Ancient China Neolithic-to-Xia-Shang-Zhou-Qin
Shan Yang
360 BCE Legalist, totalitarian, philosopher. To Qin: do you want to be good or have power. To do that you have to change policy. No way dude. Tradition important. People get upset. Dont worry bout it. Changes are radical but when they work you will have more power, people will be better off and will accept once in place. Will need to Push things through and push hard. Farmers and Soldiers = capital. Farmers lease land from Qin... in return for labor and resources (service and taxes). Must lose the feudal system. Need direct control down to local community to draw resources out. Feudalism drains this out. Reorgainze into units or prefectures coutnies districts etc. No need for nobles and aristocrats. Farmers left alone wont pay taxes... officials will steal money. Need laws punishments and rewards carried out abosolutely and constantly. Control the distro. of wealth and honor. Only way to get ahead is by fitting the demands of the state. Reorg... 18 ranks.... stops titles and large families to avoid pooling of resources and abosrbing income... same level working. Households organized into mutual responsiblitiy groups. All will be liable to laws or else all suffer. Should intention matter? Qin = doesn't matter; thus act = fault.
Mozi
479-438 BC. Meritocracy and universal ethics. The three tests for determining what is good.
Yong Zhu
5th century BC. If I could save the world by plucking a hair out of my head, I would not do it. Care ONLY for yourself and nothing else. The self as a natural thing. Do good for yourself.
School of the Tillers
5th-4th C. BC. Utopian community. Look for feudal lords who will give them land to live on to set up a socialistic ideal community.
Xunzi (荀子; Xúnzǐ) 312-230 BC
A Chinese Confucian philosopher who lived during the Warring States period and contributed to one of the Hundred Schools of Thought. Xunzi believed man's inborn tendencies need to be curbed through education and ritual, counter to Mencius's view that man is innately good. He believed that ethical norms had been invented to rectify mankind. Educated in the state of Qi, Xunzi was associated with the Confucian school, but his philosophy has a pragmatic flavour compared to Confucian optimism. Some scholars attribute it to the divisive times. Xunzi was one of the most sophisticated thinkers of his time, and was the teacher of Li Si and Han Fei Zi.
Sima Qian
A Chinese historian of the Han dynasty. He lived from between 145-135 BC to 86 BC and is considered the father of Chinese historiography for his work, the Records of the Grand Historian, a Jizhuanti-style general history of China, covering more than two thousand years from the Yellow Emperor to his own time, during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han. Although he worked as the Court Astrologer, later generations refer to him as the Grand Historian for his monumental work.
The Majiabang Culture 馬家浜文化
A Neolithic culture that existed at the mouth of the Yangtze River, primarily around the Taihu area and north of Hangzhou Bay in China. The culture was spread throughout southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang from around 5000 BC to 3000 BC. The Majiabang culture coexisted with the Hemudu culture for over a thousand years as two separate and distinct cultures, with cultural transmissions between the two. Majiabang people cultivated rice; at Caoxieshan and Chuodun, archaeologists excavated paddy fields, indicating the centrality of rice to the economy. Excavation of faunal remains also indicate the domestication of pigs. However, the remains of sika and roe deer have been found, showing that people were not totally reliant on agricultural production. Archaeological sites also bear evidence that Majiabang people produced jade ornaments.
Yangshao Culture
A Neolithic culture that existed extensively along the Yellow River in China; dated from around 5000 to 3000 BC. The culture is named after the first excavated representative village of this culture, which was discovered in 1921 in Henan Province by the Swedish archaeologist Johan Gunnar Andersson (1874-1960). The culture flourished mainly in the provinces of Henan, Shaanxi and Shanxi.
Johan Gunnar Andersson
A Swedish geologist and archaeologist whose work laid the foundation for the study of prehistoric China. In 1914 he was invited to China as mining adviser to the Chinese government. In 1921, at a cave near Chou-k'ou-tien in the vicinity of Peking, on the basis of bits of quartz that he found in a limestone region, he predicted that a fossil man would be discovered. Six years later the first evidence of the fossil hominid Sinanthropus (Peking man) was found there.
Zhoukoudian or Choukoutien
A cave system near Beijing that has yielded many archaeological discoveries, including one of the first specimens of Homo erectus, dubbed Peking Man. This site was discovered by Johan Andersson in 1921 and was first excavated in 1921 and 1923. Fissures in the limestone containing middle Pleistocene deposits have yielded the remains of about 45 individuals as well as animal remains and stone flake and chopping tools. During the Upper Palaeolithic, the site was re-occupied and remains of Homo sapiens and its stone and bone tools have also been recovered from the Upper Cave.
The Five Classics: Classic of Poetry 詩經
A collection of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs, 105 festal songs sung at court ceremonies, and 40 hymns and eulogies sung at sacrifices to gods and ancestral spirits of the royal house.
The Four Books: Mencius 孟子
A collection of conversations of the scholar Mencius with kings of his time. In contrast to the sayings of Confucius, which are short and self-contained, the Mencius consists of long dialogues with extensive prose.
The Five Classics: Book of Documents 尚書
A collection of documents and speeches alleged to have been written by rulers and officials of the early Zhou period and before. It is possibly the oldest Chinese narrative, and may date from the 6th century BC. It includes examples of early Chinese prose.
The Four Books: Analects 論語
A compilation of speeches by Confucius and his disciples, as well as the discussions they held. Since Confucius's time, the Analects has heavily influenced the philosophy and moral values of China and later other East Asian countries as well. The Imperial examinations, started in the Jin Dynasty and eventually abolished with the founding of the Republic of China, emphasized Confucian studies and expected candidates to quote and apply the words of Confucius in their essays.
The Sage Kings (Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors)
A group of mythological rulers and deities from ancient China during the period circa 2852 BC to 2070 BC, today considered culture heroes. According to received history, this period preceded the Xia Dynasty. In myth, the three Sovereigns were demigods who used their abilities to help create mankind and impart to them essential skills and knowledge. While the Emperors were exemplary sages possessed of great moral character.
