Anth 9 - Assessment 1 Study Guide
radio carbon dating
(C14 dating): An absolute dating method that measures the decay of the radioactive isotope of carbon (14C) in organic material (see also half-life).
DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid): The material that carries the hereditary instructions (the "blueprint") that determine the formation of all living organisms.
academic anthropology
(like" theory" on slide 10) includes careers that involve the teaching of anthropology at educational institutions. Conduct research to contribute information to general knowledge
tell
A Near Eastern term that refers to a mound site formed through successive human occupation over a long timespan.
Gertrude Caton-Thompson (1888-1985)
A british researcher whose excavations at Greater Zimbabwe confirmed that the site was of African origin. p. 34 her work at Great Zimbabwe confirmed that the site was the work of a major African culture.
Reconnaissance
A broad range of techniques involved in the location of archaeological sites, e.g. the recording of surface artifacts and features, and the sampling of natural and mineral resources
site
A distinct spatial clustering of artifacts, features, structures, and organic and environmental remains—the residue of human activity.
Midwestern Taxonomic System
A framework devised by W.C. McKern to systematize sequences in the Great Plains area of the United States, using the general principle of similarities between artifact assemblages
assemblages
A group of artifacts recurring together at a particular time and place and representing the sum of human activities.
induction
A method of reasoning in which one proceeds by generalization from a series of specific observations so as to derive general conclusions (cf deduction)
feature
A non-portable artifact, e.g. hearths, architectural elements, or soil stains.
deductions
A process of reasoning by which more specific consequences are inferred by rigorous argument from more general propositions (cf. induction).
Electrolysis
A standard cleaning process in archaeological conservation. Artifacts are placed in a chemical solution, and by passing a weak current between them and a surrounding metal grill, the corrosive salts move from the cathode (object) to the anode (grill), removing any accumulated deposit and leaving the artifact clean. (bronze head restoration)
Cultural Anthropology
A subdiscipline of anthropology concerned with the non-biological, behavioral aspects of society, i.e. the social, linguistic, and technological components underlying human behavior. Two important branches of cultural anthropology are ethnography (the study of living cultures)and ethnology (which attempts to compare cultures using ethnographic evidence). In Europe, it is referred toas social anthropology.
Biological Anthropology
A subdiscipline of anthropology dealing with the study of human biological or physical characteristics and their evolution. It is also known as physical anthropology.
Culture
A term used by anthropologists when referring to the non-biological characteristics unique to a particular society (cf archaeological culture) (Ch 1 slides)
Lewis Binford
American archeologist known as the leader of the "new archeology" movement of being able to understand past cultures through their remains pg 28
Neolithic
An Old World chronological period characterized by the development of agriculture and, hence, an increasing emphasis on sedentism
Postprocessual archaeology
An approach in response to processual theory, questioning the objectivity of archaeological explanations p.30
cultural-historical approach
An approach to archaeological interpretation that uses the procedure of the traditional historian (including emphasis on specific circumstances elaborated with rich detail, and processes of induction).
context
An artifact's context usually consists of its immediate matrix (the material around it, e.g. gravel, clay, or sand), its provenience (horizontal and vertical position in the matrix), and its association with other artifacts (with other archaeological remains, usually in the same matrix).
Life Cycle of an Artifact
An artifact, a stone tool in this case, may have entered the archaeological record at any one of these four stages in its life cycle. The archaeologist's task is to determine which stage is represented by the find in question.All forms of archaeological data, individually and collectively, are used to reconstruct the stages of ancient behavior. See pp slide diagram 1. Aquisition, hammerston, waste 2. Manufacture, finished bifacial point, waste 3. Bifacial point in haft, use 4. Broken bifacial point, discard.
