ANP 206 Exam 1

Holistic approach

- "Takes into consideration all aspects of human existence" to understand human variation and evolution. A holistic approach to anthropology includes all four major subfields (linguistic, biological, cultural, and archaeological).

Intron

- 90% of that transcribed is not translated into protein. - Introns are noncoding sections of an RNA transcript, or the DNA encoding it, that are spliced out before the RNA molecule is translated into a protein.

Genome

- A complete complement of genetic material from an individual

Lactose deficiency

- A condition in which an older child or adult lacks the ability to produce lactase (enzyme needed to digest milk sugar lactose). Human infants drink mother's' milk, and make the enzyme lactase to digest the sugar lactose. Enzyme production is turned off around age four in most mammals when nursing is completed (note: this is the wild type, i.e., the normal type). - Inability to digest lactose leads to diarrhea, cramps, or intestinal problems when milk is consumed, and loss of caloric absorption. - Most human populations have high levels of lactase deficiency, some do not. Some people produce the enzyme throughout life, some may be related to dairy farming, and people from countries known for dairy farming are less likely to be lactase-deficient.

Killing feature

- A feature making each species unique. - At first, it was thought that the absence of a premaxilla was the killing feature of humans, but we later learned that we have a premaxilla in fetal development and it fuses before were born so it doesn't make us special. - Our real killing feature is how we use our brains.

Gene

- A gene is the sequence of DNA that codes for protein. Genes are segments of DNA. - Does a trait have to be "visible" (phenotype)? A specific "structure?" Does it have to be something that selected for or against by natural selection? What is a gene? Are traits the same as genes? What is the relationship between genes and traits? - Ex. of traits: blue eyes, hair color, intelligence (but intelligence can be split into different categories/more traits). Many people confuse traits and genes, "I have the gene for a big nose" - no you have skin and cartilage, there is a lot going into making a big nose. The trait of a big nose is quantifiable, but there are multiple genes that go into this. A trait CAN be a single gene.

Testability

- A hypothesis must be falsifiable

Redundancy

- A lot of the codons are repeats, they code for the same thing - Ex. there are 64 possible codes for 20 amino acids. Meaning a mutation could result in a change in the base pairs, but not a change in the amino acid it creates. The original code for the amino acid, valine, could be cytosine, adenine, and guanine. But if the mutation changed the bases to be cytosines, adenine, and thymine, it would still create the amino acid, valine, because of the redundancy of possible codes. - Ex. Hemoglobin: short protein molecule, 287 codes, 20 amino acids, 287 x 20 = 5730 possible variants, but we only have 300 known Hb alleles. Considering that we have had blood for a long time, it seems that most of the 5740 variants don't work.

Biocultural evolution

- A method of studying humans that look at the interaction between biology and culture in evolutionary adaptation - Culture affects biology (media affects our bodies/how we want to look) - Biology affects culture (biology of fattening food causes children to be obese)

Wild type allele vs Mutant allele

- A wild type allele is the original, common, or "normal" version of a genes and a mutant allele is the new or "abnormal" version of the gene.

Explain why all observed biological variations are not necessarily "adaptations" in the Darwinian sense.

- Although Darwin did say that many biological variations were adaptations to make an advantageous trait, he also argued some were random and some could simply be caused by mutation that was not advantageous.

Phenotype frequency

- An indirect measure of a genotype

Fitness

- An organism's probability of survival and reproduction and is measured by the relative contribution of a genotype to the next generation.

Crossing over

- Before splitting apart during cell division (meiotic, not mitotic), each pair of chromosomes line up together and exchange genetic material.

DNA & RNA

- Blueprint for development of an individual. DNA's structure is a molecular code of protein synthesis. DNA is organized into 23 pairs of chromosomes which are found is the cell nucleus. The nucleus is like a library, you can't check out a book and leave though, you have to read it there. RNA creates the protein. - Direction of transmission of genetic information is DNA -> RNA -> protein. DNA serves as a template for: its own replication AND the transcription of RNA which is translated into protein.

Heat stress

- Body not removing heat fast enough

Paired chromosomes

- Both are the same but with slightly different genetic codes. So, each contains the same type of information, becuase each came from a different parent. For instance, there are sections of each that could code for Leukemia, autism, eye color, Ty-Sachs, etc.