The Five Classics: Spring and Autumn Annals 春秋
A historical record of the State of Lu, Confucius's native state, 722-481 BC.
Wu Ding
A king of the Shang Dynasty in ancient China, whose reign lasted from approximately 1250-1192 BC. He is the earliest figure in the history of the Chinese dynasties who has been confirmed by contemporary records. The annals of the Shang dynasty compiled by later historians were long thought to be little more than legends until oracle script inscriptions on bones dating from his reign were unearthed at the ruins of his capital Yin (near modern Anyang) in 1899.
Longshan Culture
A late Neolithic culture in China, centered on the central and lower Yellow River and dated from about 3000-2000 BC. Named after the town of (lit. "Dragon Mountain") in the east of the area under the administration of the city of Jinan, Shandong Province where the first archaeological find (1928) and excavation (1930-31) of took place at the Chengziya Archaeological Site. Early studies indicated that this and Yangshao cultures were the same. However, it is now widely accepted that the this culture is in fact a later development of the Yangshao culture.
Laozi
A legendary philosopher of ancient China. He is best known as the reputed author of the Tao Te Ching and the founder of philosophical Taoism, but he is also revered as a deity in religious Taoism and traditional Chinese religions. He is usually dated to around the 6th century BCE and reckoned a contemporary of Confucius, but some historians contend that he actually lived during the Warring States period of the 5th or 4th century BCE. A central figure in Chinese culture, Laozi is claimed by both the emperors of the Tang dynasty and modern commonfolk of the Li family as a founder of their lineage. Throughout history, Laozi's work has been embraced by various anti-authoritarian movements.
Yu the Great (大禹; Dà Yǔ) c. 2200 - 2100 BC
A legendary ruler in ancient China and founder of the Xia Dynasty; famed for his introduction of flood control, inaugurating dynastic rule, and for his upright moral character. Few, if any, records exist from the period of Yu's reign; thus, the vast majority of information about his life and reign comes from collected pieces of oral tradition and passed down stories, many collected in Sima Qian's famous Records of the Grand Historian. Yu and other "sage-kings" of Ancient China were lauded by Confucius and other Chinese teachers, who praised their virtues and morals. Yu is one of the few Chinese rulers posthumously honored with the epithet "the Great".
The Duke of Zhou (周公; Zhōu Gōng)
A member of the Zhou Dynasty who played a major role in consolidating the kingdom established by his elder brother King Wu. He was renowned in Chinese history for acting as a capable and loyal regent for his young nephew King Cheng and successfully suppressed a number of rebellions, placating the Shang nobility with titles and positions. He is also a Chinese culture hero credited with writing the I Ching and the Book of Poetry, establishing the Rites of Zhou, and creating the yayue of Chinese classical music. Only two years after assuming power, King Wu died and left the kingdom to his young son King Cheng.[2][3]:52 The Duke of Zhou successfully attained the regency and administered the kingdom himself,[3]:54 leading to revolts not only from disgruntled Shang partisans but also from his own relatives, particularly his older brother Guan Shu.[4] Within five years, the Duke of Zhou had managed to defeat the Three Guards and other rebellions[2] and his armies pushed east, bringing more land under Zhou control. Statue of the Duke of Zhou who founded a city on the site of modern Luoyang c. 1038 BCE[5] The Duke of Zhou was credited with elaborating the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven, which countered Shang propaganda that as descendants of the god Shangdi they should be restored to power. According to this doctrine, Shang injustice and decadence had so grossly offended Heaven that Heaven had removed their authority and commanded the reluctant Zhou to replace the Shang and restore order.[6]
Dawenkou Culture 大汶口文化
A name given by archaeologists to a group of Neolithic communities who lived primarily in Shandong, but also appeared in Anhui, Henan and Jiangsu, China. The culture existed from 4100 BC to 2600 BC, co-existing with the Yangshao culture. Turquoise, jade and ivory artefacts are commonly found and the earliest examples of alligator drums appear at these archaeological sites.
Erlitou Culture
A name given to an Early Bronze Age urban society that existed in China from approximately 1900 to 1500 BC. The culture was named after the site discovered at Erlitou in Yanshi, Henan Province. The culture was widely spread throughout Henan and Shanxi Province, and later appeared in Shaanxi and Hubei provinces. Chinese archaeologists generally identify this as the site of the Xia dynasty, but there is no firm evidence, such as writing, to substantiate such a linkage.
Anyang
A prefecture-level city in Henan province was home to prehistoric cavemen during the Stone Age. Over 7,000 artifacts (stone tools and animal fossils) have been unearthed here, representing what has been dubbed the Xiaonanhai culture. Around 2000 BC, the legendary sage-kings Zhuanxu and Emperor Ku are said to have established their capitals in the area from where they ruled their kingdoms. At the beginning of the 14th century BC, King Pangeng of the Shang Dynasty established his capital 2km north of the modern city on the banks of the Huan River; the city, known as Yin, was the first stable capital in Chinese history. The capital served 12 kings in 8 generations including Wu Ding, under whom the dynasty reached the zenith of its power, until it was wiped out along with the dynasty that founded it by King Wu of the Zhou in 1046 BC.
Di or Shangdi
A supreme sky deity in China's traditional religion.
Li (里, lǐ)
A traditional Chinese unit of distance, which has varied considerably over time but now has a standardized length of 500 metres (1,640 feet) or half a kilometer. A modern li consists of 1,500 Chinese "feet" or chi and, in the past, was often translated as a "mile." Since the li has generally been only about a third as long as the mile, translating the character as "Chinese mile" or simply "li" is much less likely to produce confusion or error. In practice however, as late as the 1940s, a li did not represent a fixed measure. It could be longer or shorter depending on the effort required to cover the distance.
Total Mobilization for War
Able to raise an army of 400K on foot. Creates the total Mobilization for war, way before Napolean.
