ANBI 139 Midterm

Pataasin ang iyong marka sa homework at exams ngayon gamit ang Quizwiz!

What is the total surface of the human skin?

2 square meters without the folds, 25 square meters with

How much larger is a human macrophage than a bacterium?

4 to 40 times larger

How many pieces of DNA are there in the nuclear genome of a human?

46, visible as chromosome when a cell is dividing

What is the model (most common among adults) age of death in living hunter gatherer societies?

70 plug years

What is iatrogenic disease?

A disease caused by medical professionals

What is an antigen?

A molecule that can be recognized by an antibody (immunoglobulin)

What is a monoclonal antibody?

A specific antibody made by one clone of B-cells (these can be isolated and the mass-produced by introducing the DNA sequence encoding this specific antibody into a cell line)

What is the enhancer (in the genome)?

A stretch of DNA that interacts with transcription factors and the promoter of genes to regulate their expression.

What is a haplotype?

A unique combination of DNA variants along the same strand of DNA

What is the haplotype in genetics?

A unique combination of genetic variants (alleles) along the same string of DNA on a given chromosomes

What is the disease called pellagra?

A vitamin deficiency stemming from the lack of adequate preparation of corn (lack of nixtamalization)

How long is the haploid genome of each of our cells and how many "letters" base pairs does it contain?

About 1 meter long and it contains 3 million bp

Where are people still most affected from indoor fire smoke inhalation?

Africa and India

Where are people still most affected from indoor fire smoke inhalation?

Africa and India, South East Asia

Why is Africa the only continent that still has such large numbers of wild animals?

African animals evolved with humans, so they're people smart. Large animals on all other continents when these bipedal primates with their efficient hunting tools arrived, so many died out

Why was one of the many negative effects of the transatlantic slave trade on global disease?

African infectious disease and their mosquito vector species arrived in the Americas.

What is one of the long-term negative effects of fire use on human health?

Air pollution causing lung and other diseases

Why can we call the body of an individual human a clone?

All body cells derive from the same fertilized egg and share the same genome.

Which of the modern online services relies heavily on reputation?

Amazon, Ebay, Airbnb

What do you call a disease in non-human animals caused by a human pathogen?

An anthroponosis

How could scientists determine what caused the epidemic of Cocoliti?

Ancient DNA studies of skeletons in mass graves data to the year of the outbreak

Which cell types in the human body activates recombination activating genes (RAGs)?

B-cells and T-cells of the immune system.

List two components each from the cellular and humoral immune system

B-cells and macrophages, antibodies, and complement

What does clonal selection in the immune system refer to?

B-cells that make antibodies which bind antigens as well, are allowed to replicate as clones, rapidly increasing the fraction of these B-cells over other, that fail to produce such antibodies

Why is the evolutionary tree of life made up of branches?

Because most of the time, once two populations/organisms have stopped exchanging DNA, they become incompatible and cannot start exchanging DNA again

Why is Omran's concept of the earliest stage of epidemiology as one of pestilence and famine not necessarily correct?

Because prior to agriculture in the last 10,000 years, low-density hunter gatherer life included few famines, balanced nutrition, long inter-birth intervals, lower threats of widespread epidemics

Why is the name SIV a misnomer?

Because the virus doesn't cause immunodeficient in most non-human primates

Why is it impossible to rid the world of influenza A virus?

Because there is a huge and diverse reservoir of influenza viruses in wild water birds.

Why were bacteria and protozoa discovered long before viruses?

Because viruses are sub-cellular parasites that cannot be seen by light microscopy.

Why is it impossible to place viruses on the tree of life?

Because viruses do not contain any DNA that can be directly compared to the DNA in cellular life forms

How can liquid blood rapidly form a clot?

Blood is super charged with proteins that can react to contact with oxygen and form mesh works of fibers that can crosslink and entrap platelets, thus forming a clot.

Which mechanism is more important in the somatic evolution of B and T cells, negative selection, or positive selection?

