Anatomy Exam 2

Adduction and Abduction

. Adduction: process of moving 2 structures together -Vocal Fold Adduction: folds are moving twoards each other together . Abudction: process of moving 2 structures further apart -Vocal Fold abduction: folds are pulling away from each other; . Phonation is the product of the repeated opening and closing of the vocal folds, the motion of the tissue and airflow disturb molecules of air, causing the phenomenon we call SOUND

Pitch Changing Mechanism

. Cricothryoid muscle changes pitch . Fundamental frequency increase cromes from stretching and tensing the vocal folds using the cricothryoid and thyrovocalis muscles . Contraction of the cricothyroid muscle: thryoid tilts down, lengthening the folds and increasing the fundamental frequency . Thyrovocalis is also a tensor of the folds

Interaction of Musculature

. Larynx is suspended from sling of muscles referred to collectively as the hyoid sling muscles . These muscles must work in concert to achieve the complex motions required for speech . Gross and fine motor adjustments are required by the larynx and its cartilages . Gross movements associated with laryngeal elevation and depression provide stability for the fine adjustments of phonation - suprahyoid and infrahyoid muscles: raise and lower larynx, changing the vocal tract length, but the intrinsic laryngeal muscles are responsible for fine adjustments associated with phonation control - extrinsic muscles support so that we CAN have fine motor adjustments for speech production.

Vocal Registers (3)

. Mode of vibration of the vocal folds during sustained phonation refers to the pattern of activity that the vocal folds undego during a cycle of vibration . Moving from one point in the vibratory pattern to the same point again defines one cycle of vibration and within one cycle, the vocal folds undergo significant changes 1) Modal Register: modal phonation, refers to the pattern of phonation used most often. What we use in daily speaking 2) Glottal Fry: pulse register, "fry" and "pulse" allude to crackly "popcorn" quality of voice. A low frequency mode of vibration characterized by syncopated rhythm and generated by low subglottal air pressure. Perceptually this is extremly low pitch and sounds rough, almost like egss frying in a pan. 30-90 Hz 3) Falsetto: highest register of phonation, characterized by a vibratory pattern that varies from modal production. vocal folds lengthen and become extremly thin and "reedlike"

Whispering

. Whispered speech is not really a phonatory mode, because no voicing occurs . Whispered speech: speech produced without vocal fold vibration by causing air to pass along edges of the tensed vocal folds, thus producing a friction sound source . This does not mean there are no laryngeal adjustments, but rather that they do not produce vibration in the vocal folds. . In respiration the vocal folds are abducted but for whisper they must be partially adducted and tensed to develop turbulence in the airstream

Pitch Range

. the range of phonation possible, calculated as the highest frequency of vibration minus the lowest frequency of vibration . The vocal mechanism is capable of approximately 2 -3 octaves of change in fundamental frequency from the lowest possible to the highest frequency . i.e. lowest possible fundamental frequency of 90 Hz can reach a high of about 360 Hz (Octave 1 = 90 Hz to 180 Hz; Octave 2 = 180 Hz to 360 Hz . Octaves are not set, but based on an individual's fundamental frequency

Profile of Larynx (6 structures)

1) Aditus: the entry to the larynx from the pharynx above 2) Vestibule: the cavity between the entry to the larynx, or aditus 3) Ventricular folds: (FALSE FOLDS): not used for phonation 4) Laryngeal Ventricle: (Laryngeal sinus) the space between the margins of the false vocal folds and the true vocal folds 5) Laryngeal Saccule: the anterior extension of this space 6) Glottis: space between the vocal folds, inferior to the ventricle and superior to the conus elasticus. THis is the most important laryngeal space for speech because it is defined by the variable sphincter that permits voicing

Biological Function of the Larynx

Protective device for the lower respiratory tract . Acting as a valve, it: 1) Prevents air from escaping the lungs (laryngeal valve) 2) Prevents foreign substances from entering the larynx (laryngeal valve) 3) Forcefully expels foreign substances which threaten to enter either the larynx or trachea (coughs)

Glottis

Refers to the variable opening between the vocal folds . Extends from the anterior commisure to the vocal processes and bases of the arytenoid cartilages (posterior commisure) . Membranous Glottis: the anterior portion bounded by the vocal ligament . Cartilaginous Glottis: the posterior 2/5 of the glottis is bounded by the vocal processes and the medial surfaces of the arytenoid cartilages