Explain Buffon's and Lamarck's proposals about how variations occurred in nature.

- Buffon: believed in microevolution (small changes in the great chain of being), but no new species which were linked in a chain. Believed in different varieties of species stemming off, showing that links in a chain hold a lot of variability. - Lamarck: believed in inheritance of acquired characteristics (ex. How did giraffes get such long necks? Inheritance of acquired characteristics. One giraffe is just a go getter, he stretches his neck and it grows and then his children also have longer necks - but this does not actually happen. If you study really hard you're not going to have smarter kids.).

Amino acids

- Building blocks of proteins. There are 20 of them. How do 4 nucleotides make 20 amino acids? The code for each amino acids is to line up 3 base pairs (can't code with one base - you'd only have 4 options; you can't code with two bases - you'd only have 16 options; must code with three), which allows for redundancy. - Amino acids assembled into proteins in the ribosome.

Frameshift

- Caused by insertions/deletions (unless it is a multiple of 3) in the reading frame such that all the codons after it are incorrect. The protein being created could be abnormally short, abnormally long, and/or contain the wrong amino acids.

Adaptation

- Change in the genetic composition of a population during successive generations, as a result of natural selection acting on the genetic variation among individuals, and resulting in the development of new species. - Phylogeny: the historical development of a related group of organisms - The traits that are present in a population will change and adaptation will occur so that an animal's form is suited to its function. - Variation is good, it allows populations to be more flexible - it can allow for populations to survive even if things occur to wipe it out. The population might change so much that over a long period of time, the population from before and the population now are so different that they seem like different species. They might not even be able to reproduce with one another. - The retention of advantageous changes and the rejection of disadvantageous changes. Physiological, morphological, and genetic - Works at the level of the individual (physiological) or the population (genetic) Adaptations are specific to the environment in which they occurred. - Not all adaptations and traits are advantageous. They may be specific to an environment of the past that no longer exists or may be utilized now for something it didn't evolve "for" (Ex. Michigan residents might have adapted to the cold, but if they went to the Bahamas, we might get skin cancer right away.) - Some things are simply not adaptations (they represent neutral or nearly-neutral variation, or are disadvantageous and on their way out).

Microevolution

- Changes of allele frequency in a population from one generation to the next. - Alleles control things like blood type and they can change within people and generations. So evolution - if one generation has 50% alleles and then the next has 51%... thats microevolution. But the following generation can go back to 50%... which is also microevolution.

Generally explain the cultural context of Darwin's time related to explanations of nature and human variability (i.e. classical influences, education, concepts of change)

- Classical influences: classic origins - the "old world" - Education: folklore (a set of uneducated assumptions passed by generations) - Concepts of change: change was viewed as very bad, however, Darwin was curious to study more. For example, Giordano Bruno was burned at the stake by the Roman Inquisition in 1600 for proposing that the earth revolves around the sun. Movement around the world began to increase variability. - Believed in essentialism: the idea that everything is reducible to fundamental types.

Define the "comparative approach" and describe how it can provide explanations of why specific biological differences and similarities

- Comparative Approach: comparing human/primate populations to determine common and unique behaviors or biological traits. - These patterns of similarities and differences provide clues as to why we differ in these ways, and why we might have retained these similarities. - Ex. Darwin's Finches (Beaks are different sizes and shapes to accommodate eating different things - the shape of the beak is not random, it is due to what they eat and their environment. Depending on what they eat they have adapted.)

Comparative approach

- Comparing human populations to determine common and unique behaviors or biological traits (i.e. variation). (How and why do human groups differer from one another?)

Describe the structure of DNA

- Composed of 4 base pairs: cytosine, thymine, adenine, and guanine. It looks like a twisting ladder. The sides of the ladder are phosphate and deoxyribose sugar. The rungs of the ladder are the base pairs. - We are a combination of instructions, half from our moms and half from our dads. How do we make a nose? The instructions are in the DNA. Sometimes your moms and dads instructions are the same and sometimes they're different, so what instructions did you listen to? Or did you do a combination of both? - How DNA becomes protein: DNA is a recipe book that makes proteins, sometimes you need multiple proteins to make - say a nose - and sometimes you only need one to make something - say a finger.