Both are equally important

Name 2 ways in which biological and cultural inheritance are similar and two ways in which they differ

Both types of inheritance represent transmission of information, both are affected by change over time; cultural inheritance doesn't include the inheritance of genetic information and it can spread horizontally or even from younger to older generations

How can scientists get information about the Neanderthal microbiome?

By extracting ancient DNA from dental calculus of Neanderthal fossils as old as 40,000 years.

How could a protein guard the genome?

By stabilizing DNA during replication and/or recruiting DNA repair mechanisms

How can scientists test the effect of a genetic mutation involved in immune cell activation against the plague?

By testing immune cells with different genotypes with regard to their activation to plague bacteria in a dish in the lab

How does the macrophage recognize the bacteria?

By using innate immune receptors that recognize pathogens associated with molecular patterns (PAMPs).

Give an example of a disease which was established relatively recently?

Cannabis use disorder, gaming disorder

What factor could cause very closely related species such as humans and chimpanzees to have very different susceptibility to infection by a given virus?

Changes in nature and/or distribution of cell surface molecules (proteins, glycans, or lipids)

What are post translational modifications?

Changes to protein molecules after these have been synthesized (translated from mRNA)

Give 4 characteristics of the genome that can affect gene expression

Chromatin remodeling, histone modification, DNA methylation, non-coding and microRNA (+RNA binding proteins, DNA binding proteins = transcription factors)

Which factors helped spark the HIV/AIDs pandemic?

Colonialism, mass migration, urban centers including sex workers, intercontinental medical aid, blood commerce, sex tourism, IV drug use

What is the effect of multiple infections on pathogen virulence?

Competition between co-infecting pathogens can increase virulence of each.

What are 3 reasons that mammals are especially prone to cancers?

Complex multicellularity, placental, long-lived

What epigenetic modifications could influence cancer risk?

DNA methylation, histone modifications, non-coding RNA

How does the adaptive immune system prevent cells from reacting against self?

Developing immune cells that recognize themselves too strongly are forced to undergo apoptosis (controlled cell death).

What is aneuploidy?

Deviation from normal chromosome numbers

Name 3 important behavioral factors that strongly affect cancer risk

Diet, tobacco use, and UV exposure

What would a larger number of prey animals contribute to changed pathogen load?

Each species carries its own collection of microbes, by handling the carcasses of more different species, human ancestors would have samples larger number of pathogens

List for areas where the human footprint is particularly measurable on the planet

East Asia, South Asia, Europe, and Eastern North America

How is infection by an enveloped virus like a nano-transplantation?

Enveloped viruses are wrapped (enveloped) in the cell membrane of the host in which they were produced. In a new host, this can make them antigenic.

What does the queen bee have to do with epigenetics?

Enzymes acting on histone modifications in the royal jelly produced by worker bees and fed to the developing queen larva causes the same egg to become a queen rather than a worker.

What are carcinomas, sarcomas, and leukemia cancers?

Epithelial, muscle or blood cancers

What novel risk did agriculture bring for people?

Famine, warfare, taxation, social inequality

What was the contrast in animal domestication between the Old World (Asia and Europe) and the New World (Americas)

Far fewer animals species domesticated in the New World; dogs arrive with first waves from Asia, turkey and llama/alpaca, and guinea pig

How might regular use and fire and tuberculosis be related?

Fire brings people together and damages lungs

What is the evidence that our ancestors were upright by over 5 million years ago?

Fossil skeleton of ape-like species with skeletal adaptation to upright posture (foramen magnum, pelvic and leg bones)

How many protein chains make up a single antibody?

Four, two light and two heavy chains

Give 3 examples of chromosomal changes during evolution

Fusion, inversion, reciprocal translocation

How can different parts of the genome have different histories?

Genetic recombination breaks apart and brings together different parts of the genome. The further apart on a chromosome two segments of DNA are, the likelier that these do not share the same precise history

How could there be an "arms race" between selfish DNA and our genomes?

