ANTH 122 Final

Human and Neanderthal Interbreeding

Members of our species had sex with neanderthals much earlier and more often than previously believed, according a new study of ancient DNA. More recent ancient DNA analyses suggest that interbreeding between neanderthals and modern humans happened at least three times, probably 37,000 to 85,000 years ago in the Middle East and Europe. Present-day Europeans and Asians have inherited about 1% to 3% of their DNA from Neandertals, but Africans have not. This suggested that encounters between modern humans and Neandertals were rare and happened in the Middle East or the Arabian Peninsula after modern humans swept out of Africa, but before they spread widely.

Change in brain size

The complex brains of modern humans enabled them to interact with each other and with their surroundings in new ways. Bigger brains helped our ancestors to survive. Over the course of human evolution, brain size approximately tripled!

Burial of the dead

The earliest known evidence of planned burials is dated 115,000 years ago in the Skhul and Kebara caves in Israel. A flower burial was discovered at Shanidar cave in Iraq. It is suggested that when our ancestors began this practice, it represented the origins of symbolic behaviour. Other examples of symbolic behaviour are considered as early signs of culture.

Physical modernity

Features that we use to define modern humans. • High and vertical forehead and no brow ridges • Depression above canine teeth (canine fossa) • Distinctive shape based on size of brain • High and rounded shape of skull

Language

A language is a set of rules for generating speech. Human language is unique in being a symbolic communication system that is learned instead of biologically inherited. Language is one of the key characteristics that differentiates humans from primates. Anthropologists have found that neanderthals might have been capable of speech and language. At the site of Kebara, the first neanderthal specimen for which a preserved hyoid bone was found

Archaeological evidence

Archaeological evidence provides an essential contribution to the study of human evolution. Primary archaeological data sets are varied and include stone tools, butchered animal remains, modified organic materials, structural remains and the traces of early art.

Hyoid bone

Associated with speech capabilities in modern humans. The hyoid bone found in a neanderthal remain from Kebara was almost identical to that of modern humans, indicating the development of speech and language among neanderthals

Nuclear DNA

Definition: DNA contained within nucleus, usually contains 2 copies per cell Significance: can be okay in one environment, but be detrimental in another; inherits information from both maternal and paternal sides; used to compare Neandertal and human DNA, which was found to have small differences (appear to be similar genetic markers that suggests exchange of genes between Neandertals and humans); recent sequencing of entire Neandertal genome shows Neandertals fall within variation of present day humans for many regions of genome (equally close to Europeans and East Asians, but significantly closer to non-Africans than Africans)

Lascaux cave

Definition: A complex of Paleolothic caves near the village of Montignac in southern France renowned for its over 600 excellently detailed parietal wall paintings, that decorate the interior walls and ceilings of the cave in impressive compositions. Horses are the most numerous, but deer, aurochs, ibex, bison, and even some felines can be found. The art dates back to 17,000-15,000 BC and falls within the Upper Paleolithic period and was created by the clearly skilled hands of humans living in the area at that time. Significance: The exact meaning of the paintings at Lascaux is still subject to discussion, but the prevailing view attaches a ritualistic or even spiritual component to them, hinting at the sophistication of their creators. Some anthropologists and art historians theorize that the paintings could be an account of past hunting success, or could represent a mystical ritual in order to improve future hunting endeavours.

Hominoidea

Definition: A superfamily that comprises the Hylobatidae (gibbons), Pongidae (great apes), and Hominidae (humans). Essentially, primates (and living things in general) that are closest to humans. The three living groupings are 1. Lesser apes: gibbons, 2. asian great ape: orangutan, and 3. african apes (chimps and gorillas) and humans. Significance: Hominoids lack tails and cheek pouches; have opposable thumbs, larger heads, longer limbs, and wider chests. The Hominoidea are also distinguished from the monkeys by specialized traits in the trunk and forelimbs for hanging from tree branches. Great apes and humans are believed to be descended from a common ancestor so some believe that they should be separated from gibbons.