Explain how Darwin's Synthesis works (the related processes of Evolution and Adaptation).

- Darwin saw that there was a tremendous amount of observable variation in most living species and they varied a lot from place to place. This showed that these variations he saw made sense in terms of the environment (adaptation). He realized that not all individuals in a species survive and reproduce. Some failure to reproduce may be random, but some related to specific characteristics of an individual. Advantageous traits can be passed on, which produces evolution over many generations.

Molecular mimicry

- Different blood groups are statistically more likely to get certain infectious and noninfectious diseases like: B 1.1 times more likely to get TB than O; B 1.5 times more likely to get syphilis than O; A 1.3 times more likely to get hepatitis than O; A & AB 1.2 times more likely to get chicken pox than B & O; O 1.5 times more likely to get influenza than A. - The disease organism possesses molecules on its surface that mimic those found on RBCs of particular blood types. The individual is then less able to recognize these as foreign substances. - Method of cell entry: some infectious agents enter the cell by attaching to particular surface molecules. - Ex. Smallpox: smallpox virus has molecules on the cell surface that mimic the A antigens (look like the A RBC surface molecules). Thus individuals who are of blood type A or AB have more difficulty recognizing the virus as a foreign body, and therefore are more easily infected and suffer more severe infections. The smallpox virus has apparently been present in Asia and Africa for thousands of years (longer than elsewhere). These areas have a lower frequency of the A allele.

Define "essentialism." Explain why essentialism is at odds with the concept of evolution

- Essentialism is the idea that everything is reducible to fundamental types. It is known as a way of typology to categorize things in the world. - These two concepts ten to disagree because evolution is the concept that we all change over time and evolved from a common ancestor, but that goes against the views of essentialism, that everything can simply be reduced into types. So essentialists, who thought all members of a class are basically identical, were left with a different viewpoint.

Heritability

- Estimates the degree of variation in a phenotypic trait in a population that is die to genetic variation between individuals in that population.

Hypothesis

- Explanations of observable facts - Must be testable

Zygote

- Fertilized egg - During fertilization the two haploid genomes are merged into one diploid zygote

2. Natural selection

- Filters genetic variation by changing the likelihood of different alleles being passed on to the next generation. - Does not create new genetic variation, but does change the relative frequencies of alleles.

Bergman's rule

- For creatures that are the same shape, you can manipulate how fast they lose heat by changing the size. - If two mammals have similar shapes by different sizes, the smaller animal not only produces less heat, but because of its higher surface area to mass ratio it will lose it proportionally faster than the larger one. Therefore, smaller animals are better adapted to warmer climates. - If you go to colder environments you will see the same species but bigger and bigger. Surface area allows you to sweat, so the more surface area will allow you to lose more heat. You want more surface area in a hot environment. If you take two things that are the same shape, but different sizes, the smaller thing will produce less heat but also retain less heat. The bigger thing loses a lot of heat but he produces it more than he loses it.

Chromosome

- Found in the cell nucleus (they can't go anywhere else) - Composed of centromere, telomere, and a chromatid.

The maggot example - explain how it is scientific in its approach

- Francisco Redi (the scientist) went through all the four steps of science - First he noticed the observation of maggots being commonly seen on rotting meat, and believed they came from spontaneous generation - Next, he formed the hypothesis (IF maggots come from eggs laid by flied, THEN no maggots will form on meat untouched by flies). - He then tested over and over and came to the conclusion that spontaneous generation occurs only in some circumstances, where this hypothesis was tested over multiple generations.

Diploid

- Full set of 23 pairs of chromosomes

Explain how regulatory genes, such as Homeobox genes, work and what their possible effects on phenotype are

- Genes are segments of DNA that code for proteins - Some proteins form the building block of structure - Turned on and off multiple times in development - have multiple effects and can control multiple things - Other proteins are formed to latch on to DNA or mRNA to control the production of building (timing of when you build, start/stop, size/shape, control where those blocks get put) - Changes in building blocks can have large effects: control constructions (turn on a different time, changes rooms completely - could be good or bad); ex. building a building takes bricks of "proteins" and homeobox genes control the construction. - Pleiotropy: one gene affect multiple symptoms.

