ANT 251 Final

Homo erectus

"first upright man" - more intelligent and adaptable than homo habilis, skillful hunters, invented more sophsticated tools for digging, scapring, and cutting. first hominids to migrate, first to use fire, first to provide warmth, cook, and frighten away attacking animals. developed the beginning of spoken language, named objects, places, animlas, and plant and exchanged ideas

Lower Paleolithic

(1.8 Mya -300 Kya) Homo erectus. Peopling of Eurasia. Part of big change between Basal and Middle (brain increase 3 x)

Basal Paleolithic

(2.6-1.8 Mya) oldest known stone tools. first evidence of genus Homo. Africanus, Garhi, Early Homo all arrive.

Middle Paleolithic

(300 kya - 50 Kya) Neanderthals. Anatomically modern humans. Looks like us, but not same behavior. Use of fire.

Upper Paleolithic

(50 kya-12 kya) Modern Humans. Behaviorally Modernity.

Evidence for hunting and gathering

(Middle Paleo) tools. seeds in diet, berry eating, fishing and bird hunting.

Anatomically Modern Humans (AMH)

(Middle Paleo), more consistently rounded shaped head (like a baseball), tall vault, vertical forehead; don't have the bun of the football heads of Neandertals, orthognathic face, widest point of the skull is near the top as opposed to the base of the skull, anterior projecting chin, no retro molar space, post cranially-opposite of Neandertals, narrower chest that wasn't quite as deep, slightly taller on average

Modern Humans

(Upper Paleo) Reach western europe 50-12 kya. they bring new tool kits. They make stone tools that are more advanced, like a long blade which was often placed in handles. They had 5x more cutting edge than mousterian tools. Creates spears. Had large sites, and many small ones. Larger were thought of as being a seasonal camp where people "met up". The first animal was domesticated, dog around 15 kya.

Basal Paleolithic climate

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Know key anatomical features for all hominins!!

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Know time period associated with all hominins!!

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Anatomical changes associated with habitual bipedalism

1. position of foramen magnum: rotated under skull 2.spin becomes curved 3. pelvis changes: (goes from tall/narrow to short/broad. goes from blade = mediolateral to blade = anteroposterior. and goes from gluteals posterior to gluteals lateral.) 4. Valgus knee 5. changes to foot: foot is small relative to leg, big toe is aligned with other toes, foot has longitudinal arch 6. forelimb is shorter than hindlimb

Australopithecus garhi

2.5 Mya. East africa. skull similar to afarensis. Some had small sagittal crest. Features: -mostly like afarensis except: --larger posterior teeth --larger anterior teeth --more variation in size Lifestyle: -grassy plain surrounding lake -in same layer with basked open antelope bones -no stone tools found at site.

Great Rift Valley

4,000 mile long fault line, slices thru eastern part of the contentent Red sea to the zambezi river, series of mts. and valleys formed millions or yrs ago, ferile volcanic soil, hot springs, 2 of the worlds deepest lakes. An area where many fossils are found because of the open earth.

Australopithecines

4.2-2.0 Mya. omnivorous diet. largely bipedal (pelvis more human like than Ardi). 400-500 brain. larger teeth than apes or humans with thick enamel. highly sex, male dominant social structure. Found in East and South Africa.

Endocast

A cast of the inside of a skull; helps determine the size and shape of the brain.

Adducted Big Toe

Adaptation that bipedals had that had the big toe in the same rigid formation as the other toes

Advantages/Disadvantages of bipedalism:

Advantages: More efficient, long distance roaming, better visibility, able to move to get food Disadvantages: Made humans slower, easier to be predated

Hominin Brain

Africanus more developed frontal. Endocasts show evidence of hemispherization.

Evidence of scavenging behavior

After it was thought homo was killer, it was proved that many animals collected bones. Then it was thought they were hunters and this was disproven because water is dangerous and homo were easily predated. Research on bone proved that bone marks came after bite marks, therefore showing that homo goes to animal after it's attacked and scavenges.

How were Neanderthals physically adapted to cold?

Allen's Rule; genetic adaptation that endotherms from colder climates usually have shorter limbs (or appendages) than the equivalent animals from warmer climates. Average 5'4 in height.

Longitudinal arch

Arch of the foot formed from the metatarsals to the calcareous. ligaments and muscles act as springs.