The Five Relationships
According to Confucius, each person had a specific place in society and certain duties to fulfill. Confucius hoped that if people knew what was expected of them they would behave correctly. Therefore, he set up five principal relationships in which most people are involved. These relationships were (1) ruler and subject; (2) father and son; (3) elder brother and younger brother; (4) husband and wife; and (5) friend and friend. All, except the last, involve the authority of one person over another. Power and the right to rule belong to superiors over subordinates; that is, to older people over younger people, to men over women. Each person has to give obedience and respect to "superiors"; the subject to his ruler, the wife to her husband, the son to his par ents, and the younger brother to the older brother. The "superior," however, owes loving responsibility to the inferior.
Bamboo Annals
Also called the Jizhong Annals is a chronicle of ancient China. It begins at the earliest legendary times (the Yellow Emperor) and extends to 299 BC, with the later centuries focussing on the history of the State of Wei in the Warring States period. It thus covers a similar period to Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian (91 BC). The original was lost during the Song dynasty, and the text is known today in two versions, a "current text" (or "modern text") of disputed authenticity and an incomplete "ancient text".
The Records of the Grand Historian
Also known by its Chinese name Shiji (Chinese: 史記; pinyin: Shǐjì; literally "Historical Records"), written from 109-91 BC, was the magnum opus of Sima Qian, in which he recounted Chinese history from the time of the Yellow Emperor until his own time.
Daodejing (Tao Te Ching)
Also simply referred to as the Laozi, is a Chinese classic text. According to tradition, it was written around 6th century BC by the sage Laozi (or Lao Tzu, "Old Master"), a record-keeper at the Zhou dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text's true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated, although the oldest excavated text dates back to the late 4th century BC. The text is fundamental to both philosophical and religious Daoism and strongly influenced other schools, such as Legalism, Confucianism and Chinese Buddhism, which when first introduced into China was largely interpreted through the use of Daoist words and concepts. Many Chinese artists, including poets, painters, calligraphers, and even gardeners have used the Daodejing as a source of inspiration. Its influence has also spread widely outside East Asia, and is amongst the most translated works in world literature.
Rammed Earth Construction
An ancient building method or technique for building walls using natural raw materials such as earth, chalk, lime or gravel. Simple to construct, noncombustible, thermally massive, strong, and durable, they can be labour-intensive to construct without machinery (powered tampers), however, and they are susceptible to water damage if inadequately protected or maintained. Evidence of early use has been seen in Neolithic archaeological sites of the Yangshao and Longshan cultures along the Yellow River in China, dating back to 5000 BC. By 2000 BC, these architectural techniques (夯土 Hāng tǔ) were commonly used for walls and foundations in China.
The Tomb of Lady Fu Hao
An archaeological site discovered in 1976 at Yin (Yinxu), the ancient Shang Dynasty capital. The tomb has been dated to around 1200 BCE and identified, from inscriptions on ritual bronzes, to be that of the queen and military general Fu Hao, likely the Lady Hao inscribed on oracle bones by king Wu Ding and one of his many wives. It is to date the only Shang royal tomb found intact with its contents and excavated by archaeologists. Her tomb, one of the smaller tombs, is one of the best-preserved Shang Dynasty royal tombs and the only one not to have been looted before excavation.
Mencius
An itinerant Chinese philosopher and sage, and one of the principal interpreters of Confucianism. Supposedly, he was a pupil of Confucius' grandson, Zisi. Like Confucius, according to legend, he travelled China for forty years to offer advice to rulers for reform. During the Warring States period (403-221 BC), Mencius served as an official and scholar at the Jixia Academy in the State of Qi (1046 BC to 221 BC) from 319 to 312 BC. He expressed his filial devotion when he took an absence of three years from his official duties for Qi to mourn his mother's death. Disappointed at his failure to effect changes in his contemporary world, he retired from public life. Mencius's interpretation of Confucianism has generally been considered the orthodox version by subsequent Chinese philosophers.
The Four Books: Doctrine of the Mean 中庸
Another chapter in Classic of Rites, attributed to Confucius' grandson Zisi. The purpose of this small, 33-chapter book is to demonstrate the usefulness of a golden way to gain perfect virtue. It focuses on the Way (道) that is prescribed by a heavenly mandate not only to the ruler but to everyone. To follow these heavenly instructions by learning and teaching will automatically result in a Confucian virtue. Because Heaven has laid down what is the way to perfect virtue, it is not that difficult to follow the steps of the holy rulers of old if one only knows what is the right way.
Yin and Yang
Central to Chinese religion and philosophy as a whole, including both Daoism and Confucianism, these two principles represent the primal interplay of opposites in life and in the world - known here as the Dao. They form the dynamism of the Dao, or the way of all things. Life is lived inside the interplay of opposites: up and down, hot and cold, male and female, dry and wet, outside and inside, high and low, joy and sadness, peace and war, exertion and rest, life and death, and so on. Yin and Yang symbolize this interplay that is at the center of life's dynamism or energy. They are, thus, the energy of the Dao. Yin and Yang symbolize this primal dynamism and malleability of the Dao, or the way of all things. This is the way of the universe - there are good times and bad, a time to live and a time to die, a time to be happy and a time to be sad, and so on. These are inclusive of and complementary to each other. Harmony in life comes when we accept the working and rhythms of these polarities.
The Four Books 四書 (pinyin: Sì Shū)
Chinese classic texts illustrating the core value and belief systems in Confucianism. They were selected by Zhu Xi in the Song Dynasty to serve as general introduction to Confucian thought, and they were, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, made the core of the official curriculum for the civil service examinations. They are: Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean, Analects, and Mencius.
Confucianism
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (Kǒng Fūzǐ, or K'ung-fu-tzu, lit. "Master Kong", 551-478 BC). It is a complex system of moral, social, political, philosophical, and quasi-religious thought that influenced the culture and history of East Asia. It might be considered a state religion of some East Asian countries, because of state promotion of Confucian philosophies. In Confucianism, human beings are teachable, improvable and perfectible through personal and communal endeavour especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. A main idea of Confucianism is the cultivation of virtue and the development of moral perfection. Confucianism holds that one should give up one's life, if necessary, either passively or actively, for the sake of upholding the cardinal moral values of ren and yi.