Intrinsic Muscles of the Larynx: Pairs

The intrinsic laryngeal muscles ALWAYS WORK IN PAIRS . There are two main types of integral laryngeal adjustments: extent of force with which the vocal folds are brought together at midline (medial compression) AND the degree of stretching force (Longitudinal tension) . Abductor muscles: separate the arytenoids and the vocal folds for respiratory activities and are opposed by the adductors which approximate the arytenoid cartilages and vocal folds for phonation and for protective purposes Glottal Tensors: elongate and tighten the vocal folds. The tensors are opposed by the relaxers which shorten the vocal folds . Paired vocal folds take their origination from the thyroid cartilage, the anterior attachment known as the anterior commisure, and the posterior attachment antroloateral surface of the arytenoid cartilage, known as the posterior commisure.

Fundamental Frequency Definition

the lowest component of a harmonic series. In phonation: the lowest frequency of the voiced source

The Laryngeal Joints

. Internal adjustment of the vocal folds are mediated through 2 joints in the larynx . Cricothryoid Joint: the thryoid and the cricoid cartilages articulate by means of this joint, which lets the 2 cartilages come closer together in front . Cricoarytenoid Joint: a joint that permits rocking motion and a limited amount of gliding action (arytenoid motion)

Thyroid Cartilage

. Unpaired . Largest Laryngeal Cartilage . Prominent anterior surface made up of two plates (like a shield) . Thyroid Laminae (2 plates) - Joined midline at the thyroid angle (Adam's Apple) - Superior-most point is the thyroid notch - On the lateral superficial aspect of the thyroid laminae is the oblique line

Glottal Tensors

1) Cricothryoid muscle: . Primary tensor of the vocal folds . ROcking the thyroid cartilage forward relative to the cricoid cartilage . Insertion: thyroid cartilage . Origin: Cricoid cartilage arch Innervation: superior laryngeal nerve

Optimal Pitch

The frequency of vibration of the vocal folds tha tis most efficient for the vocal folds . Optimal pitch = fundamental frequency . a function of the mass and elasticity of the vocal folds . An individual's range of phonation can approximate the opitmal pitch (20-25% above fundamental frequency. . Fundamental frequency continues to change as a function of age across the lifespan in women and men

Vocal Folds

. Larynx is the cartilaginous structure that houses vocal folds . Long, smooth pair of rounded bands of tissue that can be lengthened, shortened, tensed, relaxed, abducted, or adducted. . Located at the top and on each side of the larynx . Folds are a source of turbulence in the vocal tract: without them air would be unimpeded out of lungs to oral cavity with NO turbulence . During normal breathing, the folds are spaced rather widely apart, the air stream, is unimpeded as it flows in and out of the lungs

Cuneiform Cartilages

. Small cartilages embedded in the aryepiglottic folds . These cartilages apparently provide support for the membranous laryngeal covering . Made up of Elastic fibrocartilage . Cover the laryngeal structure

Linguisitc Aspect of Pitch and Intensity (Elements of Prosody 6)

. Suprasegmental: information within the speech signal that spans 2 or more phonemes, generally called prosodic elements. Conveying meaning by using elements of prosody . Suprasegmentals are parameters of speech above the phonemic level, but still largely dirven by phonation . Prosody: combination of changes in fundamental frequency and vocal intensity that provides linguistically relevant information. Gives meaning to what you say . Elements of Prosody: pitch, intonation, intensity, stress, duration, rhythm - Give emotion meaning, and intent to what you say . Intonation: the changes in pitch in continuous speech (rise and fall) . Stress: the emphasis on a word produced in continuous speech relative to the emphasis of the entire utterance . Monopitch: speech with little or no perceived variation . Monoloud: unvarying of vocal loudness . Monopitch + monoloud = monotone

Larynx

. Voicebox . Situated in the neck below the hyoid bone (which is suspended) and above the trachea. . It is a tube shaped structure comprised of a complex system of muscle, cartilage, and connective tissue . It sits at the entryway to the trachea . Critical Structure for survival - Protects the airway from foreign bodies and can effectively seal off the airway both voluntarily and reflexively --Efficient sphincter muscle with very strong and rapid clamping of airway in response to threat of foreign object