Dimensions of Anthropology
Anthropology has two dimensions: Academic Anthropology and Applied Anthropology •Academic Anthropology (like" theory" on slide 10) includes careers that involve the teaching of anthropology at educational institutions. •Conduct research to contribute information to general knowledge. •Applied Anthropology uses anthropological knowledge to identify and solve contemporary social problems. •Draws on all four of the fields / subdisciplines
Anthropology
Anthropology is a holistic discipline - concerned with the entirety of the human condition. Anthropologists believe the best understanding of the human condition arises from a global, comparative, and holistic approach
Artifacts
Any portable object used, modified, or made by humans, e.g. stone tools, pottery, and metal weapons
artifacts
Any portable object used, modified, or made by humans, e.g. stone tools, pottery, and metal weapons
Anthropology and the four subfields
Biological anthro, Cultural anthro, Linguistic anthro, Archaeology
Processual Archaeology
Ch 1 slides: An approach that stresses the dynamic relationship between social and economic aspects of culture and the environment as the basis for understanding the processes of culture change. It uses the scientific methodology of problem statement, hypothesis formulation, and subsequent testing. The earlier functional-processual approach has been contrasted with the cognitive-processual approach, where emphasis is placed on integrating ideological and symbolic aspects.
hoard
Deliberately buried groups of valuables or prized possessions, often in times of conflict or war, and that, for one reason or another, have not been reclaimed. Metal hoards are a primary source of evidence for the Bronze Age in Europe
C. J. Thomsen
Devised the Three Age System as classification system. pg. 20
William Cunnington
Direct dig w/R.C. Hoare north of Stonehenge in 1805. pg. 19
William Stukeley (1687-1765)
During the speculative phase of archaeology, this English scholar studied the monuments at Stonehenge, making accurate plans that are still used today. p.17
Sir Richard Colt Hoare (1758-1838)
Englishman who dug into hundreds of burial mounds in southern Britain during the first decade of the 19th century p. 18
Ian Hodder
Father of Post-Processual Archaeology; Contextual Archaeology; originally a Processualist but not satisfied with the limitations of it; interested in cultures role in shaping human behavior pg 30
Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)
He conducted the first scientific excavation in Virginia in 1784 at a burial mound on his property. p.18
Augustus Lane-Fox Pitt-Rivers (1827-1900)
He pioneered the technique of total recording and printed descriptions of his meticulous excavations at Cranborne Chase in southern England, which set a new standard in archaeological publication. Soldier, used military precision - everything recorded in detail, planed - concerned with all artifacts. p.22
Gordon Childe (1892-1957)
He was inspired by Marxist ideas and argued that civilization had arisen in the Near East as the result of a Neolithic Revolution that gave rise to the development of farming, and later an Urban Revolution that led to the first towns and cities. p.25
Alfred Kidder (1885-1963)
His excavations at the Pecos Ruin in northern New Mexico from 1915 to 1929 established a chronological framework for that region. p.24
Charles Darwin
His publication on the mechanism of natural selection in the mid-1800s allowed the search for human origins in the material record to truly begin. p.19
Features of anthropology and ultimate goal
Holistic discipline- concerned with the entirety of the human condition. Anthropologists believe the best understanding of the human condition arises from a global, comparative, and holistic approach. Anthropology's Ultimate Goal: To develop an integrated picture of humankind!
Preservation: Cold environments
If you remove heat, microorganisms cannot flourish. •Can hold of decay for 1000s of years. •See cold preservation at Pazyryk burials in Siberia. Frozen pit burials. All moisture kept frozen, shielded from sun and wind. •Can also see preservation in high altitude regions - e.g.) Otzi the Iceman of the Alps. The oldest fully preserved human body. •Also see another high altitude preservation case - the frozen mummies of the Andes Mtns.
Julio Tello (1880-1947)
Indiginous archaeologist studied archaeological heritage in Peru. Worked at very important site Chavin De Huantar..Studied rise of civilization in Peru. pg. 24
Archaeology
Is the the study of the human past through its material remains. •Tells us about the history of humanity - often the only source of information (over 99% of our history). •Study the material culture of past populations to learn about how they lived their lives. •Showcases the history of human evolution and the development of complex culture. •Illuminates the story of how we came to be as we are today in the 21st century. •In US, archaeologists are part of the broader discipline of anthropology.
