and abductor muscles of the hip. These muscles also take attachment to the ITB, the medius attaches to the greater trochanter. There are also rotators posterior to the girdle, the main one being the piriformis

bicepital groove

groove between lesser and greater tubercles serving as an attachment point for the long head of biceps

Sulci

grooves between gyri

medullary cavity

hallow centre inside the bone containing yellow (fat) marrow and blood vessels.

Gall bladder

hallow viscous situated in a groove of the visceral surface of the liver, only partially covered by peritoneum. GB divided into component parts, its blunt end is known as the fundus, the vast majority is the body, and the narrowing is known as the neck. The duct of the gallbladder is the cystic duct, and joins with the hepatic duct to form the common bile duct. The function of the gall bladder is to the store and concentrate the bile

Division of right lung

has three fissures dividing it into three lobes. the horizontal fissure divides the superior lobe from the middle lobe below, and the oblique fissure dividing the superior and middle lobe at the front, away from he inferior lobe at the back.

components of right lung hilum

hilum contains one pulmonary artery, two pulmonary veins (anteriormost and inferiormost), right main bronchus giving rise to the lobar bronchi, bronchial vessels, nerves and lymphatics. There are two bronchus visible as the right main bronchus is shower shorter and wider than the left, and before proceeding into the right lung, branches into the lobar bronchi. Above the hilum of the right lung is a groove for the azygos vein

True Elbow joint

hinge type synovial joint, where the trochlea articulates with the trochlea notch producing movement in one plane, flexion and extension

pharyngeal arches

human embryo has 4 well defined pharyngeal arches that give rise to the structures of the head and nec serve and act as outer covering of the ectoderm. Internally they are lined with endoderm, and contain a Mesenchymal core derived from mesoderm as well as neural crest cells. Each pharyngeal arch contains: a central cartilaginous skeletal element (derived from neural crest), striated muscle rudiment (derived from head mesoderm, arch-specific cranial nerve and an aortic arch artery (endothelial cells derived from mesoderm).

hindgut

include the distal part of the transverse colon, the descending colon, sigmoid colon, the rectum and anal cavity.

The posterior compartment of the thigh

include the extensors of the hip and flexors of the knee, the hamstring muscle. The hamstring is composed of three '2-joint' muscles including the semimembranosus, semitendinosus and the bicep femoris (long head). These muscles take attachment at the ischial tuberosity and extend down the posterior compartment and split, the semimembranosus and semitendinosus head medially and attach to the medial aspect of the tibia, and the bicep femoris heads laterally and attaches to the top of the fibula.

veterbral column

includes the cervical cord (C1-8), thoracic cord (T1-T12), lumbar cord (L1-L5) and sacral cord (S1-S5). The spinal cord terminates at L2 at the conus medullaris

Anterior Compartment of thigh

includes the sartorius muscle the four quadriceps muscles, rectus femoris, vastus medialis, vastus lateralis and vastus intermedium. Its primary function is to act as extensors or the knee, vastus muscles produce powerful extension at the knee. These muscles come around and rotate laterally to accommodate for the inclination of the patella. The anterior compartment muscles take their origin around the thigh or at the pelvis, and extend and come down together at the quadriceps tendon, encompass the patella, and insert into the tibial tuberosity.

prostate

inferior to the bladder, anterior to the rectum and is superior to pelvic floor. It surrounds the urethra and is approximately the size of a walnut. It consists of three zones: peripheral (70% of volume), central (20%) and transitional (5-10%). The prostate is a exocrine gland that contributes to about 30-35% of ejaculate, it secretes a watery liquid containing zinc, citric acid, prostaglandins, and prostate-specific antigen (enzyme that liquids semen). It also acts as muscular organ that helps with ejaculation and stops seem entering the bladder during ejaculation.

1st degree burn

injure epidermis only

2nd degree burn

injures epidermis and 1st layer of dermis

Pia mater

inner most layer found on the surface of the brain itself that protects the brain

Posterior ramus

innervates intrinsic back muscles, the associated facet joints and overlying skin on the back

ulnar nerve

innervates most intrinsic muscles of the hand. It arrises from C8 and T1 and goes posterior of the medial epicondyle and then emerges into the anterior compartment of the forearm, branches to innervates a forearm muscle, then continues into wrist and branches again, over the flexor retinaculum, into a muscular branch that innervates of the intrinsic muscles of the hand, and a cutaneous branch that innervates the medial and 1½ digits (both palmar and dorsal). This nerve is susceptible to injury at the medial epicondyle and can result in deformity called the ulnar claw, where extension occurs at the digits

