Ancient Greek History

Perioikoi

"Dwellers round about". Lived in hinterland locations who held inferior status to the Spartans. They were allowed self-government, but were under Spartan control in military service matters and foreign policy Fought along the Spartans ("semi-allies") Locations were often of strategic value May have been voluntarily subjected, coerced, or purposefully settled by Sparta In Classical period, these commanded nonagricultural resources and played a vital role in the Spartan economy (e.g., iron ore access, these perioikoi likely repaired and manufactured arms and equipment; lead; fish and murex shells)

Homoioi

"Equals"-A citizen of Sparta (adult male whose parents were from citizen families)

Great Rhetra

"Spartan Constitution" allegedly written by "Lycurgus". Thucydides (1.82) dates Lycurgus to the 9th c.; Heodotus (1.66) dates Lycurgus to the 6th c.; Fornara 12: 7th c. B.C. fragments of Tyrtaeus preserved in various authors. Concerning the Second Messenian War. Plutarch quotes Lycurgus: establishes the meeting place of the assembly (Apellai) and the procedures for decision making (the Gerousia introduce measures to the damos) Tyrtaeus's version re: the Assembly is different from Plutarchs. It is probable that Tyrtaeus knew of the Rhetra

Seisachtheia

"shaking off of debts" Solon 594/3 B.C. canceled debts; freeing the unjustly enslaved (including seeking out and redeeming those who had been sold abroad); freed the land from enslavement by the horoi thus wiping out debts held over the poor; hektemoros status was abolished; Solon did NOT redistribute land, abolish rent, loans or indebtedness for the future

Xenephon

(430 - 354 BCE) Athenian writer and student of Socrates known for his account of the final years of the Peloponnesian War and writings about his teacher. Was exiled from Athens in the 4th c. B.C. for his pro-Spartan inclinations. His work lacks the accuracy and impartiality of Thucydides'.

Synoikism

- "To dwell together" - The process by which smaller Greek villages politically came together to form a larger federation - Reasons included defense or protection, economics, and resources Attributed to Theseus (B.A. tradition) Thucydides 2.15-2.16 source on the matter Possibly by the early 9th c. attested by the increase in wealthy burials: did a shift from pastoralism to arable farming led to a rise in prosperity? (e.g., granaries included with the rich Athenian lady) Arguments for 700 B.C. synoikism Coldstream: Athenian Agora becomes the formally marked civic center, having moved down from the Acropolis (as THucydides also states) - Others: date of the Athenian conquest of Eleusis, if it is around ca. 675 B.C. is the last event which truly unifies the area

Early political structure of Athens

12 archons ruled for life, before it changed to a service of 10 years; then to annual office basileus first, shared the archon official Later, 3 archons: 1. Archon basileus: ritual function, as inherited from the early office of the basileus 2. Archon Eponymous: gave his name to the year and was the head of the state 3. Archon Polemarch: head/commander of the army

Aigai, Vergina

1977 excavated by Manolis Anronicos -Cist tomb "Tomb 1", is the earliest. Inhumed remains of a male, young woman aroun 25, and a neonate infant. Wall paintings: Persephone being seized by Hades, the 3 fates, and a seated female figure probably Demeter, grieving over her lost daughter -Tomb II is the larger of the chamber tombs. Typical form of a "Macedonian tomb". Subrtanean buildling characterize by a vault. Two chambers, the burial chamber itself and an antechamber with a central door and a facade like that of a buidlling. Facade of Tomb II has triglyphs and metopes, surmounted by a frieze depicting a lion hunt. The second frieze is crowned by a cornice. Main chamber is hastily completed, the ante cchamber may have been completed later. In the main chamber of Tomb II: gold larnakes, decorated with the Macedonian star, held cremated remains wrapped in purple clothe. GOl crown of oak leaves and acorns. In the smaller was a gold diadem. Inner chamber was richly equipped: silver and bronze vessels, elaborately ornamented armor, including a curiass of iron decorate with 8 gold greaves and a gold quiver, and nearby was a myrtle wreath and a gold diaem of spirals an scrolls interwoven with flowers, bees and birds. Anronicos identified this tomb as that of Philip an Cleopatra. Other suggestions are that it belongs to Arrhidaios and his wife Eurydike (murdered in 317 B.C. by Alexanders general, Cassander) -Tomb III is smaller an of simipler construction. Exterior frieze appears to have been painted on a panel of wood, of which only a portion remains. Rich collection of vessels of various sorts but of lesser quality than those in Tomb III: weapons, ivory relief decorations that probably ornamented a couch, a large silver hydria containing cremation remains with a gold wreath placed on its shoulders. Remains were those of a male between 12-14 years of age. If Tomb II is that of Arrhidaios and Eurydike, the the occupants of the earlier Tomb III might be Philip, Cleopatra and their child. Not magnificent enough, however, and it is unclear why Philip would be buried with the new wife to whom he had objected so strongly. Could possibly be another of Philips wives, such as Meda, the aughter of a Getic king. The arms of those of an archer, which fit Getic fighting methods and the Getae practiced suttee, which would possibly explain the coincidence of the woman's burial with the man. Most scholars agree that the occupant of Tomb III is Alexander IV, who was killed at just the right age to match the cremated remains.

Alexanders death

323 B.C. died abroad. probably due to Malaria agrivated by heavy drinking (Arrian and Plutarch dismissed poisoning as a cause). He died at 33.

Alexander and Egypt

331 B.C. When Alexander entered Egypt he was welcomed as Pharaoh by people who had been resentful of a Persian rule. Two important events that marked his stay: 1. founding Alexandria in spring 331 B.C. 2. Visiting the oracle of Ammon at the oasis of Siwah (Libya) 1. Alexandria was strategically important because of its location: connected the offshore island of Pharos with the mainland. Military and commercial advantage. (Other cities that Alexander established that still survive today include: the original Alexandria in Egypt, Herat, Ghazni, Merv, and Termez. He also established numerous garrisons in strategic locations). 2. Siwah was a place of pilgrimage and homage to a god who was regarded by the Greeks as a manifestation of the Greek god Zeus. There was a local branch of the cult located not far from Alexander's home, at Aphytis in Chalkidike, who coinage depicted Zeus Ammon. Alexander asked the oracle if he was , like his ancestor Herakles, the son of a god, possibly Zeus Ammon. Sources report (though Alexander's meeting with the oracle was private) that the oracle confirmed Alexander's suspicions that he was the son of a god. Egyptian belief in the divinity of the ruler, mixed with the Greek belief of heroes who could become gods and be transported to Olympus without dying. Alexander's pragmatic response was to adapt to the expectations of his new subjects.

Alexander vs Darius III

333 B.C. Reassembled in Gordion where he unfastened the Gordian Knot, to fulfill the tradition that whoever could would rule Asia. Battle of Issus in 333 B.C. Alexander's forces were greatly outnumbered; however he won the battle with much fewer casualities than the Persians. The famous mosaic from Pompeii of Darius and ALexander in battle depicts this battle (probably a copy of a contemporary painting based on eyewitness reports). Biblos an Sidon surrendered. Tyre was attacked and conquered after a 7 month siege.

Alexander and Ada

334/333 B.C. The port of Halicarnassos in Caria. Alexander defeated the Carian resistance (led by Orontobates, Pixodaros' son in law), and reinstated the legitimate ruler, Pixodaros' sister, Ada. She in turn adopted Alexander as a son. By making Ada satrap of Caria he gained the allegiance of her political supporters, and by the adoption he gained a legitimate claim to Caria. Alexander's method of organizing conquered territory: A policy of shared administration (that countered Aristotles teachings to him): kept military control in the hands of Macedonians, while often giving over control of civil affairs to natives who commanded local loyalties. This policy progressed to the point that it eventually included the integration of Persians into the army itself. He adopted the dress and customs expected of their rulers. Many of Alexander's followers did not share his vision of a bicultural future, and a current of opposition developed at times threatened the campaign itself.

Sacred War

355-346 B.C. Phocian seizure of Apollo's treasury at Delphi. The war was declared by the Delphi Amphictyony, or coalition of states that controlled the shrine. Philip besieged Olynthos. Demosthenes tried to convince the Athenians to save Olynthos but they only sent a small inadequate force. Philip had Olynthos destroyed and its citizens sold in slavery. The war concluded in 346 B.C. with a formal peace agreement, the Peace of Philokrates, that gave Philip Phocis' seat in the Amphictyonic Council, in effect granting him Hellenic status. He was considered the "Savior of Delphi"

Social War, War of the Allies

357 B.C. War against Athenian hegemony when it became clear that the Second Athenian Sea League was no longer necessary, as Sparta was no longer a threat. Rhodes, Kos, Chios and Byzantium went against Athens. Peace came in 355 B.C. when the Persian King, outraged at Athenian actions in Asia Minor, threatened Athens with war.

