ANTH 1

TYPES OF ORGANISMS: EUKARYOTES

- 1.2 billion years ago. - Some single-celled; all multicellular organisms (including humans) - DNA contained in a nucleus - Organelles - Single celled: protozoa, slime molds, some algae - Multi-celled: just about everything else.

Carolus Linnaeus

- 1707-1778 - Pioneered the binomial nomenclature taxonomy system - Ex: Homo sapiens - Still followed creationist views, but recognized physical similarities between organisms - Linnaean taxonomy is still used today!

Jean-Baptise Lamarcke

- 1744-1829 - Posited that organisms can change their physical structure throughout their lifetimes, and that those changes will be passed on to their offspring

SOMATIC CELLS

- Body cells that have full DNA - Mitosis - Somatic cells are diploid: they have a full complement of paired chromosomes

Mating effort

- Males generally focus on increasing their reproductive success through mating effort - Males do not carry the burden of pregnancy or childbirth

POLYGENIC TRAITS

- Many genes contribute to a single effect - height, skin color

Forces of Evolution: Gene Flow

- Members of the population move around and reproduce with members from a different population. AKA migration.

LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

- Mendel's second law is the Law of Independent Assortment, which asserts that traits linked to different chromosomes are inherited independently from one another. - Punnet Squares

Evolutionary Synthesis

- Mendel's theory of heredity - Darwin's theory of evolution•Why do genes change in frequency? - How do genes vary within and across populations - How do new genes appear? - Mutation

Grandmothers and Menopause

- Menopause is an evolutionary conundrum. - Three species: humans, orcas, and pilot whales - Grandmother effects: grandmothering is a strategic way to increase fitness; older females cannot outcompete their younger relatives - Grandmothering is a fitness trade-off: grandmothers sacrifice direct additional offspring (children), but increase fitness through care and maintenance of indirect offspring (grandchildren) - Grandmothers care for their grandchildren, which increases their survivability - Grandmothers also share knowledge! (culture!)

Parenting effort

- On average, females place more effort in parenting - Women carry the burden of pregnancy, childbirth, and in many cases, parenting

ANTHROPOIDS: PLATYRRHINES AND CATARRHINES

- Platyrrhines - New world, broad nosed - Catarrhines - Old world, hook nosed

PLEIOTROPY

- The ability of a single gene to have multiple effects. - Sickle-cell anemia

coalition: a form of cooperation

- warfare like behavior - generally males - a form of mutualism, in which both parties are getting something from the behavior - while many primates are proficient predators, they are also preyed upon by a range of predators - As soon as primates began a diurnal lifestyle, they became subject to increased predation, which in turn placed an adaptive advantage on cooperative behavior and group living. Under circumstances of increased predation, primates' joining together to defend themselves from predators would seem to be an important form of cooperative behavior.

Choose the correct box for each group in the Linnaean taxonomy system, as it pertains to humans. 1. Kingdom 2. Phylum 3. Class 4. Order 5. Family 6. Genus

1. Animalia 2. Chordata 3. Mammalia 4. Primates 5. Hominidea 6. Homo 7. Sapiens

Taxonomy and Systematics 1. Kingdom 2. Phylum 3. Class 4. Order 5. Family 6. Genus

1. Animalia 2. Chordata 3. Mammalia 4. Primates 5. Hominidea 6. Homo 7. Sapiens

NEW WORLD MONKEYSANTHROPOIDEA: PLATYRRHINI: CEBOIDEA

1. Cebidae: marmosets, tamarins, capuchins, squirrel monkey 2. Atelidea: howler monkey, owl monkey, uakari

Darwin's Postulates

1. Competition - The ability of the population to expand is infinite. The ability of the environment to sustain the population is finite. This dynamic causes a struggle for existence among individuals as they compete for resources. 2. Variation - Organisms vary in their physical qualities; these variations allow some members to reproduce more successfully than others. 3. Heritability - These variations are inherited by offspring from their parents.

THE DNA MOLECULE: REPLICATING THE CODE

1. Enzymes unzip the strand of DNA 2. Free floating nucleotides are attracted to their complementary bases 3. When all of the bases are paired up, new enzymes seal up the two sides 4.Now we have two new strands of DNA!

Adaptation: Meeting the Challenges of Living

1. Four levels of adaptation - Genetic - Ontogenetic(developmental) - Acclimatization(physiological) - Cultural (behavioral) 2. Functional adaptations: Biological changes that happen over an individual's lifetime, increasing the individual's fitness in a given environment

Human growth cycle

1. The prenatal stage, which includes the three periods, or trimesters, of pregnancy and ends with birth (40 weeks after conception). 2. The postnatal stage, which includes the neonatal period (about the first month), infancy (the second month to the end of lactation, usually by the end of the third year), childhood (ages 3-7, generally post-weaning), the juvenile period (ages 7-10 for girls and 7-12 for boys), puberty (days or weeks), and adolescence (5-10 years after puberty) 3. The adult stage, which includes the reproductive period (from about age 20 to the end of the childbearing years, usually by age 50 for women and later for men) and senescence (the period of time after the childbearing years)

Steps of protein synthesis

1. Transcription 2. Translation

Steps of the Scientific Method

1. observe 2. hypothesize 3. predict 4. test 5. analyze 6. conclude

Human Growth: r vs K Selected Species

1. r-Strategy (Cockroach) - Quantity (more offspring) - Fast development - Reduced parental care, sometimes none - Advanced sexual maturity - Shorter life-span - Smaller body size 2. K-Strategy (Whale) - Quality (fewer offspring) - Slower development - Longer parental care - Later sexual maturity - Longer life-span - Larger body size - Some species have post-reproductive lives

How many years is the half life of c14?

5,730

Adaptive Radiation

Adaptive radiation is the diversification of an ancestral group of organisms into new forms that are adapted to specific environmental niches.

A situation in which natural selection favors the heterozygous genotype is called what?

Balanced polymorphism

What Makes us Human?

Big Brained Bipeds! - Humans have extraordinarily large brains! - Human: about 1450 CC - Chimp: about 350 CC - The chimpanzee brain grows rapidly before birth and slows down during childhood - The human brain grows rapidly before birth, rapidly after birth, and continues to grow throughout childhood. - Because humans are born underdeveloped, human parents must care for them for an extended period of time - Biparental care - Smaller numbers of offspring

If I have a hook shaped nostril, I am from the parvorder...

Catarrhini

Gigantopithecus blackii is ancestral to the North American wood ape.