Acheulian technology

Definition: An archaeological industry of stone tool manufacture characterized by oval and pear-shaped "hand axes" associated with early humans. Acheulean tools were produced across Africa and much of West Asia, South Asia, and europe, and typically found with Homo erectus remains. Significance: Thought that Achuelean technologies first developed in Africa out of more primitive Oldowan technology as long ago as 1.76 million years ago. They were the dominant technology for the vast majority of human history

Endocasts

Definition: An endocast is the internal cast of a cranial vault. It is used to study the brain development of humans and other organisms, and can be artificially created or formed through the fossilization process. Significance: Endocasts have been used in the field of anthropology to form conclusions regarding whether or not a particular specimen is a human ancestor/hominid. For example, the lunate sulcus is discernable in endocasts, and the posterior position of the lunate sulcus on the endocast of the Taung child, (Australopithecus africanus) led Raymond Dart to conclude that the Taung child was not an extant ape, but an early hominid.

Homo erectus

Definition: An extinct species of hominid that lived throughout most of the Pleistocene geological epoch. Earliest fossil evidence dates to 1.9 million years ago and most recent to 70,000 years ago. Most famously fossils have been found in East Turkana (Leakeys) and Java. It is thought that they originated in Africa and spread to Eurasia, as far as India and Indonesia. The most complete fossil individual of this species (also the most complete skeleton of our ancestors found before the origins of deliberate burials) is known as the 'Turkana Boy' or 'Boy of Nariokatome.' Significance: Early African Homo erectus fossils (sometimes called Homo ergaster) are the oldest known early humans to have possessed modern human-like body proportions with relatively elongated legs, shorter arms compared to the size of the torso, relatively smaller teeth and large brain volume. The body proportions are considered adaptations to a life lived on the ground, indicating the loss of earlier tree-climbing adaptations, with the ability to walk and possibly run long distances. The appearance of Homo erectus in the fossil record is often associated with the earliest handaxes, the first major innovation in stone tool technology. They are also the most reasonable of early Homo species to be considered ancestor to modern humans. Homo erectus is important to the study of human evolution because it is the first species to be found outside of Africa and displayed many anatomical features (especially brain size and aspects of the postcranial skeleton—i.e., the parts of the skeleton below the head) that reflect evolution toward the pattern seen in Homo sapiens.

Sima de los huesos at Atapuerca

Definition: Atapuerca (in Spain) is a series of ridges with many cliff sides and caves. Here, hominin fossils are dated to about 780,000 years. There is no agreement as to the hominin species of these fossils. Sima de los huesos is a famous cave at the site where more than 1,600 human fossils, including several nearly complete skulls, have been found. The fossil record found there represents an exceptional reserve of data, the scientific study of which provides priceless information about the appearance and the way of life of these remote human ancestors. Significance: The collection of human bones from this site makes it one of the most rich hominin sites ever discovered. It is thought that the caves were used as a way to dispose of bodies. The dead were thrown down the shaft and there is a dense accumulation of human bones at the base of the cave. There is some controversy because some believe bodies were disposed of in the shaft simply for "housecleaning" but others suspect ritual or cite the possibility of natural disaster. The skeletons here hint at a transitional stage from a more ancient ancestor, homo erectus. Brain sizes are within the range of both Neanderthals (H. neanderthalensis) and modern humans. The skeletons possess several traits unique to Neanderthals, including a projecting midface, long and narrow pubic bones, and thick finger bones. Unlike later Neanderthals, however, they do not fully express the characteristic Neanderthal form.

Lunate sulcus

Definition: Brain area important for language. Found in humans and more often larger when present in apes and monkeys. Significance: Sticks out in endocasts. Skull accommodates this region and so when skulls have a bulge in this area it indicates the presence of lunate sulcus.

Genetic drift

Definition: Change in gene frequency of a gene variant in a population due to random sampling - one of the four evolutionary mechanisms. Significance: can contribute to reducing variation in genetic materials & Genetic drift affects the genetic makeup of the population but, unlike natural selection, through an entirely random process. So although genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution, it doesn't work to produce adaptations.

