ANTHRO Test 2

A. sediba

(1.9-1.7 mya) (South Africa) Probably descended from Australopithecus africanus Shares more anatomical features with early Homo than does any other australopithecine Differences with A. africanus: Cranial vault is more expanded Zygomatic arch is less flared Teeth and mandible more Homo-like (vertical and smaller) MH1-420 cc cranium Based on analysis of deposits on tooth enamel, A. sediba consumed hard foods such as tree leaves, fruits, wood, bark and grasses and sedges.

A. bahrelghazeli

(1995 discovery) (3.5-3 mya) from Chad (2500 km west of rift valley) known only from a lower jaw, isolated upper premolar, and a maxilla. premolars have 3 roots but in afarensis, only 1 or 2 This species has a more vertical mandibular symphysis (division between 2 halves of lower jaw) than the other species of Australopithecus.

Homo habilis (early Homo)

(2.5 mya) was first tool maker and had more human-like hands & larger brain Initially described by Leakey based on finds of 7 cranial and post-cranial specimens at Olduvai Gorge associated with animal bones and stone tools (e.g., choppers and flake tools). Tools used to break into and retrieve bone marrow from leg bones of hoofed mammals remaining from carnivore kills. These include OH 24 (from Lower Bed I) and OH 62 (a surface find associated with the Lower Bed I deposits) Physical attributes: 3.4 -4.4 ft. tall, 70 lbs., reduced facial structure and 600 -750 cc brain size (betw. Australopithecus and Homo erectus) upper & lower jaws less robust than Australopithecus and the anterior (front) teeth are large reduction in size of sagittal crest in occipital region (back of skull). 2.5-1.5 mya East and South Africa First major increase in cranial expansion (bell-shaped skull) Earliest stone tool maker Earliest member of genus Homo Last exclusively African member of genus Homo Long curved fingers and toes No language

A. garhi

(2.5 mya) (Ethiopia) from Bouri site, shallow freshwater lake basin represented by post cranial bones, maxilla, teeth, skull fragments canines and pre-molars larger than A. afarensis sagittal crest 450 cc brain prognathous face and jaw like A. afarensis elongated femurs (like Homo sapiens) considerable variety in size and robusticity stone tools and animal bones (antelope, horse) with butchering marks (hammerstone impact) nearby but no clear association Shorter arms/ longer legs (more human-like)

Kenyanthropus platyops

(3.5-3.2 mya) Lake Turkana in northern Kenya (Flat-faced man of Kenya) 30 skull and tooth fragments found : KNM WT 40000 environment setting: mixed woodland and grassland (flat nasal margins on a large flat face; has some traits of chimpanzees and A. anamensis (small ear canal), thick enamel on molars like A. afarensis but small molars; small brain) New genus with derived features makes it incompatible with existing genera. Mosaics of physical features exist in all early hominids, not simple successions of primitive and derived features Between 3.5 and 2 mya there were several hominid species that were well-adapted to very different habitats. There were complex radiations in which species evolved, diversified, and speciated rapidly

Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy)

(4-3 mya) find by Donald Johanson in Hadar region of Ethiopia deep erosional cuts revealed Pliocene and Pleistocene strata in northern rift valley Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis) fossils (skeleton 40% complete) show that fully bipedal posture pre-dates increase in brain size (Lucy cranial capacity 450 cc) more than 300 specimens (individuals) show long forearms (more chimp-like than human) compared to length of humerus (short and robust) elongated body trunk brain like a chimp (380-500 cc) (chimp's brain = ca. 400 cc). 3 to 4 feet tall and 30-60 kilograms (ca. 65-130 lbs) males up to 5 feet tall marked sexual dimorphism limb proportions are intermediate between living chimps and humans but other features (e.g. curved phalanges and other features suggesting suspensory posture) are very chimp-like U-shaped palate (ape-like). The human palate is parabolic shaped. ape-like gap or diastema in the tooth pattern though molars were small and human-like and canines were reduced. 1st premolar is primitive compared to later hominids (shape is pongid-like as A. ramidus) molars in general are large with low cusps and thick enamel like some Miocene apes Donald Johanson (discoverer of "Lucy") believes that A. afarensis is a common ancestor of many later hominids, including A. africanus. forest dwelling physique: curved finger and toe bones and ape-like wrist bones heavy use of back and neck (climbing, lifting, carrying function)