Preservation: Dry environments
Lack of water keeps away microorganisms.•1st observed in Egyptian burials- bodies (hair, nails, skin, etc.) kept intact for 1000s of years. •Earliest burials in sand - rapid drying / later burials were mummified to get the same effect. •Also preserved other items well (e.g. the grave goods of King Tutt's tomb)•Lovelock Cave decoy ducks. Made of reeds (very ephemeral material). Placed in baskets in a sandy cave. Perfectly preserved after 2000 years. •Also note the Pueblo burials, Peruvian textiles and Aleutian Islanders (pg. 51 - 53)CHP 216
Sir William Flinders Petrie (1853-1942)
Meticulous excavator, collected and described everything. Worked in Egypt and Palestine. pg22-23
J. Steward
N. American anthropologist. Like Childe, deeper more integrative thinker. Focused on the relationship btw. people and their environment. Developed idea of cultural ecology. •Influenced the work of G. willey in Peru - focused on landscape and environment.
ecofact
Non-artifactual organic and environmental remains that have cultural relevance, e.g. faunal and floral material, as well as soils and sediments
experimental archaeology
One way to determine FPs, is to engage in experimental archaeology.•e.g.) is it a cut mark on the ancient bone or a tooth mark?Another example of experimental arch in action - Overton down. Experimental earthwork - showed archaeologists the speed at which natural elements and material remains can change. The study of past behavioral processes through experimental reconstruction under carefully controlled scientific conditions.
Preservation: Water-logged environments
Organic materials can be preserved in a wet and airless environment (e.g. a bog, swamp, marsh, etc.)•See a high level of preservation for organic materials, which typically would deteriorate on dry land. •See preservation of wood, leather, plants, basketry, clothing/textiles, and soft tissue. •Depends on composition of water (e.g. more acidic = better preservation of wood and plant)•Rare sites - wetlands only make up about 6% of global land area. •Two examples of waterlogged preservation - the Ozette site in WA and Bog Bodies of N. Europe.
Dorothy Garrod (1892-1968)
She became the first woman prehistorian to achieve professional status by becoming the first female professor at Cambridge University (instructor) in 1937. Excavated at Zarzi and Mount Carmel. Worked mainly in the middle east. Found an important hominin fossil (Neandertal) and the Natufian culture (early domesticators) p.22
Extreme cases of preservation ( no water, no warmth, no air)
Some sites preserve organic materials, including basketry, leather, and wood. In other sites only ceramics, stones, and bones survive.•Decomposition is carried out by microorganisms that require warmth, oxygen, and water to survive. The absence allows preservation.•Can look for unique examples of preservation in special environments that are dry (no water), frozen (no warmth), and waterlogged (no O2).
LH Morgan and EB Taylor (& JG Frazer)
Strongly influenced by Darwin's ideas about evolution, the British anthropologist Edward Taylor and his american counterpart Lewis Henry Morgan both published important works in the 1870s arguing that human societies had evolved from a state of savagery (primitive hunting) through barbarism (single farming) to civilization (highest form of society). Morgans work was partly based on his great knowledge of living Native Americans. pg 21 (evolve or go extinct)
Kathleen Kenyon (1906-1978)
Studied under Wheeler. Concerned with stratigraphy. This archaeologist uncovered a Neolithic farming village at a site in Jericho, Palestine which is commonly referred to as the earliest town in the world. p.24
Three Age System
System proposed by C.J. Thomsen that divided prehistoric artifacts into a Stone Age, a Bronze Age and an Iron Age. p.20 A classification system devised by C.J. Thomsen for the sequence of technological periods (the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age) in Old World prehistory. It established the principle that by classifying artifacts, one could produce a chronological ordering
material culture
The buildings, tools, and other artifacts that constitute the material remains of former societies (Ch 1 slides)
association
The co-occurrence of an artifact with other archaeological remains, usually in the same matrix.