Anterior ramus

innervates most other skeletal muscles and remaining areas of the skin

musculocutaneous nerve

innervates muscles in the anterior/flexor compartment of the arm. It arises from C5, C6 and C7, and penetrates the coronoid brachialis muscle, sits under the biceps and over brachialis. As it travels distally in the forearm, it innervates the skin over the lateral part of the forearm (cutaneous innervation). Well protected from muscles above and below it

median nerve

innervates muscles in the anterior/flexor compartment of the forearm. It arrises from C5, C6, C7, C8, and T1. It innervates most anterior compartment forearm muscles, it passes under the carpal tunnel and also supplies must muscles of the thumb. There is cutaneous innervation, branching into the palmar and 3 ½ digits and nail bed. susceptible to injury, compression in the carpal tunnel can cause swelling or loss of innervation, 'carpal tunnel' syndrome. There is a cutaneous branch that emerges before the carpal tunnel that innervates the palmar and also can be unaffected from carpal tunnel syndrome

radial nerve

innervates muscles in the posterior/extensor compartment of the arm and forearm. It arrises from C5, C6, C7, C8, and T1. It mainly innervates extensor muscles of the elbow, wrist and fingers, as well as cutaneous innervation in posterior skin of arm and forearm, and part of the back of the hand. It enters the posterior compartment through triangular interval, and runs down the shaft of the humerus between the lateral and medial heads of the triceps in the radial groove. Its close proximity to bone makes it susceptible to injury, from humeral shaft fracture, compression (Saturday night palsy), causing a wrist drop, wrist and the fingers cannot extend

auxiliary nerve

innervates the posterior compartments, mainly the deltoid muscle (the main adductor muscles). It arrises from posterior divisions of C5 and C6. It also has cutaneous innveration over the shoulder (military badge area). It accesses the posterior side through the inter muscular quadrangular space created by subscapularis and teres minor above and teres major below. It is susceptible to injury from shoulder dislocations or in fractures of the surgical neck

Radial tuberosity

insertion of biceps brachii

internal oblique muscle

intermediate layer, has superomedial fibre direction and makes attachment medial attachment at the linear alba, superior the costal Martin and inferiorly the inguinal ligament

Cruciate Ligaments

intracapsular ligaments, the anterior cruciate ligament attaches on the anterior aspect of the tibia and projects posteriorly, the posterior cruciate ligaments attach attaches posteriorly and projects anteriorly. Both ACL and PCL cross over, these two ligaments work together and provide stability in the sagittal plane. The ACL prevents anterior displacement of the tibia relative to the femur, the PCL prevents posterior displacement of the tibia relative to the femur

sternoclavicular joint

joint where the clavicle attaches to the axial skeleton

Zygoapophyseal joints

joints of the vertebral arches. They are plane synovial joints that permit gliding only one axis. Movement is determined by the shape and depth of the articular surfaces. Orientation of the articular processes differ regionally. Thoracic articular processes are orientated in the coronal plane and permit rotation, whereas the lumbar articular processes are oriented in the sagittal plane and permit flexion/extension

nutrient artery

large artery that enters compact bone near the middle of the diaphysis at the nutrient foramen

liver

largest solid viscus found in the right upper quadrant but extends into the left, it is intraperitoneal, however is not complete posteriorly. The liver processes the production of bile and also facilitates metabolism. The hilum of the liver, portal hepatis, allows the portal vein, hepatic artery and bile duct (portal triad) to enter the liver. The hepatic artery brings blood into the liver for supply, the portal vein brings venous blood into the liver for metabolism. The venous blood of the liver itself drains directly into the inferior vena cava through hepatic vein from both lobes.

Valgus stress

lateral stress or force on the outside of the knee

Raphe

line of fibrous tissue where one muscle joints another, usually a long attachment

Derivatives of endoderm

lining of digestive tract, budding of which gives rise to liver, gall bladder, pancreas and lungs

fibula

long bone but is non weight bearing. It contains a long shaft important for muscle attachments. It most distal aspect is the lateral malleolus which too is used in the ankle joint

Tibia

long bone which acts as the main weight bearing bone. The tibial plateau for the knee joint is flat and contains a ridge separating the two articular surfaces where different femoral condyles come into contact. The shaft of which is subcutaneous. Just distal to the knee joint, there is a traction epiphysis known as the tibial tuberosity where the quadriceps muscles attach. Further distally on the tibia two articular surfaces for the ankle, the trochlear notch for ankle joint and the medial malleolus

ureters

long, hallow, tubules that are composed of smooth muscle and facilitates urine transport from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. Ureters are paired muscular tubes however variation may occur with more than one. The contraction of urine going down is a peristaltic contraction (progressive contractions). Its lumen walls have folds in relaxed state, capable of expansion during peristaltic action. Ureters constrictions occur at three main points, the origin of the ureter, region entering the pelvis near the pelvic brim , and entering urinary bladder. The urinary bladder wall contraction acts as a functional sphincter controlling entry into the bladder and prevents back flow.

