Anatomy & Physiology I Lecture Exam 1 Review

2.7 Describe the general characteristics of a lipid

Lipids are a very diverse group of fatty, water-insoluble (hydrophobic) molecules that function as stored energy, components of cellular membranes, and hormones. Triglycerides (neutral fats), phospholipids, steroids, and eicosanoids are the four primary classes of lipids. They are the only category of biological macromolecules that are not polymers because they are not formed from repeating monomers.

2.3 Define a molecular formula

The number and types of atoms composing a molecule

1.6 Define negative feedback. Describe the actions of a negative feedback loop

The resulting action will always be in the opposite direction of the stimulus. The variable is maintained within a normal level. The variable does not remain constant over time but instead fluctuates.

1.6 Define positive feedback. Describe the actions of a positive feedback loop

The stimulus here is reinforced to continue in the same direction until a climactic event occurs. Following the climactic event, the body again returns to homeostasis. The end result is to increase the activity.

1.1 Define and describe the science of physiology

The study of function of the body parts They are scientists who examine how organs and body systems function under normal circumstances, as well as how the functioning of these organs may be altered via medication or disease

1.1 Define and describe the science of anatomy

The study of structure and form Examine the relationships among parts of the body as well as the structure of individual organs

2.1 Define matter and list it's three forms

Matter is a substance that has mass and occupies space The three forms are solid, liquid, and gas

1.6 Explain how homeostatic mechanisms regulated by negative feedback detect and respond to environmental changes

Notice that the variable does not remain constant over time but instead fluctuates, and its fluctuation occurs around the set point. If the stimulus increases, the homeostatic system is activated to cause a decrease in the stimulus until it returns to the set point. In contrast, if the stimulus decreases, the homeostatic system causes an increase in the stimulus until it returns to normal. Temperature regulation is an example of this.

1.2 Explain how the studies of form (anatomy) and function (physiology) are interrelated

One can not adequately describe and understand the anatomical form of an organ without learning that organ's function They reflect the inherent and important interrelationship of how the structure and form of a component of the body determine how it functions

2.7 Describe the general structure of a nucleic acid

They are biological macromolecules within cells that store and transfer genetic, or hereditary, information. Originally discovered within the cell nucleus, nucleic acids ultimately determine the types of proteins synthesized within cells.

2.7 Describe the structure of a nucleotide

They are building blocks of DNA and RNA; composed of a nitrogenous base, a phosphate group, and a sugar. The sugar is a five-carbon pentose sugar (deoxyribose for DNA and ribose for RNA). A phosphate functional group is attached at carbon number five; a nitrogenous base is attached to the same but at carbon number one. A nitrogenous base has either a single-ring or a double-ring structure that contains both carbon and nitrogen within the ring.

2.7 Describe the general chemical composition of biomolecules

They are large organic molecules that are synthesized by the human body. These molecules always contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Some biomolecules may also have one or more of the following: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), or sulfur (S). Notice that all of these elements (except hydrogen) are clustered on the right side of the periodic table (remember CHON P.S.)

2.1 Identify the most common elements of the human body. Know the chemical symbols for each.

Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus. O, C, H, N, Ca, P.

1.5 Define the different anatomic directional terms and give examples

-Anterior: in front of; toward the front surface -Posterior: in back of; toward the back surface -Dorsal: toward the back side of the human body -Ventral: toward the belly side of the human body -Superior: closer to the head -Inferior: closer to the feet -Cranial: toward the head end -Caudal: toward the rear or tail end -Rostral: toward the nose or mouth -Medial: toward the midline of the body -Lateral: away from the midline of the body -Ipsilateral: on the same side -Contralateral: on the opposite side -Deep: closer to the inside, internal to another structure -Superficial: closer to the outside, external to another structure -Proximal: closer to point of attachment to trunk -Distal: farther away from point of attachment to trunk

2.1 Define atom and element. Diagram the structure of an atom

-Atom: the smallest particle that displays properties of an element; composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons (except in hydrogen) -Element: substance composed of only one type of atom

2.1 Define atomic number and average atomic mass

-Atomic number: it indicates the number of protons in an atom of that element and is located above its symbol in the periodic table. -Average atomic mass: indicates the mass of both protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus, and it reflects the "heaviness" of an element's atoms relative to other atoms. It's rounded to the nearest whole number, and it is designated by a superscript to the left of the chemical symbol when it is written.