Ardipithecus ramidus

Ardi. 4.4 Mya. East Africa. Small. Only 40% of one found. Key skeletal features: -adapted to bipedal and climbing in trees: (foramen magnum anterior, humerus not weight-bearing, grasping big toe, flared upper pelvis, lower pelvis ape-like) Key anatomical features: -ape like: cranial capacity, ushaped dental formula, thin enamel, molar teeth chimpanzee size -human like: incissors smaller than apes, canine size is small (low male aggression), less canine size dimorphism Lived in wooded environment. Ate seeds.

Intermembral Index

Arm length divided by leg length x 100; higher intermembral index equals longer arms. Chimp index = 105 and humans = 75

"Lucy"

Aust afarensis

How did hominins adapt to climate change at 2.6 Mya?

Australopithecines disappear (2.5 mya) and Paranthropus emerges (2.4 mya). H-Habilis also divides into two species, H. Erectus in Asia and H. Ergaster in Africa.

Taung child

Austrolopithecus africanus - southern ape found in africa, dismissed as a gorilla, 3-4 yrs old, lived 2.6 mya, juvenile Hominid, Small brain (ape like) structure of brain is human like, large jaw, have face and endocast, foramen magnum was bipedal structured. This gave evidence to the fact that bipedalism came before big brains. But not accepted until later.

Upper Paleolithic Blade tools

Became much longer than they were wide. Used antler and bone too. For spear points and harpoons.

How were Neanderthals physically adapted to close quarters hunting?

Big game hunters. Very powerful body build: broad chest, muscular, thick ribs. powerful grips (for handling spears)

Spine Curvature

Bipedalism need curvature in order to move center of mass in front of pelvis. Human spine curves anterior in lumbar and posterior in thoracic.

Acheulean tools

Date: 1.6 mya referred to as biface- worked or chipped on both sides of stoned, looks like a tear drop, standardized form- they do not change over time/ generationally taught. Proposed uses- butchering, flake dispensers.

Oldowan tools

Earliest stone tools. East Africa. Stone, knocked off. Chopper. Flakes from it used. possibly for retrieving bone marrow. SEM?

Australopithecus anamensis

Earliest. 3.9-4.2 Mya. East Africa. Riverine woodland or bushland habitat. Anatomical features: -parallel tooth row/ushaped dental -large posterior teeth -considerable canine size dimorphism -bipedal tibia, kenee and ankle joints -weight = 50-55 kg

Best candidate for ancestor for Homo genus

Early Homo found first in East Africa so probably a contemporary Austrapolithecine: Au. Garhi (2.5 mya).

Australopithecine anatomy vs. early Homo

Early Homo had more efficient bipedalism, larger brain size, smaller teeth, gracile facial structure, and a molar structure of 1 > 2 > 3 (reverse order of Australopithecines/Paranthropus)

Big Brain hypothesis

Early anthropologists believed intelligence defined humans and expected large brain size to precede bipedalism. Later, this notion would be rejected and fossil records (Lucy - 1975) would indicate that bipedalism came first and a large brain size came second (roughly 2 million years later).

Paranthropus boisei

East Africa. 2.2-1.3 Mya. Brain size (525 cc). Hyper robust. Large flat face. Characteristics: -sagittal crest -tiny incissors -larger molars than aethiopicus -thickest enamel so far -incredible tooth wear at early age -likely consumed seeds, tubers, bulbs, and roots.

Paranthropus aethiopicus

East Africa. 2.5-2.3 Mya. barely overlaps with au. africanus and garhi. Small brain (400 cc) Characteristics: -flared & massice zygomatic arches -shallow TMJ joint as afarensis -massive chewing apparatus: large molars and lower jaw. -cranial base more "primitive" than au. africanus.

Homo heidelbergensis

Evolved from Homo Ergastor. Used fire to drive animals off cliffs. Expanded north and south. Was smart and could communicate well, but didn't have much imagination. Evolved into Homo Neanderthalensis and Homo Sapiens.

Controlled Use of Fire

Fire changed course of history. Used to cook food and keep warm. technological innovation. Several layers of ash in ancient caves, burned/unburned bones found in the thickest layers of ash, burned tools indicate manufacturing and/or lighting of fires.

How do paleoanthropologists reconstruct the anatomy of Miocene Apes?

Fossil apes from the Miocene era are rare. Ape anatomy is reflected in shared characteristics of their descendants.

Who were first toolmakers?

Garhi!

Aust. Ancestor?

Garhi.