Musculovenous pump

main method of venous return from limbs, expansion of contracting muscle limited y fascia causes a build up of pressure by compressing the vein, and the muscle contraction 'milks' blood superiorly

Prime movers

main muscle responsible for producing specific movement, concentric contraction

varus stress

medial stress or force on the knee

Endosteum

membranous lining of the hollow cavity of the bone and also lines internal bones surfaces, trabecular and canals of compact bone

Arachnoid matter

middle layer connected to the dura matter on the side closest to the CNS, composed of a networks of fibres and collagen that are part of the suspension system that helps protect the brain and spinal cord from sudden impact. Also houses cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) a filtrate of blood bathes the bran and acts as a protective layer

external oblique muscles

most superficial layer, has inferomedial fibre direction, and takes attachment at the ribs, linear alba and iliac crest. Inferiorly, the lateral part attaches to the iliac crest and the ASIS, the central part is free with no attachment and the medial part attaches to the pubic tubercle. This creates a fibrous split between the ASIS and pubic tubercle and the inguinal ligament, a thickened under curving fibrous band indicating the free inferior borders the EO

myotomes

muscle groups supplied by a single spinal cord segment. It follows the principle that muscles proximal to the axial skeleton innervated by nerve roots higher up in the brachial plexus, the further distal down, the lower the nerve origin. So movement can be explained by peripheral nerves or nerve root values

Myotome

muscle or group of muscles enervated by single spinal nerve

Antagonist

muscle that opposes action of another muscle, eccentric contraction, sometimes regulate action of prime mover by providing resistance to slow/stop movements

Muscles in superficial layer of anterior compartment of forearm

muscles in this layer are long and arise from the medial epicondyle of the humerus and extend to the wrist. These muscles include: flexor carpi ulnaris (FCU), flexor carpi radialis (FCR), pronator teres (PT) and palmaris longus (PL).

Vagina

muscular passage connecting the uterine cavity to the exterior. It is posterior to the urethra and anterior to the rectum. contains fornices, the anterior (front) and posterior (back) recesses into which the upper vagina is divided (area next to cervix)

Innervation of the lower limb

nerve supply from the lumbosacral plexus. The femoral nerve supplies the iliopsoas and hip flexor muscles, the gluteal nerves supplies the gluteal muscles. The femoral nerve continues down into the anterior compartment and innervate the quadriceps. Obturator nerve comes down and innervates the medial aspect and supply the adductor group and the sciatic nerve will descend posteriorly and innervate the hamstring muscles. The sciatic nerve continues down and enervates all the muscles in the leg and foot. It branches in the leg into a deep and superficial perineal nerve, and a tibial branch as well.

scapulothoracic joint

not a true joint, does not contain hyaline cartilage or a joint capsule, but is a physiological joint present between the scapula and thoracic cage, that allows movement of the scapula across thoracic cage. With shoulder abduction or adduction, only 120° of the movement occurs at the glenoidhumeral joint, about 60° of that movement occurs with scapular rotation allowing a greater range of motion for the upper limb.

Ulna notch

on the radius, where it articulates with the capitulum

Radial notch

on the ulna, where it articles with the radius

conduction of action potential

once generated by the SA node, the action potential spreads across the right and left atrium causing contraction but not the ventricules. It AV node also found in the right atrium holds the charge then sends the electrical signals through the AV bundles (bundles of his) crossing the right fibrous ring, into the right and left bundle branch, the right runs into the right ventricle and the left into the left ventricle, causing ventricular contraction

components of left lung hilum

one pulmonary artery (superiormost), two pulmonary veins (anteriormost and inferiormost), left main bronchus, bronchial vessels, nerves and lymphatics. Above the hilum of the left lung is a groove for the arch of the aorta,

epididymus

one single duct, about 5 meters long and is a highly coiled tube. It consist of a caput (head), corpus (body), and a cauda (tail). The duct is surrounded by tooth muscle cells and help pump the sperm forward. The main role of the epididymus is the storage and maturation of sperm (acquire ability to move). The sperm stays in the epidiymus for usually 7 days, however can be stored for a month. As spermatogenesis is a ongoing process, no ejaculation will result in accumulation of sperm in the duct, but excess sperm will be removed.