2.7 Describe the distinguishing characteristics of carbohydrates

-Carbohydrate: an organic molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are three carbohydrates called monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. -The least complex carbohydrates are simple sugar monomers called monosaccharides. All monosaccharides have between three and seven carbon atoms. Carbohydrates that are dimers formed from two monosaccharides are disaccharides, and those with many monosaccharides are polysaccharides.

3.2 Distinguish between catabolism and anabolism

-Catabolism is the breakdown of complex molecules into simple molecules -Anabolism is the formation of large, complex molecules from simple molecules

2.7 List the general functions of proteins and provide examples of each

-Catalysts: serve as catalysts (enzymes) in most metabolic reactions of the body. Examples like digest polysaccharide macromolecules or synthesizes DNA. -Defense: act in defense, which occurs, for example, when immunoglobulins (antibodies) attach to foreign substances for their elimination. For example, "tag" foreign antigen for elimination. -Transport: aid in transport, as when hemoglobin molecules transport respiratory gases within the blood. For example, transports iron in the blood. -Support: contribute to structural support, such as collagen, a major component of ligaments and tendons. -Movement: cause movement, when myosin and actin proteins interact during contraction of muscle tissue. -Regulation: perform regulation, as occurs when insulin helps control blood glucose levels. -Storage: provide storage, such as ferritin, which stores iron in liver cells.

2.2 Differentiate between cations and anions. Describe how charges are assigned to ions.

-Cations: ions with a positive charge -Anions: ions with a negative charge -If the ions have 11 protons and 10 electrons then the ion would be +1.

2.3 Describe a covalent bond and explain its formation

-Covalent bond: chemical bond formed when atoms share electrons -It forms when both atoms require electrons to become stable.

2.7 Distinguish between DNA and RNA in form and function

-DNA: a double-stranded nucleic acid, composed of deoxyribonucleotide monomers; directs protein synthesis. The nitrogenous base is thymine. -RNA: nucleic acid composed of ribonucleotide monomers; used to direct protein synthesis based on instructions in DNA; types include messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA. the nitrogenous base is uracil.

2.7 Describe the role of water in both dehydration and hydrolysis reactions in altering biomolecules

-Dehydration synthesis is a chemical reaction in which water is formed during formation of a complex molecule. During the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler subunits, one specific subunit loses an -H, and the other subunit loses an -OH, to form a water molecule (which is released) as a new covalent bond is produced. -Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction in which water is used during the breakdown of a complex molecule. During the breakdown of complex molecules, water molecules are split. An -H is added to one subunit, and an -OH is added to another subunit in the complex molecule, and the chemical bond is broken between them. The equivalent of water is added to break a bond within the molecule.

2.4 Distinguish between electrolytes and nonelectrolytes

-Electrolyte: chemical that dissociates when added to water and can conduct an electrical current; includes salts, bases, and acids -Nonelectrolyte: substances that remain intact when introduced into water, such as glucose, do not conduct an electric current

2.1 Differentiate the charge, mass, and relative location of: electrons, protons, and neutrons

-Electrons: it has a negative charge of one (-1). Has a very small mass-only about 1/1800th of the mass of a proton or neutron. They are located at varying distances from the nucleus in regions called orbitals, often depicted either as an electron cloud or as discrete energy shells. -Protons: it has a positive charge of one (+1). Same as the neutrons. -Neutrons: it is uncharged (0). Protons and neutrons compose almost the entire mass. The neutrons are positively charged because of the protons. They are located at the center, or core, of the atom, called the nucleus.