False

True or False: Chronometric dating techniques can give us an exact date.

False

True or false: Charles Darwin was the first person to notice that species change over time.

False

True or false: You can use 14c (radiocarbon) to date things like fossils and rocks.

False

True or false: tarsiers are more closely related to lorises than they are spider monkeys.

False

LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

Genes that are closely located on a chromosome have a better chance of being inherited as a package. - Linkage - Locus

In the formula for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, P2 represents the percentage of ____ individuals in a population, 2PQ represents the percentage of ____ , and Q2 represents the number of ____individuals.

Homozygous dominant, heterozygous, homozygous recessive

A person is born showing the freckle trait, which is a dominant trait. That person's genotype cannot be:

Homozygous recessive

LONG BONES AID LOCOMOTION: HUMANS

Humans: - Shorter arms swing to aid bipedalism. Longer legs; locking knees for standing - Human spine is S-shaped - Human rib cage is box shaped - Human spine absorbs shock from bipedal locomotion - Human pelvis is shorter and bowl shaped• - Center of gravity is pelvis

I have legs that are shorter than my arms, robust shoulders and fingers, a pyramid shaped rib cage, and a bow shaped spine. What is my likely form of locomotion?

Knuckle-walking

Primates - Tooth Comb

Lemurs and lorises possess this unique morphology of lower incisors and canines—here seen from above and the side—useful for scraping and for grooming fur.

Macroevolution

Macroevolution is substantial change over many generations— the creation of new species. For example, over 60 million years, the eohippus—a small, dog- sized animal with multi-toed feet that inhabited rainforests—evolved into the modern horse. Among the species' large-scale changes were increases in overall body size and height as well as the loss of toes. Horses' single-toed hooves enable them to run more efficiently in the open grasslands they naturally inhabit.

During which phase of mitosis do the chromosomes line up around the midline of the cell?

Metaphase

Microevolution

Microevolution is change in gene frequency over a few generations. For example, the beetles in this diagram have either of two colors, represented by two alleles. In the first generation, 75% of the color alleles are green and 25% are brown. In the second generation, 71% of the color alleles are green and 29% are brown. Thus, the frequencies of the green and brown alleles have undergone a microevolutionary change.

Why is the idea of race pervasive in society?

Most Americans view differences in skin pigmentation and other phenotypes as representing fundamental, categorical differences between peoples in the United States and elsewhere around the world. American biological anthropologist Rachel Caspari argues that this typological thinking, while it does not characterize human variation, persists both in modern society and across a range of sciences. She suggests that racial or typological ways of thinking may be a natural (although flawed), "built in" mental construct for organizing variation that we see around us. Thus, categorical thinking for variation that is not categorical may be hardwired into all of our brains. Simply, though, categories of discrete races are not accurate representations of human biological variation.

A population of grey and brown dogs live in a city. The grey dogs are more visible, and are more likely to get picked up by the dogcatcher. The brown dogs, on the other hand, are less visible to the dogcatcher, and therefore survive and reproduce at a greater rate. Eventually, the brown fur trait is more prevalent in the population. Which force of evolution best describes this phenomenon?

Natural selection

Is race a valid biological construct?

No

Nonhoning Chewing: 5.5 MYA

No diastema or projecting canines

During which epoch is it generally accepted that there was a radiation of apes?

Oligocene

Which of these are believed to be ancestral of modern tarsiers?

Omomyids

A mutation that occurs along a single nitrogenous base, that may or may not result in a change in the amino acid produced, is called what?

Point mutation

Steps of meiosis

Prophase 1, Metaphase 1, Anaphase 1, Telophase 1, Prophase 2, Metaphase 2, Anaphase 2, Telophase 2

Steps of mitosis

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

Which of these conditions are the result of a biocultural interaction?

Sickle-cell anemia and thalassemia

Ancestry

Signifies shared genetic markers with an historical population

Epiphyses

The end portions of long bones; once they fuse to the diaphyses, the bones stop growing longer.

Diaphyses

The main midsection, or shaft, portions of long bones; each contains a medullary cavity.

Primates - Diet and teeth

Thickness of tooth enamel varies across primate species. Orangutans and humans have thick enamel, whereas chimpanzees and gorillas have thin enamel. Thick enamel reflects an adaptation to eating tough, hard foods. Although humans today rarely eat hard foods, they have retained this primitive characteristic.

True or False: Scientific statements must be falsifiable; that is, for any scientific test you conduct, there must be a possibility that the test will fail or that you will reject your hypothesis.

True

True or false: A genotype refers to what is coded on your DNA, while a phenotype refers to the physical expression of the gene.

True

What is the anticodon for the amino acid codon AUG?

UAC

Ethnic group

a group that shares a similar cultural/geographical background

Deme

a local population that interbreeds

Race

a social construct designed to classify people based on biological characteristics

Gene Pool

all the genetic information in a breeding population

Population

any given group of people

Species

groups of reproductively isolated organisms.

Which of these hypotheses is not related to the emergence of primates?

hunting hypothesis

Reproductive Isolation

mechanism that prevents two populations from interbreeding

Which of these is not a relative dating method?

radiocarbon dating

Thomas Malthus

- 1766-1834 - Founder of demography, or the study of human populations - Noted that population size is limited by the food supply - Not every parent will have the means to feed their children - Concept influenced Darwin•Influenced many evolutionary biologists - Not always in a good way!

Charles Darwin

- 1809-1882 - Grandson of Erasmus Darwin, son of wealthy doctor - Studied at University of Edinburgh and Cambridge - Originally intended to study medicine, went on to study religion. - There were normal fields for the son of a gentleman to study! - After graduating, joined the HMS Beagle as a naturalist; studied in the Galapagos, Falkland Islands. - Spends the next 20 years studying and developing the theory of evolution by natural selection. - Publishes On the Origin of Species in 1859 - Darwin's work is important because he is the first to recognize the mechanism by which evolution occurs: natural selection - Darwin was not the only gentleman scientist to be developing a theory on evolution at the time!

Primates- Cladogram

- A branching diagram showing the cladistic relationship between a number of species. - Clade: a group of organisms that evolved from a common ancestor - Phylogeny: the evolutionary relationships of a group of organisms

Primates - Honing structure

- A diastema is the space for honed incisors; humans don't have this feature! - In Old World monkeys and apes, the lower jaw has a diastema to accommodate the very large upper canines. Humans lack such a space because they do not have large, projecting upper canines.