A. anamensis

(4.2-3.9 MYA) reported by Meave Leakey (1994) -Lake Turkana region of Kenya. (may be regional variant of A. afarensis) possible ancestor to A. afarensis or one of several emergent hominid species with variations in bipedal posture jaws, cranial fragments, tibia fragments, humerus, teeth (very large canines) different from Ardipithecus ramidus (sister species?) Have canines Earliest australopithecus documentated

Chopper/Chopping Tools

(East Asia) Chopper: Unifacial Chopping Tool: a core tool with a transverse cutting edge made by flaking "two" faces (bifacial).

Mata Menge (Flores-Indonesia) 800,000 BP

(fission track date) on Indonesian island of Flores 19 km from nearest shoreline of that time (deep channel separates Asian from Australian fauna -- Wallace's Line). Sites include: Boa Lesa - flakes, unifacial chopper Tangi Talo - earlier but no tools Dozu Dhalu - no stone artifacts Implies use of watercraft to get to the island Found in 1994 were stone artifacts (including 14 definite tools) associated with faunal remains (e.g Stegodon -- extinct elephant) artifacts show edge damage from use wear. Also found were giant rat, giant tortoise, and Komodo dragon

A. africanus

(gracile) (3.2 -2.3 mya) 1925 find of Taung specimen (3-4 years old) by Raymond Dart in South Africa Dart estimated age of deposit to be between 3 million and 800,000 years old Recent ESR (electron spin resonance) dating of tooth enamel applied to finds from Sterkfontein Australopithecus africanus fossils (resulting date is ca. 2.1 mya (+/-500,000 years) ) Faunal remains associated with find suggest dates of 3.2 -2.3 mya. Fossil localities: Sterkfontein and Makapansgat, both limestone caves. males: avg. 4ft 6 in. (90 lbs) females 3ft 9 in. (66 lbs) similar to afarensis but smaller limb proportions more ape-like than A. afarensis small (reduced) canines but larger molars than afarensis (no diastema) in large jaw, mostly vegetarian diet based on tooth wear analysis. wide, prognathous face 450 cc brain size (chimp is ca. 400 cc); brain shape and configuration (based on endocasts) is more human-like than succeeding Paranthropus robustus types which are more ape-like Cranium lightly constructed with no sagittal crest well-developed forehead and reduced brow ridges (probably main reason for initial placement as human ancestor) A. africanus --> Paranthopus A. africanus --> A. sediba --> Homo (naledi, halibis, rudolfensis) bowl shaped pelvis broad ilium (upright posture) long arms and short legs (like A. afarensis) until A. sediba discovery, A. africanus was best candidate for genus Homo ancestry but none have been found in rift valley where Australopithecus garhi and others were found

Boxgrove (Britain) 500,000 BP

(onset of interglacial period) discovered in 1980s in southern England excavations threatened by sand/gravel quarrying 90 excavation areas have been opened since 1982 dated by various methods including mammalian biostratigraphy tibia and 2 incisor teeth found dimensions of tibia approaching maximum mid-shaft values for a Neanderthal body wt/ht ca. 80 kilograms (175 lbs.) and 6 feet tall (male). classified as Homo heidelbergensis, compared to find of mandible recovered from Mauer sands in 1907. Boxgrove find shows exceptional skeletal robusticity and is first individual directly associated with handaxe industries of Britain and Europe. Hunting is suggested at Boxgrove, e.g., hole in scapula indicates spear wound. Percussors made from large deer antlers were curated, used again and again from site to site. bone and antler also modified for use as soft hammers. limb bones of large mammals used as temporary fine flaking tools, then discarded. Handaxes used as primary butchering tools to butcher giant deer, red deer, bison, horse and rhinoceros. cut marks underlie secondary gnawing evidence, so primary butchering indicated, not cutting up scavenged remains sequence of activities represented by faunal remains and associated tools show: 1) skinning, 2) disarticulation, 3) filleting, and 4) bone smashing.