Cartilaginous Framework of the Laryngeal (3 Paired and 3 Unpaired)

.Paired 1) Epiglottis 2) Thyroid 3) Cricoid Unpaired: 1)Arytenoid 2) Corniculate 3) Cuneiform

3 Basic Types of Attacks

1) Simultaneous vocal attack: phonation initiated through simultaneous vocal folds adduction and expiration. 2) Breathy Vocal Attac: phonation by initiating expiration before adduction of the vocal folds 3) Glottal Attack: phonatory onset that occurs with the adduction of the vocal folds before onset of expiration

Bernoulli Effect

Given a constant flow of air or liquid, at a point of constriction there will be a decrease in air or liquid pressure perpendicular to the flow and an increase in velocity of flow . AIRFLOW/FLUID INCREASE: placing thumb over garden house increases water flow as a result of the constriction (flow increases because pressure is decreased at the constriction) . In the vocal tract, airflows faster through the folds causing the pressure to drop therefore pulling folds together. Air pressure in lungs builds up to push them apart again

Framework of the Larynx

Hyoid Bone: U-shaped, forms the inferior attachment for the bulk of the tongue musculature, supportive structure for the root of the tongue . Larynx is somewhat suspended from this structure and serves as the superior attachment for some extrinsic laryngeal muscles .UNIQUENESS: not directly attached to any other bone i the skeleton but rather bound in position by a complex system of msucles and ligaments that render it highly mobile

Guitar String

. A guitar string is at rest (equilibrium) . An outside force (finger) sets the string into displacement from its resting position . The string's elastic properties cause it to return towards the rest position . The string overshoots the rest position because of its inertia . The string reaches its maximum displacement . Elasticity forces the string to return towards resting position . Kinetic Energy = Moving Energy . Potential Energy = stored force . Intensity = amplitude = dependent on amount of applied force, or dBSPL (loudness)

Termination of Phonation

. Abduction of the vocal folds . We pull the vocal folds out of the airstream far enough to reduce the turbulence and the vocal folds stop vibrating . Similar to an attack, we terminate phonation many times during running speech to accommodate voiced and voiceless sounds . Adduction is a constant in all types of attack . Arytenoid cartilages move in 3 ways: rotating, rocking, gliding

Sustained Phonation

. Adduction and abduction for speech . Vocal attack and termination of phonation both require MUSCULAR ACTION . In contrast: Sustaining phonation simply requires maintenance of a laryngeal posture through tonic contraction of musculature . The vibration of vocal folds is achieved by placing and holding folds in the airstream so that their physical qualities interact with the airflow, causing vibration . The vocal folds are held in place during sustained phonation: vibration is NOT the product of repeated abduction and adduction

One Cycle of Vocal Vibration

. Air pressure beneath the vocal folds rises from respiratory flow . Air pressure causes the vocal folds to separate in the inferior . Superior aspect of vocal folds begins to open . Vocal folds are blown open, flow between the folds increases, and pressure at the folds decreases . Decreased pressure and elastic quality of vocal folds causes folds to move back toward midline . Vocal folds make contact inferiorly . The cycle of vibration is complete and air pressure builds subglottally again.

Average Fundamental Frequency

. Average fundamental frequency: the average frequency of vibration taken over a given time period of phonation . Can be measured during a variety of tasks: reading aloud, conversational speech, counting aloud . Different tasks result in variations of average fundamental frequency but they all provide measures of habitual pitch

Movement of the Cartilages

. Cricothyroid and Cricoarytenoid joints are the ONLY FUNCTIONALLY MOBILE POINTS OF THE LARYNX . Cricothryoid joint: is the junction of the cricoid cartilage and inferior corner of the thryoid cartilage -permitting the cricoid and thryoid to rotate and glide relative to each other - joint provides the major adjustment for change in vocal pitch . Cricoartyenoid Joint: is the articulation formed between the cricoid and arytenoid cartilages at the base of the arytenoid - Permits rocking, gliding, and rotation - Permits the vocal folds to make contact - Arytenoids are also capable of gliding on the long axis of the facet, facilitating in changing length of vocal folds - Combination of these gestures provides the mechanism for vocal fold approximation (adduction) and abduction.