Australopithecine Characteristics

Gracile compared to Paranthropus genus,

Kanzi the Bonobo and stone tools

He is a chimp who was shown how to make a tool, and then he was able to figure it out and would make the "flakes" in order to cut rope. He threw the rock together and on things and also banged it together. Tested with tongue.

Timing of Hominin-Ape split:

Hominins diverged from chimps & gorillas around 5 - 7 million years ago. Fossil record indicates the earliest definite hominin existed 4.4 MYA.

Frontal Lobe

Important in planning and concentration. Africanus and the rest have a developed frontal lobe.

Valgus knee

In humans, the femur angles inward from the pelvis to the knee. This positions the knee more under the center of mass which is needed for habitual bidepalism.

Paleolithic Period

In pliocene (5 Mya-1.8 Mya) Subperiods in Pleistocene. Where it's alternating ice ages and interglacials. Stone age.

Bone fracture patterns among Neanderthals

Incredible number of fractures due to big game hunting (hands, arms, shoulders, and chest). Similar distribution to fractures found in rodeo riders today.

Neanderthals

Lived in Europe and Near East from 200,000 - 30,000 years ago. They became extinct a few thousand years after the arrival of Homo sapiens in Europe. (End of Paleolithic) They came after Homo heildelgensis.

Australopithecus afarensis

Lucy. dekika child. 3-3.6 Mya. East africa. Savanna and woodland. Ape like features: -chimp brain size (450 cc) -3 feet tall -gorilla like size dimorphism -projecting muzzle (subnasal prognathism) -curved fingers and toes -hyoid bone shape more ape-like (horseshoe shaped bone in neck, ape bone is more narrow, lucy's resembled apes) Intermediate features: -slightly horseshoe shaped jaw -moderate canine size dimorphism -intermembral index - 90 Human like features: -major bipedalism characteristics (valgus knee) -two cusped premolars (derived) (trait is present in all later hominins, ******important node in evolutionary tree leading to humans******)

Homo habilis (early Homo)

Means handyman in Latin. Earliest agreed upon member of Homo genus. Typically found with tools. East and South Africa. 2.3-1.4 Mya. South Africa were taller.

Key skeletal/dental changes from Miocene Apes to Modern Humans

Miocene Apes: climbing adaptations, large teethe, thin enamel on teeth, U shaped upper jaw, large brains, projecting muzzle, brow ridges. Humans: habitual bipedalism, small teeth, thick enamel, horseshoe upper jaw, huge brain, non-projecting muzzle, no brow ridge

How might climate have led to evolution of the first hominin?

Miocene-Pliocene transition. In the late Miocene, it was difficult for forest dwelling organisms to survive; a cooling trend in the climate decreased species diversity and number of forests. Therefore making Apes more terrestrial. Grassland species increased in number.

Mousterian tools

More sophisticated and finely worked; scrapers, spear tips, axe heads. Edges re-sharpened, attached to other materials for more accurate handling. Required skill and time to make; techniques taught and learned. Used by H. neanderthalensis and early H. sapiens

Turkana Boy

Name of a nearly complete skeleton of a hominid boy found in Kenya. He was a homo-erectus...ergaster! and lived 1.8 million years ago. He was found in 1984 by a member of Richard Leakey (son of Mary and Louis Leakey) team.

Big Brain Hypothesis Tested

Neanderthals had big brains and had bipedalism. Homo erectus also had big brains and bipedalism.

How does Neanderthal technology & culture differ from modern humans?

Neanderthals lived hard, short lives (not past 45). They were not artists and did not paint caves like modern humans. Both groups cared for the handicap: old man from LaChappelle (crippling arthritis) and the old man from Shanidar (blind in one eye, withered arm, severe arthritis)

Evidence for ritualized burial

Pit of bones. Special tools and special keepsakes in the pit too, symbolizing they were put there on purpose.

Paranthropus robustus

SOUTH africa. 1.8-1 Mya. Very hard food--Enamel pitting (fracture enamel off). Brain (525 cc.) Characteristics: -largest posterior teeth of all -zygomatic very anterior -otherwise features similar to other paranthropus species

Brain size trends

Scale body size to brain size to see real trend. After Early homo brain increased mostly in parietal.

Australopithecus africanus

Taung child. 2.2-3 Mya. South Africa. Anatomical features: -horseshoe jaw -higher forehead -brain slightly larger (475 cc) -projecting muzzle (ape) -similar bipedalism to afarensis (forelimbs slightly longer) -heavy facial buttressing (well developed zygomatics for chewing) (derived) Lifestyle: woodland savanna. diet: (studies = microwear and isotope) seeds, roots some meats and plants. tool use (microwear) to dig termites and its earliest tool use

Why are so many fossils found in East and South Africa?