Corinthian War

395-387 B.C. Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos united with the intention to confine Sparta to the Peloponnese. The Persians, angry at Agesilaus's invasion of Asia Minor, joined the anti-Sparta cause. Conon came with the fleet and the satrap Pharnabazus. When the satrap left he added money to the Athenian treasury of the polis so that the Athenians could rebuilt the Long Walls and fortify the port of Piraeus. Athens was thus restored by Persian assistance to a position of potential equality with the other Greek states. Athens thus embarked upon an imperialistic path again. They siezed the islands of Skyros, Imbros, and Lemnos, and established cleruchies. They made allies including Byzantium. They imposed a tax of 5% on imports an exports of their allies. The renewal of Athenian imperialism frightened Sparta and Thebes and they abandoned their mutual enmity to join in opposition to Athens. Peace was achieved by the intervention of the Persian king with the King's Peace treaty in 387/386 B.C. The King's Peace treat were favorable to Sparta: Spartan control of mainland Greece was supported and leagues were to be dismantled (e.g., the Boeotian League, the source of Thebe's power), an Greek city states in Asia were given up to Persia. Sparta acted inappropriately at times (e.g., 382 B.C. seized and occupied the Kadmeia of Thebes; 378 B.C. Sparta allied Athens with Thebes).

The Battle of Aegospotami

405 B.C. Final battle of the Peloponnesian War. Sparta destroys the last Athenian fleet in a decisive victory. Athens is besieged. Lysander, Spartan commander, attacked the Athenian ships when they were scattered in search of supplies. Athenian commander Conon fled to Cyprus seeking the protection of King Evagoras. The victory at Aegospotami put Lysander in a commanding position, with nothing to stand in the way of a siege of Athens. He ordered all overseas Athenians back home in order to put more pressure on the city's food supplies, and then a siege began. The Athenians lasted 8 months. The terms of surrender required that Athens were allies of Sparta, and that their fleet be limited to 12 ships. The Long Walls to Piraeus were torn down, and a governing body of 30 men, the "Thirty Tyrants" was established by Sparta. The 30 ruled arbitrarily (they were supposed to set up a constitution) and use their power to purge the citizen body of their personal enemies. They were expelled in 403 B.C.

The War in the Hellespont

411 B.C. Alcibades assisted Athenian forces in the vicotry and recovery of Cyzicus. The Spartan commander was killed and peace terms were offered to Athens, which the demagogue, Klephon, rejected. Thucydides history breaks off after the account of the victory at Cyzicus. A recent inscription from the island of Thasos suggests that the historian lived until 397 B.C. It lists under the year 397 B.C. the local magistrate, Lichas son of Arkesilas, who is *possibly* the same man whose death Thucydides reports at 8.84.2. This suggests that Thucydides may have been alive and writing 7 years after the war: most scholars are skeptical about the identification. Sources after Thucydides include: Plutarch, Xenephon, and Didodorus Siculus. After the war: Alcibades went back to Athens and his chargers of impiety in the affair of the Hermes were cleared in 407 B.C. and he was elected Supreme general. A minor loss in his naval operations off the Anatolian coast would end his brief period of popularity in Athens. He was not reelected general in 406/405 B.C. Aristophanes the Frogs in 405 B.C. shows the Athenians reservations about him: a decisive question was put to the two candidates (Euripides an Aeschylus) "What should be done about Alcibades?" Their advice showed the ambivalence about Alcibades actions and character.

The Oligarchic Coup of 411 B.C.: The 400 and the 5000

411 B.C., Alcibiades instigated an Oligarchic coup in Athens. He dangled the prospect of Persian gold before the leading Atheniansi n the fleet at Samos; however, Persian aid was not delivered. The conspirators appealed to a fictitious "Constitution of Dracon" and promised to institute a body of 5000 citizens, composed of those who could provide their own arms an serve without pay. The Counil of 400 reigned without ever choosing the 5000. Samos waited (in order to prevent civil war, at the suggestion of Alcibades) and demanded that the 400 must go but the 5000 can stay. The coup collapsed and a mixed oligarchic-democratic regime of 5000 was established. Thucydides called it the best government that the Athenians had ever had.

Archelaus

413-399 B.C. Son of Perdikkas II. Invited noted Greek poets an artists to his court: Agathon (tragic work honored in Plato's Symposium); Zeuxis (painter, his grapes deceived the birds); and Euripides, The Bacchae was first preformed in his court and might have been written there.

Peace of Nicias

421 B.C. (Thucy 5.18) allowed by the deaths of Kleon and Brasidas. For 6 years and 10 months they restrained from invading each others territories.

Plague of Athens

430 B.C. first outbreak. Estimated 1/3 of the population was killed. Returned twice more in 429 B.C. and 427/6 B.C. killed Pericles two legitimate sons and ultimately himself. Thucydides account of the plague was framed in terms of contemporary medical theory. Typhus is the closest epidemiologically and from the symptoms. It is possible that the plague of the 5th c. B.C. no longer exists in a recognizable form today, as diseases develop and mutate over time.

First Year of the Peloponnesian War under Pericles

431 B.C. Started after military clashes in Plataea (Athenian ally in Boetia) with the Thebans (Spartan allies). The Thebans considere Plataea to be within the region of the Boetian League. Plataeans pushed out the attackers and massacred 180 Boetians whom they had taken prisoner. Plateans anticipated retaliation from Boetia and appealed to Athens, who sent garrisons an evacuated noncombatants. Enthusiasm for war was high (Thucy describes young men who had never participated in war and saw it as an adventure). Greeks generally sided with the Spartans. In Athens, Pericles persuaded the Athenians to trust in their sea power. People moved into the Long Walls and out of the country side. The Athenians raided the coast of the Peloponnese, laid waste to Megara, an expelled the inhabitants of Aegina to replace them with Athenians from the crowded city. Pericles secured an alliance with the kings of Thrace and Macedonia (Thuc 2.23-32). Thucydides Funeral Oration of Pericles came at the end of the first year of the war.

Perdikkas II

450-413 B.C. took part in the Peloponnesian War

First Peloponnesian War

460-445 BC war between Athens and Sparta Athens built the long walls connecting Athens to Piraeus, completed ca. 457 B.C. 459-454 B.C. Athens assisted the Egyptians in revolts against their Persian rulers. Ended in failure, with great losses. The losses threatened the Delian League's control of the Aegean. At this time, Athens moved the treasury from Delos to Athens, giving htem physical control over the assets of the Leage (not mentioned by Thucy). Athens/Pericles would exploit this new advantage for the Periclean buildling program. The transfer of the league gave us the Athenian Tribute Lists. By 447 B.C. Athenian expansionism had been chceked both on land (e.g., the defeat at the battle of Coronea at Boeotia) and on sea (e.g., the Egyptian revolt against Persia). No longer had justification for enforcing participation in the Delian League.

Second Persian War

480-479 (Hdt. 7; 8), Persian Emperor Xerxes sent an expedition into Greece. Greek alliance (Sparta) met them at Thermopylae. Sea battle commenced simultaneously in the narrow straits off the coast of Thermopylae at Artemisium. Athenians evacuated Athens (Hdt. 8.40-41, 51, Fornara 53 4th c. B.C. copy of a decree of evacuation, although the authenticity is debated), while the Peloponnesians retreated to defend the isthmus of Corinth. Battle of Salamis commenced. Themistoclean ploy kept the Persians awake all night; Athenians drew them into a restricted space in which the Persians could not keep their formations and were killed (like the battle at Artemisium/Thermopylae) Battle of Plataea (near Thessaly): Persian general, Mardonius, sent terms for Athens: amnesty, local autonomy, recovery of territory, Persian aid in rebuilding. Athens declined and Persia sacked Athens again. Spartans secretly sent 5,000 hoplites and 35,000 helots (hoping to avoid the Argives who would alert Mardonius). Athens sent 8,000 men. Victory at Mykale (Ionian coast near Miletus) Athens formed Delian League

The First Persian War

492 B.C. Darius sent his son-in-law Marodinus on an expdition against Macedonia and the Greek island of Thasos (area was rich in both gold and timber). The fleet was destroyed in a storm. 490 B.C. Darius sent a fleet across the Aegean islands that island-hopped. They subdued the Cycladic islands as they went (e.g., Naxos). Hippias was on board. Landed on Euboea. Next went to Marathon: Battle of Marathon. Battle of Marathon (Hdt. 6.102-124)): in essence, a battle of Western freedom vs. Eastern slavery. Miltiades was the commander (but not Polemarch). Greeks were victorious- the Persians retreated and were slaughtered in doing so (192 Greek deaths vs. 6,400 Persian deaths). Persians raced to Athens, but the Athenians made it back first. Persians retreated to Persia.