H-W assumptions

- Given certain assumptions, there is no change in gene frequencies between one generation and the next - If we do not observe the predicted H-W E frequencies, then we know one of the assumptions has been breached.

Haploid

- Half set of chromosomes (total = 23). Segregation is random

Explain how each of the following ultimately influenced Darwin in constructing his Theory of Evolution: - His journey on the Beagle - Lyell's Geological Principles - Breeding programs - Malthus

- His journey on the Beagle: Darwin goes on this boat, the Beagle. He documents everything he finds. He makes a record of variability from around the world. Discovers that variation is the norm in nature (Ex. Intra-species variation: Finches are varied, some have large beaks and some have tiny beaks. He sees this all over the place, variation is not unusual). - Lyell's Geological Principle: The earth is very old, change is constant, and rules always stay the same. Change occurs over vast time scale. - Breeding programs: Breeders select good traits. Humans are selection agents. Variations inherited. Individuals don't evolve or change - Malthus: More young are born than reach adulthood. Nature selects by killing (Ex. Fish lay a ton of eggs, not all survive, all the strong ones do though).

Paeloanthropology

- How did we evolve from apes to humans - Was it inevitable? No - Fossil remains - Reconstruct behavior - Evolution of human form (How? Why? Where?)

Allan's rule

- If two mammals with the same volumes, they will produce the same amount of heat. However, the one that is elongated has a greater surface area to mass ratio than one that is compact. Thus, appendages (tail, limbs, ears, noses) tend to be shorter in cold areas of species' ranges.

Allele: dominant

- Ina heterozygote, an allele is dominant when it masks the effect of another allele at a given locus

Vasodilation

- Increases convection of heat (transfer of heat through air molecules). - Ex. After you run to class your skin will look red. You will generate heat and you will try to release that heat. So your skin tries to move the heat to the outside of your body, which is why your skin is red.

1. Mutations

- Introduces new alleles into a population

"Junk" DNA

- Majority of DNA is non-coding. "Junk" DNA: ~75-90% is never read by the ribosome and never transcribed into mRNA. Only approx 1% of the DNA in humans is represented in any final protein product. It is unclear what the reminder is for (possibly regulatory). - You can use junk DNA to infer evolutionary relationships. You got the junk DNA from your mother or father. It also shows us the relationships of groups of people. - In the junk DNA, are there traits? You pass it on to your offspring, but it's never read so does it make traits? Yes, and these traits are measurable. It is a trait because we can use it to compare groups of people/animals. - Ex. Hippos and whales are pretty closely related. They share a ton of this extra junk DNA, they all got it from a common ancestor not too long ago.

Protein synthesis

- Makes proteins (polypeptide chains) from mRNA. Occurs in cytoplasm. A ribosome (organelle) 'reads' the codon from the mRNA and attaches the corresponding amino acid to the growing protein chain. When the ribosome reaches the end of the mRNA it 'falls off' and the protein is finished.

Segregation

- Mendel's 1st law - Based monohybrid crosses (looking at inheritance of one trait). During reproduction, the two copies of a gene segregate from one another and only one is passed on. Model crosses wish Punnett Squares.

Independent assortment

- Mendel's 2nd law - Based on dihybrid crosses (looking at inheritance of 2 traits at once). Segregation of one trait is not dependent/contingent on the segregation of another (they are independently assorted). Can model with Punnett Squares

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

- Method of determining expected genotype frequencies given allele frequencies in a population. - Ex. Alleles A and . At frequencies of p and q (p and q = allele frequency - note p + q = 1); frequency of genotype AA will be p^2 = (p * p); frequency of genotype AB will be 2pq = (p * q)+(p * q); frequency of genotype BB will be q^2 = (p * p) - Note: p2 + 2pq = (p + q)^2 = (1)^2 = 1 - Ex. if p = .6 and q = .4 then the predicted genotype frequencies are: AA = p^2 = (.6)^2 = .36; AB = 2pq = 2 * (.6 * .4) = .48; BB = q^2 - (.4)^2 = .16 - .36 + .48 + .16 = 1

Replication

- Molecule "unzips" bonds between bases. Each strand acts as a template to reform the other half into new cell. Paired nature of DNA bases explained ability of DNA to copy itself (complementarity). - DNA replicates during growth (mitosis) and during reproduction (meiosis)

Continuous variation

- Most complex traits are not discrete but are continuous - Produced from an interaction of genes and environment, resulting in a normally distribution of the trait.