Laryngeal Depressors - Infrahyoid(4)

. Depress and stabilize the larynx via attachment to the hyoid and stabilize the tongue by serving as antagonists to elevators 1) Sternohyoid: depresses the hyoid after swallowing 2) Omohyoid: superior and inferior bellies, restrains the muscles to retain configuration. Depresses hyoid and larynx. - Superior belly attached to hyoid bone. Inferior belly connects to the scapula - Primary function: repression and subtraction 3) Sternothyroid: depresses the thyroid cartilage. Extrinsic laryngeal muscles AND depressors 4) Thyrohyoid: depresses the hyoid or raises the larynx. Extrinsic laryngeal muscles AND depresses.

Division of Extrinsic Laryngeal Muscles

. Divided into Suprahyoid and Infrahyoid muscles which are functionally classified as elevators and depressors. . A number of muscles attached to the hyoid also move the larynx: infrahyoid (run from hyoid to a structure below), suprahyoid (attach to a structure above hyoid) 1) Infrahyoid: sternohyoid and omohyoid muscles 2) Suprahyoid: digastricus, stylohyoid, mylohyoid, geniohyoid, genioglossus, and hyoglossus muscles (strap muscles)

Extrinsic Laryngeal Muscles(3)

. Extrinsic Musculature consists of muscles with one attachment to a laryngeal cartilage 1) Sternothyroid: principle action is to draw the thyroid cartilage downward towards the sternum. Depresses the larynx after elevation for swallowing or vocal movements 2) Thyrohyoid: contraction of this muscle decreases the distance between the thyroid cartilage and the hyoid bone. Depressed the hyoid OR raises the larynx 3) Thyropharyngeus: pharynx (muscular tube) extends from the base of the skull to the lower border of the cricoid cartilage, where it becomes continuous with the esophagus. Contracts when we swallow, primary function is swallowing. - Pharyngeal constrictors contribute to the wall of the pharynx: superior, middle, and inferior parts.

Hyoid Bone

. Hyoid is the union between the tongue and the laryngeal structure . This unpaired small bone articulates loosely with the superior cornu of the thyroid cartilage . Only bone in the body not attached to other bone . Attachment for nine muscles: . (Attached to Corpus) sternohyoid, mylohyoid, omohyoid, stylohyoid, geniglossus, and geniohyoid (corpus). . (Attached to lesser cornu) Hypoglossus, middle constrictor, and thyrohyoid

Intrinsic Muscles of the Larynx

. Intrinsic muscles contributes to the complexity of the larynx . Able to accomplish the many and varied rapid changes that are required during ordinary speech production . The muscles may be categorized according to their effects on the shape of the glottis and on the vibratory behavior of the vocal folds . Muscles in the larynx: abductor, adductor, tensor, relaxer

Arytenoid Cartilages

. Paired . Most important for phonation . Reside superior surface of the cricoid cartilage . Provides mechanical structure permitting onset and offset of voicing . Pyramid-like with 2 processes and 4 surfaces: Surfaces: Superior (apex), Inferior (base), medial surface (vocal process), and Posterior surface (muscular process) . Processes: Vocal process (vocal folds attach in the superior) and Muscular process (attachment for muscles that adduct and abduct the vocal folds . Apex: attached to the corniculate cartilage by the oblique arytenoid and the aryepiglottic muscle . Base: Articulates with the superior surface of the cricoid carilage . Vocal Process: attached to the vocal ligament and the vocalis. . Muscular Process: attached to the arytenoid muscles. Attachments: posterior cricoid arytenoid, lateral cricoid arytenoid, oblique arytenoid, and transverse arytenoid.