Alexander I

495-450 B.C. fought with the Persians against the Greeks. He had also helped the Greeks with advice (and the Athenians needed his timber for ships) he was rewarded b admission as a Hellene to the Olympic games and with the honor of proxenia (official friendship) in Athens. To emphasize his Greek status he Hellenized the Macedonian court, to which he invited the poet Pindar

Ioanian Revolt

499-494 B.C. (Hdt. 5.30-5.38) Unsuccessful attack by the Athenians and Eretrians on Sardis, Lydian capital, on behalf of the Ionians. This unsuccessful attack led to the Persian Wars (Persians annoyed with Greek interference) Attempt to rekindle the Ionian Revolt by Histiaeus and his son-in-law Aristagoras (Hdt. 5.35 message via slave with tattooed head). Histiaeus was found out and was forced to flee, leaving Aristagoras in charge of the revolt. Aristagoras sought aid from Sparta and was denied. The Athenians sent 20 ships. (Hdt 5.97 many people (i.e., the Athenian Assembly) are easier to fool than one man (the Spartan king)). Attempted an attack on Sardis, which was burned, while the attackers were forced to flee. The attack led to the beginnings of the Persian Wars, as it sowed a great dissent towards the Greeks. The Persians wanted to punish Athens

Fragmentation of the Near East

590-585 B.C. war between Medes and the Lydians. Settled in 585 B.C. due to a solar eclipse. In 550 B.C., Cyrus, Persian King, related to the Medes, conquered the Medes. The two peoples were merged into a single political entity: Persian practice of incroporating conquered peoples into the administration of newly acquired teritory. Opposition from King Croesus of Lydia in 547 B.C (who had been an ally to the Medes since the pact of 585 B.C.). Herodotus (1.46-1.49) tells of how Croesus went to the oracle at Delphi and misunderstood her reply (a great kingdom would fall). Victory of the Persians: Miletus made terms with the Persians while other Greek cities resisted (Herodotus 1.164-167; 174; 176). Persian attention was paid to Scythia first. Herodotus says Cyrus died there in 530 B.C. (Hdt 1.215). He was succeeded by Cambyses who was thought to be a mad king (went against Egypt after killing the Apis-bull) and died in 522 B.C. as a result of divine violation .

Solon's reforms

594/3 B.C. cancel debts, income tax, more men could hold public office, freeing the unjustly enslaved (including seeking out and redeeming those who had been sold abroad); freed the land from enslavement by the horoi thus wiping out debts held over the poor; hektemoros status was abolished; Institutional framework for the future Athenian state, garunteeing personal freedom and established rites that were vital to the later devellopment of democracy, especially the right of appeal Tyranny following Solon's reforms were within the framework of existing laws and institutions established by Solon Immediate aftermath of Solon's reforms was a period of anarchy: no way to enforce laws, poor were still discontented. Solons private poetry recounts the state of Athens at the period: aristocratic greed and oppression, enslavement and civil discord Other likely contributing factors: debt greed: (late 8th c. Hesiod already complaining about bribe swallowing basileus horoi: border markers/ issues of land ownership Seisachtheia: shaking off burdens/canceling debts Four new classification of property classes according to the produces of their wet (oil, wine) and dry (grain) produce Pentecosiomedini (500 bushel men) could be treasurer and archon Hippeis (could support horses) elible for lesser offices and maybe archonships Zeugitae (with a yoke of oxen or hoplites) elibile for minor offices Thetes (those without land) eligible to attent the Assembaly/court of appeal

Kylon

640-621 B.C. first to attempt tyranny, seized the Acropolis but the Athenians revolted and expelled him

Battle of Hysiae

669 B.C. defeat at the hands of tyrant Pheidon of Argos (Pheidon in 668 B.C. took control of the Olympic festival and was master of the NW Peloponnese). This created Spartan weakness and encouraged Messenian helot uprising, giving way way to the Second Messenian War (ca. 650-620 B.C.)

Lydians and the Greeks

6th c. B.C. kingdom of the Lydians rose to prominence in Anatolia: Greeks in Anatolian coastal cities suffered frequently from Lydian attacks (e.g., destruction of Smyrna by Lydian king Alyattes). King Croesus was king Alyattes sucessor, insituted a regular required tribute .

Mimnermus of Colophon

7th c. B.C. poet who does not mention Athens as playing a key role in migrations to Ionia (he identifies the home of the founders as Pylos)

Proxenos

A citizen of a state appointed by another state to host its ambassadors and to represent and protect its interests there.

Tyrant

A leader who came to power by irregular means, whether imposed by an outside authority or seized power for himself in conditions of internal political and economic crisis

336 B.C. Philip against Persia

A series of Persian rulers were assasinated by a vizer, until Darius III, when he took the throne in 336 B.C. had the vizer killed. Persian military power had reache its lowest point. A common Greek War was undertaken by Philip and the Corinthian League, uniting Greece in a common cause, resolving the problem of constant internecine warfare. Philip was assassinated before the invasion of Persia could take place. Alexander would take his place.

Other sources for the Pentecontaetia

Aeschylus' Oresteia (story set in the post-Trojan War period in an effort to reconcile violent opposition to a present-day reform) Psuedo-Aristotle work on the Athenian political development Athenian Tribute List (ATL): Large public inscriptions, most date to the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC). The earliest dates to 453 B.C. Fragments of the records of the annual payments amde by the Athenians to the temple of the goddess Athena. Payment paid to Athens by member states in the league .The lists recorded what was essentially a shared defense fund for all allied members. The Athenian Tribute lists record contributions, allied taxes, to the Greek state. Contributions could have consisted of money, ships, supplies (wood), grains, and military assistance. The lists show us the internal resources of the different Greek states and help us try to recreate economics and state funds. Shows us the "ups and downs" of Athenian control. Plutarch: later source (ca. A.D. 46-120 Roman). Validity as a source is questionable, as he was writing a moralizing work and biographies (i.e., not history per se) for readers

Overthrowing the Pesistratids

Afer the expulsion of Hippias, old laws reenacted, viz,. citizenship was exclusive to "pure blooded" and not those admitted to the city by the Solonian reforms. The Alkemeonids sought to overthrow Hippias. They went to the oracle at Delphi (Herodotus says they bribed the oracle by gaining gratitude for contributions in the building of the temple of Apollo) who said the Spartans should free Athens. The Spartans complied with the oracle (despite earlier friendship with the Peisistratids). 1st attempt: Hippiads defeated the Spartans with the help of Thessaly 2nd attempt: More Spartan forces accompanied by king. They captured the Peisistratid children. In order to get them back, Hippias agreed to withdraw, taking refuge in Persian territory. During the Persian Wars, Hippias guided the Persians across the Aegean with the expectation that they would reinstate him as ruler of Athens. The involvement of the Alkemeonids demonstrates the aristocratic factional strife had no died out during the rule of the tyrants.

Early Athenian hostility towards Sparta

After Spartan rejection of relief forces led by Kimon, Athenians became openly hostile towards Sparta. They formally dropped out of the old Hellenic League and allied themselves with Sparta's enemy, Argos. 461/460 B.C. Athens assisted Megara in a revolt against the Lakedaimonian League arising out of a border dispute between that city and Corinth. (Ath formed allianced with Megara and Pegae, a port on the Corinthian Gulf)

Delian League

After the Greek states of the Hellenic League (ended in 462 B.C.) that had fought against the Persians was being misled by the Spartan leader Pausanias (he began to affect Persian ways and became increasingly distant and arrogant). Hellenic League continued under Spartan control for some time after the Delian leauge was formed. Other Greek states asked the Athenians to take over the League's leadership. Founding of the Delian League, centered on the island of Delos. The original purpose as stated by Thucy. (1.96) was to join together to ravage the Persian king's lands and avenge the sufferings the Persians inflicted upon the Greeks. Not stated but also probably due to fear of antoher Persian invasion. Thucy, however, portrays the Greeks as setting out to punish the Persians, rather than to protect themselves. Each state agreed to furnish ships, men, or a monetary contribution; all were to be autonomous and have equal votes in the meeting of the league, to be held in Delos. Athens was to be hegemon: supereme command in military operations and executive authority in other dealings of the League. Athenians were to be the treasurers of the funds. League included many of the poleis on the Aegean islands (along its northern and eastern coasts) as well as those on the coast of the Hellespont, the Propontus the Black Sea, and the souther coast of Anatolia. Sparta and its Peloponnesian allies did not take part (maintained the Hellenic League until 462 B.C.)

Decarchies

After the defeat of Athens and her allies in the Peloponnesian War, Sparta had a short lived dominance of the Greek world. During this time Sparta set up many pro-Sparta governments in other cities. The Spartans set up ten man oligarchies called decarchies headed by a Spartan military governor called a Harmost. In Athens, the Spartans set up an oligarchy that became known as the Thirty Tyrants which was later abolished in favor of a democracy. Councils made up of 10 local citizens sympathetic to Spartan interests.

4th century CE

After the defeat of Athens in the Peloponnesian War, Sparta and Thebes--and eventually Athens--vied for power and leadership of Greek cities. Warfare was almost constant and Persia often entered in the fray as well, often on the sidelines but sometimes playing a major role. No historian of the caliber of Herodotus or Thucydides dominates the historical scene for the 4th c. B.C. The principal sources are Xenophon's Hellenica, in which the pro-Spartan Athenian takes up the account of the Peloponnesian War where Thucydides broke off. Diodorus Siculus, writer of the Roman period, who abridged the 4th c B.C. Greek historian Epho rus. There is also abundant evidence of the nature of social and economic life in the records of private lawsuits.