Pleiotropy

- Most genes have multiple effects

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

- Not found in the nucleus on chromosomes by instead in the mitochondria. It is circular, with 37 genes, there is little non-coding DNA, and it is maternally inherited. Mutates at a 10x faster rate than nuclear DNA (nDNA).

Mitosis

- Occurs during growth. Cells divide to make more cells. Need a copy of DNA for each new cell. - Mitosis in humans: division of cells into daughter cells in the body. 46 chromosomes are copied (=92) and divided into opposite ends of a cell. The cell then splits into two daughter cells (each with 46 chromosomes) that merrily perform the function of the parental cell. - These are exact copies of one another.

Meiosis

- Occurs during reproduction. DNA from two parents is mixed together in offspring. - Meiosis in humans: production of gametes (egg and sperm). If you simply copied the chromosomes and then split them in half, each gamete would have 46 chromosomes, and the embryo would end up with 46+46=92 chromosomes. So you must reduce the number of chromosomes by half, without losing any of them. - This is how genes get passed on from one generation to the next. How does nature create variability in humans? There is not an exact copy of you in any generation, this is the basis of evolution.

Explain how Plato's Allegory of the Cave and the Grate Chain of Being were used to understand biological variation as "essentialist"

- Plato's Allegory of the Cave showed that if you look at the cave (world), it is imperfect. This showed that all of us are created by god and we are imperfect. The reflection is the translation of god's mind into a sin-like world to show us that we are never perfect and we are the sinful reflections of ourselves. This was used as an essentialist view because it came down to the typology of god creating all creatures, putting all creatures into one type. - The Great Chain of Being was the first attempt of categorizing by ranking god, angels, clergy and nobility, and everyone else. This was an essentialist view because it was an attempt to organize people into their certain types, despite what they may all have in common.

Adaptation

- Process of adaptation between a population and its environment successfully - Happens over space and time, culturally and biologically

The maggot example - explain Redi's conclusions. Why was the scope so narrow? (i.e. why did he not conclude the whole concept of spontaneous generation was incorrect?)

- Redi concluded that spontaneous generation occurs only in some circumstances. He did not conclude that this whole concept of spontaneous generation was incorrect because he didn't have much of the technology that we do today. For example, later there was new data incorporated (invention of microscope) that disproved spontaneous generation.

Selection

- Reproduction of the fittest. Selection results in adaptation of population (not an individual).

Protein

- Serves as a structural material for the body, gas transporters, hormones, antibodies, neurotransmitters, and enzymes. Makes up ~96.3% of the body. Enzymes, which are proteins, control production of rest. Our bodies produce ~90k different kinds of proteins. Protein composed of smaller molecules are called amino acids. - Protein synthesis is how to develop an individual from one cell. How does your body know to make protein? It's in the DNA. So how? It builds it. - Essential amino acids are the building blocks of protein.

Theory

- Sets of hypotheses that have been tested repeatedly and have not been rejected. - You cannot PROVE a theory, you can just fail to reject it.

Substitution (of one base for another)

- Simple substitutions have the potential to really screw some stuff up. For example, switching TA for AT, creates a different amino acid that is a mutation and it creates weaker blood cells (sickle cell anemia - you're born with this)

Medical Anthropology

- Sometimes considered to be a fifth subfield, sometimes grouped with Cultural Anthropology - Studies "human health and disease, health care systems, and biocultural adaptation" by examining the ways in which culture and society are organized around or influences by issues of health, healthcare, or related issues.

Primatology

- Studies primates to learn more about humans. Takes a comparative approach - Variations in primates/people - Teaches us about our place in nature - Models: ecology (how we interact with nature); behavior (how we act); morphology (how we are shaped physically).

Evaporation

- Sweating removes heat through evaporation (loss of heat through conversion of water to vapor). - Humans have a higher sweating capacity for a given surface area than any known animal. - Temperature and humidity affect how much heat can be lost. High humidity reduces effectiveness of evaporation.