Genomes have to evolve defenses against rampant and disruptive transposon activity, but successful transposons evolve ways around these defenses

Give an example of a domesticated endogenous retrovirus

HERV9 in Tp63 in spermatogenesis, Syncytin 1 and 2 in trophoblast/placenta

What is the difference between MHC and HLA?

HLA is the human MHC

Do Japanese Hawaiians have cancer rates more similar to Hawaiians or to Japanese in Japan?

Hawaiians

What do the letter H and N in the names of different influenza A viruses stand for?

Hemagglutinin for binding to cells and Neuraminidase for cutting off sialic acid from cells or muffins

How could larger cities have contributed to the disease burden?

High density of people, better for spread of infectious disease likely to cause more social stress; Water supply very prone to getting infected; Cities rely on trade, trade can bring disease

What does chromatin consist of?

Histone and non-histone proteins and DNA

How can the chemical modification of histone proteins influence gene activity?

Histone modifications can change the accessibility of gene expression machinery to DNA

Give an example of a disease which was abolished relatively recently

Homosexuality, hysteria

How could the number of menstrual cycles be affecting female cancer risk?

Hormonal fluctuation and resulting tissue remodeling in the bread and uterus associated with each cycle introduce an opportunity for cancer causing mutations to occur.

What is the size of a human cell, a bacterium, and that of a virus?

Human cell (30mm), bacterium (~3mm), virus (~100 nm)

What are the major differences between the birth process in humans and the related great apes?

Human have much higher variation in gestation time, much longer duration of labor, and birth is associated with much higher levels of pain.

Give an evolutionary explanation for disease

Hygiene hypothesis

How can a mutation caused by an Alu element in one enzyme result in an overall change of most cell surfaces?

If the enzyme is a glycan modifying enzyme, it would affect millions of glycan chains on most cells

What is the gist of the hygiene hypothesis?

Improved hygiene, frequent use of antibiotics, and vaccination deprives children of contact with microbes and shifts the balance of the immune system towards become allergy prone to auto-immune reactions

List 3 types of different anti-viral vaccine with regard to how these are produced and delivered to humans

Inactivated, attenuated live, subunit, genetic, viral vector

What does convergent evolution mean?

Independent evolution leading to similar outcomes: biochem (caffeine), anatomy (spindle shaped swimmers), behavior (parental care of the young)

How does the rich diversity of alleles at many of the genes encoding innate immune receptors become apparent?

Individual humans can react very differently to the same pathogens.

What is a molecular polymorphism and give an example

Inherited molecular variation where at least 1% of the population differs from the rest (ex ABO histo-blood groups)

Give 3 cell types involved in innate immunity and 3 involved in adaptive immunity

Innate (neutrophil, macrophage, basophil), adaptive (B, T, T-helping cell)

How could Tb in pre-columbian South American skeleton be more closely related to TB in seals than other TB strains?

Intense coastal hunting for seals by paleoamericans could've exposed them to this new strain

What are 2 parallels between fetal tissues and cancerous tissues?

Invasive tissue, remodeling of the blood vessels, immune suppression

How can personal names and language affect individual behavior?

It allows for reputations as the actions of the named individual can be reported to a wide social network and affect that individual's social standing

How does human breast milk improve infant health?

It contains prebiotics that help the infant gut be colonized by the right bacteria, probiotics in the form of bacteria, and it contains material antibodies that attenuate infections in the infant, and it modulates infant immune development.

How could the use of a home base contribute to disease load?

It likely increased the chances of infection due to shared space and accumulation of bodily waste in a limited area.

How is it possible that doctors in the 1840s were not aware of bacterial infections?

It predated the notion of microbes or germs, only visible by microscopes and totally overlooked by all medical traditions

How could menopause be thought of as an adaptation rather than a disease?

Long post reproductive survival in female humans may be an adaptation to the importance of cultural transmission and the human reproductive pattern

Why is cancer not really a single disease?