Helots

Agricultural laborers: lived and worked allotments of land that were assigned to Spartan citizens to provide them with their livelihood. Male helots accompanied Spartan hoplies into battle as servers Neodamodes: helots who were freed specifically to be used in the hoplite corps

Persepolis

Alexander allowed his army to loot Persepolis and then burned it in 330 B.C. (reportedly he later regretted his decision). The burning of Persepolis dramatically symbolized the end of the Panehllenic campaign of retribution against the Persians.

Alexander: Asia Minor and the Seacoast

Alexander set out for the Hellespont in 334 B.C. with a 30 day supply of grain carried by the fleet. He defeated the Persians at the Granicus River. After this, he dismissed his fleet, because funds were short and he knew that the fleet was not large enough to achieve control of the sea. Alexander knew that he would not beat the Persians in a naval battle. Instead, he used the Macedonian infantry to seize the ports, thereby gaining control of the Phoenician fleets based in them, which provided the naval power of the Persians, were now to serve the Macedonian fleet. By this strategy he avoided direct confrontations at sea and continually added to the fleet under his control while reducing the Persians' sea-power.

Sources on Alexander

All extant reports are late an secondhand, even though these are sometimes based on contemporary accounts. All reports of actual participants are now lost, except for those fragments that were quote by or incorporated into the works of later writers. Eyewitness accounts : -Ptolomy, one of Alexander's generals and later founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt -Aristobulus, one of Greek philosophers, scientists, and technicians who accompanied the Asian expedition -Callisthenes, a relative of Aristotle by marriage, who wrote much of the official history of the campaign -Onesicritus, Alexander's helmsman, a source mostly for descriptions of the natural curiosities of India -Nearchus of Crete, who interlaced fact and romance in account that disparaged Onesicritus -Cleitarchus of Alexandria, who often preferred sensation and drama to the truth Two well-preserved sources, that stand out for their readability: -Arrian, The Anabasis. A native of Bithynia in Asia Minor, who lived during the first 2 centuries A.D., Roman political career that culimnated in the consulship an service as governor of Cappadocia. Retired to Athens where he wrote about all of Alexanders campaigns: The Anabasis. Meant to be a sobver evaluation, and was long considered the most dependable and responsible source. His two main sources were Ptolemy an Aristobulus. Sometimes it seems as if he was taken in by the bias of one of his major sources, Ptolemy. Ptolemy's account was part of his propoganda, aimed at an educated audience. Subtle an sophisticated bias (by Ptolemy) that may have escaped the notice of Arrian, and has only recently been recognized by modern scholars. -Plutarch, Life of Alexander (part of Parallel Lives). Native of Chaeronea in Boeotia. Wrote biographies to provide moral edification for his readers. Provided his readers with salutary role models while entertaining them. Other important sources -Diodorus Siculus, 17th book of the Universal History. 1st c. B.C. writer. -Strabo and Curitus, 1st c. A.D.

The Athenian Empire

Athenian Control of the Delian League led to this, in which the Athenians dominated the other city states Protection of Athenians abroad, Athenian sympathizers, and Athenian proxenos (local person serving as a rep of Athens): rules that any city where these people were killed would be fined a 5 talent fine Currency decree: Athenian steps to control silver currency, every league member was forced to convert silver coinage into Athenian coinage, and to only use Athenian coins, weights, and measures

Thetes

Athenian citizens who did not own any land and were used as rowers the Athenian navy and utilized by Pericles to elect him strategos

The Ionian Phase of the Peloponnesian War

Athens was weakened after the Sicilian disaster. They shifted their focus to the east. THeir 3 main problems were essentially economic: the vulnerability of the grain supply route to the Black Sea; the threat of subject revolts in the Aegean; and the depletion of Athenian financial reserves by the expenses of the Sicilian expedition, which made the prospect of Persian gold especially tempting. Alcibades was playing all 3 sides--Athens, Sparta, and the Persian satraps, against each other in an attempt to further his own advantage. Athen's subjects vied with each other for Spartan assistance in their revolts: 1st was Euboea, followed by Lesbos and Chios. Exiles from Megara an Cyzicus at the court of the Persian satrap Pharnabazus at Dascylium appealed to the Spartans for help in fomenting revolt in the Hellespont. Sparta had to choose between concentrating attention of the Hellespont or on Ionia. Alcibades persuaded the Spartans to favor the Chians request. Athens did, however, gain Samos which became the base for the Athenian navy. Lesbos and Klazomene were regained, and a base on Chios. Meanwhile, Knidos and Rhodes revolted.

470 B.C. Naxos revolts the League

Attempt to succeed from the League. Denied the autonomy that was guaranteed as a part of the original League.

The rise of the polis

Autonomous, self-governing polities that arose in the 8th c. B.C. Polis seems to have been identified with/by its citizens (e.g., the Athenians" or "the Spartans" and not "Athens" or "Sparta")

Alexander in India

Battled the Indian King Poros after crossing the Indus River. Battles were used in this battle. Alexander still won. Poros retreated from battle only when he was wounded and surrendered to Alexander, asking only to be treated as a king. Alexander rewarded his courage by returning his kingdom to him, and even adding to it. In return, Poros became a faithful ally to Alexander. He turned the army around when they refused to continue on and demanded return to Macedonia.

580/579 B.C.

Board of then to serve jointly as archon, solution for the aftermath of the Solonian reforms. Included 5 eupatrids, 3 agroikoi (farmers of less than noble status), and 2 demiourgoi (craftsmen, maybe immigrants permitted by the Solonian reforms)

Thucydides

Born ca. 460 B.C., about 25 years younger than Herodotus. Born to an aristocratic Athenian family that possessed a considerable fortune, including interests in the Thrace gold mines. Elected as a general in 424 B.C. in the Chalkidike (when Athenians were at war with Sparta during the Peloponnesian War) He failed to prevent the Athenian colony from surrendering to the Spartans, and he was sentenced to exile (Thuc. 4.103-106, 5.26). He was awarded knowledge of both sides of the war, but because he was in exile, he was denied firsthand knowledge of events in Athens during this time. His aim as a historian was to provide an accurate determination of events that drove men and states to pursue power. He showed the corrosive effects of power. He knew that the Athenians would not reveal their true motives. He had written his work because "not to win the applause of the moment but to be a possession for all time (Thuc. 1.22).

Pentecontaetia

By Thucydides, 50 year period (478-431) which form part of the preliminaries to his history on the Peloponnesian War

Philip and Athens

Captured 230 vessels used for grain transportation, including 180 ships, when he was trying to besiege Byzantium. This was a great blow to Athenian economy and morale. Demosthenes roused the Athenians to declare war. The Persians joined the Athenians, as there were previous knowledge of Philip plotting against Persia (Hermias of Mytilene, who died as a martyr to protect this information). 1st. Piliip secured the northern frontier by turning against the Scythians. Survived a serious injury (spear through the thigh, which killed his horse). 2nd. In 338 B.C. the Amphictyonic Council invite him to take command of another Sacred War. The Thebans joined Athens to oppose Philip at the battle of Chaeronea in Boeotia. The battle was led by Alexander (now 18). Philip and Alexander beat the Thebans and Athenians in battle, in effect causing Macedonians to become the masters of Greece. Philip showed leniency to the Athenians (return the ashes of the dead, free the prisoners, and left Athens in control of some of its island possessions). The Thebans were punished for abandoning its Macedonian alliance (Boeotian League was broken up, leading opponents were executed an property ceased, a garrison was established on the Kadmeia).

Cleruchies

Colonies that functioned as a part of Athens and were governed directly with no local autonomy. Athenian settlements made up of Athenian citizens of the zeugitai and thete classes, received allotments of land that had been taken over form local landowners Cleruchs retained their Athenian citizenships Cleruchies established in Euboea, Naxos, Andros, and Brea (in Thrace) Cleruchies were resented by the local populations upon whom they were imposed

Heliaia

Court of appeal instituted by Solon

Persian kings in order

Cyrus, Cambyses, Darius, Xerxes

Death of Darius III

Darius established himself in Ecbatana, the Median capital, hoping to defend the Iranian heartland. As Alexander approached, Darius moved eastward. The eastern satrapies, which had been relatively neglected by Darius and his predecessors, were unwilling to accept his leadership. Bessus, the strongest of the eastern satraps was instead favored. A split developed in the Persian camp, and Bessus imprisoned Darius as Alexander drew closer. He bound him in golden chains in a wagon, before killing him to prevent his being captured by Alexander. When Alexander discovered the body he treated it respectfully (a kings burial at Persepolis) and then truly presented himself as king of all Asia- the last Achemenid king was dead. Alexander pursued and caught Bessus in 330/329 B.C. Two accounts of Bessus's death at the hands of Alexander: 1. he wore a spiked dog collar beside the road as the army passed and was then executed. 2. Alexander had Bessus mutilated--his nose an ears cut off--and then executed.