Mendelian Inheritance

- A gene is a physical unit of inheritance. - Each gene is made up of subunits called alleles. - One from mom, one from dad. - Each allele is either dominant or recessive - A gene with two dominant or two recessive alleles is called homozygous. - A gene with one dominant and one recessive allele is called heterozygous.

Secular trend

- A phenotypic change over time, due to multiple factors; such trends can be positive (e.g., increased height) or negative (e.g., decreased height). - In wealthy nations, the increase in height has come to a stop or slowed considerably, most likely because growth has reached its genetic limit. In many less wealthy (and thus less healthy) nations, growth potential has not been reached, and growth periods are comparatively slow.

Biological Anthropology

- AKA physical anthropology - Studies human evolution and variation, both past and present! - Some specialties: primatology, paleoanthropology, forensic anthropology

OLD WORLD MONKEYS: THE CERCOPITHECINES

- ANTHROPOIDEA: CATARRHINI: CERCOPITHECOIDEA: CERCOPITHECINAE - Mixed habitat: arboreal, terrestrial - More fruit in diet - Provide model for behavior of earliest hominids - Mangabeys, Macaques, Mandrills, Baboons, geladas

OLD WORLD MONKEYS: THE COLOBINES

- ANTHROPOIDEA: CATARRHINI: CERCOPITHECOIDEA: COLOBINAE: - Arboreal - Leaf eating - Includes colobus monkeys, proboscis monkeys, langurs, and more!

Adulthood

- Aging basically means "becoming older," but it refers collectively to various social, cultural, biological, and behavioral events that occur over a lifetime yet do not by themselves increase the probability of death. Senescence, which accompanies aging, is a biological process characterized by a reduction in homeostasis, the body's ability to keep its organs and its physiological systems stable in the face of environmental stress. Senescing persons are increasingly susceptible to stress and death and have a decreased capacity to reproduce. For example, older adults produce less body heat than younger adults and hence are more uncomfortable in cold temperatures. - Menopause, the loss of ovarian function, is a key element of female senescence, marking the end of the reproductive phase and the end of childbearing. As a human biological universal, menopause usually occurs by age 50, but it varies by several years in different populations. Male senescence is different in that men normally produce sperm well into their seventies and eighties. However, the number of well-formed sperm and their motility decline by half after age 70. Male and female individuals older than 70 years, having lived through senescence, are considered elderly. These patterns of aging and senescence are unique to humans. That is, reproductive senescence is extremely rare in non- human primates. - Bone loss is an effect of senescence that is universal in humans: after age 40, humans suffer increased bone porosity and reduction in bone mass. The increased susceptibility to bone fracture that comes with this loss is called osteoporosis. In extreme cases, osteoporosis can weaken bone to the point that it easily fractures under small amounts of stress. This fragile nature commonly leads to fractures such as broken hips or to "compression" fractures of vertebrae, in which the bone simply cannot support the normal body weight and collapses. The col- lapse of several vertebrae can give the person a hunchback. Far more common in women than in men—because a loss of the hormone estrogen is linked to bone loss— osteoporosis shows less age variation than menopause does. Other factors that can predispose people to this condition are smoking, chronic diseases, and certain medications.

HOMEOTIC (HOX) GENES

- Also known as homeobox genes, they are responsible for differentiating the specific segments of the body, such as the head, tail, and limbs, during embryological development. - Discovered in 1983 by Swiss and American researchers, these regulatory genes are coded to produce proteins that turn on many other genes, in particular those that determine the regions of the body during prenatal development. Without these genes, or if there are mutations in these genes, body development may be altered. For example, a mutation in the Hox genes of a fruit fly can cause a leg instead of an antenna to grow from the head. The gray refers to the thorax location for the four vertebrates, the Hoxc6 gene

cooperation in primates: kin selection - william hamilton

- Altruistic behaviors that increase the donor's inclusive fitness; that is, the fitness of the donor's relatives. - A primate will most strongly and consistently act altruistically when living with relatives. This is particularly true among cerco- pithecoids, such as baboons and macaques, where females live mostly in the natal group, or in chimpanzees, where males live in the natal group. Primatologist Rich- ard Wrangham has observed groups of cooperating, related male chimpanzees attacking groups of male chimps unrelated to them. He has also observed groups of cooperating male chimps patrolling territorial boundaries. Such behaviors in living chimpanzees may be the best model for early hominin behavior and for the origins of human aggression.

The Holistic Approach

- Anthropologists usually specialize in one sub-field, but regularly rely on knowledge from other subfields - Example: Evolutionary anthropologists might use biological materials (hormonal assays, breast milk composition, blood tests) in conjunction with behavioral tests - Example: Paleoanthropologists might use current cultural theory to understand Neolithic art - We call this the holistic approach

Primates - Hominoid

- Apes and humans - a primate of a group that includes humans, their fossil ancestors, and the anthropoid apes.

Primates

- Arboreal mammals - Dietary plasticity - Parental investment - Mobile joints: Hands and feet, Precision and power grips - All primates have an opposable thumb: 1. Allows for greater grasping and movement 2. All primate fingers have nails, with the exception of some species that have a grooming claw on one digit.

Nutritional Adaptation

- Basal metabolic requirement: the minimum amount of energy we require to survive - Total daily energy expenditure (TDEE): amount of energy we require given our activity level - Macronutrients-Carbohydrates, proteins, fats - Micronutrients-Vitamins & minerals - Lack of calories is not the only form of malnutrition - Lack of essential micronutrients also leads to malnourishment - Growth and development are highly influenced by nutrition.

Primates - Parental Investment

- Because a female primates generally expends so much energy in rearing each of her offspring, she generally will have few offspring. -Longer birth intervals - Extended maternal care - Some paternal care (depending on species and paternal certainty)

Biocultural Approach

- Biological anthropologists use knowledge from living people to make analogies about past behavior - The biocultural approach recognizes that humans are influenced by both biology and culture - Anthropology differs from other disciplines in emphasizing a broad comparative approach to the study of biology and culture

What do biological anthropologist do?