Many different causes, different cancers have different properties and vary in how rapidly they cause death

How does meiosis differ from regular cell division?

Meiosis or reduction division, involves not just the doubling of DNA, but also the recombination

How could human hosts benefit from genes in the genome of their microbiome?

Microbial enzymes can digest food and generate vitamins

What is cephalon-pelvic disproportion?

Mismatch between head size of the baby and hip size of the mother

What 2 different parts of our genomes do not get reshuffled but are rather inherited from one parent only?

Mitochondrial DNA and most of the Y-chromosome

What technology has made the discovery of new viruses much easier?

Molecular detection (PCR, next generation sequencing, allowing the detection of viruses in primary samples without prior culture to amplify virus numbers)

What kind of information does the immune system process?

Molecular information about self and non-self, consisting of composition and shape of molecules and the patterns they form.

What are onco-fetal antigens?

Molecules that appear commonly on fetal tissues and certain cancers

How does parental age affect the risk for genetic disease in a child?

Most mutations happen in the father and more happen the older he is

What does "secretor" mean in the context of ABo blood groups?

Most people also produce the ABO antigens (glycans) on their secretions, a minority of people only produce them within their blood vasculature (non secretors).

List four different types of host defenses

Mucus barrier, skin, antimicrobial toxins, immune cells

What is mucus made of?

Mucus is a hydrated bio gel consisting mostly of hydrated, highly glycosylated mucin glycoproteins but also salts and ant-microbiol proteins

Give a proximate mechanism for disease

Mutation in important immune genes (e.g interleukin 10 IL10)

Why is "oncogene" not a very logical term?

Natural selection would not favor genes that cause cancers. Oncogenes have other functions important to the organism, but if mutated or not regulated properly, they can cause, or contribute to cancer

What is the difference between a neoplasm (neoplasia) and cancer?

Neoplasia is uncontrolled cell growth that can be benign, cancer includes major genetic accidents and eventually metastasis (dispersal of cancer cells through the body)

How could a natural pesticide made by plants cause addiction in humans?

Nicotine hacks the brain where it interacts with special receptors. Nicotine use rapidly creates addiction as the brain habituates to this effect and starts feeling bad if nicotine is not provided

Is infection by the plague strictly transmitted by fleas?

No the plague can become pneumonic, transmitted directly from one human to the next (airborne)

Is the human body a perfect clone of the fertilized egg cell?

No, certain tissues have somatic mutations (often associated with transposable elements), especially neurons

Are most mutations dangerous to the survival of the individual in which they occur?

No, most mutation appear to be neutral

List 2 military technologies that have caused long term health sequelae in civilian populations

Nuclear bombs and defoliating agents (dioxin)

What are the four major classes of biomolecules?

Nucleic acids, proteins, lipids and glycans

How do logging roads contribute to increased contact between human and wildlife?

Once in place, local humans who often are desperate to find new livelihoods follow these new road and establish camps along them and then hunt for animal proteins in areas that had very little human wildlife contact

How many times smaller than you is an average bacterium?

One million times

What is antagonistic pleiotropy?

Opposite effects of the same gene early and late in life

What type of multicellular animals seem to be free from cancer?

Organisms with simple or aggregative multicellularity (eg sponges)

Why is schistosomiasis widespread in East Asia?

Paddy rice agriculture forces farmers into long hours of work standing in water.

What four very different perspectives on disease can be considered?

Patient, doctor/care provider, evolving pathogen, evolving host

How does malaria parasite manipulate mosquito behavior in its favor?

Plasmodium causes mosquitoes to take blood meals from more different hosts, increasing the rate of infection of humans by a single mosquito

Farming made many new human endeavors possible, but it also ushered in or amplified the 7 Ps. List the 7 Ps

Poverty, poor health, plunder, politics, power differentials, pathogens, parasites

What are the 5 foundations of multicellularity?