Classification
The ordering of phenomena into groups or other classificatory schemes on the basis of shared attributes (see also type and typology).
The classificatory-historical period
The period of archaeology, which was characterized by the work of such scholars as Flinders Petrie, Mortimer Wheeler, and Alfred Kidder; ended around 1960. p.24
matrix
The physical material within which artifacts are embedded or supported, e.g. gravel, clay, or sand.
provenience
The place of origin or (earliest) known history of something; also the horizontal and vertical position of an artifact, ecofact or feature within a matrix.
excavation
The principal method of data acquisition in archaeology, involving the systematic uncovering of archaeological remains through the removal of soil deposits, and other material covering and accompanying them.
Uniformitarianism
The principle that geologically ancient conditions were essentially similar to those of our own time. p.19
evolution
The process of growth and development generally accompanied by increasing complexity. In biology, this change is tied to Darwins concept of natural selection as the basis of species survival. Darwins work laid the foundations for the study of artifact typology, pioneered by such scholars as Pitt-Rivers. (Ch 1 slides)
formation process
The processes affecting the way in which archaeological materials come to be buried, and their subsequent history afterward. Cultural formation processes include the deliberate or accidental activities of humans; natural formation processes refer to the natural or environmental events that govern burial and survival * It can be important to know whether certain archaeological evidence is the product of human or non-human (cultural or natural) activity.
CRM (Cultural Resource Management)
The safeguarding of the archaeological heritage through the protection of sites and through salvage archaeology, generally within the framework of legislation.
stratigraphy
The study and validation of stratification: the analysis in the vertical, time dimension, of a series of layers in the horizontal, space dimension. It is often used as a relative dating technique to assess the temporal sequence of artifact deposition
Archaeology
The study of humanity - our physical characteristics as animals, and the unique non-biological characteristics we call culture. The subject is generally broken down into three subdisciplines: biological (or physical) anthropology, cultural (or social) anthropology, and archaeology.
Taphonomy
The study of processes that have affected organic materials, such as bone after death; it also involves the microscopic analysis of tooth marks or cutmarks to assess the effects of butchery or scavenging activities.
Cultural ecology
The study of the ways in which adaption to the environment can cause cultural change. p.26 :A term devised by Julian Steward to account for the dynamic relationship between human society and its environment, in which culture is viewed as the primary adaptive mechanism
typologies
The systematic organization of artifacts into types on the basis of shared attributes
John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood
They produced superbly illustrated books on the Maya civilization in the 1840s, after their travels in Yucatan, Mexico. p.21
Grahame Clark (1907-1995)
This British archaeologist combined environmental analysis with the collection and identification of organic remains to build up a picture not only of what prehistoric environments were like but also what foods prehistoric peoples ate. p.26
Sir Mortimer Wheeler (1890-1976)
This archaeologist brought precise techniques such as the grid-square method to his excavations and is well known for his work at Maiden Castle, England. p.23 Soldier, military precision (like Pitt-Rivers) - uned the grid system. He taught field methods in India. st
The Rosetta Stone
This artifact enabled the Frenchman Jean-Francois Champollion (1790-1832) to decipher Egyptian hieroglyphic writing in 1822, after 14 years of work. p.21
Indigenous archaeology
This type of archaeology involves certain marginalized groups, such as Australian Aborigines, seeking more influence and control over the management of their heritage. p.35 •See many working in ex-colonies - helping introduce and protect cultural heritage and indigenous history. •Some questions on the relevance of cultural heritage as a concept (Western-conceived notion). •Used to be dominated by white, wealthy males. •Today, see more diversity in the field than ever before, but we have a long way to go...