- Biological anthropology is the study of human biological evolution and humans biocultural variation - Paleoanthropology: studies fossil hominids - Primatology: studies non-human primates - Populations genetics/molecular anthropology: studies genetics and health from an evolutionary lens - Forensic anthropology: studies human remains and human osteology - Bioarchaeology: studies past remains to make inferences about our lives in the past - Human biology: studies human genetic traits, adaptations, and variation

Childhood

- Brain growth is slow in humans - Full-sized at around age 6 - Tooth development continues through adolescence - Each of the six postnatal periods has a different growth velocity or rate of growth per year. During infancy, the period of most rapid growth, the deciduous (or primary) dentition erupts through the gums. - By the time an infant has completed weaning—when the infant shifts from consuming only milk provided by the mother to consuming external foods—all 20 deciduous teeth have erupted. The time of weaning varies, but the process is often finished by the end of the second or third year. Motor skills such as walking and running develop during the first two years. Cognitive abilities also progress rapidly during this time, reflecting the very rapid growth and development of the brain during infancy. - During childhood, general growth levels off, but the still rapidly growing brain requires the child to have a diet rich in fats, protein, and energy. The child learns behaviors important to later survival but still depends on adults for food and other resources. Because the child's dentition and digestive system are immature, adults sometimes prepare food that is soft and easy to chew. By age two, however, children normally can consume most adult foods.

Linnaeus's taxonomy of organisms and Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

- Building on Linnaeus's taxonomy of organisms, German anatomist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach developed a biological taxonomy of human races, which he published as his MD thesis at the University of Göttingen in 1775. - Blumenbach based his taxonomy on human skin color and other physical traits, but mainly on features of the skull, such as the facial projection. Blumenbach concluded that there were five races of people: Mongoloids, Malays, Ethiopians (Africans), American Indians, and Caucasoids. - These types were static—they did not change over time. And while Blumenbach had focused on skulls, his racial taxonomy was subsequently applied to the living populations represented by those skulls. More than any other work, Blumenbach's study set the tone for the popular perception of human variation: that human beings come in categorical types called races.

CHIMPANZEES AND BONOBOS: ANTHROPOIDEA: CATARRHINI: HOMINOIDEA: HOMINIDAE: PANINI

- Chimpanzees and bonobos - Different species with very different social characteristics - Both live in multi-male, multi-female groups - Bonobos are more gracile than chimpanzees - Chimpanzees are more aggressive - Bonobos frequently use sexual interactions to diffuse aggressive situations• - Bonobos are female dominant - Chimpanzees are male dominant and exhibit coalitionary hunting behaviors - Chimpanzees exhibit tool use - Be careful interpreting these behaviors!

Why do we see a variance in human skin tone?

- Cline - A gradual change in some phenotypic characteristic from one population to the next. - Eg. First, the frequencies of type B blood changing gradually from eastern Asia to far-western Europe; second, the human gene that causes the disorder sickle-cell anemia, hemoglobin S, increasing in frequency in areas where the parasitic disease malaria is endemic and decreasing in frequency (to nearly zero) in areas where malaria is not endemic. - Because living humans are a single, geographically diverse species, their variation is continuously distributed in ways like these—along various geographic continuums—rather than grouped in discrete categories. - Among the best examples of clinal variation are the skin pigmentations of living people. From equatorial to higher latitudes, skin color changes in a gradient from dark to light. Exceptions exist, such as the relatively dark skin of Native Americans in the Canadian Arctic, but the single strongest factor in determining skin pigmentation is exposure to ultraviolet radiation.

Why is culture important to biological anthropologists?

- Culture refers to knowledge and behavior that is transmitted from person to person - While some other animals (like cetacean species, chimpanzees, and bonobos) have exhibited cultural behavior, humans are the only species to have developed such complex culture! - Cultural behavior is in and of itself an adaptation! - ALL HUMANS HAVE CULTURE

DNA AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

- DNA doesn't just replicate itself! It also serves as the template for protein synthesis. - Proteins are the complex chemicals that make up tissues, repair tissues, and bring about the functions and growth of tissues. - Congenital protein abnormalities can result in blood clotting problems, heart problems, intolerance to specific foods, etc... - Proteins consist of amino acids.

DNA: THE BLUEPRINT OF LIFE

- DNA is homoplasmic: the DNA that is in the nucleus of our cells is more or less the same in every cell in our body - DNA -> Genes -> Chromosomes -> Genome

CHROMOSOMES

- DNA is packaged in chromosomes - Chromosome number varies by species - Males and females have different chromosomes: - Biological male: XY - Biological female: XX - There are variations of sex chromosomes, and remember that biological sex and gender identity are not the same concept.

Step 4: Interpretation

- Data are interpreted in a way that evaluates the hypothesis. - If the hypothesis is supported, you can either stop there or use the information to develop more knowledge. - If the hypothesis is not supported, you can either stop there or develop alternate hypotheses and start again! - It is not an inherently bad thing to have an unsupported hypothesis! - Scientific knowledge grows on both supported and unsupported research!

Primates - enhanced touch

- Dermal ridges (fingerprints) - Nails instead of claws - Opposable Big Toes - Nonhuman primates' opposable big toes, like their opposable thumbs, enable their feet to grasp things such as tree branches. Humans lack this feature due to their adaptation to life on the ground. Its curved hallux and large gap between the hallux and second toe make the chimpanzee foot look more like a human hand than like a human foot. - Flat Fingernails Finger pads with nail support help primates, such as this orangutan, securely hold tree branches that are smaller than their hands. By contrast, claws enable nonprimate mammals to dig into tree bark, an especially helpful ability when limbs or tree trunks are larger than the animals' paws.

Patterns of natural selection

- Directional selection: selection for one allele over others, causing the allele frequencies to shift in one direction - Stabilizing selection: selection against the extremes of the phenotypic distribution, which decreases genetic diversity - Disruptive selection: selection for both extremes of the phenotypic distribution, may eventually lead to speciation.

GAMETES

- Eggs (ova) and sperm - Half DNA (humans; 23 chromosomes): haploid - Meiosis - Mammals (and most species) are anisogamous: the sexes have gametes that differ in size - The female is the sex that has the large, non-motile gamete (ova) - The male is the sex that has multiple moving gametes (sperm) - Gametes are haploid: they have a single set of unpaired chromosomes

Genetic Drift

- Endogamous - Refers to a population in which individuals breed only with other members of the population. - Exogamous - Refers to a population in which individuals breed with nonmembers of their population. - Huntington's Disease

Evolution

- Evolution does not have an end game or a goal. It is a process, not a sentient being. - Evolution does not create perfect beings. It creates beings that have a better chance of reproducing and surviving. - It's the duct tape of the natural world. - Tinkerer vs engineer - Mutations happen first in individuals and then spread through subsequent generations•Individuals vs populations

Evolution vs. Natural Selection

- Evolution refers to a gradual development from one thing into another. - Natural selection is the mechanism by which biological evolution occurs in nature. - While other mechanisms have been proposed, natural selection is the most recognized, most tested, and has the greatest amount of evidence.

