Anthro exam 1

features

Artifacts of human manufacture that can't be removed from an archaeological site. (ex. hearths, storage, pits, & buildings)

E. B. Tyler:

First definition of anthropology, defined culture using "man" and equating it with civilization and humanity; father of social anthropology

W. H. R. Rivers:??

Founding father of medical anthropolog...

Class, cultural capital :

Cultural capital is a concept, developed by sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, that can refer to both achieved and ascribed characteristics. They are desirable qualities (either material or symbolic) that contribute to one's social status; any advantages a person has which give him/her a higher status in society. It may include high expectations, forms of knowledge, skill, and education, among other things...Parents provide children with cultural capital, the attitudes and knowledge that make the educational system a comfortable familiar place in which they can succeed easily. There are other types of capital as well; Social capital refers to ones membership in groups, relationships, and networks. It too can have a significant impact on achievement level.

Reflexivity:

Reflexivity refers to circular relationships between cause and effect. A reflexive relationship is bidirectional with both the cause and the effect affecting one another in a situation that does not render both functions causes and effects. In sociology, reflexivity therefore comes to mean an act of self-reference where examination or action "bends back on", refers to, and affects the entity instigating the action or examination...To this extent it commonly refers to the capacity of an agent to recognize forces of socialization and alter their place in the social structure. A low level of reflexivity would result in an individual shaped largely by their environment (or 'society'). A high level of social reflexivity would be defined by an individual shaping their own norms, tastes, politics, desires, and so on. This is similar to the notion of autonomy

Max Weber:

German sociologist that regarded the development of rational social orders as humanity's greatest achievement. Saw bureaucratization (the process whereby labor is divided into an organized community and individuals acquire a sense of personal identity by finding roles for themselves in large systems) as the driving force in modern society....emphasized understanding a particular setting from the point of view of the person in it. Pioneer of interpretive sociology.

Artifacts

Human-made objects, such as tools and jewelry.

Metaphor and metonymy:

Metonymy (/mɨˈtɒnɨmi/ mi-tonn-ə-mee)[1] is a figure of speech in which a thing or concept is called not by its own name but rather by the name of something associated in meaning with that thing or concept.[2]...For instance, "Hollywood" is used as a metonym for the U.S. film industry because of the fame and cultural identity of Hollywood, a district of the city of Los Angeles, California, as the historical center of film studios and film stars

Edward Sapir:

Native Americans. development of linguistic anthropology.

Kula ring:

New Guinea. .. Bronislaw Malinowski,... Trobriand Islands, and established that they were part of a system of exchange (the Kula ring),"The Gift" ("Essai sur le don," 1925).[2] Since then, the Kula ring has been central to the continuing anthropological debate on the nature of gift giving, and the existence of "gift economies."....The kula ring is the classic example of gift exchange, the best-known form of primitive economics.

ecofacts

Non-artifactual organic and environmental remains which have cultural relevance, e.g. faunal and floral material as well as soils and sediments., Natural materials used by humans., The environmental remains from past human social contexts, including wood, seeds, pollen, animal bones, and shells.

Lesley Sharp

Organ Transplantation as a Transformative Experience: Anthropological Insights into the Restructuring of the Self

Organs Watch and organ transplantation:

Organs Watch, an organization dedicated to research on the global traffic in human organs, tracking the movements of people and organs around the globe, as well as the global inequities that facilitate this trade

Participant observation

Participant observation is one type of data collection method typically done in the qualitative research paradigm. It is a widely used methodology in many disciplines, particularly cultural anthropology, less so in sociology, communication studies, and social psychology. Its aim is to gain a close and intimate familiarity with a given group of individuals (such as a religious, occupational, sub cultural group, or a particular community) and their practices through an intensive involvement with people in their cultural environment, usually over an extended period of time. The method originated in the field research of social anthropologists, especially Bronisław Malinowski in Britain, the students of Franz Boas in the United States, and in the later urban research of the Chicago School of sociology...Such research involves a range of well-defined, though variable methods: informal interviews, direct observation, participation in the life of the group, collective discussions, analyses of personal documents produced within the group, self-analysis, results from activities undertaken off or online, and life-histories. Although the method is generally characterized as qualitative research, it can (and often does) include quantitative dimensions. Traditional participant observation is usually undertaken over an extended period of time, ranging from several months to many years, and even generations. An extended research time period means that the researcher is able to obtain more detailed and accurate information about the individuals, community, and/or population under study. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participant_observation#Method_and_practice