The Five Classics: Book of Rites 禮記
Describes ancient rites, social forms and court ceremonies. The version studied today is a re-worked version compiled by scholars in the third century BC rather than the original text, which is said to have been edited by Confucius himself.
Three August Ones and Five Emperors
During or following the age of Nüwa and Fuxi came the age of the Three August Ones and Five Emperors. These legendary rulers ruled between c. 2850 BC to 2205 BC, before the Xia Dynasty, are generally regarded as morally upright and benevolent, examples to be emulated by latter day kings and emperors. The list of names comprising the Three August Ones and Five Emperors vary widely among sources. The most widely circulated and popular version is: The Three August Ones (Huáng): Fuxi, Huangdi, Shennong. 1-- Fuxi: companion of Nüwa 2-- Huangdi ("Huang Emperor"): often regarded as the first sovereign of the Chinese nation 3-- Shennong ("Divine Farmer"): reputedly taught the ancients agriculture and medicine The Five Emperors (Dì): Zhuanxu, Ku, Yao, Shun, Shaohao. 1-- Zhuanxu: grandson of the Huang Emperor. 2-- Ku: great-grandson of the Huang Emperor and nephew of Zhuanxu 3-- Yao: son of Ku; Yao's elder brother succeeded Ku, but he abdicated when found to be an ineffective ruler 4-- Shun: successor of Yao, who passed over his own son and made Shun his successor because of Shun's ability and morality. 5-- Shaohao: leader of the Dongyi (Eastern Barbarians); his pyramidal tomb is in present-day Shandong Historically, when Qin Shi Huang united China in 221 BC, he felt that his achievements had surpassed those of all the rulers who had gone before him. He combined the ancient titles of Huáng (皇) and Dì (帝) to create a new title, Huángdì (皇帝), which is usually translated as Emperor.
Shi
During the ancient Shang and Zhou dynasties, the shi were regarded as a knightly social order of low-level aristocratic lineage compared to dukes and marquises. This social class was distinguished by their right to ride in chariots and command battles from mobile chariots, while they also served civil functions. They were also distinguished by the weaponry they used, the double-edged sword, or jian. The shi wore long flowing silken robes, while all other men wore trousers. During the Warring States period (403-221 BCE), chariot warfare became eclipsed by mounted cavalry and infantry with crossbowmen; the participation of the shi in battle dwindled as rulers sought men with actual military training, not just aristocratic background. While philosophical schools flourished and intellectual pursuits became highly valued; the shi gained renown for their scholarship, abilities in administration, sound ethics and morality.
Emperor Yao
Emperor Yao (simplified Chinese: 尧; traditional Chinese: 堯; pinyin: Yáo; traditionally c. 2356 - 2255 BC) was a legendary Chinese ruler, one of the Three Sovereigns and the Five Emperors. Often extolled as the morally perfect and intelligent sage-king, Yao's benevolence and diligence served as a model to future Chinese monarchs and emperors. Early Chinese often speak of Yao, Shun and Yu the Great as historical figures, and contemporary historians believed they may represent leader-chiefs of allied tribes who established a unified and hierarchical system of government in a transition period to the patriarchal feudal society. In the Classic of History one of the Five Classics, the initial chapters deals with Yao, Shun and Yu. According to the legend, Yao became the ruler at 20 and died at 119 when he passed his throne to Shun the Great, to whom he had given his two daughters in marriage. According to the Bamboo Annals, Yao abdicated his throne to Shun in his 73rd year of reign, and continued to live during Shun's reign for another 28 years.
Legalism: Fa 法 "Law"
Fa (Chinese: 法, p fǎ, lit. "law"): The law code must be clearly written and made public. All people under the ruler were equal before the law. Laws should reward those who obey them and punish accordingly those who dare to break them. Thus it is guaranteed that actions taken are systematically predictable. In addition, the system of law, not the ruler, ran the state, a statement of rule of law. If the law is successfully enforced, even a weak ruler will be strong.
Wang Yirong
First discovered ancient oracle bones in 1899. The Imperial College Director was suffering from malaria at the time and was prescribed Longgu 龍骨 (dragon bones) at a traditional Chinese pharmacy. He noticed strange carvings on these bones and concluded that these could be samples of China's earliest writing. The source was traced to the small village of Xiaotun just outside of Anyang. In 1917, Wang Guowei deciphered the oracle bone inscriptions of the names of the Shang kings and constructed a complete Shang genealogy. This closely matched that in the Records of the Sima Qian confirming the historical authenticity of the legendary Shang dynasty and the archaeological importance of Yinxu.
Five Phases of Change Theory
Five agents, five elements. The cycle of change could be divided into five parts. Wood fire earth metal and water. Everyting in the world can be divided into five. So we create extras when needed (center direction, midsummer). Five visible planets, different kinds of implements, flaovos smells, everything can be divided into five....etc. The point = we can see correlations in the Qi according to the phase. So, if we can see corelations , we can also understand why it is that there is called resonance. A thing that belongs in a certain category, ... a certain yin yang moment is going to resonate with things of the same category although they might be in a different realm. (Load Stone attracts metal ... why? from the same element - metal... and they attract... like stimulating like). If its true that the natural order of the cosmos is coherent, constant, predictable, it must be that when we have abberations, disasters, etc. that something has gone wrong, and that the QI of heaven and earth has been disturbed in some way. Q. Who could do that? Just as the Qi of H and E effects us, so the way we behave can affect the natural order itself. A. The person most powerful among human beings.
The Five Classics 五经 pinyin: Wǔ Jīng
Five pre-Qin Chinese books that form part of the traditional Confucian canon. Several of the texts were already prominent by the Warring States period. Mencius, the leading Confucian scholar of the time, regarded the Spring and Autumn Annals as being equally important as the semi-legendary chronicles of earlier periods. During the Western Han Dynasty, which adopted Confucianism as its official ideology, these texts became part of the state-sponsored curriculum. It was during this period that the texts first began to be considered together as a set collection, and to be called collectively the "Five Classics". The Five Classics are: Classic of Poetry, Book of Documents, Book of Rites, I Ching (Book of Changes), Spring and Autumn Annals. The Classic of Music is sometimes considered as the sixth classic but was lost in the Burning of the Books.