Homo erectus/Homo ergaster

1.8 mya; Is African in origin African form of Homo erectus that has been in and out of the Homo habilis group (Nariokotome locality) (KNM ER-992) mandible, clearly Homo erectus type.

Schoningen (Germany) 400,000 BP

400,000 yr old wooden spears and Double pointed throwing stick. one of several Middle Pleistocene Interglacial sites found in sediments 8-15 meters below surface in this region Oldest occupations are located adjacent to a former lake shore Pollen data show presence of a meadow/forest steppe environment characteristic of a cool, temperate climate. oldest complete hunting weapons to be used by Archaic humans. Found with flint tools (points and scrapers), flakes, and butchered remains of more than 10 horses, mammoth, straight tusk elephant, bovids, and red deer. hearth feature associated bones show cut marks from butchering. wooden implements (length 17-32 cm) have diagonal grooves cut into one end, most likely for hafting flint flakes or tools; oldest composite tools ever found Other wooden tools: double-pointed stick and 3 spears Tips of spears sharpened and maximum weight of the spears is to the front (comparable to modern-day javelins) (most likely throwing not thrusting spears.)

scavenging/hunting subsistence

All are scavengers Not using multi-step tools

power v. precision grip

Apes have long curved fingers, narrow fingertips, and small thumbs. Humans have short, straight fingers and broad fingertips with long, stout thumbs with fleshy tips. Chimps and capuchin monkeys make simple stone tools with no prepared edges Human tools are complex (step-by-step process) Hominin stone tools are planned (finished product in mind) Humans carry tools to other places for use (indicates planning and forethought.)

Bose Valley (China) 800,000 BP

Ar40/Ar39 date of 800,000 yrs ago corresponds to age of handaxe (Acheulean or Mode II) assemblages in Africa and SW Asia Bose handaxes show all characteristics of Mode II tools from Africa and SW Asia although unifacial flaking is more common

Bifacial/Unifacial Tools

Bifacial: dual-sided tools Unifacial: one-sided tools; one faced modified

Flake Tools (scrapers, burins, knives)

Chips of stone Curved or straight

conical thorax

Cone-shaped ribcage All have them

Kokiselei (Kenya) 1.8 mya

Crude examples of handaxes

Gesher Benot Ya'oqov (Israel) 780,000 BP

Dead Sea rift valley of Palestine in "paleo" lake shore setting Early use of fire (charred seeds, flint) Handaxes and Cleavers, Cores, Flakes, blanks for biface production Raw material is limestone, basalt and flint. Large basalt flakes made into bifaces with minimal modification Very fragmentary hominin remains edible plant remains such as grape, water chestnut, pistachios, olives, and acorns.

Donald Johanson

Discoverer of "Lucy". believes that A. afarensis is a common ancestor of many later hominids, including A. africanus.

Bipedalism

Earliest hominids and immediate ancestors became bipedal first, and other developments (e.g. brain size and complexity) followed. reduces exposure to direct solar radiation, i.e. surface exposed on a biped is only 40 % of that on a quadruped. raises body higher above the ground so the skin contacts cooler & faster moving air currents that dissipate body heat through convection. at low speeds uses less energy than quadrupedalism thereby reducing dietary requirements (and time and effort spent foraging). decreased early hominins' dependence on shade, allowing them to forage in open savanna for longer periods of time.

Ceprano (Italy) 800,000 BP

Example of H. rectus found

Eugene Dubois

Found a Java fossil and called it 'Pithacanthropus erectus' (Java is an island).