Marx and relations of production:

Relations of production (German: Produktionsverhältnisse) is a concept frequently used by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in their theory of historical materialism, and in Das Kapital. It is first explicitly used in Marx's published book The Poverty of Philosophy, although the concept is already defined in The German Ideology...By "relations of production", Marx and Engels meant the sum total of social relationships that people must enter into, in order to survive, to produce and reproduce their means of life. As people must enter into these social relationships, i.e. because participation in them is not voluntary, the totality of these relationships constitute a relatively stable and permanentstructure, the "economic structure".

Cross-cultural comparison

a methodology for testing a hypothesis using a sample of societies drawn from around the world., Comparison of various psychological, sociological, or cultural factors in order to assess the similarities or diversities occurring in two or more different cultures or societies.

native ethnography

a person who studies their own culture, but a different segment

Claude Lévi-Strauss:

anthropologist and ethnologist, and has been called, along with James George Frazer and Franz Boas,[4] the "father of modern anthropology". The work of Lévi-Strauss was also key in the development of the theory of structuralism and structural anthropology.[6] ....He argued that the "savage" mind had the same structures as the "civilized" mind and that human characteristics are the same everywhere.[7]Structuralism has been defined as "the search for the underlying patterns of thought in all forms of human activity."

Marilyn Strathern:

argued that the concept of gender needed to be understood even more broadly bc members of many societies regularly drew upon sexual imagery to categories other kinds of peoples, things and events.

Emily Martin:

author of ethnography The Woman in the Body; ethnographic study conducted in Baltimore, MD; argued the body of women has become alienated from the woman herself as a human and viewed as a factory as internal functions of the body are categorized and simplified and dehumanized as simple functions of baby output instead of a human with complex processes ; medical community seeks to control women and behavior and the terms and texts they use designate social control over the body

Toponymy :

b. The study of such place names.t he place names of a region or language.

Clyde Kluckhohn:

basso's professor who said the most interesting thing you can know about somebody is what they say about themselves..

Annette Weiner???:

noticed inconsistencies in Malinowski's work (ones that he acknowledged). realized that the women's importance in society was ECONOMIC, not reproductive... 1970s followed Malinowski. women had high status in the island, and Malinowski attributed this to the fact that trobrianders are matriarchal (trobriand islands)

Paul Farmer:

physician and anthropologist who treats the poorest and sickest individuals in Haiti; founded "Partners in Health," works to find c ure for drug-resistant form of Tuberculosis in Haiti... looked at infectious diseases around the world and why they're coming back

Rationalization and bureaucracy

rationalization refers to the replacement of traditions, values, and emotions as motivators for behavior in society with rational, calculated ones. For example, the implementation of bureaucracies in government is a kind of rationalization, as is the construction of high-efficiency living spaces in architecture and urban planning. Many sociologists, critical theorists and contemporary philosophers have argued that rationalization, as falsely assumed progress, has a negative and dehumanizing effect on society, moving modernity away from the central tenets of enlightenment.[1] The founders of sociology were acting as a critical reaction to rationalization:

inductive method

reasoning from detailed facts to general principles

Armchair ethnology

remote from actual involvement,,armchair warriors in the Pentagon"; "an armchair anthropologist"

Modernity and post-modernity

Postmodernity (also spelled post-modernity or termed the postmodern condition) is generally used to describe the economic or cultural state or condition of society which is said to exist after modernity. Some schools of thought hold that modernity ended in the late 20th century, in the 1980s or early 1990s[1] replaced by postmodernity, while others would extend modernity to cover the developments denoted by postmodernity, while some believe that modernity ended after World War II. Postmodernity can mean a personal response to a postmodern society, the conditions in a society which make it postmodern or the state of being that is associated with a postmodern society. In most contexts it should be distinguished from postmodernism, the adoption of postmodern philosophies or traits in art, literature, culture and society.

Jim Yong Kim:

President of the World Bank..structural violenc...partners in health..A Korean-American doctor, he becomes entranced by the work Paul is doing in Haiti. He works alongside him for several years and then begins his own clinics to try to control the TB epidemic in Peru. He comes to like the political side of world health care and eventually becomes the senior advisor to the director of the World Health Organization in 2003.