Muscles in intermediate layer of anterior compartment of forearm

only contains one muscle, the flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS), and arise from the common flexor origin and uniquely split into tendons in digits

Situs Inversus

organs are mirrored from their normal positions as a result of problems establishing the left right asymmetry

intraperitoneal organs

organs fully enclosed by peritoneum membrane and is suspended in the abdominal cavity

Hollow viscera

organs that are typically tubular with a cylindrical wall and a lumen, includes the stomach, gallbladder, small intestine, colon, bladder. Contains four layers: lumen, internal mucosa layer, middle Muscularis layer and external Serosa layer

Visera

organs that occupy cavities in the bodyregulate internal environment. Visceral systems include: Respiratory, Urinary, Digestive, Endocrine, Male and Female reproduction systems

Gluteal nerve

originate from L4,5 and S1 and innervates the gluteal muscles and lateral compartment of the thigh. These nerves descend from the anterior rami posteriorly through the greater sciatic foramen. There are two gluteal nerves, a superior gluteal nerve above the piriformus, and a inferior gluteal nerve below the piriformis. These two nerves innervate the three gluteal muscles aforementioned.

anterior intercostal arteries

originate from the internal thoracic arteries

posterior intercostal arteries

originates form the aorita

sciatic nerve

originates from L4,5 and S1,2,3 and supplies the posterior (flexor) compartment of the thigh, the hamstring muscles. It is the biggest nerve in the body and forms within the pevis and descends down through the greater sciatic foramen, emerging under the piriformus muscle. It travels distally delving deep in the posterior compartment in the thigh where it supplies the hamstring muscles through heavy branching

Obturator nerve

originates from the lumbar roots L2,3,4, and descend down the pelvis into the obturator foramen. It supplies adductor compartment, branching heavily to innervate the medial compartment of the thigh, as well as the skin medial aspect of the thigh. In women, the obturator nerve runs adjacent to the ovaries and any ovary dysplasia/expansion can result in compression of the nerve causing refereed pain around the medal aspect. It also can have hip pain referred to the knee

Trophoblast

outer cells of the blastocyst that form extra embryonic structures (part of placenta)

tenia coli

outer layer splits into three muscular bands which lines the large intestine longitudinally

Dura matter

outermost layer of the meninges surrounding the brain and spinal cord

female genital organs

ovaries, fallopian tubes, oviduct, uterus, cervix and vagina

The bony framework of the upper limb

pectoral girdle attaching to the axial skeleton in the front. Then there is 1 proximal bone, the humerus, 2 distal bone, ulna and radius (one rotates relative to the other), a pentadactyl hand containing first carpometacarpal joint that allows the thumb to rotate 90° to digits

retroperitoneal organ

perineum only on there anterior side only

proximal radioulnar joint

pivot type synovial joint creating rotating movements. The head of the radius is encircled by a annular ligament that starts and terminates on the ulnar. It provides stability by pulling the radius into that radial notch. Because of this, the radiocolateral ligament attaches to the annular ligament which allow this pivoting to occur

distal radioulnar joint

pivot type synovial joint that is functionally paired with the proximal joint. The ulnar is locked into a hinge type synovial joint at the elbow joint, the proximal and distal radioulna joint when they pivot, the ulnar remains stationary and the radius pivots around the ulna.

Acromioclavicular join

plane synovial joint and has a very weak joint capsule, however does contain some extrinsic ligaments supporting it, including the coracoclavicular ligaments that helps stables the AC joint. This joint is commonly injured due to this weak joint capsule

carpometacarpal joints (digit 2-5)

plane type synovial joints

The posterior compartment of the leg

planterflexors of the ankle. These muscles are considered in two groups: a superficial and deep muscle group. The superficial muscle group includes the gastrocnemius, plantaris and soleus. The gastrocnemius muscle attaches at the tibia and cross the knee joint and ankle joint. Its primary action is at the ankle joint, it will provide some moment of force around the knee joint, but mainly causes the dorsiflexion and plantar flexion of the ankle. Slightly deeper of the gastrocnemius is the soleus which attaches to the calcanea tendon and have the same action as the gastrocnemius. The plantaris is more proximal, it has a small body just behind the knee but a long tendon that extends down and attaches down to the calcaneal tendon. The deep group of muscles contain the tibialis posterior, flexor hallucis longus, and flexor digitorum longus. These muscles extend down into and connect to the hallux and digits through the tarsal tunnel. Mainly act as plantar flexors of the ankle and flexors of the toe