2.6 Compare and contrast the three different types of water mixtures. Define emulsion.

-Emulsion: composed specifically of water and a nonpolar liquid substance such as vegetable oil, which does not "mix" unless shaken or agitated (e.g., oil and vinegar salad dressing.) 1) Suspension: mixture of a solvent with large materials that do not dissolve; e.g., formed elements in the blood 2) Colloid: opaque mixture composed of water and solute (usually protein); substance within thyroid follicles 3) Solution: a homogeneous mixture composed of a solvent and a solute

2.3 Explain polar and nonpolar covalent bonding

Polar covalent bond: different types of atoms have varying degrees of electronegativity, or attraction for electrons, and thus may share the electrons unequally Nonpolar covalent bond: because two atoms of the same element have equal attraction for electrons, they share the electrons equally

2.7 Explain the relationship between monomers and polymers

Polymers are molecules that are made up of repeating subunits called monomers, and each monomer is either identical or similar in its chemical structure

3.1 Define energy. Distinguish between potential and kinetic energy and identify the various forms of each. Include examples of each form.

-Energy is defined as the capacity to do work -Potential energy is the energy of position or stored energy - Chemical energy: the energy stored in a molecule's chemical bonds, and is the most important form of energy in the human body -Kinetic energy is the energy of motion - Electrical energy: movement of charged particles. Example of electrical energy includes electricity, which is the movement of electrons along a wire. - Mechanical energy: exhibited by an object in motion due to an applied force. An example includes a muscle contraction for walking. - Sound energy: occurs when the compression of molecules that move in a solid, liquid, or gas is caused by a vibrating object, such as the head of a drum or the vibration of the vocal chords. - Radiant energy: the energy of electromagnetic waves traveling in the universe. It consists of a spectrum of different energy forms that vary in wavelength and frequency.

2.7 Explain the relationship between glucose and glycogen

-Glucose: a six-carbon (hexose) carbohydrate that is the most common monosaccharide. It's crucial to life processes because it is a primary nutrient supplying energy to cells. -Glycogen: a polysaccharide formed from glucose monomers.

1.6 Define the components of a homeostatic system. Give examples of each in the human body

-Homeostasis: refers to the ability of an organism to maintain a consistent internal environment, or "steady state," in response to changing internal or external conditions 1) Stimulus: changes in a variable that is regulated (e.g. temperature, stretch in muscle) 2) Receptor: structure that detects the stimulus (e.g. sensory neurons in the skin, stretch receptors in muscle) 3) Receptor sends input information to the control center (if receptor and control center are separate structures) 4) Control center: integrates input and initiates change through the effector (usually brain or endocrine gland) 5) Control center sends output information to an effector 6) Effector: structure (e.g. muscle or gland) that brings about a change to the stimulus

2.2 Define an ion. Recognize examples of ions. List some common ions in the body.

-Ion: either individual atoms or groups of atoms that have a positive or negative charge. -Examples of ions: Sodium ion (Na^+), chloride ion (Cl^-), and bicarbonate ion (HCO3^-). -Common ions in the body: Sodium ion (Na^+), potassium ion (K^+), calcium ion (Ca^2+), magnesium ion (Mg^2+), hydrogen ion (H^+), chloride ion (Cl^-), bicarbonate ion (HCO3^-), and phosphate ion (PO4^3-).

2.2 Define an ionic bond. Describe the formation of the ionic compound, NaCl. List other examples of ionic compounds.

-Ionic bond: chemical bond formed when a cation is electrostatically attracted to an anion -NaCl: the oppositely charged Na^+ and Cl^- ions are held by ionic bonds composing an ionic compound. NaCl is the smallest repeating structure of this ionic compound -Examples of ionic compounds: magnesium chloride (MgCl2), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), and calcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2).

2.1 Describe an isotope. Explain how radioisotopes differ from other types of isotopes.

-Isotopes: atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons and electrons but differ in the number of neutrons -Radioisotopes: they are generally unstable because their nuclei contain an excess number of neutrons.