Institutions and total institutions:

A total institution is a place of work and residence where a great number of similarly situated people, cut off from the wider community for a considerable time, together lead an enclosed, formally administered round of life..The term is sometimes credited as having been coined and defined by American sociologist Erving Goffman in his paper "On the Characteristics of Total Institutions", presented in April 1957 at the Walter Reed Institute's Symposium on Preventive and Social Psychiatry.[5]:1 An expanded version appeared inDonald Cressey's collection, The Prison

Ascribed and achieved statuses:

Achieved status vs. ascribed status Ascribed status is a position assigned to individuals or groups based on traits beyond their control, such as sex, race, or parental social status. This is usually associated with "closed" societies. Achieved status is distinguished from ascribed status by virtue of being earned...Many positions are a mixture of achievement and ascription; for instance, a person who has achieved the status of being a doctor is more likely to have the ascribed status of being born into a wealthy family. This is usually associated with "open" societies or "social" class societies.

Flora

All the plant life in a particular region

Structure, function, and process:

American Anthropologist, Published by: Wiley on behalf of the American Anthropological Association

Emic and etic explanations:

An emic view is the view from within, the etic view is the view from outside. Emic is what a person IN the culture studied would have, and an anthropologist would take an outsider's view. ,,,,,,,For example all cultures have a taboo on incest. The emic view would be the cultural logic that makes the taboo logical for that culture such as a positive one - when you marry outside your family you extend your family's influence. ...The etic view might point to a Darwinian explanation concerning the problems you can get with offspring if you marry someone with similar genes.

Franz Boas:

Anthropologist who challenged scientific racism and evolutionary constructions of racial hierarchyAmerican anthropologist, "father of american anthropology." Believed every culture is unique, created historical particularism/historicism. First to insist that cultural anthropologists conduct firsthand fieldwork. Challenged unilineal evolutionists' concept of stages. In doing so, he made many lasting contributions, including popularizing the notion of cultural relativism and marshaling evidence that cultural differences and biological differences are largely independent of each other.

ethnography' in anthropology

Anthropology is the discipline as a whole, ethnography is that part of an anthropological research when an anthropologist is collecting field data. An ethnographer is a field researcher. It is usually seen as a specific methodology by other disciplines like psychology so a psychologist uses the "ethnographic" method when he observes his patient in his everyday surroundings.

Applied anthropology:

Applied Anthropology refers to the application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems. Kedia and Van Willigen's examination on Applied Anthropology: Domains of Application defines the process as a, "complex of related, research-based, instrumental methods which produce change or stability in specific cultural systems through the provision of data, initiation of direct action, and/or the formulation of policy".[1] More simply, applied anthropology is the praxis-based side of anthropological research; it includes researcher involvement and activism within the participating community.

Audit cultures (???):

Audit Cultures: Anthropological Studies in Accountability, Ethics and the Academy

Alfred Kroeber:

Began the first anthropology dept. in the western US at UC Berkeley in the early 20th C.; he and students engaged in "salvage" ethnography, trying to preserve/ record all ethnographic information they could before old California Indians, who remembered pre-contact life, died off; father of California ethnography....Wrote first anthro textbook. Friends with Ishi last wild california indian

Ethnocentrism

Belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group.

Bronislaw Malinowski:

British anthropologist (born in Poland) who introduced the technique of the participant observer (1884-1942) ...Field work! Embedded himself in the world that he studie...Father of ethnograph; salvage ethnograph; emphasized EMIC perspective; all aspects of culture intertwinedBritish anthropologist (born in Poland) who introduced the technique of the participant observer, functionalism, and holism.

Margaret Mead:

Coming of Age in Samoa... A pioneering anthropologist who found that gender roles were not innate properties and could vary widely among societies... A pioneering anthropologist who found that gender roles were not innate properties and could vary widely among societies

Anthropology and its sub-disciplines

Cultural Anthropology Biological or Physical Anthropology Linguistic Anthropology Archaeology

deductive method

Method developed by Descartes that stated a conclusion can be reached using prior known facts( general to specific)

Neoliberalism:

A political movement beginning in the 1960s that blends traditional liberal concerns for social justice with an emphasis on economic growth.