The Sicilian Expedition

Decisive phase of the Peloponnesian War. Largest military expedition up to that time in history, which led to the greatest disaster Athens face until its final defeat. Segesta in Sicily, an insignificant city, which was allied to Athens, hoped to gain advantage over an ally. Athens listened to Segesta's request for aid because expansion into Sicily, an area rich in grain-production, had long been a temptation for Athens which was in perennial need of grain. (Pericles had warned against expansion during the war-this was thus a major deviation from this policies). Thucydides presents both sides of the question in the form of a debate in the Assembly between the two generals who were to lead the expedition: Nicias, a caution and conservative older man known for his sponsorship of the Peace of Nicias; and Alcibiades, a wealth and handsome young aristocrat who had been brought up in the household of Pericles as his ward. Alcibiades was a charismatic but ambiguous character. The assembly was swept by enthusiasm for the expedition. The mutilation of the Hermes ca. 415 B.C. Accusations of the Elusianina Mysteries being profane. Alcibiades was among those accused of involvement, but because of his popularity with the men, it was deemed better to arrest him en route to Segesta an bring him back to Athens to stand trial when the army was not there to protest. Alcibaides escaped and went to Sparta where he traded advice for sanctuary. He suggested they send aid to the Syracusians. They did, with the general Gylippus. They also fortified Dekelea, which gave the Spartans a base for damaging year-round attacks on the countryside of Attica. First battle at Syracuse was a success, but Nicias failed to follow it up, ordering the Athenians back to camp and giving the Syracusians an opportunity to prepare their defenses. 414 B.C. an attempted siege of Syracuse led to the death of the second Athenian commander, Lamachus. The Assembly sent Demosthenes. Demosthenes attempted a night battle but failed, and wanted to retreat. Nicias, fearing condemnation from the Assembly, refused to agree. Demosthenes honored Nicias decision, believing he had more information than he did. Thus, Athens opportunity for escape was lost. A second attempt to escape was thwarted because of divination following a eclipse of the moon. A third attempt was made after the Athenians failed to break through the Syracusian harbor blockade, and waited for days to retreat after being tricked by Gylippus who sent a spy with false warnings of the roads being watched. The entire Athenian army was slaughtered or captured. Both generals were executed.

The War from Pericles' Death to the Peace of Nicias The Rise of the Demagogues

Demagogues: panders (appeal to the peoples desires and prejudice rather than using rational arguments). 430 B.C. Potiaea surrendered at last. 429 B.C. Peloponnesians refrained from invading Attica for fear from the plague 428 B.C. Mytilene/Lesbos (one of Athens most important subject-allies, one which maintained a fleet) revolted against Athens (who was weakened by the war and the 2nd outbreak of the plague) 427 B.C. The Spartans gained Plataea 425 B.C. Demosthenes serendipitously fortified Pylos as they were sailing to Corcyca. Spartans sent hoplites to Sphakteria as a base against attacks, but ended up losing control of Sphakteria (blockaded by the Athenians) and becoming marooned. Kleon successfully brought the hoplite prisoners back to Athens. 424 B.C. Spartan general Brasidas marched north to court Athenian subjects. Spartans sought to enroll helots. Amphipolis was lost to Athens at this point. Thucydides was reponsible for reaches Amphipolis and putting down the revolt. His failure resulted in his exile an ability to write his history (4.103-107). 423 B.C. One year truce between Athens an Sparta. Scione rebellion which was put down. 422 B.C. Attempt by Athenians to retake Amphipolis. Kelon fell in battle (reportely unhero like) as did Brasidas (hero like death). 421 B.C. peace of Nicias

Post-Kleisthenes' reforms

Demes became the guarantors of citizenship, based on the acceptance of a man as a member of a deme. The man took the name of his deme rather than his father (this became the archanic way to be identified) 10 generals from each tribe New boule of 500, which replaced Solon's council of 400 Prytany, or executive body, was created from teh Council: each tribe held the prytany for on emonth (of the 10 month Attic year, the months were divided into five periods of seven days) Popular courts of 6000 jurors were chose by lot, 5000 were selected each day for various courts Ostracism first used in 487 B.C.

The Hypomnemnemata

Diodorus reports that plans about Alexanders future plans were found: expedition to the Caspian Sea, a voyage to conquer and colonize Arabia, the construction of a port at Babylon big enough to house 1000 war ships, conquering Carthage, and to reach Gibraltar.

Wappenmünzen

Earliest Athenian coins. Mid 6th c. ca. 550 B.C. "Heraldic coins", emblems on coins that were once thought to be heraldic crests, most likely styles imported from Lydians with refugees who found shelter on the Mainland from Lydian and Persian attacks of Greek Ionian cities. Silversmiths might have took advantage of Solon's legislation to exercise their craft in Athens, using a design familiar to them

Spartan women

Educated, physically active, enjoyed status, power and respect, married at 18 or 20. The "borrowing" of wives was allowed for reproductive reasons (i.e., permitted and organized extramarital relationships were normative) In general, women were thought of as property, in the context of the Spartan practice of sharing resources Ancient sources: Plato and Aristotle 4th c. B.C. Plato suggests that Spartan treatment of women did not go far enough Aristotle thought that the treatment of Spartan women was part of the reason for Spartas downfall after the battle of Leuktra in 371 B.C. the condition of women was bad, and therefore half of the state and thus constitution was bad

Mercenaries

Esp. in 4th c. B.C. Continual threat of attack and constant civil strife disallowed men to be landowners and agriculturally productive. This led to the ready supply of mercenaries in Greece. Changes in warfare fostered an increased dependence upon mercenaries. Light-armed tactics with specialized skills in handling weapons that were traditionally associated with foreigners and looked down upon by the Greek hoplite. Growing incentive for citizens not to fight in regular and often goal lacking civil warfare. Cities often attracted mercenaries by offering them the opportunity for loot and plunder. Xenephon's Anabasis or March of the Ten Thousand: story of the expedition of the Persian prince Cyrus against his brother Artaxeres II. He gathered a mercenary army in order to seize the kingship for himself

Dionysus festival

Festival that was given new life dyring the Pesistratid tyranny. Increase in scenes of Dionysus on Attica vases during this time (ca. 534 B.C.)

Colonization

First colonization by Euboeans at Piethekoussai ca. 770 B.C. Around 760-735 B.C. the inhabitants moved and founded Cumae. Naxians established colonies on Siciliy in 134 B.C. Corinthians at Syracuse in 733 B.C. Eventual local expansion to ancillary site locations (e.g., 720's settlers from Cumae and Chalkis founded Zancle). Greek colonies were independent branches of a mother city. Were able to utilize/call upon this relationship in times of hardship. Decision to send out a colony was an official decision of a polis and not individual ventures. Interbreeding with local female populations: Herodotus says that settlers of Miletus killed the local men and took the women as wives. Also, Herodotus's account of colonization of Cyrene in north Africa (ca. 630 B.C.) 4.145-158. Second source for the colonization is an inscription from the 4th c. B.C.

Early Military Actions of the League

First military action in 476 B.C. when it seized control of Eion, a fortress of the N Aegean coast at the mouth of the Strymon River that was held b the Persians. Took Skyros from pirates. Expedition against Karystos, Greek city in S Euboea that medized after the batle of Artemisium: compelled the Karystians to join the League. 469 B.C. Greeks won a decisive victory over the Persian fleet at the attle of Eurymedon River on the S coast of Asia Minor. 200 Phonecian ships, serving the Persian navy, were destroyed. This secured the Greek cities of Caria and Lycia for the league and removed the threat of Persians. 465 B.C. Thasian revolt League led by Kimon, who pursued a course of action that was both aggressively anti-Persian and pro-Spartan (e.g., in Aristophanes The Wasps, he portrays Kimon's son as dressing Kimon in Spartan shoes for a dinner party)

Athens: The Development of Empire and Democracy

Following Persian Wars, Athens turned its naval strength into imperialistic naval power and the isonomia of the Kleisthenic reforms into democracy (e.g., thetes, lowest class that comprised of the rowers were given rights)

Second Athenian Sea League

From 377-355 B.C. this was the military that Athens used to protect their city-state from Sparta and the Persian Empire. A Spartan harmost in Thessaly, Sphodrias, set out by night to lead a surprise attack on Piraeus. He underestimated the distance, and lost the advantage of surprise and turned back, abandoning the attack. The event frightened and angered the Athenians, so they formed the Second Athenian Sea League. Athens decided to go through with their plans to make this new naval confederacy after Sparta lost control of Thebes when the Theban democrats killed the oligarchs and expelled the Spartan garrison. Athens then allied with Thebans to ensure protection against Sparta. The league rules stated "all allies will remain independent and autonomous, enjoying the form of government they wish, admitting no garrisons or magistrates and paying no tribute." There was no tribute specified, however, there was a system of syntaxeis ("contributions") to finance the operations. Original members were Thebes, Chios, Mytilene, Methymna, Rhodes, and Byzantium, but eventually there were 60 to 70 memebers. This is how Athens regained supremecy of the sea.