Johann Andersson's Findings
He first went to China in 1914 as a technical adviser on oil and coal resources. He immediately became interested in fossil remains and eventually devoted himself to archaeological exploration. In 1921, at Yang-shao, Henan Province, he found elegant painted pottery that provided the first evidence of Neolithic culture in China. Within a year he discovered many other comparable sites across the vast stretch of the Yellow River Valley of northern China and published a preliminary account of his findings, An Early Chinese Culture (1923). His study helped to define what is now termed Yang-shao culture, which he related to the cultures of southwest Asia and dated at about 3000-1500 BC. Of his bronze findings, none could be dated earlier than about 1300 BCE, during the period of the Shang dynasty. He described his progress as an archaeologist in Children of the Yellow Earth: Studies in Prehistoric China (1934).
Legalism
In Chinese history, Legalism was a philosophy emphasizing strict obedience to the legal system. It was one of the main philosophic currents during the Warring States period. It was a utilitarian political philosophy that did not address higher questions like the purpose and nature of life.[1] The school's most famous proponent and contributor Han Fei believed that a ruler should use the following three tools to govern his subjects: Fa, Shu, and Shi.
Cultural Sphere
In anthropology and geography, refers to the aspects of culture associated with an ethnolinguistic group and the territory it inhabits. Specific cultures often do not limit their geographic coverage to the borders of a nation state, or to smaller subdivisions of a state. Cultural "spheres of influence" may also overlap or form concentric structures of macrocultures encompassing smaller local cultures. Different boundaries may also be drawn depending on the particular aspect of interest, such as religion and folklore vs. dress and architecture vs. language.
The Tomb of Fu Hao: Contents
Inside the pit was evidence of a wooden chamber containing a lacquered wooden coffin that has since completely rotted away.The floor level housed the royal corpse and most of the utensils and implements buried with her. Below the corpse was a small pit holding the remains of six sacrificial dogs, and along the edge lay the skeletons of 16 human slaves, evidence of human sacrifice. Rare Jade artifacts, such as those of the Liangzhu culture, were probably collected by Fu Hao as antiques and while some of the bronze artifacts were probably used by the lady and her household others inscribed with her posthumous name of Mu Xin were undoubtedly cast as grave goods. The artifacts unearthed within the grave consisted of: 755 jade objects, 564 bone objects (including 500 hairpins and 20 arrowheads) 468 bronze objects, including over 200 ritual bronze vessels,130 weapons, 23 bells, 27 knives, 4 mirrors, and 4 tiger statues.
Shang Dynasty
Jie, the last king of the Xia Dynasty, was supposedly a bloodthirsty despot. Tribal leader Tang of Shang revolted against Xia rule and eventually overthrew Jie, establishing the Shang Dynasty, based in Anyang. The Shang Dynasty ruled from c. 1766 BC to c. 1050 BC. It came to an end when the last despotic ruler, Zhou of Shang, was overthrown by the new Zhou Dynasty. Unlike the preceding Xia Dynasty, there is clear archaeological evidence of a government center at Yinxu in Anyang, and of an urban civilization in the Shang Dynasty. However, the chronology of the first three dynasties remains an area of active research and controversy.
Confucian Virtues: Li
Li is a companion virtue to jen in many respects - the other side of the same coin, so to speak. It is translated as "ritual" "propriety" or "etiquette." It is this dimension of Confucian philosophy and ethics that makes it "religious" more than anything else - the element of ritual. Confucius was a conservative - he believed in tradition and in conserving and respecting tradition. Therefore, respect for rituals, traditional practices and conventional mores became important in his thought for restoring and maintaining order in society. And these rituals extend throughout all of life - the imperial palace, the marketplace, and the home. Li is the mechanism by which all of life is ritualized and declared "sacred" in a sense. Through it, life is properly ordered and harmony is established. Although the concept of li existed in ancient ritualized ancestor worship in a limited and narrowly religious form, Confucius broadened it to apply to all activities in life so that all of life takes on the air of religiousness or seriousness. Bowing in greeting to someone, wearing certain colors of clothing on certain days, behaving in certain ways around those older than you, observing proper manners at a meal or meeting, and so much more - all these are examples of li in everyday life.
Wu Wei (無爲)
Literally "non-action" or "not acting", is a central concept of the Daodejing. The concept of wu wei is multifaceted, and reflected in the words' multiple meanings, even in English translation; it can mean "not doing anything", "not forcing", "not acting" in the theatrical sense, "creating nothingness", "acting spontaneously", and "flowing with the moment."
Liu Xin
Liu Xin (ca. 50 BC - AD 23), later changed name to Liu Xiu , courtesy name Zijun, was a Chinese astronomer, historian, and editor during the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 9) and Xin Dynasty (AD 9-23). He was the son of Confucian scholar Liu Xiang (77-6 BC) and an associate of other prominent thinkers such as the philosopher Huan Tan. Liu founded the Old Text school of Confucianism. As a curator of the imperial library he was the first to establish a library classification system and the first book notation system. Liu Xin was also the first to give a more accurate calculation of pi at 3.1457.
Confucian Virtues: Qi (or Chih)
Moral wisdom; the source of this virtue is knowledge of right and wrong. Chih is added to Confucianism by Mencius (muhn shoos) who believed that people are basically born good.
The Four Books: Great Learning 大學
Originally one chapter in the Classic of Rites. It consists of a short main text attributed to Confucius and nine commentary chapters by Zeng Zi, one of Confucius's disciples. Its importance is illustrated by Zeng Zi's foreword that this is the gateway of learning. It is significant because it expresses many themes of Chinese philosophy and political thinking, and has therefore been extremely influential both in classical and modern Chinese thought. Government, self cultivation and investigation of things are linked.