Natural Selection: Peppered Moth

- Example: Peppered Moth - 1848: melanic moth discovered - 1950: 90% of moths melanic - Industrial Revolution

ANTHROPOIDEA: CATARRHINI: HOMINOIDEA: HOMINIDAE: HOMINI

- Found on every continent except Antarctica - Equal capacity for destruction and compassion - One species, phenotypic variants based on geographic distribution - Language, complex tool use, culture - Developed fermentation, agriculture, and industrialization

Why is race not a valid biological construct?

- Franz Boas wanted to test the widely held notion that head shape and other so-called racial markers were static entities, essentially unchanging through time. - He and his researchers studied some 18,000 immigrant families, calculating the cephalic index—the ratio of head length to head breadth—of parents born in Europe and of their children born in the United States. - This study revealed that the adults' and children's head shapes differed, not by a lot but by a degree that could be expressed mathematically. This finding undermined the idea, prevalent at the time, that racial types were innately stable. Because the differences that had been cited among various races were not unchanging, Boas concluded that the race concept was invalid. Boas's work laid the foundation for a scientific focus on biological process rather than on typological classification. - Other social scientists in the early twentieth century were drawing similar conclusions regarding the lack of validity of racial categories. Contrary to the view held by most of the public, American sociologist and civil rights leader W. E. B. Du Bois argued that health differences between people of European descent and people of African descent in the United States were due to social inequality and not biology. The emerging understanding, simply put, was that race is a social construction - Skull shape is not fixed, but varies within populations

REGULATORY GENES

- Genes that control gene expression - On/off switches for genes - Marfan syndrome - Bird teeth - Human hair - Lactose intolerance or persistence

THE LESSER APES: GIBBONS AND SIAMANGSANTHROPOIDEA: CATARRHINI: HOMINOIDEA: HYLOBATIDAE

- Gibbons and siamangs - Monogamous - Less sexually dimorphic than great apes - Gracile body shape

Primates - Hominid

- Great apes and humans - a primate of a family ( Hominidae ) that includes humans and their fossil ancestors and also (in recent systems) at least some of the great apes.

ANTHROPOIDS: THE HIGHER PRIMATES: CATARRHINES: HOMINOIDS

- Great apes: humans, chimpanzees, bonobos, orangutans, gorillas - Lesser apes: gibbons and siamangs

Mendel and Particulate Inheritance

- Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) - Laws of inheritance - Particulate inheritance - Discrete units: genes - Different versions: alleles - Dominant & recessive

Lamarckian Evolution (AKA Lamarckism)

- Held that attributes acquired during the lifetime would be inherited by offspring - Giraffe necks are the classic example of Lamarckian evolution - Although wrong about the mechanism, Lamarck was the first to be recognized for positing that organisms could have originated from other species - Lamarckism is based on the notion of inheritance of acquired traits.

Natural Selection: Sickle-cell Anemia and Malaria

- Hemoglobin S is a gene located on chromosome 11, and it codes for the production of hemoglobin - This assists the transportation of oxygen - A mutated version of this gene produces misshapen red blood cells - This is a painful disease that can kill early - until the 70's the average life span was 14 years. - So why has this detrimental gene persisted in the gene pool? - Biocultural interaction between agriculture, malaria, and sickle-cell anemia

Climate Adaptation: High Altitudes

- Higher altitudes mean higher risk for hypoxia and altitude sickness - Children raised at high altitude have larger lungs than children raised at sea level (physiological adaptation)

CHROMOSOME TYPES

- Homologous pairs - Autosomes (22 pairs) - Sex chromosomes (1 pair) - X and Y - Male determines sex•Karyotypes

SKELETAL MORPHOLOGY AND THE OBSTETRIC COMPROMISE

- Human brains are big! - The human pelvis is not. - There is an evolutionary trade-off between locomotion, child birth, and human development. - Humans are altricial, meaning that they are born underdeveloped and require parental care

Hunting: 1 MYA

- Human brains depend on large amounts of energy, and animal protein is an ideal (not the only) source of energy. Humans also employed tools and cooperative strategies. - Cooperation strategies are a vital component of human social behavior.

Primates - Hominins

- Humans and humanlike ancestors. - Hominins are part of the family, or larger group of primates, called hominids. Hominids include orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and human beings. All hominins are hominids, but very few hominids are hominins.

Domesticated Foods

- Humans have domesticated a variety of plants and animals, using them for clothing, shelter, and various cultural aspects. - Domestication is also a hallmark of the beginnings of a sedentary lifestyle and civilization!

Speech: 2.5 MYA

- Humans use speech in a way no other mammal can - to express complex thoughts and ideas. Speech is part of the overall package in the human lineage of increased cognition, intelligence, and brain-size expansion. - Speech is the greatest contributor to social learning!

Primates - dental formula

- Humans, great apes, and old world monkeys share a similar dental formula that has: 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars (aka bicuspids), 3 molars - Prosimians and New World monkeys have 3 premolars - Check notability

Nutritional Adaptation: Over nutrition

- Hypercholesterolemia (high cholesterol) - Type 2 diabetes

Infancy / prenatal

- In humans, the prenatal stage, or pregnancy, lasts 40 weeks. In the first trimester, or 3-month period, the fertilized ovum multiplies into millions of cells. Distinctive cell groupings first represent different kinds of tissues, then give rise to the tissues, the organs, the brain, and the various physiological systems. By the end of the second month, the embryo is about 2.5 cm (1 in) long but is recognizably human. Because growth and development are at their most dynamic during this trimester, the embryo is highly susceptible to disruption and disease caused by mutation or environmental factors. Specific stressors, or potentially harmful agents, include the mother's smoking, consuming alcohol, taking drugs, and providing inadequate nutrition. - In the second trimester, the fetus mainly grows longer, from about 20.3 cm (8 in) at the end of the first month of this trimester to about 35.6 cm (14 in), or three-quarters the length of an average newborn. - The third trimester involves rapid weight growth and organ development. Humans are unique relative to other primates in having a very high percentage of body fat. This general pattern of humans producing fat babies may be related to the large brain of Homo sapiens, suggesting that the fat serves as a kind of energy "bank" or reserve supporting the high energy needs of the developing brain. During the final month, the lungs develop and most reflexes become fully coordinated. The fetus's wide range of movement includes the ability to grasp and to respond to light, sound, and touch. - This trimester culminates in birth, the profoundly stressful transition from the intrauterine environment to the external environment. Half of all neonatal deaths occur during the first 24 hours. Most of these deaths are caused by low birth weight (less than 2.5 kg, or 5.5 lb), which is generally linked to one or a combination of multiple stressors, such as maternal malnutrition, smoking, and excessive alcohol consumption. Because individuals of low socioeconomic status tend to be exposed to environmental stresses, their children are prone to low birth weights and early deaths. And a poor intrauterine environment predisposes the person to developing specific diseases later in life.