Public archaeology
This type of archaeology stems from a widespread acceptance that the material remains of the past should be protected and preserved and includes preventative archaeology, rescue archaeology, and Cultural Resource Management. p.33
The New Archaeology or processual archaeology
This was the name given to the approach adopted by a group of young archaeologists in the 1960s who sought to explain the archaeological discoveries they made through valid generalizations and to analyze cultures as systems which could be broken down into subsystems. p.28 Ch 1 slides: A new approach advocated in the 1960s that argued for an explicitly scientific framework of archaeological method and theory, with hypotheses rigorously tested, as the proper basis for explanation, rather than simply description (see also processual archaeology).
JG Champollion
Used the Rosetta Stone inscriptions to decipher the hieroglyphs in 1822
Geological understandings/Deep Time
a. •Geologists also helped develop concepts of deep time and an extended timeline for the age of the earth (not just 6000 years old!). b. Deep time is a concept from this time period that the earth is much older than previously thought.
Mary Leakey
an archeologist who found some of the earliest human ancestors in Olduvai Gorge, Africa one of the most important paleoanthropologists of the 20th century.
James George Frazer
compared the customs of different societies and tried to show links between those societies
B. de Cardi (female)
conducted surveys throughout the Gulf region
G. Clark
developed culture-historical approach. Focus on how humans interact with their environment, and what this tells us about people of the past.
H.B. Hawes (female)
discoverer of the Minoan town site of Gournia, Crete
A. Shepard (female)
expert in the ceramics of the American Southwest and Mesoamerica.
Linguistic anthropology
focuses on human language: its diversity in grammar, syntax, and lexicon; its historical development; and its relation to a culture's perception of the world.
T. Proskouriakoff (female)
her work on Maya glyphs contributed greatly to their final decipherment.
W. Libby
invention of radiocarbon dating.
Women archaeologists
pgs 34-35
Applied Anthropology
uses anthropological knowledge to identify and solve contemporary social problems
Age of classification and chronologies until mid-20th century (pt 1)
• From late 1800s - 1960, period called the "classificatory historical period." •Central concern - chronology (esp. regional chronologies) •Efforts to categorize, classify artifacts and connect them chronologically. •Inspired by work of anthropologists like F. Boas. •Created taxonomic systems. •E.g.) The Midwestern Taxonomic System (WC McKern) - correlated sequences in the Midwest by identifying similarities between artifact collections.
Basic Categories of Archaeological Evidence/Remains
•Archaeologists mainly study artifacts - items made used or modified by people of the past. They are also portable. •e.g.) a stone tool, pottery sherd, etc. •Also, we study ecofacts - these are organic and environmental remains, connected to humans. •e.g.) faunal and floral materials •Finally, we study features - these are nonportable artifacts. •e.g.) a hearth or a storage pit •We study the material remains located at sites, or places of human occupation and/or interaction. •e.g.) a town or a tell
dimensions of archaeology
•Archaeologists study written records (when available) and analyze artifacts, which are a part of the material culture of a past population. •As a discipline, archaeology straddles the line between the hard sciences and the humanities (e.g. history). •Timeframe goes beyond that of historians, though (beyond written records)* •Uses the scientific method and modern, technical methods (e.g. radiocarbon dating). •About asking the right questions, remaining objective, and using good methodology. •Can't just recreate the material culture of past populations. •Trying to develop a holistic and accurate picture of the past.
Development of Postprocessual Archaeology
•By the 1980s, the theoretical pendulum swung the other direction. •In response to the Processual view, see the development of Postprocessual archaeology.* Major proponent - Ian Hodder. •Collective group of views, theories and practices. •Argued for more openness to subjectivity and multiple viewpoints. •Emphasis on the use of personal and often humanistic insights to develop a range of different fields and interests. pg 30-31
Cultural Formation Processes (part 2)
•Concerned with deliberate burials, notably of valuables. •Intention to come back for the item (e.g. buried hoard) •Sometimes hard to tell, though, if the item was meant to be left indefinitely (e.g. hoard or an offering?) •Also concerned with the burial of human remains. •e.g.) Graves, tombs, mounds, remains and goods •These remains can illuminate things like belief systems. •Can also be destroyed - intentionally or otherwise. •e.g.) wiping the memory of a predecessor* •Destruction can also lead to preservation - e.g.) the power of preservation via fire of clay, wood or plants. Destruction of arch remains happening today at frightening pace.