2.4 Describe the molecular structure of water and HOW water molecules form four hydrogen bonds

-It's a polar molecule composed of one oxygen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms. It exhibits polarity because there is an unequal sharing of electrons between the oxygen atom and each of the two hydrogen atoms. The oxygen has two partial negative charges while each hydrogen atom exhibits a single partial positive charge. -Every water molecule has the ability to form four hydrogen bonds with adjacent water molecules. Two hydrogen atoms forms one hydrogen bond and each oxygen atom forms two hydrogen bonds.

3.2 Define metabolism. Explain what occurs in a chemical reaction.

-Metabolism is the collective term for all biochemical reactions in living organisms -A chemical reaction occurs when chemical bonds in an existing molecular structure are broken and new ones formed to produce a different structure

2.7 Provide the names of monosaccharide, disaccharides, and polysaccharides found in living systems

-Monosaccharides: hexose (six-carbon) monos include galactose and fructose. Pentose sugar (five-carbon) monos include ribose and deoxyribose. -Disaccharides: all of these things contain a glucose mono bonded to a second hexose mono. These include: sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), and maltose (malt sugar, which is found in sprouting grains). -Polysaccharides: includes glycogen, starch, and cellulose. It can be found in potatoes, grains, and many other plant foods.

2.5 Define neutralization and describe how the neutralization of both an acid and a base occur

-Neutralization occurs when a solution that is either acidic or basic becomes neutral (i.e. has a pH of 7) -The neutralization of an acidic solution is accomplished by adding a base -The neutralization of a basic solution is accomplished by adding an acid

2.7 Differentiate between an organic molecule and an inorganic molecule

-Organic molecule: a molecule containing carbon atoms; e.g., carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids -Inorganic molecule: chemical substance that is not organic; e.g., water, acids, and bases

1.4 List and describe the characteristics common to all living things

-Organization: they exhibit a complex structure and order -Metabolism: the sum of all of the chemical reactions that occur within the body -Growth and development: increase in size and increased specialization as related to form and function -Responsiveness: the ability to detect and react to stimuli (changes in the external and internal environment) -Regulation: they must be able to adjust internal bodily function in response to environmental changes -Reproduction: all organisms produce new cells for growth, maintenance, and repair

1.5 Describe the body cavities and their subdivisions

-Posterior aspect: contains cavities that are completely encased in bone. Subdivided into two enclosed cavities. Cranial cavity is formed by the bones and cranium and houses the brain. Vertebral canal is formed by the bones of the vertebral column and houses the spinal cord. -Ventral cavity: a larger, anteriorly placed cavity in the body. It does not completely encase their organs in bone. They split into the superior thoracic cavity and an inferior abdominopelvic cavity. -Thoracic cavity: the median space between the lungs and it contains the heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and major blood vessels that connect to the heart. -Abdominopelvic cavity: superior to the pelvic brim of the hip bones, and a pelvic cavity, which is inferior to the pelvic brim. Contains most of the digestive system organs, as well as the kidneys and most of the ureters.

3.3 Describe the key structural components of enzymes

-Remain within the cell; an example is RNA polymerase, which helps form RNA from DNA -Become embedded within the plasma membrane (the outer boundary of a cell); an example is lactase, which digests the milk sugar lactose and is found in plasma membranes of cells that line the small intestine -Be secreted from the cell; an example is pancreatic amylase released from the pancreas into the small intestine to participate in the digestion of starch

1.5 Describe the anatomic sections and planes through the body

-Section: implies an actual cut or slice to expose the internal anatomy -Plane: implies an imaginary flat surface passing through the body -Coronal/frontal plane: divides the body or organ into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts -Transverse/horizontal/cross-sectional plane: divides the body or organ into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) parts -Midsagittal/median plane: a vertical plane that divides the body or organ into equal left and right halves -Sagittal plane: divides a structure into left and right portions that are not equal

2.4 Define solute, solvent, and solution

-Solute: substance dissolving in a solvent -Solvent: substance (e.g. water) holding a solute in solution -Solution: the new substance of the combined solvent and solute -Example: you mix salt with water and you make salt water. The salt is the solute. The water is the solvent. The salt water is the solution.