Fitness/Reproductive Success

- Individuals with advantageous characteristics survive in higher numbers and produce more offspring than members of a population lacking advantageous characteristics - Fitness refers to the number of offspring produced by parents with a particular genotype compared to the number of offspring produced by parents with another genotype. - Reproductive success is the number of offspring that survive to reproduce

Intrasexual vs intersexual competition

- Intrasexual: members of one sex have features designed for competition with members of the same sex. includes weapons - Intersexual: members of one sex have features designed to attract members of the opposite sex. sometimes costly features, adornments

Lemurs

- Live in Madagascar - Over 100 species - Black and white ruffed lemurs are responsible for pollinating palm trees! - Ring-tailed lemurs are avid sun worshipers and fight for territory in a fairly stinky way. - Blue-eyed lemurs are sexually dichromatic, meaning the males and females are different colors.

THE GREAT APES: GORILLAS: ANTHROPOIDEA: CATARRHINI: HOMINOIDEA: HOMINIDAE: GORILLINAE

- Multiple species - Found in Rwanda and DRC - Largely sexually dimorphic - eat mostly leaves (folivorous) - One male, multiple female groups - All male groups

Mutations

- Mutations are the only source of new genetic variation in a population. - All mutations fall into one of two types: 1. Spontaneous: random changes in DNA that occur during cell division 2. Induced: caused by specific environmental changes

Forces of Evolution: Mutations

- Mutations can occur for one of two reasons: 1. DNA fails to copy accurately 2. External influences cause DNA to break down. (EG radiation) - Most mutations are either neutral or harmful. Some confer an advantage that increases chances of reproduction, and those contribute to evolution.

PLATYRRHINES: AKA NEW WORLD MONKEYS

- New World primates - Broad nosed - 2/1/3/3 dental formula - Some (ceboids) are suspensory and have prehensile tails - Chichico, a saddleback Tamarin

Material Culture and Tools: 3.3 MYA

- Olduvai Chopper, approximately 2.6 million years old! - Tool use is recognized in other animals, but the social learning aspect is much greater in humans than any other species.

Darwin's Finches

- One of the most commonly cited examples from Darwin is the Galapagos finch. - Darwin was able to observe how the shape of each finch species' beak was an adaptation for the best extraction of resources from the environment. - An adaptation is a change in physical structure, function, or behavior that allows an organism to survive and reproduce in a given environment.

Lorises

- Only "venomous" primate: the loris licks a gland on its arm, and its subsequent bite can cause severe pain and infection. - Victim of illegal pet trade - Front teeth are often clipped without anesthetics - 2 genera, 10 species - Mostly nocturnal - This loris is suffering. This is a threat pose, as a result of extreme stress from light and touch. Tickling lorises is torture to them.

Adaptation and the Environment

- Organisms are adapted for their environment. - Species that are not adapted for a changing environment tend to go extinct. - What's keeping the great panda alive? The fact that we think it's cute! - A beneficial adaptation is one that results in increased reproductive success, not so much one that increases individual survivability.

Skeletal Adaptation

- Our bones can change size and shape to adapt to the forces we exert on them! - Repetitive action can stimulate osteoblasts to make more bone. - Lack of physical activity can reduce bone density.

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

- P: the frequency of the dominant allele in the population - Q: the frequency of the recessive allele in the population - P2: the percentage of homozygous dominant individuals - Q2: the percentage of homozygous recessive individuals - 2pq: the percentage of heterozygous individuals - P+Q = 1

Mutations: The only source of new alleles

- Point mutation: a single nitrogenous base is replaced with another base, which may or may not affect the amino acid for which the triplet codes (Synonymous and Nonsynonymous) - Frameshift mutation: the change in a gene due to the insertion or deletion of one or more nitrogenous bases, which causes the subsequent triplets to be rearranged and misled

Primates - Difference in molar shapes

- Primate Molars The morphology of lower molars in primates has two main variants: Old World monkeys' bilophodont pattern, such as in the colobus monkey; and apes' Y-5 pattern, such as in the gibbon, the chimpanzee, and the orangutan. Like the dental formula, molar morphology can be used to determine whether fossilized remains of a primate represent an ancestor of Old World monkeys or of apes and humans. - Humans do not have the large projecting canines evident in the other four dentitions. In the side view, the large upper canines fit into a diastema, or space, between the lower canines and the third premolars. Each time the jaws are closed, the upper canines are sharpened against the lower third premolars.

What is a primate?

- Primates are a group of animals in the order Primates that have complex behavior, varied forms of locomotion, and a unique suite of traits, including: - Large brains - Forward-facing eyes - Fingernails - Reduced snouts - Includes humans, great apes, monkeys, and lemurs

AMINO ACIDS

- Proteins are built of amino acids. - There are 20 of these. - The body produces 12 of them - The other 8 are called essential amino acids. - These come from foods! - Meat, eggs, seafood, and dairy contain all essential amino acids and are called complete proteins. - Plants are considered incomplete proteins because they do not contain all essential amino acids - But you can get complete proteins by combing certain foods, like rice and beans or PB&J

Bioarchaeology

- Reconstructs life in the past through the analysis of skeletal remains - Combines elements of forensics, archaeology, and mortuary sciences

Epigenetics

- Refers to chemical changes in the genome affecting how the underlying DNA is used in production of proteins, but without altering the DNA sequences. - In other words, the sequence of base pairs remains fully intact, but the changes owing to environmental circumstances modify the way that DNA is regulated and expressed, without modifying the DNA itself.

Trisomy

- Refers to the condition in which an additional chromosome exists with the homologous pair. - Klinefelter's syndrome - A chromosomal trisomy in which males have an extra X chromosome, resulting in an XXY condition; affected individuals typically have reduced fertility.