Trinil (Java) 900,000 BP

H. Rectus find Very broad range of representation

A.L. 666-1 (Ethiopia) 2.3 mya

Hadar region of Ethiopia earliest definitively dated Homo specimen associated with flakes and choppers and late Pliocene fauna Tools: 34 stone tools found, 14 in situ Fauna: antelope (open woodlands/grassland setting) Basalt and chert raw material Tool types include "typical" Oldowan (Mode I) flakes made from cobbles, one with a complex scar pattern derived from turning the core during the knapping process No cores; No retouched or utilized flakes. Only a few bones with cut marks

Dmanisi (Georgia-Caucasus Mts) 1.7 mya

Homo ergaster w/Mode I tools The First Wave into Eurasia

Koobi Fora (E. Africa) 2.0-1.0 mya

Homo habilis : cranial & post-cranial remains 1.9 mya Homo erectus : Homo ergaster from 1.75 mya layer Homo ergaster from Natoo stratum at West Turkana 1.5 mya. (20 localities of stone and bone association) interpretation: small hominid group used area for butchering scavenged animals, eating and making stone tools. Animal bones represented include hippo, catfish, water buck, giraffe, wild pig, porcupine, and gazelle. Bones were fractured by the hominids : most likely for access to the marrow.

Acheulean tools (Handaxes) Mode II

Later technological development of hunting shows planning & forethought. Have a recognizable form handaxes flakes handaxe variants cleavers picks choppers scrappers knives burins Homo rectus Archaic Homo sapiens

Louis, Mary, Richard Leakey

Louis: a Kenyan paleoanthropologist and archaeologist whose work was important in demonstrating that humans evolved in Africa, particularly through discoveries made at Olduvai Gorge with his wife, fellow paleontologist Mary Leakey. Mary: a British paleoanthropologist who discovered the first fossilised Proconsul skull, an extinct ape which is now believed to be ancestral to humans. She also discovered the robust Zinjanthropus skull at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, eastern Africa. Richard: The second son of Louis and Mary. Kenyan anthropologist, conservationist, and political figure who was responsible for extensive fossil finds related to human evolution and who campaigned publicly for responsible management of the environment in East Africa.

speech and language

N/A for bipedal apes Not visible until Homo rectus

Senga 5a (Congo) 2.2-2.4 mya

Oldowan tools (simple choppers and cores without platforms made from quartz) tortoise shell found with cut marks showing evidence of butchering. lakeshore site with 4400 faunal pieces including fish, mammal, reptile, and mollusc remains assemblage includes 4 cores, 1 hammerstone, and 429 pieces of debitage

Pleistocene/Holocene

P: (1.7 mya -10,000 BP) H: (10,000 BP -present)

Archaic Homo sapiens

Petralona cave (Greece) (Homo heidelbergensis) 1220 cc (350-400K) low, wide brain case and heavy muscle attachment characteristic of Neanderthals but skull shows a "mosaic of features" that relate to Neanderthal, Homo erectus and Early Modern Humans).

Zhoukoudien Cave (China) 460-230,000 BP

Representation of H. rectus remains Cannabalism

Lokalalei (Kenya) 2.3 mya

Stream cobbles (ca. 60-70) used to make stone tools poor manufacturing process evident (e.g., frequent step fractures, and very small (<2cm) flake scars fauna: reptiles, ostrich egg shells, land tortoise, no apparent mammal bones

Paranthropus robustus/boisei/aethiopicus (Zinjanthropus)

The robust version of the gracile Australopithecus Aethiopicus (oldest species in this genus): aka black skull, found in 1985 west of Lake Turkana, Kenya in 2.7 million year old sediments. (black comes from manganese staining) extremely large facial skeleton joined to a small brain case (ca. 410 cc) large sagittal crest extremely large palate, large teeth may be ancestral to P. boisei (and perhaps descended from A. afarensis) Robustus (found in the 1930's): (1.8-1.2 mya) (or Australopithecus robustus) found in the same deposit as A. africanus in South Africa (found only in S. Africa). Discovered in 1938 by Robert Broom Sites/Localities include limestone caves at Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Dreimolen, and Kromdraai heavier jaw structure, sagittal crest 530 cc brain capacity little increase in body size over africanus forest and savanna dweller less arboreal adapted than A. afarensis hands suggest possible tool maker feet more human-like than predecessors 40-80 kilograms in weight (like Boisei) 3.5 to 4 feet tall like Boisei lasted at least 700,000 years longer than A. africanus, perhaps co-existed with H. erectus forms Boisei: (2.5 mya) Similar to P. robustus found by Louis Leakey in 1959 at Olduvai Gorge massive broad face, thicker mandible than afarensis small incisors & canines massive molars (thick enamel) similar body size to A. africanus

Continental glaciation

This hypothesis says that much of the continent of North America was covered by glacial ice that was 2 miles thick and which extended over much of the Midwest. The idea of Continental Glaciation came from Louis Agassiz in 1840. He was Swiss, and so he knew glaciers well. When he came to America, he found only mountain glaciers in the west, but he saw many features which he knew from Switzerland and which were associated with glaciers (eskers, moraines, outwash, kettle lakes, drumlins, kame terraces).