Public Archaeology
•Developed in the late 20th century - about making archaeology accessible to the general public. •A part of the larger conversation surrounding artifact protection and preservation. •If a site or artifact was compromised, needed to have a record of its exsistence. •3 Important Concepts: See the material record as a public resources / if material record damaged, should mitigate the impact / the one doing the damaging should pay •Legal frameworks have been constructed to uphold these ideas. Here in the US, we have CRM (Cultural Resources Management
Development of Processual Archaeology
•Dissatisfaction in the field by the 1960s. Looking for a change in traditional archaeology. •A new approach developed out of this dissatisfaction - dubbed New Archaeology. Major proponent - L. Binford. •Pushed for logical arguments. Must be open to testing. •Concerned with process and progress. •Looking to track cultural change over time. Grand narrative. •Generally optimistic about potential of the field •From this, we get the development of Processual Archaeology. •Greatly influenced modern archaeological practices. pg 28-29
Speculative Phase and major figures (part 1)
•During the Renaissance (14th - 17th centuries), princes and people of refinement began to form "cabinets of curiosities." •Roman and Greek relics •18th century - researchers initiated excavation of some of the most prominent sites. •For example, the Roman city of Pompeii. •"The first scientific excavation in the history of archaeology" was conducted by Thomas Jefferson. •In 1784, he dug a trench or section across a burial mound on his property in Virginia. •Jefferson's work marks the beginning of the end of the Speculative Phase.Pg 16-17
Age of classification and chronologies until mid-20th century (pt 2)
•G. Childe - did similar work in Europe on prehistoric artifacts. •Work of the MTS and Childe similar, in that trying to answer 2 questions: 1.To what period do these artifacts date? 2.With which other materials do they belong? •Notice the emphasis here on categorization, not interpretation. •Tried to tie artifact groups (assemblages) to past populations. •Childe also argued for Near Eastern influences in Europe and introduced two "revolutions" from prehistory - the Neolithic and Urban Revolutions.*
New scientific advances
•Impt. scientific advances post WW2 changed archaeology. •Most notably - work of W. Libby - invention of radiocarbon dating. •Now archaeologists could directly determining the age of undated sites. Could focus on other questions beyond chronology. •True beginning of a new set of dating techniques - absolute dating techniques.* •More recent studies in biochemistry and molecular genetics (e.g. study of DNA) also opening the door to new levels of interpretation. pg.27
Natural Formation Processes (part 1)
•In general, inorganic materials survive better than organic ones. •Inorganic: the most common inorganic materials to survive archaeologically are stone, clay, and metals. •Stone tools can survive millions of years. Important artifact class for understanding early human history ( lithic industries). •Fired clay is nearly indestructible. Ceramics a major source of information for archaeologists. •Gold, silver and lead survive well. •Potentially destructive agents: acidic soil, humidity, and saltwater. •Deal with different circumstances in aquatic environments.
Development of the ecological approach
•J. Steward - N. American anthropologist. Like Childe, deeper more integrative thinker. Focused on the relationship btw. people and their environment. Developed idea of cultural ecology. •Influenced the work of G. Willey in Peru - focused on landscape and environment. •G. Clark - developed culture-historical approach. Focus on how humans interact with their environment, and what this tells us about people of the past. pg.26
Speculative Phase and major figures (part 2)
•Jefferson used a systematic approach to his burial mound excavations and came to some logical deductions. •Careful excavation led to the exposure of and study of strata (studied via stratigraphy). •Understood this burial mound had been used over time, by the ancestors of Native Americans.* •Few followed his lead in the Americas, but some conducting systematic excavations abroad (e.g. the work of RC Hoare and Cunnington England) •Became, in some ways, the basis of modern archaeology. pg 17-18
Importance of Context
•One artifact or ecofact can potentially illuminate a great deal of information. •e.g.) one pot can tell us about economic, dietary, technological and artistic details of the time. •Need to understand the context of a find, which is comprised of its matrix, provenience and association with other finds. •Material remains that have lost their context (e.g. due to looting or a disturbance) lose much of their archaeological value. •Context and its associated concepts are of supreme importance within archaeology.