2.3 Describe a structural formula and explain its use in differentiating isomers

-Structural formula: a molecule is complementary to its molecular formula and exhibits not only the numbers and types of atoms but also their spacial arrangements within the molecule. -Differentiating isomers: molecules composed of the same number and types of elements but arranged differently in space.

2.1 Explain the arrangement of elements in the periodic table based on atomic number and valence number/electronegativity. State the octet rule.

-The atomic number of an element indicates the number of protons in an atom of that element. The arrangement of elements are based on how many protons are in that element. -Octet rule: atoms obtain an outer shell with eight electrons and gain chemical stability through the loss, gain, or sharing of electrons

3.3 Explain the steps by which an enzyme catalyzes a reaction

-The reaction is exergonic because the reactant, sucrose, has higher potential energy than the combined potential energy of the products glucose and fructose -Activation energy is required to initiate the reaction to occur even though it is exergonic -The presence of an enzyme lowers the required activation energy

2.4 Compare substances that dissolve in water with those that both dissolve and dissociate in water

-The substances that dissolve in water are polar molecules and ions. Some examples are glucose, Na^+, and HCO3^-. They cannot conduct an electric current. They are called nonelectrolytes. -The substances that can both dissolve and dissociate in water are ionic compounds. Some examples are salts, acids, and bases. They can readily conduct an electric current. They are called electrolytes.

1.5 Describe the anatomic position and its importance in the study of anatomy

-This position stands upright with the feet parallel and flat on the floor, the upper limbs are at the sides of the body, and the palms face towards the front, the head is level, and the eyes look forward toward the observer -It's a point for common reference to describe any body region or part

2.7 Describe the general structure of amino acids and proteins

Proteins are polymers composed of one or more linear strands of amino acid monomers that may number in the thousands. Twenty standard amino acids are normally found in the proteins of living organisms. Each amino acid has both amine and a carboxylic acid functional group. Both functional groups are covalently linked to the same carbon atom, which accounts for the general name "amino acid" for these monomers. The other two covalent bonds to this carbon are a hydrogen and different side-chain structures that are simply referred to as the R (Remainder) group. The R groups distinguish different amino acids from one another.

2.8 Explain what is meant by denaturation and list factors that can cause it

A change in a protein's complex three-dimensional shape that causes its biological activity to be impaired or to cease; may occur with changes in pH or increased temperature

2.3 Define an amphipathic molecule

A molecule that contains a hydrophobic region and a hydrophilic region

2.3 Describe hydrogen bonding between polar molecules, not just water

A weak attraction formed when a hydrogen atom of one molecule is attracted to a slightly negative atom within either the same molecule or a different molecule

2.4 Explain how amphipathic molecules interact in water to form chemical barriers

Amphipathic molecules have both polar and nonpolar regions. They do not completely dissolve, nor are they completely excluded when placed into water. The polar heads of these molecules are hydrophilic and have contact with water, but their nonpolar tails are hydrophobic and group together, limiting their contact with water. This results in bilayers (two layers) of phospholipids that form chemical barriers within the body.

1.4 Describe the levels of organization in the human body and give examples of each

Simple to Complex Level: Chemical level: involves atoms and molecules. Atoms are the smallest units of matter. Examples of molecules include a sugar, a water molecule, or a vitamin. Cellular level: consists of cells, which are the smallest living structures and serve as the basic units of structure and function in organisms. Examples can range from a red blood cell to a skeletal muscle cell. Tissue level: consists of tissues, which are groups of similar cells that perform common functions. The four major types of tissues are epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissue. Organ level: composed of organs. An organ contains two or more tissue types that work together to perform specific, complex functions. The small intestine is an example. Organ system level: contains multiple related organs to work together to coordinate activities and achieve a common function. For example, the digestive system (oral cavity, stomach, small and large intestine, and liver) work together to digest food particles, absorb nutrients, and expel the waste products. Organismal level: all body systems function interdependently in an organism, which is the living person.