Census population

- The actual total population. This number is always larger than the breeding population.

Biological/Physical Anthropology

- The biological evolution of humans and human ancestors, and the relationship of humans to other organisms. - Variation among and between human populations.

Explain how the discovery of fossils and the observation of the dodo bird's extinction made people reevaluate their assumptions about essentialism.

- The discovery of fossils changed people's assumptions about essentialism because they realized that the world was not always exactly how it is today, showing them that there must be an element of change. - The observation of the dodo bird's extinction made people reevaluate their assumptions about essentialism because it was the first animal that the public was aware of that went extinct, so it showed them the "chain" is not so immutable after all and that change is ultimately possible in populations.

List the four primary sources of evidence for evolution, and be able to explain how each provides evidence that evolution has occurred (or is occurring)

- The fossil record of change in earlier species: evidence for evolution - fossil records sequential changes through time (stratigraphy). - The chemical and structural similarities of related life forms - The recorded genetic changes in living organisms over many generations - The geographic distribution species.

Insertion (of bases)

- The gain of one or a few nucleotide bases - Ex. of a frameshift from an insertion: HEY MAN HOW ARE YOU BRO -> HEY MAN HOQ WAR EYO UBR O_ (inserted a Q) - All the codons and amino acids after the insertion are completely wrong

Deletion (of bases)

- The loss of one or a few nucleotide bases - Ex. of a frameshift from deletion: HEY MAN HOW ARE YOU BRO -> HEY MAN HWA REY OUB RO_ (deleted O) - All the codons and amino acids after the deletion are completely wrong

Convection

- The movement caused within a fluid by the tendency of hotter and therefore less dense material to rise, and colder, denser material to sink under the influence of gravity, which consequently results in transfer of heat. - Temperature and humidity affect how much heat can be lost. Higher temperatures reduces effectiveness of convection.

Vasoconstriction

- The narrowing of the blood vessels resulting from contraction of the muscular wall of the vessels. When blood vessels constrict, the flow of blood is restricted or decreased, thus retaining body heat. This makes the skin turn paler because less blood reaches the surface, reducing the radiation of heat. - Ex. In winter you try to conserve heat so your body keeps that heat in. In the cold, your body is trying to conserve heat in your core so your extremities get frostbite first.

Explain how a nested hierarchy works. Be able to draw one. Explain how the structure of a nested hierarchy relates to evolutionary relationships between species.

- The nested hierarchy works by beginning at the top as more general and working down towards more specific traits. It separates organisms into their categories based on their similarities and differences of these traits. For example, in the picture below the order is a set of shared genus traits. Then, the genus is grouped with shared traits that form the order category and separated form those with certain differences. Organisms are then put with the most similar organisms in their own species, which relates to evolutionary relationships between species by stemming organisms from common traits and possible common ancestors, and later shows how they all differentiated and branched off.

Genotype frequency

- The number of individuals with each genotype divided by the total number of individuals in the population. - Probability of having two specific alleles together - Ex. 200 people, 98 AA, 84 AB, 18 BB. Frequency of AA is 98/100=.49; frequency of AB is 84/200=.42; frequency of BB is 18/200=.09; .49 + .42 + .09 = 1.00 - Frequencies must add up to 1

Allele: recessive

- The opposite of a dominant allele, whose effect may be masked

Know the whole function of DNA is to serve as a blueprint for the creation of and ordering proteins. You should be able to explain generally how this works and why the specific order of base pairs is so important...

- The order of the base pairs along the ladder code for humans ~ 2.9 billion base pairs long. The base pairs are unique genetic code. So why does order matter? Mostly we are the same, but differences (physical - diseases, etc) means a different order in base pairs. - Protein synthesis is how cells develop. Proteins are macromolecules (big complicated molecules). Amino acids (which are everywhere), need to be assembled correctly then you get the protein. How does the cell know the order of those base pairs (imagine these as magnets) RNA then makes a mirror image of the split DNA, then it leaves the nucleus. - The "rungs" of the ladder looking DNA are the base pairs (guanine, cytosine, adenine, thymine) and the sides of the ladder are sugar and phosphate.