Pesistratus

From Brauron, leader of a faction. Herodotus .59-1.64 says his supports were from Athens: common people, those who had lost through the cancellation of debts, and those of not pure Attic decent Three attempts to become tyrant (561/560; 556; 546 B.C.) Success at becoming tyrant in 546 B.C. -Maintained control by having himself or one of his relatives or followers as Cheif Archon - Economic and other reforms which cut back on the power of the rich (aristocrats) and led to him gaining favor with the poor -loans at good rates for farmers; 1/20th tax instituted on the wealthy (much less harsh than the 1/6th hektemoiroi. Undertook building projects and sponsored various cults: self-aggrandizing but also fostered civic consciousness and shifted the balance of political power away from aristocratic families toward the polis Died in 527 B.C. Succeeded by his son Hippias

Money in Sparta

Gold and silver prohibited; iron was allowed because it was inconvienant, hard to conceal, and did not have value outside of Sparta)

Post Alexander

His son by his "barbarian wife" Roxanne, Alexander IV, and his half-brother Arrhidaios ruled, until they were eliminate by generals who found them no longer useful. General Ptolemy laid claim to Egypt. To support his claim he kidnapped the body of Alexander and installed a magnificent tomb where the body was buried. His descendants ruled until the death of Cleopatra in 30 B.C., when the Romans took over. A. B. Bosworth suggests that manpower weakness crippled post-Alexandrian Macedonia. (Birthrate must have declined in Macedonia, as over 30,000 men were remove from Macedonia for Alexanders campaigns). R. Billows argues against Bosworth and does not find demographic decline a result of Alexanders campaigns. He does not outright deny that manpower declined in Macedonia which then declined in importance in the post-Alexandrian world.He blames Gallic invasions in 280-277 B.C., when men. women, and children were killed.

Organization of Philip IIs Kingdom

In 344 B.C. he reorganized Thessaly, reestablishing its ancient 4-part administration in order to prevent a dangerous concentration of power. He also conducted population transfers, establishing new towns and augmenting new ones to bring added prosperity and security to the kingdom.

Greater Macedonia (Expansion of the Kingdom)

In 357 B.C., when the Social War was ongoing and Athenian attention was diverted from the north, Philip captured Amphipolis, an Athenian foundation and ally that controlled the strategic crossing of the river Strymon. The Krenides, a group of silver-mining settlements establishe by Greeks from Thasos, were going to be attacked by the Thracians. Philip protected the Krenides and joined them together into one city (a synoikism) which he named Philipi. Philipi controlled the territory and the lucrative mines.

Reform of the Areopagus Council

In 462 B.C. Ephialtes changed the Areopagus council, mostly stripping it of most of its powers. It retained mainly its ancient religious functions, e.g., trying murder cases, dramatized the civilizing and beneficial role of the Council as a formal homicide court. Ephialtes assassinated shortly after his reform was instituted.

Areopagus council

In Archiac period: Members were from an exclusive group of aristocratic faimiles, the Eupatrids (sons of good fathers). Political decisions were in the hands of these men Later, 6 jurors were added: the Thesmothetes

Thesmothetes

In Classical period they acted as recorders of judicial decisions and as court officials

Philips assassination

Killed by a Macedonian nobleman, Pausanias, at the wedding of of Alexander's sister Cleopatra to her material uncle (also named Alexander). Conspiracy against a monarchy brought about by insults. Sources are not clear about this account. Some implicate Olympias (one of Philips wives), but probably ue to the Greek deep-seated fear of women in control. Plutarch repeatedly blames women in general (Alexander 9-10) and Olympias for inciting Alexander to oppose his father. Olympias motivation would thus be to protect her son's claim to the succession and her own position as "queen mother." Although its not clear if Olympias had ever returned to court after being banished, and a plot with Pausinias via letters would have been too great a risk of revelation.

Hetairoi

Kleisthenes took the people into partnership as his hetairoi: traditionally a small circle of aristocratic friends who provided eachother with political support.

Hegemon

Leader: a preponderant state capable of dominating the conduct of international political and economic relations

Pericles

Member of a powerful and influential aristocratic family and Alkmeonid through his mother's line. His father was a general at the battle of Mykale and was prominent politically. He was an intellectual , closely associated with the philosopher Anaxagoras, Phidias, and the Miliseian hetaira Aspasia. Athenian leader noted for advancing democracy in Athens and for ordering the construction of the Parthenon.

Hebontes

Men between the ages of 20-30 who played a quasi-parental role in socializing their young charges. Homosexual "mentor". At 30, men became full citizens

Alphabet

Mid-8th c. B.C., borrowed from the Phoenicians. Greeks added vowels. First Greek written objects: Nestors cup from Piethekussai ca. 730-720 B.C. ("I am the cup of Nestor, a joy to drink from. Whoever drinks this cup , straightaway that man the desire of beautiful-crown Aphrodite will seize") and the dipylon jug

Herodotus

Native of East Greek city of Halicarnassos (under Carian rule). His family was exiled and moved to Samos. Traveled extensively throughout his lifetime: Egypt, Libya, Babylon, Scythia. Lived in Athens ca. 444 B.C. before participating in the Panhellenic colony in southern Italy at Thurii where he likely spent the remainder of his life, possible resettling in Athens towards the end of his lifetime. Atheno-centric approach to his work, suggesting he regarded Athens as his adopted home.

Thetes

New Solonian class, lowest ranking (all others, including those without land) eligible to attend the Assembly which now functioned as the court of appeal

Zeugitae

New Solonian class, third ranking (200-300 bushel men, with a yoke of oxen, or hoplites) possibly eligible for lesser offices

Hippeis

New Solonian class. second ranking (300-500 - bushel men, could probably support horses) elibible for lesser offices and possibly also the archonship

Pentecosiomedini

New Solonian class. top most ranking (500 bushel men) could be treasurer and archon

Kleisthenes reforms

New political structure Traditional four old tribes were replaced with ten new tribes. The new tribes were based on residence (and not ancestry). Broke up the regional power blocks of the aristocracy. Groups were broken up into 30 groups, or trittyes): 10 trittyes in each of the three regions (the city, the coast, and inland). Each tribe has residents from each region (city, plain, and coast), and each tribe has residents in Athens itself. Membership was determined by the deme where a man resided at the time of the reorganization. Part of the appeal of Kleisthenes reforms were that it reincluded all those who had been excluded post-Peisistratid revision of the citizenship rolls (even the descendants of craftsmen who Solon had admitted) The reforms ended the monopoly on political power by the aristocratic families and the regional factionalism that plagued Athens. Every citizen had a share in government by memberhsip in a deme. Laid the foundation for democracy with the creation of a deme-based structure of government and the institution of the board of 10 generals and the popular courts

Battle at Gaugamela

Oct 1 331 B.C. in Assyria near the Tigris River. Alexander beats Darius in battle. Darius fled the field in disgrace and became a fugitive. Alexander then gained control of the various capitals of the Persian Empire to which he now laid claim: Babylon, Susa, Pasargadae, Persepolis, and Ecbatana. In each case he seized the royal treasury (about 180,000 talents of gold, or, 200 years of the income of Athens). The treasure radically altered the economy of the ancient world in the Hellenistic period as more and more of it was coined and passed into circulation. Alexander allowed his army to loot Persepolis and then burned it in 330 B.C. (reportedly he later regretted his decision). The burning of Persepolis dramatically symbolized the end of the Panehllenic campaign of retribution against the Persians.

Pesistratid building program

On the Acropolis: Archaic phases of the sanctuary of Athena Nike; shrine for Artemis Brauron. In Agora: transformed into monumental civic center: drainage system installed; fountainhouse (Ennakrounos "nine spouts"); Altar of the 12 gods. Temple to Olympian Zeus (began, not finished until Hadrian 2nd c. A.D.)

Eunomia

Orderly conduct of government

Peace of Callias

Peace concluded with Persia in 450 B.C. Late ancient sources report an official treaty, the Peace of Callias: granted autonomy to the Greeks in Asia Minor, excluding Persian satraps from Aegean coastal areas, and barred Persian ships from Aegean waters Most historians doubt the existence of a formal treaty. Thucy does not mention it, and Plutarch says that doubts about the authenticity of the treaty started as early as the 4th c. B.C. In a way, removed the justification for the Delian League.

Opposition among the Macedonians

Plots to kill assassinate Alexander: -the conspiracy of Philotas (the son of general Parmenio) in 330 B.C. A plot by a Macedonian, Dimnos , who reported it to Philotas, who failed to report it to Alexander. Thus Philotas was implicated/suspected in the plot, as was his father.