Lactase persistence

Definition: Lactase persistence is the continued activity of the enzyme lactase, which digests the milk sugar lactose, after childhood (about 2 years). In most mammal species, lactase activity is significantly reduced after breastfeeding ends. Significance: Some populations developed lactase persistence after the domestication of animals. These populations are ones that consumed dairy products; this cultural influence led to a shift in the genotype.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

Definition: DNA located in cell structures (mitochondria) responsible for carrying out conversion of glucose sugar into form usable to cell for energy (ATP); most cells contain hundreds/thousands of mitochondria, each containing 2-10 copies of genetic material; genetic material in the mitochondrion is very tiny in comparison to the nuclear DNA Significance: not as impacted by the environment and only associated with the maternal line (ie. mtDNA is inherited separately from nuclear DNA); there is a greater amount of mtDNA variation in Africans in comparison to human populations in other parts of the world (discovered unique variations in Africa), concluding that modern humans originated in Africa (spent most time here, most time for variation to occur) with subsequent spread to other parts of the Old World, replacing earlier hominin populations; variation suggests bottleneck effect at time of origin in Africa and only a very small population was involved in the appearance of modern humans.

Homo rudolfensis

Definition: Extinct species of the Hominini tribe. Was found at Lake Turkana and lived about 1.9 million to 1.8 million years ago (Pleistocene). The ways in which H. rudolfensis differs is in its larger braincase, longer face, and larger molar and premolar teeth (big brain, big teeth) Significance: It was originally considered to be H. habilis: H. rudolfensis were the males and H. habilis were the females of the same sexually dimorphic species. It has one really critical feature: a braincase size of 775 cubic centimeters, which is considerably above the upper end of H. habilis braincase size. At least one other braincase from the same region also shows such a large cranial capacity. Compared to the other early homo species of habilis and erectus, it is the only one with australopithecine-sized molar teeth.

FOXP2

Definition: Forkhead box protein P2 Is a protein that is encoded by the FOXP2 gene. It is located on the chromosome 7 and expressed in fetal and adult brain, heart, lung, and gut. It has also been identified in other mammals for which complete genome data are available. Significance: FOXP2 is a gene that is required for proper development of speech and language. In humans, mutations of FOXP2 cause severe speech and language disorder. The gene is also more active in females than in males, to which could be attributed better language learning in females. Slide Notes: FOXP2 is linked to the development of language. Modern humans have 2 fixed amino acid changes, that primates do not have. FOXP2 is found in Neanderthals and Denisovans, BUT this does not necessarily mean that they were capable of language. That is, Neanderthals perhaps could talk, but some question their language abilities

Homo habilis

Definition: Homo habilis is a species of the tribe Hominini, during the Gelasian and early Calabrian stages of the Pleistocene period, which lived between roughly 2.1 and 1.5 million years ago. The fossil found at Olduvai gorge by the Leakeys is dated to about 1.8-1.7mya. Significance: Habilis is considered to represent the evolutionary transition from australopithecines to Homo. The first fossil was found by the Leakeys at Olduvai Gorge and was named a new species because this early human had a combination of features different from those seen in Australopithecus. Its name, which means 'handy man', was given in 1964 because this species was thought to represent the first maker of stone tools. However, currently the oldest stone tools are dated slightly older than the oldest evidence of the genus Homo.

Homo sapiens

Definition: Homo sapiens are the only extant human species/surviving species of the genus homo. Our species of humans first began to evolve nearly 200,000 years ago. Homo is the human genus, which also includes Neanderthals and many other extinct species of hominid. Significance: During a time of dramatic climate change 200,000 years ago, Homo sapiens evolved in Africa. Like other early humans that were living at this time, they gathered and hunted food, and evolved behaviors that helped them respond to the challenges of survival in unstable environments. Anatomically, modern humans can generally be characterized by the lighter build of their skeletons compared to earlier humans, smaller teeth, less developed/if any brow ridges, and larger brain cases. Homo sapiens are important to anthropology because anthropology is the study of various aspects of humans within past and present societies