Proliferation inhibition, controlled cell death, extracellular environment, division of labor, resource allocation

What is an important trade-off faced by cancerous cells?

Proliferation via rapid cell division, versus migration and mobility to invade the body.

List 5 ways in which fire massively changed the opportunities of humans before agriculture.

Protection from predators, cooking, lighting, changing landscapes, harvesting honey

What are innate immune receptors?

Proteins made by a host organism (germ line encoded, even in absence of immunization) that recognize molecular patterns on potential pathogens and parasites.

List two cell types in the body that lose their genomes as they mature

RBC, platelets, lens cells of the eye

How could shipments of car tires affect global disease?

Rain water in old car tires allow mosquitoes to breed and provide unintended transport of novel mosquito species across continents.

What two key features allow most pathogens to evolve more rapidly than their hosts?

Rapid generation time and high mutation rates

How could trade have affected the history of human diseases?

Repeated long-distance contacts and exchanges could have spread infectious diseases.

Give two examples of RNA that is functional despite the fact that it does not code for a protein

Ribosomal RNA is part of the RNA translating machinery of a cell, micro RNA takes on a 3D fold and can interact with proteins to modify gene expression.

What is the ratio of human to microbial cells in and on your body?

Roughly 1 to 1

What is the pathogen that causes malaria?

Several species of the protozoan called Plasmodium

How could a bacterial infection transmitted by skin contact in South America have evolved into a STI like syphilis?

Sexual exploitation and violence at the bends of the Spanish conquistadores could have selected for secually transmitted variants that benefit from lesions on genitals for transmission.

What is the two-fold cost of sex?

Sexually reproducing populations require twice as many individuals for the same number of reproductive events.

What could be the advantage of our genomes having multiple versions (copies) copies of the same gene (e,g hemoglobin)?

Slightly different variants of the same gene can be used at different times during development and life (embryonic, fetal, adult)

What is meant by the double burden of disease?

Societies where both, communicable (infectious) disease and disease caused by modern lifestyle co occur.

Give 2 examples each of solid tumors and liquid tumors?

Solid (carcinoma and sarcoma), liquid (leukemia and lymphoma)

What is the difference between somatic cells and germ cells?

Somatic cells are the majority of the cells in the body, germ cells are the ones that can give rise to gametes

How could transposable elements affect ape evolution?

TE, such as LAVA TE in gibbons, causes massive chromosome rearrangements. This can potentially cause reproductive incompatibility and with it speciation

Give an example of improved technology that causes diseases.

Tampons with extremely good absorbance and toxic shock syndrome

What is the pathogen that causes HIV/AIDS?

The HIV virus, a lentivirus belonging to the group of retroviruses

What is the pathogen that causes tuberculosis?

The bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis

What is the evidence that human breast milk contains brain food?

The brains of breast fed babies differ biochemically from those of formula fed babies.

What prevents a virus that uses Neu5Gc sialic antigen as a receptor from infecting humans?

The complete absence Neu5Gc sialic acid on humans cells

What prevents a virus that uses the alphaGal antigen as a receptor from infecting humans?

The complete absence of Alpha GaL on human cells

What is horror autotoxicus?

The horror of having one's own powerful immune system unleashed against oneself.

What is meant by the environment of evolutionary adaptation EEA?

The hundreds of thousands of years that our species spent living as foraging small scale communities

What is the notion of an obstetrical dilemma?

The idea that human mothers balance the requirement of bipedality with those of birthing a super large headed baby

Why do tumors larger than a certain size require new blood vessels?

The inner part of larger tumors cannot survive without gas exchange and nutrients

What is Koch's postulate?

The notion that proof for pathogenesis by an agent requires that the microorganism must be found in abundance in all organisms suffering from the disease, but should not be found in healthy organisms. The microorganism must be isolated from a diseased organism and grown in pure culture. The cultured microorganism should cause disease when introduced into a healthy organism. The microorganism must be reisolated from the inoculated, diseased experimental host and identified as being identical to the original specific causative agent.