Macedonia before Phillip

Power was clan-based. From 650-310 B.C. the kingship was hereditary in the line of the Argeae, but the principle of primogeniture did not hold. Succession was often achieved by bloody means (e.g., assassination, duels). Kings ruled, more or less, as they wished. There were no laws or traditional assemblies (constitutional measures) that limited his power; rather, pressures from various groups within Macedonian elites The King was surrounded by companions, retinue of upper-class men, often chosen as drinking companions. "Symposium" was an outlet use for testing ideas and allowing men to speak freely. The king served as supreme judge of disputes, often delegating this duty, appointing deputies. Phillip II brought nobility of formerly independent Upper Macedonia principalities into the ranks of Companions.

Corinthian War Precursors

Precursors: 396 B.C. King Aegilaus set out to face against the "Barbarian East"/Persia. He planned a dramatic sacrifice at Aulis, where Agamemnon made sacrifice Ipheigenia before sailing to Troy. He was stopped by the Boeotians, as they viewed this the conquest as a dangerous display of power by Sparta. The Athenian general Konon, who had taken refuge on Cyprus after the disaster at Aegospotami, led a Persian fleet to victory over the Spartan fleet at Knidos. As a response, the East Greek cities threw off their Spartan garrisons and declared themselves for Persian. At home, Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos, frightened by the Spartan initiatives, put aside their animosities to unite in opposing Sparta. Agesilaus was called home to fight the Corinthian War. War that lasted from 395-387bc and was fought between Sparta and an alliance of Thebes, Athens, Corinth and Argos. Persia dictated a peace to end the war.

508/507 B.C. Chief archonship

Rivalry between aristocratic families: The Alkmeonid Kleisthenes (who had experienced exile and service under the Peisistratids and joined the Spartans in expelling them) Isagoras: remained in Athens throughout the tyranny. He initally won the chief archonship election. Kleisthenes promised the people a comprehensive program of reforms. Isagoras appealed for assistance from his guest-friend/xenia the Spartan king Kleomenes (who had just been instrumental in expelling the Peisistratids). Kleomenes expelled Kleisthenes from Athens, demanded the expulsion of 700 Alkemenoids, and demanded the dissolution of the Council to be replaced by 300 of Isagora's supporters; however, the people revolted and drove the Spartans from Athens (after trapping them on the Acropolis), Isagoras escaped and fled, and his followers were arrested and executed.

Panhellenic Sanctuaries

Rose in the 8th c. B.C., possibly as a way to belie the tendency toward local autonomy that was inherent in poleis. Generally situated in remote regions. Best known are Oracle of Apollo at Delphi and the Cult of Zeus at Olympia. Sanctuaries in powerful poleis also drew clientele from other cities (e.g., shrines of Athena on the Athenian Acropolis, Hera on Samos, and Perachora near Corinth). Panhellenic sanctuaries likely helped create a sense of common Greek identity among people who lived in politically indepdent poleis, and through the rivalry of interpolis competition, helped define and strengthen poleis as individual entities.

Phillip II

Son of Amyntas. Was a political hostage in Thebes for 3 years. Raise and educated together with the family's own sons, he observed Epaminodas' tactics of the deep line and oblique advance. Stepped in as king after his two brothers: Alexander II (usurped by his brother in law Ptolomey) and Perdikkas (suffered a humiliating loss by Illyrian forces), and Perdikkas' son (was only a child at the time of succession). Reorganize the army when he became king. Boosted moral (rhetorical skills); instituted a regime of intensive training, maneuvers, an reviews; and introduced the fighting style of the infantry phalanx. Peltasts had pelta (smaller shields), sarissa (long 18 foot spears). G. T. Griffin suggests that Phillip, in increasing the infantry rolls, recruited many men who could not afford the full complement of hoplite armor, and that he took advantage of this circumstance and created a lighter, more mobile force. Another apparent result was that the army had comparatively small numbers of Macedonian light infantry. By raising more men to hoplite status, with its distinctive Greek implications of citizenship participation, Griffith suggests that he brought about "a change in the social character of the people." Enlarged the Macedonian cavalry and changed their formation to a wedge shape He introduced the catapult into siege tactics (first used in 397 B.C. by DIonysius I of Syracuse in the battle of Motya).

Hippias and Hipparchus

Sons of Peisistratus. Hippias was seen as the political successor, Hipparchus had a special interest in the arts, responsible for bringing the poets Anacreon and Simonides to Athens. 514 B.C. Hipparchus assassinated. Thucydides (1.20, 6.53-59) says it was the result of a lover's quarrel. Herodotus (5.55-57, 62-65)

The Period of Spartan Hegemoy

Sparta emerged as the strongest power in Greece after the Peloponessian War. "Contract" with Persia was still hanging over its head: supposed to turn over Greek cities in Asia Minor to Persia. Spartas choice: fulfill the contract or develop a power capable of standing up to the Persians. The economic base of Sparta still rested in exploiting its helots, requiring a continual state of military alert at home. The Harmosts an decarchies that the Spartans had created to develop and maintain the state abroad posed problems. It successfully create citizens who could function well within a tightly controlled hierarchical society, but it did not prepare them to face the challenges and temptations of a life free from the oversight of their peers. Spartans also had no experience in motivating men who had not been raised under the discipline of a similar system. Thucydides correctly predicted the troubles that imperialism would bring to Sparta (Thucy. 1.77). The harmosts did not have good self control and the decarchies often functioned above the law as collective tyrannies. Spartans found luxuries (e.g., gold, silver) irresistible. Gylippus, the Spartan commander who led the Syracusans to victory of the Athenians in Sicily (404 B.C.) stole from the contents of captured treasure from Sicily (ordered by Lysander). Lysander was recalled and repudiated for unSpartan behavior (e.g., commissioning a statue of himself for Delphi, establishing personal clients in the Eastern territories. He plotted to alter the constitution to allow for an elective kingship, but failed. When his man lover, Agesilaus (the brother of King Agis II, who succeeded him and Agis's son Leotychides), became king, he rejected Lysanders advice and refused his requests for favors for his friends in the East Greek Cities. He sent Lysander to Greece to serve in the Corinthian War where Lysander was killed in the first battle. The Spartan system thus presented 3 major obstacles to effective control of an empire: 1. maintain a strong military presence at home, 2. the failure of the agoge to instill the society's value system in citizens, 3., a governmental structure that made no provisions for the effective use of (and outlets for) outstanding individual talents and ambitions.

464 B.C.

Spartan earthquake. According to later sources 20,000 died including all the phebes (men between 18-20). Messenians helots revolted. Aegin aand Mantinea in Boeotia sent help. By 462 B.C. the Messeian rebels were confined to Mt. Ithome, where Athenians sent 4,000 soldiers under Kimon, who were sent back by the Spartans.

The Battle of Leuktra and Theban Hegemony

Spartan hegemony in Greece ended in 371 B.C. They were beat in battle by the Thebans at Leuktra, under the command of Epaminondas. Spartan power was quickly discounted as a mirage after this defeat. Peloponnesian states quickly seized the opportunity to escape from Spartan domination. Athens feared a too-powerful Thebes. Further afield, the effect of the revelation of Spartan weakness was an almost universal reaction against Spartan-supported oligarchies. The resulting democratic revolutions flooded Greece with exiles willing to sell their services as mercenaries. In 370 B.C. Epaminondas followed his victory at Leuktra by an invasion of the Peloponnese. Sparta could not be captured, so he set free the Messenians from Spartan contro and carried out a synoikism of Messenia uniting the many small communities as the new city of Messene. Athens began to fear the rising power of Thebes and switched their alliance to Sparta. In 362 B.C. Epaminondas fell in the battle of Mantinea. With him fell Thebes' brief moment as Hegemon of Greece. Spartas power was also broken forever.

Harmosts

Spartan term that means military governor. The Spartan general Lysander instituted several harmosts during the period of Spartan hegemony after the end of the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC. They were sent into their subject or conquered towns, partly to keep them in submission, and partly to abolish the democratic form of government, and establish in its stead one similar to their own. Although in many cases they were ostensibly sent for the purpose of abolishing the tyrannical government of a town, and to restore the people to freedom, yet they themselves acted like kings or tyrants, whence Dionysius thinks that harmostae was merely another name for kings. How little sincere the Lacedaemonians were in their professions to restore their subject towns to freedom was manifest after the peace of Antalcidas; for although they had pledged themselves to re-establish free governments in the various towns, yet they left them in the hands of the harmostae. (Polyb. iv. 27.) Even Xenophon (De Rep. Lac. c. 14) could not help censuring the Lacedaemonians for the manner in which they allowed their harmostae to govern.

Hypomeiones

Spartans who lost their citizenship by failing to be voted into a syssitia or by not being able to meet required contributions for syssitia. The latter gave incentive for Spartans to best command their helots

Economic history - Evidence of the Attic Orators 4th c. B.C.