Monosomy

- Refers to the condition in which only one of a specific pair of chromosomes is present in a cell's nucleus. - Turner's syndrome

Epigenetics: Methylation

- Regulation of DNA in the offspring may be altered because of epigenetic phenomena, resulting in birth defects and other negative outcomes. These outcomes are due to methylation, a process in which a methyl group, a chemical, attaches to the DNA. In this process, methylation represses or fully stops gene expression, which may result in profound outcomes for offspring. Methylation can be activated by various factors such as exposure to temperature extremes or environmental chemicals, disease, poor nutrition, and a variety of behaviors such as smoking, alcohol consumption, and inactivity.

Myth: Evolutionary theory is a Western idea.

- Roman and Greek essentialist, Epicurists begin to develop theories about the origins of life - c. 600-55 BC! - Islamic philosophers theorize that survival is dependent on ability to obtain food, that there are food chains, and that species develop from other species - 600 -1300 AD! - Taoist philosophers develop concept of adaptation to environment - c. 300-250 BC!

Sex vs. Gender

- Sex refers to the biological differences between males and females, such as the genitalia and genetic differences. - Gender is more difficult to define, but it can refer to the role of a male or female in society, known as a gender role, or an individual's concept of themselves, or gender identity.

Balanced polymorphism

- Situation in which selection maintains two or more phenotypes for a specific gene in a population. - AA - Normal red blood cells but susceptible to malaria - AS - Normal red blood cells; immune to malaria - SS - Sickle-cell anemia

Climate Adaptation: Skin Coloration

- Skin color is a polymorphism that has been used in racist thinking for centuries. - Melanocytes produce melanin - more melanin = darker skin tone - Exposure to the sun increases melanin - Darker toned individuals tend to live in equatorial regions, while lighter toned individuals live in higher latitudes - Skin tone and Vitamin D - UV radiation helps synthesize vitamin D - Necessarily for proper skeletal development - UV radiation depletes folic acid - Necessary for DNA synthesis & spinal development

What does sex have to do with behavior?

- Social behavior is related to sexual strategies - males and females have different reproductive strategies based on their reproductive potential. these differences create distinct strategies for males and females, thus affect their behavior as a whole

Forces of Evolution: Genetic Drift

- Some members of the population just get lucky. - Allele frequencies change over time due to random chance.

TRANSLOCATIONS

- Sometimes non-homologous pairs exchange segments. These rare instances are called translocations. - This can result in infertility, cancer, and a whole slew of other problems!

NONDISJUNCTIONS

- Sometimes, chromosome pairs fail to separate properly. These instances are called non-disjunctions. - Monosomy: only one chromosome present - Trisomy: an extra chromosome - Down's Syndrome: Trisomy 21

TARSIERS: THE SUSHI BURRITO OF THE PRIMATE WORLD

- Strepsirhine like, but classified as haplorhine! - Nocturnal - Grooming claw - Specialized diet - No rhinarium - Large canine teeth - Large upper incisors

Cultural Anthropology

- Studies culture and human societies, generally living cultures - Focuses on rituals, marriage patterns, kinship networks, etc... - Some specialties: economic anthropology, feminist anthropology, Marxist anthropology

Paleoanthropology

- Studies fossil remains•Generally conduct field work outside of the US - Concerned with the timeline of human evolution/speciation - Also concerned with taxonomy (we'll discuss this later!)

Forensic Anthropology

- Studies human remains with the goal of identifying the remains - Focuses on osteology, growth, and skeletal development - Can be referenced in a criminal case but is absolutely, completely, 100% different from television. - This will mostly be covered in lab classes

Linguistic Anthropology

- Studies languages, their development, and the social and cultural contexts of language. - Sociolinguistics studies the social contexts of language.

Primatology

- Studies non-human primates•Uses both physical and social elements - Focuses on life history, social behavior, and mating behavior - Primate behavior can tell us a lot about human evolution

Archaeology

- Studies past societies through material remains, including tools, food, and places people lived. - Sometimes uses knowledge from living cultures to draw conclusions about the past.

Population Genetics

- Studies the evolutionary forces that have influenced human evolution - Studies genetic variance between human populations - Can focus on history of human migration patterns - Useful when studying health and disease patterns

Human Biology

- Studies the functional aspect of inheritance - Focuses on human adaptations and variation

DNA molecule structure

- Sugar and phosphate backbone - Nucleotide base - Adenine (A) - Thymine (T) - Guanine (G) - Cytosine (C) - A with T - C with G

HOMINOIDS: LOCOMOTION PATTERNS

- Suspensory - all four limbs grasp on to branches and help move the body from one tree or branch to another - Orthograde - Brachiation - using their upper limbs to move from tree limb to tree limb - Knuckle-walking - the very strong arms are used to support the upper body weight while positioned on the backs of the fingers' middle phalanges. The knuckles bear the weight, while the fingers are flexed toward the palms

Founder effect

- The accumulation of random genetic changes in a small population that has become isolated from the parent population due to the genetic input of only a few colonizers. - Huntington's chorea - A rare genetic disease in which the central nervous system degenerates and the individual loses control over voluntary movements, with the symptoms often appearing between ages 30 and 50.

secular trend in puberty

- The age at which girls begin menstruating (menarche) is related to childhood nutrition - In some places, it is common for girls to reach menarche between 16-18! - In the US, the age of menarche is steadily decreasing

Step 1: Observation

- The first step toward scientific progress is observation. - Observations can be novel or they can be based on previous research. - Example: Savanna baboons live in larger social groups than other baboon species

Step 2: Hypothesize

- The hypothesis is a testable explanation of observations. - Research projects can have more than one hypothesis, but each should be distinct and should be tested separately. - Hypotheses should be written as a statement that if untrue may be disproved by evidence obtained in data collection. - The hypothesis is not just a question, nor is it a prediction!

Step 3: Collect Data/test

- The hypothesis is tested at this stage•Data must be collected systematically! - Controls are set in place as needed - Tests are repeated as necessary - Data can be collected through either experiment or further observation - EX: Record the number of predator attacks and resulting injuries and deaths in the different baboon groups.

Competition

- The population can expand without limit•The environment cannot support all members!•There is competition for resources. - Competition is not always synonymous with aggression. - Sperm level - Molecular level - Remember, those individuals with favorable traits will be more competitive in an environment!

Allen's rule

- The principle that an animal's limb lengths are heat-related; limbs are longer in hot environments and shorter in cold environments. - Colder: shorter limbs - Warmer: longer limbs - Smaller surface areas are easier to keep warm

Bergmann's rule

- The principle that an animal's size is heat-related; smaller bodies are adapted to hot environments, and larger bodies are adapted to cold environments. - Hotter = smaller - Colder = larger

Blending Inheritance

- The prominent belief in the nineteenth century was that inheritance was the result of the blending of two individuals. - Remember - nineteenth century scientists were working with limited materials!