Archaeology

A scientific investigation of the cultural remains of people in the past, The branch of anthropology that studies prehistoric people and their cultures

Lewis Henry Morgan:

United States anthropologist who studied the Seneca (1818-1881), postulated theory of human development in which human societies evolved through 3 stages- savagery, barbarism, civilization; passage from one stage to the other was enabled by some technological revolution...founder of kinship studies. Greatest contribution: reconstructing the evolution of kinship........One of the first to conduct anthropological research of the aboriginal peoples of North America. Believed that each culture should be judged by its own standards and values, not Western ones,,,Anthropologist who challenged scientific racism and evolutionary constructions of racial hierarchy

Michel Foucault (?):

French philosopher who was deeply concerned with who is and who is not allowed to speak in a society.

Cultural Anthropology

Looks at how culture shapes the way people live

Culture and its characteristics

: 1. The Concept of Culture 2. Holistic Approach 3. Field Work

Joan Cassell:

? -believes in subjectivity over objectivity

Linguistic Anthropology

Studies language in its social and cultural context, across space and over time., Study of human languages

Habitus:

The physical and constitutional characteristics of an individual, especially as related to the tendency to develop a certain disease.

fauna

all the animal life in a particular region

Nancy Scheper-Hughes:

Wrote Death Without Weeping, documenting the seeming indifference to infant death in NE Brazilian shantytowns...Human organ traffiking, violence, Brazilian infant deaths

Ethnography

A detailed description of a particular culture primarily based on fieldwork., A detailed study of the life and activities of a group of people by researchers who may live with that group over a period of years, A research method that attempts to understand the beliefs, practices, and behaviors of the culture of study from the perspective of those living within the culture

Thick description

'Thick Description' is a term used by the distinguished anthropologist Clifford Geertz....Geertz described how he had taken the term 'Thick Description' from the philosopher Gilbert Ryle, who distinguished between a 'thin description' of, for example, a physical action, and a 'thick description' which includes the context: when and where the action took place, who performed it and their intentions in doing so.

Studying up:

'study of the colonizers rather than the colonized, the culture of power rather than the culture of the powerless, the culture of affluence rather than the culture of poverty.'"[4]

Clifford Geertz:

(1926) American anthropologist; worked in field of symbolic anthropology, which attributes special importance to thoughts (symbols)...

Joking and avoidance relationships:

A joking relationship is a term applied by anthropologists to the institutionalised form of interaction between certain pairs of people in some societies. Analysed by British social anthropologist Alfred Radcliffe-Brown in 1940,[1] it describes a kind of ritualised banter that takes place, for example between a man and his maternal mother-in-law in some South African tribal societies. Two main variations are described: an asymmetrical relationship where one party is required to take no offence at constant teasing or mocking by the other, and a symmetrical relationship where each party makes fun at the other's expense...While first encountered by Radcliffe-Brown in the 1920s, this type of relationship is now understood to be very widespread across societies in general..oking relationship, relationship between two individuals or groups that allows or requires unusually free verbal or physical interaction. The relationship may be mutual (symmetrical) or formalized in such a way that one person or group does the teasing and the other is not allowed to retaliate (asymmetrical). The type of interaction varies and may include light teasing, chastisement, verbal abuse, sexual ribaldry, or horseplay...Joking relationships generally occur in one of three forms, all of which are generally found in situations in which conflict or rivalry is possible but must be avoided. In one form, it is used as an instrument of social sanction, with the joker calling public attention to an individual or a group that has behaved in a socially unacceptable way. When such a relationship obtains between groups, the jocularity or critique, although disrespectful, expresses the separateness of the groups in a manner that averts actual conflict...The second form of joking relationship is often found in association with the avoidance relationship, which limits direct personal contact and maintains an extreme degree of respect between categories of people. In such cases, joking relationships are typically prescribed between people of opposite sex who are potential partners in marriage or sexual relations, while avoidance relations are required between persons of opposite sex for whom marital or sexual relations are forbidden. Both of these customs—viewed as points along a continuum of respectful behaviour ranging from avoidance to license—act to stabilize relations that might be subject to conflict. For example, in many cultures a man must avoid his mother-in-law and joke with his sisters-in-law, while a woman must avoid her father-in-law and joke with her brothers-in-law...The third common form of joking relationship occurs between people of alternating generations. In these cases, grandparents and grandchildren share an especially fond relationship that is characterized by interactions ranging from gentle teasing to explicit or ribald descriptions of one another's body parts or bodily functions. In contrast, relationships between parents and children tend to be more formal and oriented toward discipline. As with the other forms, this kind of joking relationship separates people into those from whom one may expect social support and those from whom one may expect social sanction............Formal rules for avoidance have generally been interpreted by anthropologists as a sign of respect rather than of bad feelings. Where the potential for strain is evident, however, the avoidance of contact serves to prevent, or at least to minimize, socially undesirable events or situations. Thus, in many groups, avoidance relationships are practiced by persons between whom marital or sexual relations are forbidden. A classic example—and one found in numerous and diverse societies—is the mutual avoidance of a mother-in-law and her sons-in-law. In some societies the ideal traditional marriage might join a bride with a groom who is 10-15 years her senior—and often much older than that. In such situations, mothers-in-law and sons-in-law are likely to be of approximately the same age and therefore to be potential (if illicit) sexual partners. The avoidance relationship circumvents such liaisons, at least notionally, by proscribing contact between these individuals. Similar patterns of avoidance have been noted in brother-sister, father-daughter, and father-in-law-daughter-in-law relations.