3.1 Define chemical energy. Is it a form of potential or kinetic energy? Explain.

Chemical energy is the energy stored in a molecule's chemical bonds, and is the most important form of energy in the human body. Chemical energy is a form of potential energy. It specifically is used for the energy-requiring processes of movement, synthesis of molecules, and establishment of concentration gradients. The chemical bonds of all molecules have chemical energy. This energy is released when bonds are broken during chemical reactions.

3.2 Explain activation energy

The energy required to break existing chemical bonds for the chemical reaction to proceed

2.5 Describe what is formed when water dissociates. What does dissociation mean in this case?

Dissociation is defined as substances that don't remain intact, but come apart. The covalent chemical bond between oxygen and either of the two hydrogen atoms in a water molecule spontaneously breaks apart at a low rate. A hydrogen ion transfers to a second water molecule during dissociation. The water molecule that picked up the extra hydrogen ion is called a hydronium ion. The electron of this "transferred" hydrogen remains associated with the original water molecule, which now is deficient in one hydrogen ion but still has the original electron.

3.3 Describe the general function of enzymes. Interpret graphs showing the effects of catalysts on reaction rates.

Enzymes are the biologically active catalysts that facilitate chemical changes in the human body by decreasing the activation energy of millions of chemical changes that occur every second. They function to accelerate normal physiologic activities by decreasing the activation energy of chemical reactions.

2.4 Describe the chemical interactions of nonpolar substances and water

It does not dissolve in water and it's called hydrophobic meaning water-fearing. The hydrogen bonds between water molecules cause the water molecules to be cohesive and attract each other; at the same time, they exclude, or "force out," the nonpolar molecules by a process called hydrophobic exclusion. You can observe this by placing a few drops of oil into water; the oil forms small, spherical drops on the water's surface.

1.5 Explain the role of serous membranes. Compare the location of parietal and visceral layers

It's a continuous layer of cells. Parietal layer typically lines the internal surface of the body wall. The visceral layer covers the external surface of the organs within that cavity.

2.5 Explain the difference between an acid and a base

-An acid is a substance that releases a hydrogen ion when added to a solution -A base is a substance that accepts a hydrogen ion

2.5 Describe the action of a buffer

-A buffer is either a single type of molecule or two or more different types of molecules that helps prevent pH changes if either acid or base is added -A buffer acts either to accept H^+ from added acid or to donate H^+ to neutralize added base

3.2 Explain ATP cycling and summarize the general reversible reaction

-ATP cycling is the continuous formation and breakdown of ATP. -The energy required for ATP formation is supplied from the breakdown of glucose or other fuel molecules from the foods we eat. These molecules undergo oxidation, and energy stored within their chemical bonds is transferred to ADP and Pi to form ATP. -In turn, ATP splitting releases the stored energy, which is used for energy-requiring cellular processes. Thus, ATP cycling involves ATP as the "intermediary" between fuel molecules that release energy (e.g., glucose) and cellular processes that require energy input.

2.7 Describe ATP and explain why it is called the "energy currency" of a cell

-ATP: stores and releases chemical energy in a cell; composed of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups. -ATP is the central molecule in the transfer of chemical energy within cells. The covalent phosphate bond linkages between the last two phosphate groups are unique, energy-rich bonds. ATP is produced continuously and only stored in limited amounts within cells. When ATP molecules are split into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and phosphate, energy is released. This energy is then used by the cell.