Children of the Yellow Earth: Studies in Prehistoric China
Originally published in 1934 and written by the Curator of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities in Stockholm, Johan Gunnar Andersson, this informative and highly entertaining account of the author's several expeditions to Northern China. Andersson began his Chinese explorations as a mining consultant, switched to paleontology as a wealth of fossils surfaced with the mining ore, and finally turned his attention to archaeology. It was on one of his expeditions that the now-famous "Peking Man" was discovered. Accounts of further discoveries of prehistoric villages, graves, pottery, and temples are interspersed with descriptions of China's geology and topography and amusing accounts of his adventures with the not-always-hospitable natives.
Ding (鼎, dǐng)
Prehistoric and ancient Chinese cauldrons, standing upon legs with a lid and two facing handles. They were made in two shapes: round vessels with three legs and rectangular ones with four. They were used for cooking, storage, and ritual offerings to the gods or to ancestors. The earliest recovered examples are pre-Shang ceramic ding at the Erlitou site but they are better known from the Bronze Age, particularly after the Zhou deëmphasized the ritual use of wine practiced by the Shang kings. Under the Zhou, the ding and the privilege to perform the associated rituals became symbols of authority. The number of permitted ding varied according to one's rank in the Chinese nobility: the Nine Ding of the Zhou kings were a symbol of their rule over all China but were lost by the first emperor, Shi Huangdi in the late 3rd century BCE. Subsequently, imperial authority was represented by the Heirloom Seal of the Realm, carved out of the He Shi Bi jade; it was lost at some point during the Five Dynasties after the collapse of the Tang.
Tapenkeng Culture 大坌坑文化
Prehistoric archeological culture of the early Neolithic Period, named after the cultural remains unearthed at the Tapenkeng Site in Taipei County, in 1969, and the earliest Neolithic culture in the Taiwan area. Distributed around the coast of mainland Taiwan and the Penghu (澎湖) islands, as well as around large streams and riverbanks downstream from lakes; according to the absolute age estimates of individual areas of Taiwan, this culture dates back to between 6,500 and 4,200 years ago. http://taiwanpedia.culture.tw/en/content?ID=1177
Yin Yang Theory
Qi gets analyzed into two components Yin and Yang. A polarity. You can't have yin without yang and vice versa. Our bodies contain both. A way of thinking about how things are organized in these two active forces. You can organize the whole world and space and time into Yin and Yang. Also the idea, that they, once divided, like attracts like. When you are in a Yin situation (say cold wet and dark) - the yin in your body will get even more yin... and thats not a good thing.
Oracle Bone Script
Refers to incised (or, rarely, brush-written) ancient Chinese characters found on animal bones or turtle shells used in divination in Bronze Age China. The vast majority record the pyromantic divinations of the royal house of the late Shang dynasty at the capital of Yin (modern Anyang, Henan Province); dating varies from ca. 14th -11th centuries BC to c. 1200-1050 BC. The late Shang oracle bone writings constitute the earliest significant corpus of Chinese writing, directly ancestral to the modern Chinese script. It is also the oldest known member and ancestor of the Chinese family of scripts.
Rise and Fall of Qin
Relies on syncrenist and legalist approaches. 256 BCE - Qin conquers the Royal Zhou Domain. 221 BCE - Conquest of the remaining states and establishment of one centralized state. Qin begins at the bend of the yellow river in the wei river valley, where Zhou migrated from. Encourages farming, writing the same, standardization, regulation, laws. 206 BC - Overthrown due to internal rebellion
The Huaxia (Hua-hsia; 華夏)
Represents China and the Chinese civilization in historical Chinese literature. In the original sense, it refers to a confederation of tribes—living along the Yellow River—who were the ancestors of what later became the Han ethnic group in China. During the Warring States (475-221 BC), their self-awareness identity developed and took hold in ancient China. Initially defined mainly a civilized society that was distinct and stood in contrast to what-was-perceived as the barbaric peoples around them.
Legalism: Shi 勢 "Legitimacy"
Shi (勢, p shì, lit."legitimacy"): It is the position of the ruler, not the ruler himself or herself, that holds the power. Therefore, analysis of the trends, the context, and the facts are essential for a real ruler.
Legalism: Shu 術 "Method"
Shu (術, p shù, lit. "method"): Special tactics and "secrets" are to be employed by the ruler to make sure others don't take over control of the state. Especially important is that no one can fathom the ruler's motivations, and thus no one can know which behavior might help them get ahead, other than following the laws.
Emperor Shun
Shun (Chinese: 舜; pinyin: Shùn), also known as Emperor Shun (帝舜) and Chonghua (重華), was a 23rd-22nd century BC legendary leader of ancient China, among the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. Shun's half-century of rule was said to be long for the history of China. According to traditional sources, Shun received the mantle of leadership from Emperor Yao at the age of 53, and then died at the age of 100 years. Before his death Shun is recorded as relinquishing his seat of power to Yu: an event which is supposed to have eventuated in the establishment of the Xia Dynasty. Shun's capital was located in Puban (蒲阪), presently located in Shanxi). In later centuries, Yao and Shun were glorified for their virtue by Confucian philosophers. Shun was particularly renowned for his modesty and filial piety (xiao 孝).
The Great Flood
Shun passed on his place as emperor to Yu the Great. The Yellow River, prone to flooding, erupted in a huge flood in the time of Yao. Yu's father, Gun, was put in charge of flood control by Yao, but failed to alleviate the problem after nine years. He was executed by Shun, and Yu took his father's place, leading the people to build canals and levees. After thirteen years of toil, flooding problems were ameliorated under Yu's command. Shun enfeoffed Yu as ruler of the geographic region of origin of the Xia, in present-day Henan. Upon his death, Shun passed the leadership to Yu. The main source for the story of Yu and the Great Flood comes from "The Counsels of Yu the Great" in Classic of History. As a result of his achievement in resolving the Great Flood, Yu is usually called "Yu the Great".
The Classic of Music 樂經
Sometimes considered as the sixth classic but was lost in the Burning of the Books.
Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project findings
The Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project concluded that the Xia existed between 2070 and 1600 BCE. The tradition of tracing Chinese political history from heroic early emperors to the Xia to succeeding dynasties comes from the idea of the Mandate of Heaven, in which only one legitimate dynasty can exist at any given time, and was promoted by the Confucian school in the Eastern Zhou period, later becoming the basic position of imperial historiography and ideology. Although
The Five Classics: I Ching (Book of Changes) 易經
The book contains a divination system comparable to Western geomancy or the West African Ifá system. In Western cultures and modern East Asia, it is still widely used for this purpose.