Boas on race and racism

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Careers in anthropology

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Culture shock

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Human rights

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IMPORTANT SITE: http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~rfrey/220culture.html

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Karl Marx(?)

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Notes and queries approach

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Values Orientation Theory

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William Sewell

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Interpretive Anthropology..

.Symbolic Anthropologist who was interested in the role of thought and meaning in cultures. Saidoutlined culture as "a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which people communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life"

Materialism:

Cultural materialism is an anthropological research orientation first introduced by Marvin Harris in his 1968 book The Rise of Anthropological Theory,[1] as a theoretical paradigm and research strategy. Indeed it is said to be the most enduring achievement of that work.[2] Harris subsequently developed a full elaboration and defense of the paradigm in his 1979 book Cultural Materialism.[3] To Harris, cultural materialism "is based on the simple premise that human social life is a response to the practical problems of earthly existence".[4]...Harris's concept of cultural materialism was influenced by the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, yet is a materialism distinct from Marxist dialectical materialism, as well as from philosophical materialism.[5] Thomas Malthus's work encouraged Harris to consider reproduction of equal importance to production. The research strategy was also influenced by the work of earlier anthropologists including Herbert Spencer, Edward Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan who, in the 19th century, first proposed that cultures evolved from the less complex to the more complex over time. Leslie White and Julian Steward and their theories of cultural evolution and cultural ecology were instrumental in the reemergence of evolutionist theories of culture in the 20th century and Harris took inspiration from them in formulating cultural materialism. It was in 1968 with Harris's The Rise of Anthropological Theory, a wide-ranging critique of Western thinking about culture, that he first proposed the name.

Cultural relativism :

Cultural relativism is a principle that was established as axiomatic in anthropological research by Franz Boas in the first few decades of the 20th century and later popularized by his students. Boas first articulated the idea in 1887: "...civilization is not something absolute, but ... is relative, and ... our ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization goes."[1] However, Boas did not coin the term.

Ruth Benedict:

Developed the "culture and personality" movement, establishing the study of cultures as collective personalities.

Ethics:

Disclosure: Anthropologists should be open and honest with subjects, funding providers and colleagues about the intent of their research, the possible impact of that research and any sources of support. Do No Harm: Researchers should avoid causing harm when performing studies. Knowledge garnered from research may have both positive and negative effects on people in the study. Identification: Anthropologists must confirm in advance whether their subjects wish to be identified in the study. Researchers should strive to comply with participants' wishes. It is the responsibility of the researcher to inform subjects that despite the researcher's best efforts, it is possible their identities may be disclosed. Consent: Researchers must have consent from study participants for the duration of the project. Consent may have different definitions and forms depending on the host country's, or community's, codes, laws and regulations. Respect: Anthropologists should maintain respect for the communities studied whether they be humans or their habitats.

Ethnographic present

Ethnography written as if the people still lived that way today - even though their culture may have changed., Use of the present tense to describe a culture, although the description may refer to situations that existed in the past.