Laryngeal Function for Speech

. Phonation is important for speech . Phonation is accomplished by the adduction of the vocal folds (attack), hold the vocal folds in a fixed position in the airstream to sustain phonation and abduct the vocal folds to terminate phonation . Attack: process of bringing vocal folds together to begin phonation . Adduction = attack . Abduction = termination

Frequency, Pitch, and Pitch Change

. Pitch is perceptual correlate of frequency . As frequency (Hz) increases the pitch increases and vice versa . Vocal folds are made up of a mass and elastic elements that promote oscillation . OSCILLATION: repeated vibration of a body at the same frequency. As long as mass and elasticity are constant the vocal folds vibrate at the same frequency. Alteration of mass and elasticity changes the frequency of vibration

Fundamental Frequency

. Primary frequency of vibration of the vocal folds . # of cycles the focal folds go through per second and it is audible . The movement of the vocal folds in air produces an audible disturbance known as sound . Sound is transmitted through the air as a wave,m with molecules compressed by movement of the vocal folds . The vocal folds proudce an extremely reich set of harmonics (whole number multiples) of the fundamental frequency . Shown as f1 or f0 . Adult Males =ave. 132 Hz . Audlt Females=ave. 212 Hz . Children = ave. 300 Hz . Hertz=cps=cycles per second=frequency=pitch . Humans hear 20 Hz-20,000 Hz . Higher Pitches = more cycles per second

NonBiological Function of the Larynx

. Principal nonbiological function is sound production . Larynx functions as a sound generator only when it is not fulfilling the vital biological functions . Phonation refers to the quasiperiodic vibration of the vocal folds for production of speech voicing (i.e. /z/ and /v/) . Vocal folds are located in teh air stream at the upper end of trachea. As air passes between the folds, they may vibrate likea flag in the wind. This vibratio is called PHONATION . Just as respiration is the source of energy for speech, phonation is the source of voice for speech.

Habitual Pitch

. The frequency of vibration of the vocal folds habitually used by an individual during speech . Just talking in normal conversation. We hope our optimal pitch is our habitual pitch . Some individuals alter their everyday pitch in speech beyond the range expected for their age, size, gender . often NOT a conscious decision

Mechanics of Vibration

. The process of vibration is determined by a lawful interplay among the elastic restoring forces of a material; the stiffness of the material; and its inertia 1) Elasticity: the property of a material that causes it to return to its original shape after displacement 2) Stiffness: the strength of forces held within a given material that restores it to its original shape 3) Inertia: the property of mass that dictates that a body in motion tends to stay in motion . Hz=cycles per second (CPS)=frequency=pitch . dB=Loudness=intensity=Sound Pressure Level (SPL)

Intensity

. The relative power or pressure of an acoustic signal, measured in decibels (dB) . In phonation we may refer to the intensity of voice as VOCAL INTENSITY . Intensity is a direct function of the amount of pressure exerted by the sound wave . As molecules vibrate from movement of the vocal folds, the movement of molecules exerts an extremely small but measurable force over an area, this is PRESSURE . dB is a reference, you have to have something else to relate it to such as SPL = Sound Pressure Level (how we measure sound) . Vocal intensity measured by dBSPL, dBSPL=loudness=intensity . LOUDNESS & PITCH is our subjective perception and dB and Hz are their measurements (Pitch is the perceptual correlate of Frequency)

Pharyngeal recesses

. Together the pyriform sinuses and valleculae are called the pharyngeal recesses . During swallowing, food passes over the epiglottis and from there laterally to the pyriform sinuses (bolus splits/half and half) which are small fossae or indentations between the aryepiglottic folds medially and the mucous lining of the thyroid cartilage

Epiglottis

. Unpaired . Flexible, leaf-like . Arises from the inner surface of the angle of the thyroid cartilage just below the notch, attached by the thyroepiglotic ligament . The sides of the epiglottis are joined with the arytenoid cartilages via the aryepiglottic folds . Epiglottis projects upward beyond the larynx and above the hyoid bone . Attached to the root of the tongue by the median glosso-epiglottic fold and the paired lateral glosso-epiglottic folds. - this juncture produces the valleculae: pair of small indentations between the tongue and epiglottis

Cricoid Cartilage

. Unpaired . Most inferior cartilage of larynx . Approximately the diameter of trachea . Higher in the back than front . Landmarks: anterior arch and the posterior quadrate lamina . THe only complete ring in the air passageways . Entrance to the trachea . Articulates with the thyroid and the arytenoid cartilages

Fundamental Frequency in the Vocal Folds

. Vocal folds offer resistance to airflow, the minimum driving pressure of the vocal folds in modal phonation is approximately 3-5 cm H2O subglottal pressure . If pressure is lower than this, the folds will not be blown apart . Clinically important because a client who cannot generate this minimum pressure and sustain it for 5 seconds cannot use the vocal folds for speech