Syncretism
The combining of different, often seemingly contradictory beliefs, while melding practices of various schools of thought. It involves the merger and analogizing of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, thus asserting an underlying unity and allowing for an inclusive approach to other faiths. It also occurs commonly in expressions of arts and culture (known as eclecticism) as well as politics (syncretic politics).
Cowry or Cowry Shells
The common name for a group of small to large sea snails. The word is also often used to refer only to the shells of these snails, which overall are often shaped more or less like an egg, except that they are rather flat on the underside. Starting over three thousand years ago, these or copies of these shells, were used as Chinese currency. The Classical Chinese character for money (貝) originated as a stylized drawing of a Maldivian shell of this type.
Presiding deities: Nüwa and Fuxi
The concept of a principal or presiding deity has fluctuated over time in Chinese mythology. Examples include: Nüwa (also referred to as Nü Kwa) appeared in literature no earlier than c. 350 BC. Her companion, Fuxi, (also called Fu Hsi) was her brother and husband. They are sometimes worshiped as the ultimate ancestor of all humankind, and are often represented as half-snake, half-humans. It is sometimes believed that Nüwa molded humans from clay for companionship. She repaired the sky after Gong Gong damaged the pillar supporting the heavens.
Presiding deities: Pangu
The concept of a principal or presiding deity has fluctuated over time in Chinese mythology. Examples include: Pangu, written about by Taoist author Xu Zheng c. 200 AD, was claimed to be the first sentient being and creator, "making the heavens and the earth."
Presiding deities: Shangdi (Huángtiān Dàdì, Huángtiān Shàngdì, the Jade Emperor)
The concept of a principal or presiding deity has fluctuated over time in Chinese mythology. Examples include: Shangdi, also sometimes Huángtiān Dàdì (皇天大帝), appeared as early as the Shang Dynasty. In later eras, he was more commonly referred to as Huángtiān Shàngdì (皇天上帝). The use of Huángtiān Dàdì refers to the Jade Emperor and Tian. Yu Di (the Jade Emperor) appeared in literature after the establishment of Daoism in China; his appearance as Yu Huang dates back to beyond the times of Huangdi, Nüwa, or Fuxi. Tian (Heaven) appeared in literature c. 700 BC, possibly earlier. There are no creation-oriented narratives for Tian. The qualities of Tian and Shangdi appear to have merged in later literature and are now worshiped as one entity ("皇天上帝", Huángtiān Shàngdì) in, for example, the Beijing's Temple of Heaven.
Xia Dynasty
The first dynasty (2070-1600 BC) in China to be described in ancient historical chronicles such as Bamboo Annals, Classic of History and Records of the Grand Historian. The dynasty was established by the legendary Yu the Great after Shun, the last of the Five Emperors, gave his throne to him. It was later succeeded by the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE). Although an important element in early Chinese history, reliable information on the history of China before 13th century BC can only come from archaeological evidence since China's first established written system on a durable medium, the oracle bone script, did not exist until then. Thus the concrete existence is yet to be proven, despite efforts by Chinese archaeologists to link it with Bronze Age Erlitou archaeological sites.
King Wu of Zhou (周武王)
The first king of the Zhou Dynasty of ancient China. The chronology of his reign is disputed but is generally thought to have begun around 1046 BC and ended three years later in 1043 BC. In 1046 BC, King Wu took advantage of Shang disunity to launch an attack along with many neighboring dukes. The Battle of Muye destroyed Shang's forces. King Wu - the name means "Martial" - followed his victory by establishing many feudal states under his 16 younger brothers and clans allied by marriage, but his death three years later provoked several rebellions against his young heir King Cheng and the regent Duke of Zhou, even from three of his brothers.
Confucius
The first philosopher to think of human values.
Chun-tzu (choon dzuh) or Junzi
The ideal man; the superior man; gentle person in the most significant sense. He is at home in the world; as he needs nothing himself. He is at the disposal of others and completely beyond personal ambition. He is intelligent enough to meet anything without fear. Few people can attain this ideal; the central virtue is, of course, jen. Confucianism gives the term junzi to such superior human beings - a truly perfected person. Junzi are not perfect in the sense that they never make mistakes, but in the sense that their moral character is true, their intentions are pure, and their actions are disciplined and aligned with that moral character.
Mandate of Heaven
The right to rule claimed by ancient Chinese rulers and supposedly bestowed by heaven (天; Tian). It postulates that heaven would bless the authority of a just ruler, as defined by the Five Confucian Relationships, but would be displeased with a despotic ruler and would withdraw its mandate, leading to the overthrow of that ruler; it would then transfer to those who would rule best. The fact that a ruler was overthrown was taken by itself as indication that he had lost the Mandate.
Yin or Yinxu
The site of one of the major, ancient historical capitals of China; especially famous as the source of the archeological discovery of oracle bones and oracle bone script, which resulted in the recognition of the earliest known Chinese writing. This ancient city, the last capital of China's Shang Dynasty existed for 255 years through 8 generations, and through the reign of 12 kings was discovered in 1899 and is the largest archaeological site in China. Excavations have uncovered over 80 rammed-earth foundation sites including palaces, shrines, tombs and workshops. From these remains archaeologists have been able to confirm that this was the spiritual and cultural center of it's time.
Qi 气 기 ชี่ き
The stuff that makes up everything. The air we breathe, substances, material, matter and energy at the same time (the Force). Energy matter flows in the universe. In traditional Chinese culture, qi (also chi or ch'i) is an active principle forming part of any living thing. Qi is frequently translated as "natural energy", "life force", or "energy flow". Qi is the central underlying principle in traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. The literal translation of "qi" is "breath", "air", or "gas".
The Correlative Cosmos and Cosmic Resonance
There are correlations between all things in all categories across all realms. One action in one sphere can affect action in another sphere or realm; and thus we can have resonance between realms and that has profound implications for how the world works.