Ethnoscience:

Ethnoscience's focus was not always different from the ideas of "cognitive anthropology", "component analysis," or "the New Ethnography"; it is a specialization of indigenous knowledge systems, such as Ethno-botany, ethno-zoology, ethno-medicine, etc. (Atran, 1991: 595)". According to Scott Atran, ethnoscience looks at culture with a scientific perspective (1991: 650), although most anthropologists abhor this definition. Ethnoscience helps to understand how people develop with different forms of knowledge and beliefs, and focuses on the ecological and historical contributions people have been given (Atran, 1991: 650). Tim Ingold describes ethnoscience as being a cross-discipline (2000: 160)...Early on, Franz Boas established cultural relativism as an approach to understanding indigenous scientific practices (Uddin, 2005: 980). Cultural relativism identifies people's differences and shows how they are a result of the social, historical, and geographical conditions (Uddin, 2005: 980). Boas is known for his work in Northern Vancouver, Canada, working with the Kwakwaka'wakw Indians, which is where he established the importance of culture (Uddin, 2005: 980). Lévi-Strauss' structuralism was a strong contributor to the ideas of ethnoscience (Uddin, 2005: 980). It?, itself, was the leading idea of providing structure to the research and a guide to organizing and relating different cultures. "Ethnoscience refers to a 'reduction of chaos' achieved by a particular culture, rather than to the 'highest possible and conscious degree' to which such chaos may be reduced;" basically, the ethnoscience of a society creates its culture (Sturtevant, 1964: 100). Much of the influence of anthropology, e.g., geographical determinism, was through the contributions of Jean Bodin (Harris, 1968: 42). In his text, he tried to explain why "northern people were faithful, loyal to the government, cruel, and sexually uninterested, compared to why southern people were malicious, craft, wise, expert in science but ill-adapted to political activity (Harris, 1968: 52)." The Greek historian, Polybius, asserted "we mortals have an irresistible tendency to yield to climatic influences; and to this cause, and no other, may be traced the great distinctions that prevail among us in character, physical formation, complexion, as well as in most of our habits..." (quoted in Harris, 1968: 41).

Manifest and latent functions:

Manifest and latent functions are social scientific concepts first clarified for sociology by Robert K. Merton.[1] Merton appeared interested in sharpening the conceptual tools to be employed in a functional analysis...Manifest functions and dysfunctions are conscious and deliberate, the latent ones the unconscious and unintended.[2] While functions are intended (manifest) or unintended (latent), and have a positive effect on society, dysfunctions are unintended or unrecognized (latent) and have a negative effect on society.[3]... Manifest functions are the ones that are pre-planned or conscious. Latent functions are unintended and unconscious. ..So you come home and drink a beer. The manifest function would be that you become intoxicated. The latent function is that you are increasing your tolerance, possibly damaging your liver, or making you sleepy.

Bricolage:

In his book The Savage Mind (1962, English translation 1966), French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss used "bricolage" to describe the characteristic patterns of mythological thought. In his description it is opposed to the engineers' creative thinking, which proceeds from goals to means. Mythical thought, according to Levi-Strauss, attempts to re-use available materials in order to solve new problems.[3]...Jacques Derrida extends this notion to any discourse. "If one calls bricolage the necessity of borrowing one's concept from the text of a heritage which is more or less coherent or ruined, it must be said that every discourse is bricoleur." [4]

Holism:

In the anthropological search to understand culture, anthropologists attempt to study of what it means to be "human" in its most comprehensive and inclusive expressions - historically, biologically, linguistically, and culturally. It is the study of all peoples of the past and of the contemporary. The term "anthropology" is from the Greek word, anthropos, meaning "human" and logia, meaning "knowledge," i.e, the study and knowledge of humanity. Anthropology is a holistic approach.

Agency and structure:

In the social sciences there is a standing debate over the primacy of structure or agency in shaping human behavior.Agency is the capacity of individuals to act independently and to make their own free choices.[1] Structure is the recurrent patterned arrangements which influence or limit the choices and opportunities available.[1] The structure versus agency debate may be understood as an issue of socialization against autonomy in determining whether an individual acts as a free agent or in a manner dictated by social structure.

Alma Ata Declaration, 1978

It expressed the need for urgent action by all governments, all health and development workers, and the world community to protect and promote the health of all people. It was the first international declaration underlining the importance of primary health care. The primary health care approach has since then been accepted by member countries of the World Health Organization (WHO) as the key to achieving the goal of "Health For All" but only in third world countries at first this the applied to all other countries five year later.