1.5 Identify regions of the body using proper anatomical terminology

-Abdominal: region inferior to the thorax (chest) and superior to the pelvic brim of the hip bones -Antebrachial: forearm -Antecubital: region anterior to the elbow -Auricular: visible surface structures of the ear -Axillary: armpit -Brachial: arm -Buccal: cheek -Calcaneal: heel of the foot -Carpal: wrist -Cephalic: head -Cervical: neck -Coxal: hip -Cranial: skull -Crural: leg -Deltoid: shoulder -Digital/phalangeal: fingers or toes -Dorsal/dorsum: back -Facial: face -Femoral: thigh -Fibular: lateral aspect of the leg -Frontal: forehead -Gluteal: buttock -Hallux: great toe -Inguinal: groin -Lumbar: the "small of the back"; the inferior part of the back between the ribs and the pelvis -Mammary: breast -Manus: hand -Mental: chin -Nasal: nose -Occipital: posterior aspect of the head -Olecranal: posterior aspect of the elbow -Oral: mouth -Orbital: eye -Palmar: palm (anterior surface) of the hand -Patellar: kneecap -Pectoral: chest, includes mammary region -Pelvic: pelvis; region inferior to the pelvic brim of the hip bones -Perineal: diamond-shaped region between the thighs that contains the anus and external reproductive organs -Pes: foot -Plantar: sole of the foot -Pollex: thumb -Popliteal: area posterior to the knee -Pubic: anterior region of the pelvis -Radial: lateral aspect (thumb side) of forearm -Sacral: posterior region between the hip bones -Scapular: shoulder blade -Sternal: anterior middle region of the thorax -Sural: calf (posterior part of the leg) -Tarsal: proximal part of the foot and ankle -Thoracic: part of torso superior to thoracic diaphragm; contains the pectoral, axillary, and sternal regions -Tibial: medial aspect of leg -Ulnar: medial aspect (pinky side) of the forearm -Umbilical: navel -Vertebral: spinal column

2.7 Identify the four types of lipids and their physiologic roles

-Triglycerides: composed of glycerol and three fatty acids. Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated. Their functions are long-term energy storage in adipose connective tissue and structural support, cushioning, and insulation of the body. -Phospholipids: composed of glycerol, two fatty acids, a phosphate, and various organic groups. Glycerol, phosphate, and organic groups form a polar head, and fatty acids form two nonpolar tails. The function is a major component of membranes, including the plasma membrane, which forms the chemical barrier between the inside and outside of a cell. -Steroids: four rings composed predominantly of hydrocarbons that differ in the side chains extending from the rings. There are three functions. One, cholesterol is a component of plasma membranes and is the precursor molecule for synthesis of other steroids. Second, steroid hormones are regulatory molecules released by certain endocrine glands. Third, bile salts facilitate micelle formation in the digestive tract. -Eicosanoids: modified 20-carbon fatty acids. The function is locally acting signaling molecules associated with all body systems; have primary functions in both the inflammatory response of the immune system and communication within the nervous system.

1.5 Describe the terms used to subdivide the abdominopelvic region into regions or quadrants. Name organs found in each region or quadrant

-Umbilical region: the middle region and is named for the umbilicus, or navel that lies in its center -Epigastric region: superior to the umbilical region -Hypogastric region: lies inferior to the umbilical region -Hypochondriac regions: inferior to the costal cartilages and lateral to the epigastric region -Lumbar regions: lateral to the umbilical region -Iliac regions: lateral to the hypogastric region

1.4 Compare the structures and functions of human organ systems

-Urinary system: filters the blood to remove waste products, concentrates waste products in the form of urine, and expels urine from the body -Digestive system: digests food materials, absorbs nutrients, and expels waste products -Endocrine system: regulates development, growth and metabolism, maintain homeostasis, control digestive processes, and control reproduction -Cardiovascular system: distributes hormones, nutrients, gases, and pick up waste products -Lymphatic system: Transports and filters lymph and participated in an immune response when necessary -Respiratory system: responsible for exchange of gases between blood and the air in the lungs -Integumentary system: provides protection, regulates body temperature, synthesizes vitamin D, prevents water loss -Skeletal system: provides support and protection -Muscular system: produces body movement, generates heat when muscles contract -Nervous system: a regulatory system that controls muscles and some glands and responds to sensory stimuli. Also responsible for consciousness, intelligence, and memory.