Posterior abdominal wall

posts major, quadratus lumborum, and illicus

pleural cavity

potential space between the visceral and parietal pleura, contains a few mL of serious pleural fluid which allow for free movement of lungs

Six main functions of the skeletal system

provide support, protection, movement, mineral homeostasis, blood cell production and triglyceride storage

embryology

provides information about reproduction, contraception, stem cells etc

brachial plexus

provides nerve supply to the upper limb, these nerves arises from spinal nerve roots arising from cervical and thoracic spinal cord segments C5-T1

thoracic wall

provides protection for internal organs and is the mechanical basis of breathing

Azygous vein

receives blood return from the thoracic walls and pericardium, lungs, trachea, bronchial tree and abdominal oesophagus. The azygous vein lies infront of each thoracic vertebrae, connects with the SVC posteriorly. It arches over the right lung root and connects at the root of the SVC.

vertically orientated anteriorly wall muscles

rectus abdominis and the pyramidalis muscles. The rectus abdominis is the primary vertical muscle, it arises inferiorly from the pubic bone and ascends over the costal margin and attaches at the rib cage. It is reinforced by intersected tendons (tendinous intersection). It is also enclosed by a rectus sheath, a fibrous compartment formed by the aponeurosis of EO, IO and TA.

flexion

reduce angle in relation to joint angles

division of upper limb

region between the shoulder and elbow is the arm, the region between elbow and wrist is the forearm, and the hand, distal to the wrist

Metaphysis

region of bone between the diaphysis and epiphysis contains the growth plate of hyaline cartilage of growing bone

neuromascular junction

region where a major source artery and vein enter the muscle belly

sweat glands

release sweat into hair follicles or skin surface via pores. Modified sweat glands (ceruminous glands) produce ear wax in ear canal

Craniosacral outflow

represents the parasympathetic nervous system. The pre-sympathetic neuron originates from the lateral horn and leave through the ventral roots and enters the mixed spinal nerves, the majority of which go by the anterior rami to the tissue, and synapses with the post-ganglionic neuron at the wall of the tissue.

Vascular venous pumps

result of arrangement of venue ccomitantes, wrapped in connective tissue that exists expansion, arterial pulsation, compresses blood in beans, valves direct flow proximally

Allantois

sac like structure found at the caudal end, surrounded by blood vessels which become umbilical arteries and veins aiding in gas exchange.

carpometacarpal joints (digit 1)

saddle type synovial joint allows the thumb to move to the tips of the other digits, opposition.

Planes of reference

sagittal, coronal, transverse

intervertebral joints

secondary cartilaginous joints and consists of a articular disc contains two components Outer anulus that attaches to the epiphyseal ring above and below. Consists of concentric lamellae and functions to keep vertebrae togetehr Inner nucleus that is encapsulated within the annulus fibrosis. Consists almost entirely of water and functions to keep vertebra apart, allows movement posteriorly and anteriorly, and acts as shock absorbers

Endocrine glands

secrete directly into blood stream and usually secrete hormones that act in other parts of blood, and are associated with a rich blood supply (e.g. adrenal glands)

Exocrine glands

secrete into a duct or system of ducts. Typically emerge from hilum (root) of viscera and open into hollow viscera (e.g. liver, bile)

sebacous glands

secrete oily substance (sebum) and are connected to hair follicles. They are not present on thick skin of palms and soles

accessory glands

seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands that contribute to the volume of ejaculate

Cartilage

semirigid connective tissue located in parts of the skeleton where more flexibility is required. It is nourished via diffusion and is poorly innervated and poorly supplied with blood.

tentorium cerebelli

separates cerebellum from cerebrum

septum transversum

separates the coelom into thoracic and abdominal cavities, and develops into part of the diaphragm

Falciform ligament

separates the left and right lobes of the liver

parieto-occipital sulcus

separates the parietal lobe with the occipital lobe

Pelvic diaphragm

separates the pelvis from the perineum, supports the pelvic viscera and forms an attachment for external genitalia below. The pelvic diaphragm consists of two parts, the posterior part is known as the anal triangle and the anterior part the urogenital triangle. The pelvic diaphragm is formed largely by the levator ani muscle, which contains an opening of pelvic viscera, the urogenital hiatus. Posterior to this midline, creates the anal triangle that contains the anal aperture. The levator anti is composed of three main parts, the inner puborectalis, middle pubococcygenus, and the outer iliococcygeus.