Gene flow

Definition: In population genetics, gene flow is the transfer of alleles or genes from one population to another. Significance: It is one of the four fundamental mechanisms of evolution and it works to increase variation. Migration in or out of a population may be responsible for a marked change in allele frequencies. An example of how gene flow can occur is transfer of pollen or seeds being carried by wind to another location. There is also a major debate between gene flow vs isolation in anthropology. That is, there is much debate concerning the level of isolation of small earlier human populations after their spread out of Africa. Indeed, much of the disagreement about the eventual emergence of modern humans focuses on whether these populations were able to exchange genes with neighboring groups or preexisting groups, or whether they were isolated, and thus underwent a series of speciation events.

Olduvai Gorge

Definition: It is a gorge in northern Tanzania. It is one of the most important paleoanthropological sites in the world; it has proven invaluable in furthering understanding of early human evolution. Excavation programs were first established and developed by Mary and Louis Leakey. Australopithecus boisei, Homo habilis, and Homo erectus, and Homo sapien fossils were found here. Significance: Homo habilis, probably the first early human species, occupied Olduvai Gorge approximately 1.9 million years ago (mya); then came a robust australopithecine, Paranthropus boisei, 1.8 mya, and then Homo erectus, 1.2 mya. Homo sapiens are dated to have occupied the site 17,000 years ago. The site is significant in showing the increasing developmental and social complexities in the earliest humans, or hominins, largely as revealed in the production and use of stone tools. The first Oldowan lithics were found at Olduvai. And prior to tools, there is evidence of scavenging and hunting—highlighted by the presence of gnaw marks that predate cut marks—and of the ratio of meat versus plant material in the early hominin diet.

Canine fossa

Definition: Just below cheekbones between where teeth meet maxilla. This is a shallow fossa just behind the eminence formed by the root of the canine tooth. It is vertical in orientation and provides attachment for the levator anguli oris muscle. Significance: Humans have canine fossa but Neanderthals lack Canine fossa due to more inflated maxila.

Lake Turkana

Definition: Lake Turkana in northern Kenya. This is a lake formed in the Kenyan Rift Valley by the flow of the Omo river from the north. It was formerly known as Lake Rudolf. Significance: In these lake sediments are found a treasure trove of early hominid fossils. For example, on the east side of the lake is Koobi Fora, where Richard Leakey and his colleagues have found many fossils. A famous specimen found here was The Boy from Nariokotome which is the most complete fossil individual of homo erectus. Another famous species found here was H. rudolfensis which is dated to about 1.8 -1.9 myr. The term comes from the original name (Lake Rudolf) for Lake Turkana. The H. rudolfensis fossils possess very large brain volumes (750-800ml), but also very large, australopithecine-size molar teeth.

Zhoukoudian site

Definition: Located in North China, Zhoukoudian is the most northerly of the early Homo sites, though it is unclear whether the hominids actually occupied the cave during the winter. Significance: If the site was occupied in the winter, it would be the first indirect evidence for the use of clothing. Along with fossil bones of about 45 individuals, at the site there are animal bones with cut marks and burnt bones indicating the use of fire. Evidence suggests a long term but intermittent occupation of the site between 600,000-400,000 yrs ago. Also, at the site there is no evidence for burials. Also the Zhoukoudian Homo erectus had features including: large brow ridges with low sloping foreheads and projecting faces without a chin, brain sizes ranging from 900-1200ml, and littler evidence of sexual dimorphism.

Broca's area

Definition: Region in the frontal lobe of the mainly on the left hemisphere of hominids' brains Significance: Rather than language comprehension this region is linked to language/speech production. Once again, it is now believed to be just one part of this process and, again, this asymmetry is also seen in ape brain. All of this suggests that the foundation for our brain structure - even parts associated with seemingly unique human ability - was already laid in our ape ancestors

Mousterian technology

Definition: Style of predominantly flint tools associated primarily with Neanderthals. They date to the Middle Paleolithic, the middle part of the European Old Stone Age (600,000-40,000BC). This culture was named after being discovered in France, and similar flintwork has been found all over unglaciated Europe and also the Near East and North Africa. Due to its shape with small points, researchers have come to believe that these flakes take advantage of greater grip strength possessed by Neanderthal physiology. The Mousterian tradition was marked by the progressive reduction in the use of large core tools, such as hand axes, as specialized flake tools. Significance: Mousterian tools represent a major leap forward in tool making with the development of the Mousterian tool tradition. This new technology was revolutionary enough to warrant being considered a distinct Paleolithic phase.