Why do waterborne diseases tend to be rather virulent (cause very severe disease)?

The pathogen is more likely to be passed on if the patient has diarrhea and vomits, ideally near water sources; the patient doesn't need to walk around or look attractive to infect others

How could the plague be thought of as a spillover event?

The pathogen lives in wild rodents (marmots, ground squirrels) and trade with their fur led to the importation of the pathogen to trading cities around the Mediterranean

What is the neolithic?

The period encompassing the last 12,000 years since humans have become sedentary, started farming/herding and developed complex societies.

What makes pig kidneys super antigenic in a human xenotransplant recipient?

The presence of alpha Gal on all pig cells combined with his levels of pre-existing anti-alphaGal antibodies in all humans

What is the difference between Neu5Ac sialic acid found in all vertebrates and the animal Neu5Gc sialic acid lost in the human lineage?

The presence of one additional oxygen atom in the non-human Neu5Gc

What is the difference between a primary cancer cell and a metastatic cancer cell?

The primary cancer cell arises in a particular tissue, the metastatic cancer cell has migrated to other sites in the body

What is cancer immunoediting?

The process by which the body's immune system shapes cancer and leads to either elimination, equilibrium or escape

How can sex allow slower evolving hosts to survive in the face of rapidly evolving pathogens?

The shuffling of genetic material via recombination between chromosomes generates novel combinations each generation

How can mucins be resistant to digestion?

The tightly arranged glycans make it impossible for protease enzymes to digest the core protein.

What made hominins good at obtaining bone marrow from the long bones of large animals?

Their cooperation in chasing away other predators or scavengers (hyenas and lions) and their use of stone tools to get access to fresh marrow and brain tissue after breaking the bones and skulls

Why are bats so important for monitoring emerging viral diseases?

Their high mobility and resistance to viruses make them ideal reservoirs

What is the consequence of language and kinship terms for social organization?

These allow for the formation of tribes, allowing large numbers of small groups to form very large social networks that develop cultural identities

What is unusual about prion diseases?

They are caused by a mis-folded protein, not by a living, replicating organism. A misfolded protein from outside the body causes additional misfolding of the patient's own prion molecules

Why is it totally unrealistic to eradicate influenza viruses?

They have a gigantic reservoir in many species of wild water birds that migrate across the planet

What is the reason that glycans are massively involved in infection and immunity?

This class of biomolecules is abundant at the "molecular frontier"of cells and tissues.

How can different cell types be generated from the identical genome shared by all cells found in an individual?

Through differential gene expression, with different subsets of all 22,000 genes expressed to different degrees, in different combinations, and at different times

How can increasing contact with fresh water change the pathogen regime of the human population

Through increased exposure to waterborne diseases including schistosomiasis (=Bukharzuisus), guinea worm, leptospirosis, etc.

What is the difference between variolation and vaccination?

Variolation (inoculation) uses scabs from smallpox patients to immunize naive persons, while vaccination uses scabs from cows infected by cowpox to immunize against smallpox. Vaccination has since been applied to other methods of immunization

What is the difference between variolation and vaccination?

Variolation is immunization using smallpox virus, vaccination is immunization against smallpox using the related cowpox virus.

Sialic acids are exploited by many important pathogens for invasion and immune evasion. How come, vertebrate hosts did not evolve away from using sialic acids on their cells?

Vertebrates have become critically dependent on using sialic acids for development, they cannot afford to abolish these molecules

List 2 examples each of viral, bacterial, fungal, protozoan, helminth, and prion caused diseases

Viral (polio, flu), bacterial (gonorrhea and TB), fungal (candidiasis and valley fever), protozoal (malaria and sleeping sickness), helminthic (schistosomiasis and elephantiasis), prion (Kuru and Creutzfeldt Jakobs)

What is the generation time of viruses, bacteria, parasitic worms and humans respectively?