Falx cerebri

separates the two cerebral hemispheres

falx cerebelli

separates the two hemispheres of the cerebellum

cleavage lines

separations/less dense regions of collagen fibre bundles due to natural tension in the region. They are longitudinal in skin of head and limbs, and circular around neck and trunk, incisions made parallel to tension lines gape less and reduces scaring.

Patella

sesamoid bond sitting in the tendon of the quadriceps. Angulation due to inclination of the femur to bear more weight, causes the muscles to pull the patella laterally. The most common dislocation of the patellar is lateral dislocation.

Action potentials generated at the

sinuatrial (SA) node (pacemaker) found in the right atrium near the entrance of the SVC

Olecranon process

site of triceps attachment

Eight layers of anterior abdominal wall

skin, superficial fascia, external oblique, internal oblique, transversus abdominus, traversalis fascia, extraperitoneal fascia, peritoneum

Bursae

small fluid-filled sac lined by synovial membrane with an inner capillary layer of viscous synovial fluid. It provides a cushion between bones and tendons and/or muscles around a joint. The knee point contains a suprapatellar bursa that sits above the paternal, and communicates with the knee joint capsule itself, this aids in healing and during injuries often swell up in coordination with the swelling of the knee cap

hussar

small pouches caused by sacculation giving colon its segmented appearance

nerve enervation of the diaphragm

soley by two phrenic nerves provide motor innervation, the left phrenic nerve inverting the left side of the diaphragm, and the right phrenic nerve the right.

Pancreas

solid viscous situated in the left upper quadrant against the posterior abdominal wall, retroperitoneal, divided into a head, neck, body and tail. The pancreases has function in both exocrine and endocrine systems, it secretes hormones directly into the blood stream such as insulin, and also secretes pancreatic enzymes produced from the body and tail, into the main pancreatic duct which enters the duodenum through the major duodenum papilla. There is also a accessory pancreatic duct which collects enzymes from the lower part of the head of pancreas and secrets enzymes via the minor duodenum papilla.

Spleen

solid viscous situated in the left upper quadrant, intraperitoneal, It is very vascular and acts as a filter for blood as part of the immune system.

Division of Lateral mesoderm and derivatives

somatic (parietal) and splanchnic (visceral), develops into the ventrolateral body wall (connective tissue), heart and vasculature, wall of gut and bones of limb

carpal tunnel

space between carpal bones and flexor retinaculum, where tendons gain access to the hand. The flexor carpi radialis runs through the retinaculum, a group of eight tendons, four of which are tendons of the FDS and four from the FDP. The FDP is found separately on the left of this group. PL runs above of the retinaculum

intercostal space

space between ribs contains intercostal muscles, nerves, arteries and veins

mediastinum

space between the lungs. It contains the heart, esophagus, trachea, great blood vessels, and other structures.The structure connecting the lung to the mediastinum

Choroid Plexus

specialised vascular tissue that creates a ventricular system of the brain and produces CSF. Capillary that filters the blood and fills up the ventricle and flows out of the ventricular system to bath the CNS in CSF.

Two types of nerves

spinal nerves and cranial nerves

midgut

start form the distal part of the major papilla and includes the jejunum and ileum, pancreas, caecum, ascending colon and the proximal part of the transfer colon. There is no clear demarkation between to seperate the transverse colon/ midgut from the hindgut

oesophagus

starts from the level C6, and descends at the midline behind the trachea. It enters the abdomen at level T10 though the muscular part of the diaphragm with the vast majority of it sits in the thorax. A cross section of the oesophagus shows that there are two complete muscular layers, an external longitudinal layer and an internal circular layer of muscles.

Blood supply to upper limb

starts with the subclavian artery, which branches from the aortic arch, comes under the clavicle and transitions into the axillary artery as it passes through the into the axilla. The right side has a brachiocephalic trunk which comes off the aorta due to it being slightly positioned to the left, and then transitions into the subclavian artery. As It comes into the upper limb proper it transitions in brachial artery, which is the major blood vessel of he arm supplying the venture-medial aspect of the arm. This artery divides into the radial and ulnar arteries at the point. The ulnar artery is the larger branch of the brachial artery. It is the principle blood supply for the forearm an hand. It terminates in the planar arch and palpates at the wrist (anterior medially). It branches early and penetrates into the interosseous membrane and supplies the posterior compartment. The radial artery is the smaller of the two arteries and supplies the lateral aspect of the forearm. It also terminates in the palmar arch and palpable at the wrist. It is important for coronary artery grafts