Huangdi (The Yellow Emperor)
Third of ancient China's mythological emperors, a culture hero and patron saint of Daoism; one of the legendary Chinese sovereigns and culture heroes included among the Sage Kings (Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors). Tradition holds that he reigned from 2697-2597 or 2698-2598 BC. His cult was particularly prominent in the late Warring States and early Han period, when he was portrayed as the originator of the centralized state, a cosmic ruler, and a patron of esoteric arts. Traditionally credited with numerous inventions and innovations, he is now regarded as the initiator of Chinese civilization, and said to be the ancestor of all Huaxia Chinese. He is credited with the introduction of wooden houses, carts, boats, the bow and arrow, and writing; of defeating "barbarians" in a great battle in what is now Shanxi—winning the leadership of tribes throughout the Yellow River plain. Some also credit him with the introduction of governmental institutions and the use of coined money. His wife was reputed to have discovered sericulture (silk production) and to have taught women how to breed silkworms and weave fabrics of silk.
Yu the Great
This person (c. 2200 - 2100 BC), was a legendary ruler in ancient China famed for his introduction of flood control, inaugurating dynastic rule in China by founding the Xia Dynasty, and for his upright moral character. Few, if any, records exist from the period when he reigned;.the vast majority of information about his life and reign comes from collected pieces of oral tradition and stories that were passed down, many of which were collected in Sima Qian's famous Records of the Grand Historian. The "sage-kings" of Ancient China were lauded by Confucius and other Chinese teachers, who praised their virtues and morals. He is one of the few Chinese rulers posthumously honored with the epithet "the Great".
Confucian Virtues: Rén 仁
Translated into English as "humanity" or "humaneness." It is the highest Confucian principle. People cultivated by it are humane individuals who exhibit benevolence and care toward others. They are motivated by a deep empathy for others - what might be called "human-heartedness." According to Confucius, all people have the capacity to be people of ren or humaneness mainly because all people are intrinsically good. This is a fundamental assumption of the Confucian worldview - that all people are inherently good and, thus, capable of operating in a way that is empathetic, humane and full of care for others. When people are not educated or developed properly, this intrinsic quality breaks down - people become hateful, rash, uncaring, undisciplined - and chaos comes into life at every level. Through cultivation of ren - of the capacity for empathy, humaneness, deep humanity - a truly "superior" human being emerges. Confucianism gives the term junzi to such superior human beings - a truly perfected person. Junzi are not perfect in the sense that they never make mistakes, but in the sense that their moral character is true, their intentions are pure, and their actions are disciplined and aligned with that moral character.
The Xunzi
Unlike the aphoristic style of the Analects and Mencius, Xunzi was a more rigorous thinker and wrote elaborately argued essays, which were collected into the book called Xunzi. He distinguishes what is born in man and what must be learned through rigorous education. These essays are often critical of competing schools, such as Daoism and Mohism, as well as rival schools within Confucianism. Some of the more significant chapters are "Discussion of heaven (天 tian)" rejects the Mencian notion that heaven has a moral will. Instead, Xun Zi asserts that heaven is simply the natural world; thus people should focus on the human, social realm, rather than dealing with heavenly ideas. "Discussion of Ritual Propriety (li)," discusses rules of individual and social conduct (decorum). "Dispelling Obsessions," being too focused on only one aspect of a situation, one often loses sight of the larger purpose. "Proper Use of Terms" (正名 zhengming): A name becomes proper for a situation through conventional usage, but once this is fixed, it is improper to deviate from these norms. Thus he adopts a conventional view for the origin of the sound-to-meaning mapping, although the objects signified by the term remain real. The term Zhengming often appears in the English literature as "The Rectification of Names". This is a misleadingly narrow translation of the Chinese title. In classical Chinese, the phrase "正名 (zhengming)" could be interpreted either as "rectifying names" or as "correct/right names". "Human Dispositions are Detestable" (xing e): Rejects Mencius' claim that people have a natural inclination toward goodness. Confucius, who simply said that people are similar by nature, was not clear on the matter. Xunzi holds that man is naturally inclined towards selfishness, and that if this inclination is not curbed, human societies would devolve into chaos. He views morality as a social construct, emphasizing the difference between nature and nurture.
Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project
Was a multi-disciplinary project commissioned by the PRC in 1996 to determine with accuracy the location and time frame of the Xia Dynasty, the Shang Dynasty and the Zhou Dynasty. Some 200 experts took part in the project, which correlated radiocarbon dating, archaeological dating methods, historical textual analysis, astronomy, and other methods to achieve greater temporal and geographic accuracy. Preliminary results of the project were released in November 2000. However, several of the project's methods and conclusions have been disputed by other scholars.
Confucian Virtues: Xiao 孝
Xiao refers to the important dimension of social relations, and the proper ordering of all relationships in the social hierarchy. Confucius called for the reinstitution of what he called the Five Relations that are central to all society. These relations are: - ruler and the people; - husband and wife; - father and son - elder brother and younger brother; - older friend and younger friend. Each of these relations includes a hierarchy in which one submits to the other: people to the ruler, wife to the husband, son to the father and so on. However, also assumed in these relations is the proper moral character of the person to whom the other is submitting - the ruler, husband, father - such that everything they do or ask in relation to the one submitting to them is in the latter's best interest, or in the interest of society as a whole. In other words, rulers demand from the people only what is good for the people and for society as a whole. Parents demand from the children what is good for the children as well as for the family as a whole, which itself is good for society.
Zhuangzi (庄子)
Zhuang Zhou, more commonly known as Zhuangzi (or Master Zhuang), was an influential Chinese philosopher who lived around the 4th century BC during the Warring States period, a period corresponding to the summit of Chinese philosophy, the Hundred Schools of Thought. He is credited with writing—in part or in whole—a work known by his name, the Zhuangzi, which expresses a philosophy which is skeptical, arguing that life is limited and knowledge to be gained is unlimited. As a Daoist philosopher, some claim his writings reflect a form of western relativism[citation needed], while others question revisionist interpretations.