Virus (minutes), bacteria (hours), worms (weeks), humans (decades)

Can you think of an example of viral sex?

Viruses can have segmented genomes (influenza A) and co-infection of 2 different viruses can lead to recombined viral progeny.

How could a virus cause cancer?

Viruses can manipulate gene expression and immortalize infected cells; viruses can cause mutations by inserting their own DNA into the host cell genome

Can a mutation in a single gene cause disease?

Yes, there are over 4000 human diseases caused by a single gene mutation

What is an endogenous retrovirus?

a retrovirus that has been incorporated in the host genome

What fraction of the human genome consists of retrotransposons?

almost half

Describe the evolutionary invention of milk

ancestral mammals evolved milk as a nutritious food for their young from modified sweat glands. They used a modified anti-bacterial enzyme to evolve a lactose synthesizing enzyme, making a sugar that's easy to share between mother and infant but difficult to steal by most other microbes.

How thick is human skin?

around 2mm

What are the three smokes?

biomass burning, tobacco, air pollution by industry and traffic

Which non-human species has been observed actively spreading fire?

black kites in Australia

What is anthracosis?

black lung diseases/soot accumulation in lungs

What are the parallels between Maillard reaction products and advanced fluctuation end products (AGE)?

both are products of reactions between sugars and proteins

Does Neuanderthal DNA in modern humans protect from or put people at higher risk for COVID?

both, depending on which chromosome the DNA is on

Name 3 social consequences of the Black death in the 14th century

breakdown of the social order, pogroms (violent upheavals) against local Jewish populations, religious upheaval (protestant reformation)

How could xenotransplantation represent health risks for the general human population?

by allowing animal viruses to infect the immune suppressed human patient, to adapt and then to infect other healthy humans

How can our genomes defend themselves against molecular parasites such as transposons

by inactivating the chromatin in which the transposons are located

Give 3 environmental causes for DNA damage

chemical substances, radiation, viruses

How could cigarette smoke harm a child before it's born?

compounds from cigarette smoke can make it into the bloodstream of the fetus and harm brain development and cause alteration of chromatin.

How have animal immune systems evolved by use of transposons?

different animal lineages have recruits transposon DNA to generate diversity used in their immune system

How are transposons involved in neuronal diversity?

during neurogenesis, transposon activity is increased, generating differences in the genomes of neighboring neurons

Why are tissues with rapidly dividing cells more prone to cancer?

each cell division requires the replication of the cell's entire genome, this is an opportunity for replication errors (aka mutations) to occur

What is evolution bricolage (Francois Jacob)?

evolutionary tinkering; novelty can be pieced together from different existing features

Give an example each of heritable and non-heritable variation

eye color (heritable), hobbies (non-heritable)

Given an example of an importance human technology that doesn't fossilize

fiber technology, ropes, strings, baskets, fabrics

How might regular use and fire and tuberculosis be related?

fire damages lungs and brings people together

Why would the activity of a transposon be dangerous for organisms in which it happens?

genomic instability/mutation/disruption of gene function

What is the difference between horizontal and vertical transmission of a pathogen?

horizontal is across a population via infection, vertical is infection from parent to offspring

What are 3 advantages of burning landscapes?

hunting is easier, and new grass attracts prey

What do some Australian aboriginal cultures believe black kites taught humans?

hunting with fire

Why would a bacterial enzyme that recognizes a certain DNA sequence be able to cut the genome of primates into thousands of chunks?

if the recognized sequence is identical to sequence of an Alu element, the enzyme would cut DNA wherever one of these thousands of transposons are in the genome

What is CAR T-cell therapy?

immune therapy against cancer, where the patient's own T-cells are harvested, transformed outside the body to express a cancer specific receptor and then rein fused into the patient to target the cancer

What happens to the glycocalyx of cancers?

it is always altered from that of healthy cells

Why do certain plants make nicotine?

it's a natural pesticide against insect herbivores

What makes a retrovirus a retrovirus?

its genome encodes an enzyme that can back-transcribe RNA into DNA

How could logging roads affect emerging diseases?

local people and immigrants use the road to access new areas where they farm and hunt for bushmeat.