Natural Formation Processes (part 2)
•Organic: Survival determined largely by the matrix, climate and natural disasters (occasionally). •The matrix is the sediment. Different sediments have different preservation levels. •e.g.) copper and chalk can have preservative powers, vs. acid with is mostly destructive. •Climate can be local or regional. Either can help with preservation. •e.g.) a dry cave can preserve bone and possibly soft tissue. Tropical locations are usually destructive (too wet and hot). •Natural disasters can preserve material remains. •e.g.) the eruption of Vesuvius (Pompeii) or the mud slide of Ozette, WA
Formation processes/challenges "Early man hunter or scavenger?"
•Our understanding of formation processes governs the way in which we interpret associations of human tools with animal bones from the fossil record in Africa. •Need to be able to distinguish between cultural and noncultural FPs.
Relationship between Processual and Postprocessual
•Postprocessualism is a critique of and reaction to processualism. •Both are a part of high-level anthropological theory. •Can be considered paradigms or frameworks for understanding (a research problem). •The paradigms we ascribe to affect our worldviews. Help us make sense of the world around us. •Today most people use a combination of processual and postprocessual views (often called processual +)
The work of archaeologists (areas of specialization)
•Some archaeologists study prehistory, or the period of history before human writing. •Some archaeologists study historical contexts, or more recent populations with established written records. •Some archaeologists study classical archaeology, or the societies of ancient Greece and Rome and their Mediterranean neighbors.
Field techniques (part 1)
•Sound field techniques developed in late 1800s. •General Pitt-Rivers - solider, used military precision to lead organized excavations in southern England. Everything recorded in detail, planned. Concerned with all artifacts. •W. Flinders Petrie - meticulous excavator. Collected and described everything. Worked in Egypt and Palestine. •D. Garrod - early female prehistorian, Cambridge instructor, excavated at Zarzi and Mount Carmel. Worked mainly in Middle East. Found an important hominin fossil (Neandertal) and the Natufian culture (early domesticators). •M. Wheeler - solider, military precision (like Pitt-Rivers) - used the grid system. Excavated at Maiden Castle in England and taught field methods in India.
Field techniques (part 2)
•Sound field techniques developed in late 1800s. •K. Kenyon - studied under Wheeler. Concerned with stratigraphy. Excavated at Jericho* and Jerusalem. •J. Tello - indigenous archaeologist. Studied archaeological heritage in Peru. Worked at very impt. site Chavin de Huantar. Studied rise of civilization in Peru. •A. Kidder - Studied American archaeology in Yucatan and SW America. Used specialist teams to finds. Created a blueprint for regional strategy. Included importance of reconnaissance.
History of Archaeology
•Throughout the history of archaeology, individuals and careers typify the time. •Their stories demonstrate the stages in the growth of the discipline and how goals and perspectives have changed. •The common thread is an interest in ancient objects as the source of information about the past.
Cultural Formation Processes (part 1)
•Two stages of CF: 1.Processes that reflect human activity before burial. 2.Processes that reflect human activity after burial. •Original human behavior is often reflected archaeologically in at least four major activities. In the case of a tool, there may be: 1.Acquisition of the raw material 2.Manufacture 3.Use (and distribution) 4.Disposal or discard when the tool is worn out or broken. A few important notes: •A tool can be recycled or reused, disturbing this process. •A tool can be discarded at any point in the process. An artifact can therefore be formed at any point along the way. •These inconsistences can make it difficult to assess the process of a material remain.