Frank Cushing:

Lived with Zuni people for 5 years so he could learn more about their culture, worked for BAE..... "Going Native," established participant observation

Torres Strait Expedition Torres Straits Expedition[edit source]

Rivers recognised in himself "the desire for change and novelty, which is one of the strongest aspects of my mental makeup"[33] and, while fond of St. John's,[34] the staid lifestyle of his Cambridge existence showed in signs of nervous strain and led him to experience periods of depression.[19]..The turning point came in 1898 when Alfred Cort Haddon seduced "Rivers from the path of virtue... (for psychology then was a chaste science)... into that of anthropology:"[35] He made Rivers first choice to head an expedition to the Torres Straits.[8] Rivers's first reaction was to decline, but he soon agreed on learning that C.S Myers and William McDougall, two of his best former students, would participate.[8] The other members were Sidney Ray, C.G Seligman, and a young Cambridge graduate named Anthony Wilkin, who was asked to accompany the expedition as photographer.[8] In April 1898, the Europeans were transported with gear and apparatus to the Torres Straits. Rivers was said to pack only a small handbag of personal effects for such field trips.[1]

Structural Adjustment Programs:

Structural adjustments are the policies implemented by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (the Bretton Woods Institutions) indeveloping countries. These policy changes are conditions for receiving new loans from the IMF or World Bank or for obtaining lower interest rates on existing loans. Conditions are implemented to ensure that the money lent will be spent in accordance with the overall goals of the loan. Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) are created with the goal of reducing the borrowing country's fiscal imbalances. The bank from which a borrowing country receives its loan depends upon the type of necessity. SAPs are supposed to allow the economies of the developing countries to become more market oriented. This then forces them to concentrate more on trade and production so it can boot their economy.[1]

Structuralism:

Structural anthropology is based on Claude Lévi-Strauss' idea that people think about the world in terms of binary opposites—such as high and low, inside and outside, person and animal, life and death—and that every culture can be understood in terms of these opposites. "From the very start," he wrote, "the process of visual perception makes use of binary oppositions." [Structuralism and Ecology, 1972]...Lévi-Strauss' approach arose, fundamentally, from the philosophy of Hegel who explains that in every situation there can be found two opposing things and their resolution; he called these "thesis, antithesis, and synthesis." Lévi-Strauss argued that, in fact, cultures have this structure. He showed, for example, how opposing ideas would fight and also be resolved in the rules of marriage, in mythology, and in ritual. This approach, he felt, made for fresh new ideas.

Functionalism and structural-functionalism:

Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.[1] This approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation, which is a broad focus on the social structures that shape society as a whole, and believes that society has evolved like organisms.[2] This approach looks at both social structure and social functions. Functionalism addresses society as a whole in terms of the function of its constituent elements; namely norms, customs, traditions, and institutions. A common analogy, popularized by Herbert Spencer, presents these parts of society as "organs" that work toward the proper functioning of the "body" as a whole.[3] In the most basic terms, it simply emphasizes "the effort to impute, as rigorously as possible, to each feature, custom, or practice, its effect on the functioning of a supposedly stable, cohesive system". For Talcott Parsons, "structural-functionalism" came to describe a particular stage in the methodological development of social science, rather than a specific school of thought.[4][5] The structural functionalism approach is a macrosociological analysis, with a broad focus on social structures that shape society as a whole.[6]

Alma Ata Declaration, 1978:

The Declaration of Alma-Ata was adopted at the International Conference on Primary Health Care (PHC), Almaty (formerly Alma-Ata), Kazakhstan (formerlyKazakh Soviet Socialist Republic), 6-12 September 1978.[1] It expressed the need for urgent action by all governments, all health and development workers, and the world community to protect and promote the health of all people. It was the first international declaration underlining the importance of primary health care. The primary health care approach has since then been accepted by member countries of the World Health Organization (WHO) as the key to achieving the goal of "Health For All" but only in third world countries at first this the applied to all other countries five year later.

Division of labor:

The division of labour is the specialisation of cooperating individuals who perform specific tasks and roles. Historically, an increasingly complex division of labour is associated with the growth of total output and trade, the rise of capitalism, and of the complexity of industrialised processes. The concept and implementation of division of labour has been observed in ancient Sumerian (Mesopotamian) culture, where assignment of jobs in some cities coincided with an increase in trade and economic interdependence. In addition to trade and economic interdependence, division of labour generally increases both producer and individual worker productivity...In contrast to division of labour, division of work refers to the division of a large task, contract, or project into smaller tasks — each with a separate schedule within the overall project schedule. Division of labour, instead, refers to the allocation of tasks to individuals or organisations according to the skills and/or equipment those people or organisations possess. Often division of labour and division of work are both part of the economic activity within an industrial nation or organisation.