Name 3 conditions that represent costly consequences of bipedalism in humans

low back pain, obstetrics, hemorrhoids

What are the demonstrated effects of micro plastics in lab mice?

lower sperm count in males and lower body weight of pups sired by these males.

Does the human genome contain more genes or more transposable elements?

more TEs

What is likely wrong about the notion of "junk DNA"?

much of the non-coding DNA seems to have functions in the genome

Give an example each of random and non-random events during biological evolution

mutation (random), survival under certain environmental conditions (non-random)

Give an example of a human disease caused by an Alu element

neurofibromatosis

Are human and chimpanzee genomes the same size?

no, chimpanzee genomes are slightly larger due to accumulated repetitive sequences

Can somatic mutation be passed onto the next generation?

no, only germ line mutations can

Are humans the only mammals species that domesticated an endogenous virus to evolve a better placenta?

no, several other mammal species have independently done so

What is especially previous about evidence for fire in caves?

one can safely rule out natural fires from lightning strikes

Name 3 ways in which industrial development can change disease burden

pollution, urbanization, social injustice

Name two chemicals not related to fire and smoke that bioaccumulate in the food chain

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB)) and methyl mercury

What are the effects of polyaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) on brain anatomy in humans?

reduction of brain white matter (connections between neuron)

What are the three key ingredients of biological evolution?

replicating entities, heritable variation, differential reproduction

Where can paleoclimate researchers find modified glucose from biomass fires tens of thousands of years ago?

sediment samples from ocean drill cores

How could food preparation contribute to disease risk?

smoke from indoor stoves or fireplaces and cooking, frying and baking can generate harmful toxins

What PR trick was used to widen the tobacco market after WWI?

smoking was heavily advertised to women

Name 3 cell types in mammals that have evolved to invade the body of another individual

sperm, trophoblast (extravillous), transmissible tumors in carnivores

Give an example of a domesticated virus

syncytin 1 and 2 and suppressyn on human trophoblast

Why is Rett's syndrome only observed in females

the X-linked mutation is lethal in males

Why is the genome of the pufferfish so much smaller than that of most other vertebrates?

the ancestors of the pufferfish purged transposable elements from their genome

What can honey guide genetics teach us about human fire use?

the ancient divergence between bird lineages that do or do not interact with humans, point to the deep age (~2 my) of fire use by humans

What is the difference between endocannibalism and exocannibalism?

the hundreds of thousands of years that our species spent living as foraging small scale communities

What is the origin of the word vaccination?

the latin word vacca = cow, given that cowpox was used to immunize humans against smallpox

How can mucus impact infection risk by a virus?

the mucus can contain receptor molecules for viruses and act as a decoy/smokescreen

What is the difference between Neu5Ac sialic acid found in all vertebrates and the animal Neu5Gc sialic acid lost in the human lineage?

the presence of one additional oxygen atom in the non-human Neu5Gc

What happens to the rate of evolution in small populations?

the rate gets higher, and evolution accelerates

Why are PAH mutagenic/carcinogenic?

these are multi-ringed molecules that react with DNA which can cause mutations during DNA replication

How are microbiota like micro Serengetis?

they represent complex communities of multiple species

What did the Justinian plague of the 6th century, the black plague in the 14th century, and the HongKong plague of 18902 have in common?

they were caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis

If life expectancy is around 35 years for most hunter gatherers, how can there be substantial numbers of 70 year olds in those societies?

very high infant mortality brings down the life expectancy

List 5 major classes of human pathogens

viruses, bacteria, protozoans, helminths, fungi and prions

Do we humans have transposable elements that do not exist in apes?

yes, a subset of young Alu elements for example have only replicated and inserted after our last common ancestor with apes

What is the size of a virus?

~100 nanometers


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