Interglacials

a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age. The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene, about 11,700 years ago.

sagittal keel

a thickening of bone on part or all of the midline of the frontal bone, or parietal bones where they meet along the sagittal suture, or on both bones.

Raymond Dart

an Australian anatomist and anthropologist, best known for his involvement in the 1924 discovery of the first fossil ever found of Australopithecus africanus

Homo antecessor

an extinct human species (or subspecies) dating from 1.2 million to 800,000 years ago, that was discovered by Eudald Carbonell, Juan Luis Arsuaga and J. M. Bermúdez de Castro. "The unique mix of modern and primitive traits led the researchers to deem the fossils a new species, H. antecessor, in 1997". Regarding its great age the species must be related to Out of Africa I, the first series of hominin expansions into Eurasia, making it one of the earliest-known human species in Europe.

Atapuerca (Spain) 780,000-120,000 BP

different skeletal parts from six individuals; teeth clearly show a "primitive" pattern shared with Homo habilis, Homo ergaster and Homo erectus. Some show an identical morphology to that seen in modern humans

Kuldara (Tajikstan) 850,000 BP

earliest site in Central Asia north of Afghanistan. Loess deposits include 28 paleosols in a 1.5 million year thick sequence Finds include 96 flake tools derived from pebbles implies use of cold climate zones by Homo erectus were able to survive w/o the use of fire *Paleosols

Oldowan tools - choppers/cores/flakes (Mode I)

early Homo H. ergaster H. rectus (2.5-1.4 mya) simple choppers with sharp edges prepared by hammering a pebble with another stone. flakes used as primary tools choppers may be recycled cores discarded after producing desired number of flakes. MODE 1 TOOLS: Lack of style Oldowan tool makers understood: 1) stone fracture mechanics 2) raw materials 3) curation since some tools were carried from site to site. Early sites w/tools may be scavenging sites (opportunistic foraging) Evidence: human-like tooth marks overlie carnivore tooth patterns on animal bones cores flakes choppers hammerstones anvils

Konso-Gardula (Ethiopia) 1.4 mya

early recognizable handaxes at 1.7 mya

Terra Amata (France) 300,000 BP

fire, dwellings, refits, and seasonal use of site seasonal camp occupied by small group on ancient beach when Mediterranean was 85 ft higher than today High % of elephant bones (Elephas antiquus); also wild oxen, stags, elephants, oysters and mussels along with fish and stone tools (> 35,000 objects) bifacial industry w/cobbles bifacially flaked except for heel of the cobble, many crude choppers made on pebbles. Some of raw material used for stone tools comes from 40 km away dwellings excavated by Henri De Lumley About 125 square meters of deposits exposed. 21 oval huts (range 26-49 feet in length and 13 - 20 feet wide) central hearth (with pebble windscreen) w/in each hut; as many as 20 people occupied a structure shallow post molds part of structure - posts are around perimeter forming walls of the structure as well as very large posts in the center (supports). Refuse decreases in density away from the hearth toward the walls of the structures. One of structures shows more than ten periods of rebuilding (returns seasonally??)