Multi-sited ethnography

The investigation and documentation of peoples and cultures embedded in the larger structures of a globalizing world, utilizing a range of methods in various locations of time and space.

Physical Anthropology

The science concerned with the comparative study of human evolution, variation and classification through measurement and observation., Looks at the ways in which humans are similar to and different from other species

Marcel Mauss:

This French sociologist wrote the essay, The Gift, in which he argued that gift giving necessitates reciprocity, which in turn creates relationships of obligation and dependency between people....

Pierre Bourdieu:

This person believes that "Class" is a culture, & meanings are produced through signs/texts.. Habitus (socialization through development of specific habits).. argues that there are several forms of capital which may be reproduced and not simply the economic form which we have discussed as embodied labor. Capital takes time to accumulate and is reproduced in such a way so as to create constraints in the social world... Theory of social reproduction

Benjamin Lee Whorf:

concept of "liguistic determinism".. or how language impacts thought.. A linguist who noticed that the more words that you have for a certain type of thing, the more subtle the distinctions you recognize in it.

Julian Steward:

developed the concept and method of cultural ecology; cultures interact with each other and the environment.. CULTURE is the primary adaptive mechanism.

Lila Abu-Lughod:

said that people are all fundamentally the same just how they approach these fundamental beliefs differ, looked at pregnancy in Bedouin women and American women. ...(Do Muslim Women Really Need Saving? Anthropological Reflections on Cultural Relativism and Its Others") "Projects of saving other women depend on and reinforce a sense of superiority by Westerners, a form of arrogance that deserves to be challenged... Missionary work and colonial feminism belong in the past. Our task is to critically explore what we might do to help create a world in which those poor Afghan women, for whom "the hearst of those in the civilized world break", can have safety and decent lives..... Contemporary American anthropologist who wrote about American misperceptions of Islamic women, and argued that to be cultural relative merely means accepting the possibility of difference, not complete passivity (extreme cultural relativism)

Emile Durkheim:

showed that human social behavior must be explained by social factors rather than psychological.. Believed in functionalism and the scientific method;...."the metaphysician;" mechanical and organic solidarity; statistical techniques; saw society as a set of independent parts that maintain a system but each separate part has a function

social ecology

social, institutional, and cultural contexts of people (environmental relations); Involves intervention at the intrapersonal and interpersonal level, Health Perspective that takes into account the social, political, and economic milieu in which people exist is

A. R. Radcliffe-Brown:

structural functionalism: cultural traits mantain the stability of society...tudied structural functionalism; theorized that social practices (customs) come to fit with one another using term 'coadaption'; as a result, these pracitices benefit the stability of society as a whole and are key to maintaining social order

ethnology

the branch of anthropology that deals with the division of humankind into races and with their origins and distribution and distinctive characteristics, the branch of anthropology that deals with the division of humankind into races and with their origins and distribution and distinctive characteristics, Aspect of cultural anthropology involved with building theories about cultural behaviors and forms.

Garbology

the study of a society by analyzing its garbage

subjectivity

the subject matter of a conversation or discussion, judgment based on individual personal impressions and feelings and opinions rather than external facts

institutions

when patterns of behaviour and ideology become relatively discerete, enduring, and autonomous...we call these patterns institutions

Mechanical Solidarity and Organic Solidarity

Émile Durkheim. The Division of Labour in Society (1893). Mechanical solidarity.. rural, populations that have a relatively homogenous population. The connections between people are usually based on customs handed down from generation to generation, and feelings of obligation to others. The population will usually have a shared set of values and beliefs, which may be characterised by a shared dominant religion. This will produce a strong sense of social cohesion. There may be little individual freedom, in terms of potential occupations and mates, because of a strict kinship system. Organic solidarity is normally characterised by larger populations which may be spread out over far larger areas. There will inevitably be a more complex division or labour, where members of the community are more dependent on others to fulfil their economic function. There tends to be fewer shared beliefs and values, with greater individual freedoms. Social relationships are controlled by a formal legal system, which will be founded on restitutive sanctions which aim to redress social wrong doings.