Chauvet cave

Definition: The Chauvet cave is a cave site in the Ardeche region of Southern France. It contains some of the best preserved cave paintings ever found, which are dated to 32,000 years ago and are of the Upper Paleolithic period. Significance: The paintings are unusual for featuring a wide variety of animals of at least 13 different species, including some which are rarely or never found in other Paleolithic art. The paintings also prominently feature predatory animals as opposed to the more common herbivores and animals of the hunt, indicating that the images are not simple depictions of daily life. The paintings are also some of the earliest pieces of art in the world and are surprising for their complexity, giving the impression of movement and three-dimensionality.

Denisovans

Definition: The Denisovans is a species within the genus Homo (or some view it as a subspecies of Homo sapiens). Denisovans are genetically different from modern humans and Neanderthals, diverging 420,000 to 770,000 years ago. They share 3-6% of their genetic ancestry with indigenous Australian and New Guinea populations, as well as .2% with Asian populations. Denisovans aren't associated with human migration out of Africa. Significance: It's believed that Denisovans interbred with Neanderthals and modern humans, which sheds light on migration patterns of human ancestors. With the existence of the Denisovans, the Out of Africa model, which says that the group of modern humans that left Africa replaced pre-existing populations, seems LESS likely to be correct than the Out of Africa With Hybridization (a group of modern humans left Africa and replaced pre-existing populations with some gene flow) or Assimilation (a group of modern humans left Africa and experienced gene flow in both directions with other populations) models.

Kebara cave

Definition: The Kebara cave is a site in northern Israel on Mount Carmel. It is the site of many hearths, Levallois stone tool assemblage, and various Neanderthal and modern human remains such as Kebara 2, a nearly complete Neanderthal skeleton. The cave was occupied 60,000 years ago, from the Middle through the Upper Paleolithic Periods. Significance: Kebara 2 is the most complete post-cranial Neanderthal skeleton ever found. It is significant as the first Neanderthal specimen for which a preserved hyoid bone was found. The hyoid bone is associated with speech capabilities in modern humans and Kebara 2's hyoid bone was identical to a modern human one, causing some researchers to speculate that Neanderthals had the capacity for speech comparable to that of modern humans by having at least part of the required anatomy. Kebara 2's finding in the Kebara cave is also important as evidence of deliberate burials by Neanderthals; the fact that the cranium was absent but the mandible and hyoid were found in the correct positions suggests that Kebara 2 is evidence of a secondary burial or later human intervention after the initial burial (as opposed to a carnivore removing the cranium).

Shanidar cave

Definition: The Shanidar cave is an archaeological site located on Bradost Mountain in the Kurdistan region of Iraq. The remains of 10 Neanderthals dating from 35,000-65,000 years ago have been found within the cave. The cave also contains two later "proto-Neolithic" cemeteries, one of which dates back about 10,600 years and contains 35 individuals. The first nine (Shanidar 1-9) were found by Ralph Solecki. Significance: In addition to the 10 Neanderthals that were found at the site, hundreds of stone tools including points, side-scrapers, and flakes and bones from animals including goats were found. Studies of the Shanidar skeletons and their burials suggested complex socialization skills. Flowers were buried with the Neanderthals. One of the Shanidar bodies indicated that he was murdered, being the oldest known individual who could have been murdered

Oldowan technology

Definition: The earliest stone tool industry dating to around 2.6 million years ago. Many of these tools have been found at olduvai gorge. Significance: The manufacture and use of Oldowan flakes and choppers allowed early hominins to effectively process meat and marrow from animal carcasses, thus permitting successful expansion into a new niche/habitat.