Breeding population

- The proportion of a population that chooses mates from within that group. - Ex. EL is not a breeding population because we have the potential to mate with people outside of EL. It is hard with humans to make a breeding population because we're a big population and we're mobile. So, basically, we can choose mates from anywhere. Breeding populations are for animals on a remote island.

Allele frequency

- The relative proportion of each allele within a population. - Counted probability of having one specific allele based on all the alleles in a population - Ex. 400 alleles in 200 people (for diploid systems) 98 AA = 2 * 98 A Alleles = 196 A alleles; 84 AB = 1 * 84 A alleles = 84 A alleles; 18 BB = 0 * 18 A alleles = 0 A alleles; total A alleles = 280 - Frequency of A alleles = 280/400 = .7 - Frequency of B alleles = 1 - .7 = .3

Linguistic Anthropology

- The study of evolution of language and its relation to culture

Morphological

- The study of meaningful units of sound in a language.

Population genetics

- The study of the total pattern of genetic variation of a biological population

Binomial nomenclature

- This is a system of organization made by Linnaeus (The Father of Taxonomy) of organisms in which they are put into levels of Genus and species based on traits. This is a nested hierarchy with other animals, and specifically with primates

Type specimen

- This is known as a specimen, or set of specimens, on which the description and name of a new species is based.

Codon

- Three bases coding for an amino acid

Complex trait

- Trait based on MULTIPLE alleles

Simple trait

- Trait based on ONE allele

Transcription (define and be able to explain the basic steps)

- Transcription is the process by which DNA is copied (transcribed) to mRNA, which carries the information needed for protein synthesis. - The DNA splits/unwinds, RNA makes a copy and the copy travels outside of the nucleus.

Molecular

- Uses molecular genetic methods to address questions and issues of anthropological interest - Is concerned with genetic evidence concerning human origins, migrations, and population relationships, including related topics such as the role of recent natural selection in human population differentiation, or the impact of particular social systems on patterns of human genetic variations.

Cultural Anthropology

- Variations in culture (both current populations and those in recent past) - Culture is learned behavior, including social systems, economic systems, marriage customs, religion, and philosophy

Facts

- Verifiable truths - Must be observed in nature

Inter-genic "junk" DNA

- We have 2.9 billion base pairs but only ~30,000 genes so basically 95% of DNA is not coding for a protein - So most mutations will be "neutral" (ex. will not have any selective advantage or disadvantage) - You can look for differences in the genetic code to determine timing of population movements

Explain the reasons why mutations rarely lead to a serious problem

- When there is no variability then these mutations create variability. They're normally bad but sometimes they're good. Most variance has 0 effect - we have some mutations but we don't even notice them.

Mutations

- With 6 billion base pairs there are bound to be some mistakes called mutations. These can affect proteins in different ways. - You form half from your mom and half from your dad. So what if a skin cell makes a mistake? Nothing happens.. so what if an egg makes a mistake? Every cell that copies will also make a mistake. These are called mutations. This is how variance happens. - Mistakes occur at a regular frequency

List the 5 assumptions of the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and for each explain how/why breaking it would change the expected genotype frequency for the next generation

1. No mutation - introduced new alleles in population (wild type and mutant) 2. No selection - makes it more likely for some genes to pass on and less likely for others 3. No migration (gene flow) - isolation by distance, gene flow makes 2 pops more similar over time 4. Large population size - genetic drift (random change) - the bigger the population, the smaller the effect of drift, small pops prone to drift and fixation 5. Random mating - inbreeding and assortative mating (leads to increased homozygosity)

List and describe the four sets of science

1. Observation: view a certain concept that is of interest 2. For hypothesis: create "if... then" statement based on a possible explanation of the above observation 3. Test hypothesis: carry out multiple tests and retests to see if the hypothesis will be shown to be inaccurate 4. Theory: create a commonly held idea based on various tests that explains given observation

Natural Selection generally does not affect mtDNA. How do anthropologists use that to their advantage?

Mutations on mtDNA does not affect the phenotype, so it is not subject to natural selection. However, anthropologists think it is excellent for tracking ancestry.

Archaeological Anthropology

The study of cultural behaviors in the historic and prehistoric past through analysis of the culture's remains