Fixator

steadies primal parts of limb while movements occur in distal parts, isometric contraction

costoclavicular ligament

strong external ligament that takes strong attachment onto the clavicle and limits the amount of movement it can undertake

Hypodermis

superficial fascia deep to the dermis. It is made of connective tissue of variable thickness containing variable amounts of adipose tissue (fat) and fibrous strands (septa).

perineal membrane

superficial to the pelvic diaphragm, covers the urogenital triangle and contains two openings in females for the urethra and vagina.

terms of comparison

superficial, deep, proximal, distal, external, internal, ventral, dorsal

Terms of Relationship

superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, medial, lateral, cranial, caudal

sympathetic vs parasympathetic

sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest). In the parasympathetic pathway the ganglion is located right near the effector organ and have a large pre-ganglionic neuron, and ganglion in the sympathetic pathway is located near the spinal cord and have a short pre-ganglionic neuron

Glenohumerial Joint

synovial ball and socket joint between the humerus and glenoid fossa off the scapula, allowing movement in three planes.

Blood supply to the lower limb

the abdominal aorta bifurcates into the common iliac artery. There are two common iliac arteries, a left and right, which further branch into a internal iliac artery that supplies the internal structure of the pelvis, and a external iliac artery that tracts externally down into the lower limb. As the external iliac passes under the inguinal ligament it becomes the femoral artery. As the femoral artery enters the anterior compartment of the thigh, it branches into a deep branch known as the profunda femoris. The profunda femoris branches and runs down and up the neck of the femur. As it travels just distal to this, it travels under the sartorius muscle in the sub-sartorial canal. In the canal it heads medially then deep into the adductor hiatus ending up in the posterior compartment. Once it arrives in the posterior compartment it comes the popliteal artery. As it crosses over the knee joint it branches into three branches supplying blood to each of the three compartments in the leg. The first of these branches is the anterior tibial artery which goes through the interosseous membrane and ends up in the anterior. Distal to this branch, the popliteal artery branches into the posterior tibial artery which supply the posterior compartment with blood, and follwoing this a fibula artery that supplies the lateral compartments with blood. The poster tibial artery continues down the back of the leg and enters the tarsal tunnel and provides blood supply to the plantar aspect of the foot

The medial compartment of the thigh

the adductors of the hip. The adductor muscle group are a line of muscles that come down the posterior aspect of the femur and attach to the linea aspera (ridge of roughened surface on the posterior surface of the shaft of the femur). One adductor, the adductor Magnus has a hole known as the adductor hiatus which allows some structures to pass through it, from the anterior compartment to the medial compartment and into the posterior compartment. The gracilis extends down the medial aspect of the thigh and tacks attachment down past the knee at the medial aspect of the tibia. The group of adductors have a common attachment at the pubic ramus

Blood supply of the heart

the ascending aorta immediately branches into two coronary arteries that supply the heart. t arrises from the base of the aorta, at two orifices, one in the proximal part of the ascending aorta and another immediately superior to the aortic valves. Generally the right coronary artery supplies the right chambers of the heart and the left coronary artery supply the left chamber. The right coronary heart runs between the right atrium appendage and the right side of the pulmonary trunk, then runs within the anterior atrioventricular groove (coronary sulcus) between the right atria and right ventricle. When it reaches the inferior border of the heart, it will continue to run in the atrioventricular. The left coronary artery runs anteriorly between the left atrium appendage and the left side of the pulmonary heart. It then branches into a circumflex branch, running in the posterior atrioventricular groove between the left atrium and ventricle, and a anterior interventricular branch, which which runs in the interventricular groove and heads posteriorly past the apex of the heart. At the back of the heart, anastomoses form between all three terminal branches. However these are insufficient anastomosis and the branches formed at the anastomose are very small. Variations in distribuito of coronary arteries do exist.

Dermis

the deeper, thicker layer composed of dense irregular connective tissue (collagen and elastic fibres), only dermis is vascularised. It has a high tensile strength and can stretch and recoil easily. It is much thicker tan the epidermis and has a rich supply of nerve fibres, blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. It has two layers: - Papillary layer, more superficial of the two dermal layers, it makes up to 1/5th of thickness of Demis and contains blood vessels (capillaries), sensory receptors. It forms dermal ridges in regions of thick skin (fingers and footprints) - Reticular layer, deepest later of dermis, attached to subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis). Collagen fibres run in specific planes that create cleavage/tension lines, contains blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, sebaceous and sweat glands. The cleaver.