Mitochondrial Eve

Definition: The matrilineal most recent common ancestor of all living humans (the last woman from whom all humans descend in an unbroken line through their mothers and the mothers of those mothers until all lines converge at one woman). Mitochondrial DNA is usually passed from mother to child without recombination, so the mitochondrial DNA of modern humans differs only in the mutations that have occurred since the Mitochondrial Eve. To whom the title "Mitochondrial Eve" refers changes (shifts forward in human history) as some maternal lineages die out; currently, it's set at 100-200 thousand years ago in sub-Saharan Africa. Significance: Mitochondrial Eve shows that we all come from one population out of Africa instead of multiple regions (Out of Africa model of modern human migration). This woman lived after the emergence of the Neanderthals but before the migration out of Africa. So if she's an ancestor we all share, we have to all have origins in Africa.

The boy from Nariokotome

Definition: The most complete fossil individual of homo erectus (also the most complete skeleton of our ancestors found before the origins of deliberate burials) is known as the 'Turkana Boy' or 'Boy of Nariokotome.'; was found at Lake Turkana; dated 1.6 mya Significance: from this skeleton anthropologists learned a lot about the homo erectus body structure. The oldest known early humans to have possessed modern human-like body proportions with relatively elongated legs, shorter arms compared to the size of the torso, relatively smaller teeth and large brain volume. The body proportions are considered adaptations to a life lived on the ground, indicating the loss of earlier tree-climbing adaptations, with the ability to walk and possibly run long distances.

Homo neanderthalensis

Definition: The neanderthals were hominins who occupied Europe and the Middle East from about 150,000-30,000 years ago. They are our closest extinct human relative. Significance: Morphologically, they possessed large brain cases, with low and long skulls and large projecting faces lacking a chin. Their bodies were shorter and stockier than ours, and their brains were just as large as ours and often larger - proportional to their brawnier bodies. They were capable of very complex behavior, including the deliberate burial of their dead. Neanderthals made and used a diverse set of sophisticated tools, controlled fire, lived in shelters, made and wore clothing, were skilled hunters of large animals and also ate plant foods, and occasionally made symbolic or ornamental objects. They are also famous for their cave paintings/cave art such as at the Lascaux and Chauvet caves. o Examples of tools/clothing- stone handaxes and flakes for skinning; warm animal pelts o Example of fossil: La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1- typical of "classic" Western European Neanderthal anatomy. It is estimated to be about 60,000 years old. • Ancient DNA sequencing has found Neandertal genes in genomes of many Europeans. Ex: Neandertals likely original bearers of white/pale skin genes that Europeans and Caucasians display today.

Genotype

Definition: The set of genes an organism carries Significance: In defining evolution, we are really concerned with changes in the genotypes that make up a population from generation to generation. However, since an organism's genotype generally affects its phenotype, the phenotypes that make up the population are also likely to change. Genotype can only be determined by biological tests, not observations. Genotype is an inherited trait and hereditary information passed by the parents determines genotype. The entire genetic information about an organism is contained in a genotype - even those characteristics which are not expressed visually.

Omnivory

Definition: a consumption classification for animals that can obtain chemical energy and nutrients from materials originating from plant and animal origin. Significance: Most hominids were omnivores - tools, cut marks on carcasses, and molars suggest that they had the ability to prepare and eat meat + tree climbers were known to eat fruits and robust australopithecines, were eating a diet of coarse, gritty vegetable foods. (robust=omnivore, gracile=herbivore)

Phenotype

Definition: all of an organism's observable characteristics — which are influenced both by its genotype and by the environment Significance: even if an animal has the same phenotype, their genotypes can be different. For example, two organisms that have even the minutest difference in their genes are said to have different genotypes. That is, two mice may have different genotypes but both can still be white if for example white (W) is dominant and one mouse is WW and the other is Ww.