The Scientific Method

- The scientific method is an empirical method of making observations, formulating hypotheses, collecting data, testing predictions, and drawing conclusions. - Empirical: verifiable through observation and experiment - We use the scientific method to determine if claims are empirically valid.

What Makes Us Human?

- The six big events of human evolution: 1. Bipedalism 2. Nonhoning chewing 3. Material culture and tools 4. Speech 5. Hunting 6. Domesticated foods

THE GREAT APES - ORANGUTANS: ANTHROPOIDEA: CATARRHINI: HOMINOIDEA: HOMINIDAE: PONGINAE

- Three species: Pongo pygmaeus, Pongo abelli, Pongo tapanuliensis (just identified in 2017!) - Solitary - Largely sexually dimorphic - males can flange - Robust - Dish-shaped face

parental investment theory

- Time and energy parents spend for their offspring's investment - Trivers: parental investment is investment in any one offspring that can potentially decrease investment in another offspring - the sex that invests least will be more competitive - the sex that invests most will be more selective - differences in mating and parenting effort

HOW ARE PROTEINS MADE: TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION

- Transcription - The first step in protein synthesis. Involves the creation of mRNA based on the DNA template - Translation - The second step. mRNA translated into an amino acid chain at the ribosomes

TRANSCRIPTION

- Transcription: the process by which RNA is made from a DNA template - The DNA strands open up along the gene - RNA nucleotides match up and join the open DNA strand - Uracil replaces thymine - U-A - C-G - The complete RNA strand is released and moves to the cytoplasm

TRANSLATION

- Translation is the second step of protein synthesis - mRna binds to a ribosome - Three nucleotides (a codon) are read by the ribosome by matching a complementary anticodon to the codon - For example: AUG -> UAC - Codons are read in groups of three until the last codon is read. - The amino acid chain is then released into the cytoplasm.

Climate Adaptation: Cold Stress

- Vasoconstriction - The decrease in blood vessels' diameter due to the action of a nerve or of a drug; it can also occur in response to cold temperatures. - Shivering - - Elevated BMR (basal metabolic rate) - The rate at which an organism's body, while at rest, expends energy to maintain basic bodily functions; measured by the amount of heat given off per kilogram of body weight. - Clothing & shelter

LONG BONES AID LOCOMOTION: QUADRUPEDS

- Wide, robust clavicle and scapula to support weight - Wide, long arms to support knuckle-walking - Curved, short legs - Quadrupeds have a bow-shaped spine - A pyramid shaped rib cage - Chimpanzee pelvis is longer, flares upward - Center of gravity is in rib cage

cooperation in primates: altruism

- a behavior that benefits others while being a disadvantage to the individual. - reduce the reproductive fitness of the individuals performing them but enhance the recipients' reproductive fitness. For example, adult baboons might give warning calls to their social group or even attack predators and, in doing so, place themselves in jeopardy. Grooming, food sharing, and caregiving are also altruistic because one primate invests time and effort in another.

primate residence patterns: bachelor

- all male - group of males will often travel together - these males will often vie for another male's all female group - gorillas, geladas

cooperation in primates

- altruism - kin selection - mutualism

The Evolution of Behavior

- behaviors, like anatomies, can evolve - behavioral ecology: the study of evolutionary basis of behavior due to ecological pressure. - behavior is influenced by both genetics and the environment - behavior should increase reproductive process

mtDNA

- heteroplasmic - mtDNAcan help us trace migration patterns and lineages for thousands of years!

primate residence patterns: individual/solitary

- individual males travel alone, females travel with children - orangutan

primate social behavior and sexual dimorphism

- male reproductive strategies: compete with other males for access to females. infanticide - female reproductive strategies: compete with other females for access to resources

Bateman's principle

- males and females have different reproductive strategies - fruit fly study - variability in reproductive success is greater in males than females - between the sexes, average reproductive success will always be the same - within the sexes, males have a greater reproductive variance

primate residence patterns: polygynandry

- multi female and multi male - rigid hierarchies - generally highest ranking male has best access to females - chimps and baboons

primate residence patterns: polyandry/polyandrous

- one female, multi-male - very rare in natural world - marmosets, tamarins

primate residence patterns: polygyny

- one male, multiple females - gorillas - harem groups

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

- p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 - The Hardy-Weinberg test for equilibrium is called a null model. - If natural selection does not occur, then gene frequencies should remain exactly the same from one generation to the next. - But if they do change, natural selection, gene flow, genetic drift, or mutation must have happened!

food acquisition in primates

- primate foraging time: up to 50% of waking time - female burden: good nutrition leads to earlier first birth, healthier infants, short interbirth interval, longer lifespan - food factors: quality, distribution, availability

Primate Communication

- primate vocalizations complex - playback experiment - gestural communication: hand clasp, cultural variants - vocal dialects - ape language studies, kanzi asl - predator alarm

Primate societies: diverse, complex, long lasting

- primates exhibit diverse set of social signals - primate societies are often highly complex - primate form long term relationships

cooperation in primates: mutualism

- reciprocal altruism

primate residence patterns: monogamy

- single male, single female, their children - gibbons

Obligate Parental Investment

- the minimum parental effort an individual can invest and produce a viable offspring/ the amount s/he is obliged to invest - if there is no obligatory investment beyond the production of gametes (eg fish) females are the higher investing sex: eggs require more resources to produce than sperm

Subfields of Anthropology

Biological (sometimes called physical) anthropology, Cultural anthropology, Linguistic anthropology, Archaeology

Bipedalism: 6 MYA

Bipedalism refers to walking on two feet rather than four (quadrupedalism)

Which of these early researchers developed the binomial nomenclature system, which is still used today to classify plants and animals?

Carolus Linnaeus

Sexual selection and foundational principles

Charles Darwin identified a process that can be, but isn't always stronger than natural selection: sexual selection (The decent of a man and selection in relation to sex)

Who am I? I mostly eat leaves. I have a special sacculated stomach, and I will sometimes chew leaves all day and store them in my cheek pouches. I'm mostly arboreal, and my tail is not prehensile. Which subfamily of primates do I belong to?

Colobinae

A population in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

When a population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium for a gene, it is not evolving, and allele frequencies will stay the same across generations. There are five basic Hardy-Weinberg assumptions: no mutation, random mating, no gene flow, infinite population size, and no selection.