2.5 Define pH and explain the relative pH values of acids and bases

-pH is a value indicating the relative hydrogen ion concentration of a solution; expressed as a number between 0 and 14. -Solutions with a pH below 7 are acidic -Solutions with a pH of 7 are neutral -Solutions with a pH above 7 are basic

3.2 Describe and identify the three classifications of chemical reactions

1) Changes in chemical structure: these are chemical reactions based on changes in chemical structure. This includes decomposition, synthesis, and exchange reactions. 2) Changes in chemical energy: these chemical reactions are also classified by the relative amounts of chemical energy associated with the reactants and products. These two categories are based upon energy change and are termed exergonic reactions and endergonic reactions. 3) Whether the reaction is irreversible or reversible: an irreversible reaction involves reactants converted to product at a rate that yields a net loss of reactants and a net gain in product. A reversible reaction does not proceed only to the right with reactants becoming products over time, but instead reactants become products at a rate equal to products becoming reactants (once equilibrium is reached).

3.1 State the first law and second law of thermodynamics. Distinguish between the two.

1) Energy can neither be created nor destroyed-it can only be transformed, or converted, from one form to another 2) Every time energy is transformed from one form to another, some of that energy is converted to heat

2.4 List the different properties of water and provide an example of the importance of each property within the body

1) Gas (water vapor) Temperature Specific heat Heat of vaporization 2) Liquid (water) Transports Lubricates Cushions Excretes waste 3) Solid (ice) Cohesion Surface tension Adhesion

3.4 Summarize the chemical breakdown of glucose (cellular respiration) by providing the overall formula for glucose oxidation and the listing the four stages of glucose oxidation, including where each stage occurs within the cell

1) Glycolysis: a metabolic process that occurs in the cytosol without the requirement of oxygen. Glucose is the initial substrate and pyruvate is the final product. The net transfer of energy is used in the formation of 2 ATP and 2 NADH molecules. 2) Intermediate stage: this is the "link" between the first stage and the third stage. This stage is catalyzed by a multienzyme complex called pyruvate dehydrogenase (PD). During this stage, PD brings together pyruvate and a molecule of coenzyme A (CoA) that is already present within the matrix to form acetyl CoA. Concurrently, a carboxyl group, consisting of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms, is released from the pyruvate as carbon dioxide. This process is termed decarboxylation. Energy is released during decarboxylation as two hydrogen atoms are transferred to the coenzyme NAD^+ to form NADH (and H^+) during this process. The acetyl CoA then enters the third stage of glucose oxidation, termed the citric acid cycle. 3) Citric acid cycle: a metabolic process that occurs in mitochondria and requires oxygen. Acetyl CoA is the initial substrate and 2 carbon dioxide molecules and 1 CoA molecule are the products. The net transfer of energy produced in this cycle is used to form 1 ATP molecule, 3 NADH molecules, and 1 FADH2 molecule. 4) Electron transport system: this stage involves the transfer of electrons (energy) from the coenzymes NADH and FADH2 that are produced during the first three stages of cellular respiration (CR). The energy is released from these coenzymes is used to form ATP. This is a critical stage in CR because most of the energy captured in glucose oxidation is initially transferred to form NADH from NAD^+, as well as the smaller amounts of energy to form FADH2 from FAD. Thus, it is through the electron transport system that the majority of chemical energy that was originally in the glucose molecule and transferred to the coenzymes (previous three stages) is now released from the coenzymes and transferred to form the high energy bond between ADP and Pi as ATP is synthesized. The electron transport system involves structures located in the inner folded membrane (or cristae) of mitochondria.

2.8 Distinguish between the four structural hierarchy levels of proteins and describe each level

1) Primary structure: the PS of a protein is forced into its initial shape as hydrophobic exclusion "tucks" amino acids with nonpolar R groups into a more central location, limiting their contact with water. 2) Secondary structure: a pattern within a protein that may repeat several times. 3) Tertiary structure: the final three-dimensional shape exhibited by one completed protein chain. 4) Quaternary structure: a protein is present only in those proteins with two or more strands.

1.7 Explain the general relationship of maintaining homeostasis to health and disease

In summary, homeostasis is a term that describes the many physiologic processes to maintain the health of the body. These characteristics are noted about homeostatic systems: -They are dynamic -The control center is generally the nervous system or the endocrine system -There are three components: receptor, control center, and effector -They are typically regulated through negative feedback to maintain a normal value or set point -It is when these systems fail that a homeostatic imbalance or disease potentially results and ultimately may threaten an individual's survival