Speeches that offer a rich source of information about the daily life an economy in Athens in the 4th c. B.C., especially Athenian trade practices. Athens was not self sufficient, especially in the matter of feeding its own citizens. Other imported items: slaves, timber for building ships. Athens paid for imports by exporting olives, olive oil, and silver from Lavrion. The actual trade of grain occurred at the hands of private merchants, some of which were called naukleroi (those who owned their own ships) or epibatoi (those who sailed on board ships owned or captained by others). Civic control of trade existe and was exerted through laws and regulations: price and condition for the sale of grain, forbade export of produce except olives and olive oil (Solonian law), and no ship controlled by an Athenian metic or citizen should carry grain anywhere other than Athens.

Alexander the Great

Struggled to consolidate the throne after his fathers death. The tribal people to the north seize the opportunity to revolt, as did a number of Greek cities for the same reason. Late in 336 B.C. Alexander marched into Greece to assert his right as Hegemon of the Corinthian League and as leader of the Asian expedition. He then returned to Macedonia to deal with the northern tribes, for he could not afford to leave Macedonia insecure and vulnerable to attack as he marched into Asia. While he was fighting in the north, rumors of his death began to circulate in Thebes and the Thebans rose in revolt. In response, Alexander immediately went to Thebes and destroyed the city in 335 B.C (saving only the House of Pindar).

465 B.C. Thasos revolts the League

Thasos, one of the most powerful members of the League, was disturbed by the Athenian activities on the mainland near the island. They saw the activities as infringements on the righful sphere of Athenian influence. Thasos revolted. The Thasian fleet was defeated but it took 2 years to quell the revolt. City walls were torn down, the fleet given to the Athenians, and reliquished claims to the gold mines on the mainland. Became a tributary subject of Athens.

Rhetra

The Spartan constitution. Mixed (democracy and oligarchy) consisting of 3 parts: 1. kingship by 2 kings from different hereditary lines (the Agiad and Eurypontid families), 2. Gerousia (council of elderrs), 3. the Assembly. Also had an a.) Ephorate (annually elected body of five ephors) that was instituted after the Great Rhetra. 1. Kings: during the Classical period they retained a sgnificant governmental role and were active commanders of the army 2. Gerousia: 28 members over the age of 60 and the 2 kings. Council of elders whoewere elected by the Assembly and held their office for life. Only men from noble families were eligible. Oligarchic quality. Served as a court of Justice for criminal cases, prepared measures for consideration by the Assembly. 3. Assembly: Spartan male citizens over the age of 30. Citizenship was attained after education and continuing membership in the syssitia. They elected the Gerousia, the Ephorate. Debate was not allowed, only assent or dissent by the measures presented by the Gerousia. Thus, theoretically, Sparta was a democracy a. Ephors, elected board provided a check on the power of the two kings. Swore to uphold the rule of the kings as long as the kings kept their oaths. Institutions unique to Sparta

Agoge

The Spartan military school that boys began attending at the age of seven. Collective identity formation and strengthening, removal from the family.

Paidonomos

The official in charge of all males between the ages of 7-30

Preliminaries to Peloponnesian War

Thucydides describes 2 events that were precursors of war: 1. Breach with Corinth in 434/433 B.C. The Athenians came into conflict with Corinth when they accepted an alliance with that city's colony, Corcyra, joining the Corcyreans in a sea battle against their mother city. 2. Athens then reconsidered the stability of their situation in the Chalkidiki, where their principal ally, Potiaea, was another Corinthian foundation. The Athenians demanded evidence of Potidaea's loyalty: pull down their south-facing walls which weren't needed for protection against Macedonia; to give hostages; and to reject the magistrates that the Corinthians annually sent them). The Potidaean's refused and appealed to Sparta for aid should the Athenians attack. The Potidaeans revolted against Athens. Thucydides did not give much attention to the Megarian Decree, 433/432 B.C. Economic action taken by the Athenians against Megara, who was foribdden access to Athenian markets and all harbors in the Athenian Empire. Ancient sources saw the economic hardship as the cause of the war (Aristophanes Ach. and Peace; Andocides III; Aeschines II; Ephorus, Frag. 196; Diod Sic.; de Ste.-Croix 1972). Thucy. brief mention (1.139) of a repeated Spartan claim that the lifting of the deccree would prevent war. T Thucy. 1.23 saw the true cause of the conflict as the deep underlying fear of the growing power of Athens. Modern historians attribute more importance to economic factors. Athens was dependent upon its empire for prosperity and continuation. Tribute payments funded military expenditures (ships, payment of rowers, provision of other military forces) and the Periclean building program. Visitors from subject states fueled the Athenian economy (Arispthanes the Wasps). Other more vital factors: 1. Maintaining access to the Black Sea (north Aegean coast and the Hellespont) for grain. 2. Timber, which came from Thrace and Macedonia. Silver and gold were also resources in that area. ^Economic reasons why Athens would want to maintain control of the N Aegean, and why the established Amphipolis on the river Strymon in 436 B.C.

Draconian Law

Traditional laws that were written down/recorded after Kylon's failed coup (ca. 640-621 B.C.). Little is known about them, save that, according to the later Laws of Solon, they were very harsh. Fragments republished in 409/408 showed there was distinction between premeditated and unpremeditated homicide.

Early stages of democracy

ca. 478 B.C. the introduction of the lot in the selction of archons (lottery still limited to a group of 500 men chosen in election, who were members of the 2 highest property classes). Simultaneously, Pericles introduces pay for jury duty. Allowed for men to engage in their civic activity without fearing financial loss. Jury duty likely became an important source of income for the poor and elderly. Jury participation brought a substantial increase in the political influence of the poorest class. by 457 B.C. the lottery for archonship was opened up to the zeugitai (the next to lowest property class). Lottery was gradually extended for elections for other classes.

"Owls" coinage

ca. 525 B.C. introduction of new coinage that featured explicit Athenian symbolism: head of Athena, her owl, and abbreviated name of Athens. Twice the value of Wappenmüzen

Earliest Greek coinage

ca. 600B.C. at the temple of Artemis in Ephesus, built by king Croesus

Second Messenian War

ca. 650-620 B.C. Sparta was victorious after being very close to defeat. Institutionalized fear mongering of the helots was the result. the Krypteia were created (men who attacked and killed helots at night who they believed to be creating dangerous leaderships). This also resulted into annual declaration of formal war on the helots, who could be killed by Spartans without any repercussions. The poet Tyrtaeus detailed the redistribution of land following the Second Messenian War (dissatisfaction over aristocratic monpoly of land and civic status). Spartans were allotted a parcel of land at birth, providing a basis for them to be considered equals (homoioi)

Hektemoroi

dependent farmers who cultivated the land of the privileged on condition that they would yield 1/6 of the produce instead of a rent. If they failed to pay they would fall into slavery

Isonomia

equality before the law

Sophists

itinerant teachers who traveled from city-state to city-state in classical Greece, training people in public speaking. Taught subjects: general management of one's affairs, grammar, music, poetry, medicine, and natural philosophy. The works of the Sophists survived in fragments, most are known through reports by their enemies, of whom Plato was the most effective in molding later opinions.

First Messenian War

mid-eight c. ca. 740-720 B.C. Spartans were victorious Tyrtaeus poet, described the creation of Messenians into helots and perioikoi Victory gave wealth in grains and booty. Messenia was allotted to individual Spartans, probably the wealthiest

League of Corinth, symmachia

military alliance, a "league of leagues," the League of Corinth. Created by Philip who served as Hegemon. The Greek cities were guaranteed freeom from outside attack, reedom in the conduct of their internal affairs, freedom of navigation, and freedom from tribute or garrisons (with the exception of Thebes). The affairs of the League were to be administered by a confederate council, or Synherion, in which all the Greek members were represented; it could enact decrees binding on the members, as well as pass judgement over them as a court.

Sophrosyne

self control, temperance, prudence Alexander allegedly had very little of this: - 328 B.C. he drunkenly killed Cleitus, the brother of Alexander's favorite nurse, and the one who saved him in the battle of Granicus. He lost his temper after Cleitus told other companions that likened Alexander to gods based on his accomplishments - proskynesis, Alexander was practicing having this Persian greeting preformed for him. Callisthenes, a cousin and former pupil of Aristotle, whose job was to write the official history of the campaign refused to o obeisance to Alexander, saying it was appropriate only for the gods. -327 B.C. several of Alexanders pages (young royal family boys) plotted to kill Alexander after a boar hunting incident. Callisthenes was charged with having encouraged the plages in the attempt.

Greater Panathenaia

the enhanced celebration of the Panathenaia (the annual festival of Athena) that took place every fourth year, traditionally attributed to the tyrant Peisistratus. Ancient sources disagree (most of the them date far later)

Diodorus Siculus

wrote the 'Bibliotheca Historia', covering mythic beginnings of Greeks up to 60BC, including Heracles' labours. The author of a universal history in the time of Julius Caesar and Augustus, chiefly valuable for its use of 4th c. B.C. Greek historian Ephorus. Diodorus adds his own morizliaing passages an was often careless about chronology as he put the material into annalistic form.