Formation of stomach

the distal part of the foregut, around middle of forth week, beings to dilate, enlarges and broadens ventro-dorsally, resulting in the formation of the stomach. The dorsal part grows faster than ventral part, creating the curvature of the stomach, and rotates 90 degrees being the duodenum into a c shape

Neurulation

the formation of the neural tube, neural plate extends and folds, the convergence of neural folds results in the formation of the neural tube. The border of the neural plate when folded over forms the neural crest which gives rise to various cells such as melanocytes and dorsal root ganglia

Lumen

the inside of the hallow viscus, usually used to transport material. It may have dilation and constrictions to aid in transport

Division of thoracic cavity

the left pulmonary cavity, the mediastinum and the right pulmonary cavity

Muscles in deep layer of anterior compartment of forearm

the muscles in this layer include the flexor digitorum profundus (FDP), flexor pollicis longus (FPL) and pronator quadratus (PQ). They arise from radius, ulna and interosseous membrane. The FDL acts as the main power flexor of the thumb, with the FDP and FDS being the power flexors of digits II - V

Division of kidney

the pale tissue found on the edges of the kidney is known as the renal cortex, which can be divide into renal columns between renal medula, and the renal cortex on the outside. The darker triangular structures are the renal medulla which too can be divide into a medullary pyramid and the medullary papilla found on the apex of pyramid. The tubular system begins with the minor calyx, where the papilla initially drains into; these structures merge to form the major calyx, which further merge to form the renal pelvis

Bone of lower limbs

the pelvic girdle, thigh, leg and foot; and three main joints: pelvis/hip, knee and the ankle/foot

Bones of the upper limb

the shoulder girdle, arm, forearm and hand, and their respective joints in the shoulder complex, elbow joint, wrist and hand

Articular surface

the surfaces of bones that meet in a joint

Uterus

thick walled muscular organ that facilities the development of embryo and fetus. It is divided into different parts, a superior fundus, body, and the inferior cervic which opens into supravaginal and vagina. The wall of the uterus also is composed of two different parts, an inner lining known as the endometrium which supports pregnancy, where implantation occurs and is shed during menstrual cycle, and an outer layer Myometrium

Neural plate

thickened region of the ectodermal layer that differentiates into think plate of pseudostratified, columnar neuroepithelial cells, and gives rise to the neural tube which forms the central nervous system

Meninges

three protective membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord, dura mater, Pia mater, arachnoid matter

Bones of the leg

tibia and fibula

pylorus

tight anatomical sphincter formed by localised smooth muscles that controls entrance of food into the duodenum

somites

tissue giving rise to muscle, bone and dermis of skin.

cranial

towards head

adduction

towards midline

medial

towards midline

branching of airways

trachea at the T4/5 vertebrae branches into the right main bronchus and the left main bronchus. Each side, main branch gives rise to two or three (right) lowbar bronchi, which further give ruse to two or true segmental bronchi

Central sulcus

transverses mud aspect of the brain and defines the boundary between the frontal and parietal lobe. Also defines two important gyri, the precentral (location of primary motor cortex) and postcentral gyri (location of primary sensory cortex).

Articulating surfaces of elbow

trochlea, a flanged out surface which articles with the ulna, and the capitulum, lateral rounded articular surface which articulates with the radius (on humerus)

Terminal nerves of the upper limb

tthe musculocutaneous, median, lna, radial and axillary nerve

fallopian tube

tubes which carry eggs from the ovaries to the uterus and which provides the place where fertilization occurs. It contains three main parts: outer infundibulum, which is funnel shaped and filled with fimbriae, facilities collection of occytes, a middle ampulla section, which is relatively large, labyrinthine lumen where fertilisation takes place, and most medial isthmus, which is a narrow portion, connects the tube with the uterus.

Division of left lung

usually only has one fissure, the oblique fissure which divides the superior lobe and the inferior lobe

Superior sagittal sinus

venous blood vessel that sits above the sagittal fissure in the midline of the dura matter. Facilitates the reabsorption of CSF from arachnoid vili that protrude into the vessel.

Vascular system for visceral system

visceral vascular system

ectopic/extrauterine pregnancy

where implantation occurs anywhere other than the endometrial lining, 75-90% of ectopic pregnancy occur at the ampulla.

costotransverse joint

where the smooth part of the tubercle of the rib articulates with the transverse process of the vertebrae

Costovertebral joint

where the two demifacets on the head of a typical rib articulates with the inferior facet of the vertebrae above, the associated IV disc and the superior facet of its own vertebrae.

pleural sleeve

where the visceral pleura meets the lung root, surrounds the lung root but is vert loose