Laryngeal Elevators - Suprahyoids (7)

1) Digastricus: composed of 2 separate "bellies" or central portion of the muscle - Anterior Belly: originates at the mandible. Contraction draws the hyoid up and forward - Posterior Belly: Originates on the mastoid process of the temporal bone, beneath and behind the ear. Contraction draws the hyoid up and back. - Simultaneous contraction results in hyoid elevation without anterior or posterior movements - Elevates the base of the tongue 2) Stylohyoid: Contraction elevates and retracts hyoid. - elevates and draws back. Innervated by Cranial Nerve 7 3) Mylohyoid: Fanlike. Contraction elevates the hyoid and projects it forward, or alternately depresses the mandible - raises the floor of the mouth during swallowing. 4) Geniohyoid: contraction elevates the hyoid and draws it forward. - weakly depresses mandible 5) Hyoglossus: hyoid elevator. Extrinsic muscle of the tongue. Primary function: depresses the tongue. 6) Genioglossus: hyoid elevator. Extrinsic muscle of the tongue. Protracts and depresses the tongue. 7) thyropharyngeus and cricopharyngeus: together form the inferior interior pharyngeal constrictor - cricopharyngeus is the sphincter muscle at the orifice of the esophagus and the thyropharyngeus is involved in propelling food through pharynxm (main function)

5 Layers of Vocal Folds

1) Epithelium: most superficial layer is a protective layer of squamous epithelium. Gives the folds a "glistening" whitish appearance when viewed using laryngoscope 2) Superficial Lamina Propria: highly elsastic, provide strenght 3) Intermediate Lamina Propria: Provides strength and makes up the vocal ligament 4) Deep Lamina Propria: Provides strenght and makes up the vocal ligament 5) Thyroarytenoid muscle: MAIN MUSCLE, final layer of the vocal folds

The Muscles of the Larynx

1) Extrinsic: are those that have one attachment to structures outside of the larynx - Primarily responsible for the support of the larynx and for fixing it in position 2) Intrinsic Muscles: have both origin and insertion attachment confined to the larynx - Largely responsible for the control of sound production

Abducters

1) Posterior Cricoarytenoid Muscle - is the sole abductor of the vocal folds - contraction pulls the muscular process medially and back, rocking the arytenoid cartilage out on its axis and abducting the folds . Originates: cricoid cartilage . Insertion: muscular process of arytenoid cartilage . Innervated by the vagus nerve.

Laryngeal Relaxer

1) Thyromuscularis Muscles: . Are immediately lateral to each thyrovocalis . Contraction of the fibers of the thryomuscularis relaxes the vocal folds . These fibers pull the arytenoids toward the thyroid cartilage without influencing medial rocking . Close to the vocal ligaments, alters tension by acting on the vocal ligaments . Originates: inner surface of the original thyroid cartilage . Insertions: arytenoid cartilage . Innervation: inferior laryngeal nerve. Relaxers can be thought of in 2 ways! 1) Thyromuscularis = vocalis and superior thyroarytenoid muscles 2) Thyromuscularis and the vocalis muscularis

Fundamental Frequency Generation

1) Vertical mode of Phonation: the vocal folds are open from inferior to superior (bottom to top), and also close from bottom to top (undulating wave) 2) Anterior-Posterior Dimension: open from posterior to anterior but that closureat the end of a cycle is made by contact of the medial edge of the folds, but with the posterior closing last

Adductors (3)

1) lateral cricoarytenoid muscle: attaches to the cricoid and muscular process of the arytenoid. - moves muscular process to move forward and medially - When contracted, the muscular process is drawn forward, rocking the arytenoid inward and downward, ADDUCTING the vocal folds - innervated by the Vegas (?) cranial nerve 10 2) Transverse Arytenoid Muscle: - functions to pull the 2 arytenoids closer together and to approximate the vocal folds. Closes the region of the glottis - innervated by the inferior laryngeal nerve 3) Oblique Arytenoid Muscles: - Immediately superficial to the transverse arytenoid muscles and perform similar functions - Adduction - Innervated by the vegas (?) cranial nerve 10