The earliest humans were found in Africa, which is where much of human evolution occurred. The fossils of these early hominids, which lived 2 to 6 million years ago, all come from that continent. Most scientists believe early humans migrated out of Africa into Asia between 2 million and 1.7 million years ago, entering Europe some time within the past 1 million years.

Venus Figurines

These were thought to symbolize fertility. They emphasized breasts and stomach. They were spread across a 4000 mi area.

Homo Erectus adaptability

They adapted by using fire, and tools in order to better their lives and exist longer.

Behavioral modernity

Used a broad range of materials for tools (antler and bone were used for spear points, harpoons, and spearthrowers). Spear thrower could go 3x as far. force was also increased. Manufactured many non-utilitarian items such as shell beads and perforated teeth as necklaces, decorations on bones and teeth, and venus figuringes. Materials were moved over long distances. shell beads(100 mi) obsidian (300 mi from source) and venus figurines spread over 4000 mi area. Elaborate burial of dead. Neanderthals were first and sometimes added natural things, but humans added manufactured goods and in greater numbers. Had artistic traditions.

Neanderthal vs. Human burial

Very similar. Neanderthals buried their dead which is the first intentional burial among hominins. There are 8 discovered sites with graves that include pollen (from dead flowers) and skulls of other animals. Humans followed suit.

Upper Paleolithic art

cave painting. deep underground. food and animals. The meaning of cave art can be 3 hypotheses: 1. hunting magic, 2. trophyism, 3. fertility cult.

Toolmaking & Intelligence

could early homo? either early homo or africanus could have made tools

Domestication of Dogs

earliest known 14 kya. Mt DNA suggests 15 kya.

Broca's Area (brain)

in frontal lobe. language production.

Wernicke's Area (brain)

in parietal lobe. language comprehension.

Trend reversal in molar size

it reversed?

Spearthrowers (atlatl)

major technological advancement 18 kya. Increased striking distance by 300% and magnified force. atlatl was a notched throwing pitch.

Most "successful" hominin species

most likely the H. Erectus that migrated into Europe from Africa. Used refined stone axes and controlled use of fire. They would be the ancestor of H. Heidelbegensis and then Neanderthals which lead to anatomically modern humans.

Neanderthal technology & lifestyle

mousterian stone tool tradition, prepared core technology, levallois techniques, small hand axes, various types of scrapers, burines, blades and large projectile points for spears or light darts. stone raw materials are always from local sources. no long distance transport of raw materials. Wood working, hide processing, no indication of bone or antler carving. Use of fire, use of red ochre, possibly collected medicinal herbs and flowers or ritual use. Males and Females stayed apart in order to reduce reproduction.

Facial and masticatory adaptations

paranthropus and australopithecines show very little difference in the postcrania. wide/flat faces. sagittal crest present. large posterior teeth. [purpose of sagittal crest: attachment for temporalis muscle. strongest muscle of mastication..

Iliac blade

pelvis blade. in apes it's mediolateral and in human it's anteroposterior.

Paranthropus

robust australopithecine. means parallel to man. Hard food specialist.

Allen's Rule

stipulates that in warmer climates, the limbs of the body are longer relative to body size to dissipate body heat

Changes in habitat during this period

teeth adapted for fruit and "hard objects", i.e. nuts, seeds, and tubers.

Foramen magnum

the large opening at the base of the cranium through which the spinal cord passes. bipedalism it needs to be under skull

Gluteal Muscles

they attach to iliac blade and femur. important for propulsion in apes, and for balance in humans.

Evidence of hunting behavior

tools being built, collection of bones, artwork.

Homo ergaster

turkana Boy -1.6 mya -All Species in Africa -C.C: 909 cm3 *Fossil evidence: Most complete skeleton of any early hominid -Young Male, 11-13 years old, linear build *Differences with modern humans: (Turkana boy) longer spines on vertebrae, constricted canal in the spinal cord, narrow pelvis, constricted birth canal. *INCAPABLE OF SPEECH *Footprints in Kenya; 1.5 mya -Striding gate closely resembles modern humans

Connection between anatomy and diet

zygomatic to mandible. attachment for masseter muscle. this applies broad chewing force. designed for chewing on one side. this would be needed for things like meat and such that require more effort.