Wernicke's Area

Definition: region of the brain that contains motor neurons involved in the comprehension of speech. This area was first described in 1874 by German neurologist Carl Wernicke. The Wernicke area is located in the posterior third of the upper temporal convolution of the left hemisphere of the brain. Thus, it lies close to the auditory cortex. Significance: This is one of the two regions of the brain that is involved with speech and language (Broca's Area is the other). This region of the brain responsible for language/speech comprehension, however this view has now evolved somewhat. Language comprehension is now understood to be more dispersed throughout the left side of the brain. Studies look at these areas to try and understand why we can create/use language and our cousins cannot.

Clinal variation

Definition: the gradual change in certain characteristics exhibited by members of a series of adjacent populations of organisms of the same species. Significance: Huxley developed this idea and it largely replaced the flawed typological and populational models previously used. The clinal model differentiates itself by measuring the frequency of genetic traits, such as blood type, in regions of the world rather than tallying people with a certain skin color or physical feature. The clinal model does not categorize people into races or other types of groups, though it does demonstrate that the more physically distant population groups are from each other, the fewer genetic traits they tend to have in common. A central principle of the clinal model is that people are likely to mate with people who live geographically close to them.

Culture

Includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. The emergence of culture is associated with human acquisition of symbolic thought - a type of thinking in which symbols or internal images are used to represent objects, persons, and events that are not present. Some of the earliest evidence for emerging symbolic thought capabilities and culture is the deliberate burial of the dead. Later displays of culture such as cave art appear increasingly sophisticated

Out of Africa Model

Proposed by Christopher Stringer, and suggests that modern homo sapiens only arose in Africa, approximately 200,000years ago. These anatomically modern humans then migrated out of Africa and replaced various archaic human groups in Europe and Asia. During this replacement, there was no gene flow between modern humans and archaic humans

Assimilation Model

Proposed by Fred Smith and Erik Trinkaus, suggests that, like the Out of Africa model, modern homo sapiens evolved in Africa. From there, they migrated to Europe and Asia. However, this model proposes that gene flow DID occur between anatomically modern humans and neanderthals

Multiregional Continuity Model

Proposed by Milford Wolpoff, and suggests that modern homo sapiens evolved from archaic humans throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa. Substantial gene flow occurred on the borders of each of the regions, accounting for the physical similarities of anatomically modern humans in each area. Essentially, modern humans originated separately on different continents (not all from Africa) and they moved from archaic to modern in their own spheres with some gene flow between populations

Art

The anthropological definition of art is a human endeavour thought to be aesthetic and have meaning beyond simple description, a medium of expression where the individual and culture come together. Art advanced over time, and Homo sapiens produced more sophisticated pieces

Genetic evidence

The more research we do on DNA, the more we find that all life is related. Present-day Europeans and Asians have inherited about 1%-3% of their DNA from Neanderthals, but Africans have not. • Genetic diversity between two species can help scientists predict the time their common ancestor population lived • Genetic scars help create detailed family tree of common ancestors • Genetic synonyms

Tool technology

Tool technology is important because it demonstrates larger trends in human evolution. There is debate about what neurological capabilities were required to produce the early stone tools, but advancement in tool technology is generally thought to correspond with evolutionary brain development. Additionally, complex tool making is counted as one of the eleven attributes unique to living humans among primates and considered a quintessential part of what it means to be human. • Oldowan (2 million years ago): very basic use of tool morphology, one or two removals from the stone to cut meat, started by Homo habilis • Acheulean: 1.8 million years ago, Famous for use by home erectus when they came out of Africa, two-sided flake. Given nodule of flint/obsidian and start to cut away from the flake from two sides to create a very sharp edge • Mousterian (400,000 years ago) : invented in europe, famous in france, much more advanced; Started by Neandertal

Cultural modernity

• Production of specific technology types (tools) • Language • Burial patterns • Cave paintings

Human diet

• Strong evidence for meat and marrow eating come from butchery marks off bone with a sharp-edged tool and percussion marks on animal bones • Dental microwear, mandible shape, and enamel thickness can provide insight into the diet of ancient human ancestors. The thick enamel, flattened molars, and small-to-medium incisors of Australopithecines suggest that they focused on eating hard, brittle foods. • Diet changed over time as a result of food production and storage technologies, as well as cooking and usage of fire