Pithecanthropus (Homo) erectus

meaning "upright man" an extinct species of hominin that lived throughout most of the Pleistocene geological epoch. Its earliest fossil evidence dates to 1.9 million years ago and extends to 143,000 years ago. It is generally thought that H. erectus originated in Africa and spread from there, migrating throughout Eurasia as far as Georgia, Armenia, India, Sri Lanka, China and Indonesia. Also known as Java Man

Australopithecines

medium-sized bipedal hominids but climbed trees for foraging the bipedalism of Australopithecines lacked stability in lower limbs, i.e., more flexible range of motion and retention of arboreal traits. hip structure and lower limbs are clearly bipedal, just not efficiently adapted to it bipedalism as a feeding posture Later, Australopithecines and Homo habilis had a more fully developed locomotor bipedalism (herbivores adapted to eating hard, tough foods; considerable sexual dimorphism; brains like living apes not humans; not stone tool makers but may have been perishable or casual tool users like chimps) 4-500 cc (cubic centimeters) Long arms/short legs Sunken face homo-like feet, to some degree Lack of a chin

Neanderthal

more rarely known as Neandertals were a species or subspecies of archaic humans in the genus Homo that became extinct about 40,000 years ago. Neanderthals and modern humans share 99.7% of their DNA and are hence closely related. (By comparison, both modern humans and Neanderthals share 98.8% of their DNA with their closest non-human living relatives, the chimpanzees.) Neanderthals left bones and stone tools in Eurasia, from Western Europe to Central and Northern Asia. Fossil evidence suggests Neanderthals evolved in Europe, separate from modern humans in Africa for more than 400,000 years. They are considered either a distinct species, Homo neanderthalensis, or more rarely as a subspecies of Homo sapiens (H. s. neanderthalensis).

Aridos (Spain) 350,000 BP

near Madrid in floodplain of Jarama River (Villa 1990) stone artifactsinclude incipient Levallois and middle Acheulean Handaxe types. Site dates to Middle Pleistocene based on microfauna analysis 2 site areas are individual elephant kill sites Aridos 1: evidence of hunting, i.e., primary access to animal prey rather than secondary stripping after carnivores kill No spear points found but extensive evidence of tool manufacturing & resharpening. array of tools with elephant remains include 16 cores, 3 choppers, flake tools, burins, bifaces, and cleavers. Refitting of debitage (flakes) shows most of flakes came from limited number of cores found on the site; implying a short-term event. Hunting site

Ubeidiya (Israel) 1.4 mya

no context for hominin fossils early Acheulean handaxe tools??? (crude) Mode I industry is indicated with a high incidence of core-choppers, polyhedrons (cores) and crude bifaces comparable to the simple Mode 1 core industries of East Africa.

Gona Valley (Ethiopia) 2.5 mya

oldest stone tools anywhere volcanic rocks (rhyolite, basalt cobbles) used for raw material one of sites contained 2,970 stone artifacts many found in place (in situ), i.e., not on surface simple cores (unifacial and bifacial) and flakes cores indicate knowledge and control of stone tool making process working edges are well formed and sharp Hammerstones, anvils, and other battered cobbles were found Cores battered showing use for other purposes

Torralba/Ambrona (Spain) 350,000 BP (full glacial period)

one of first open sites found to dispel notion that early hominids lived only in caves near Ebro River where seasonal swamp used to trap large game communal elephant hunts, ca. 10 separate hunts involved. many tool types (e.g. handaxes, blades, gravers, scrapers, awls, knives, choppers and ivory and bone tools); far more complex tool assemblage than expected for middle Pleistocene hominids finds include 30 elephants, 25 deer, 10 aurochs (wild cattle), 6 rhinos, 25 horses. high water table at site provided saturated conditions suitable for excellent preservation, i.e., objects of stone, bone, ivory and wood stone artifacts (with raw material from distant sources) show Mode II tradition with handaxes, cleavers, flake and core tools found. no evidence of huts or fires though charcoal was found in the layer with the artifacts and bones. Hunting site

Mauer/Heidelberg mandible(Germany) 500K

the oldest known specimen of the genus Homo in Germany. It was found in 1907 in a sand mine in the community Mauer, around 10 km (6.2 mi) south-east of Heidelberg. The Mauer 1 mandible is the type specimen of the species Homo heidelbergensis. Some European researchers have classified the find as Homo erectus heidelbergensis, regarding it as a subspecies of Homo erectus. In 2010 the mandible's age was for the first time exactly determined to be 609,000 ± 40,000 years. Previously, specialist literature had referred to an age of either 600,000 or 500,000 years on the basis of less accurate dating methods

Nariokotome (E. Africa - West Turkana) 1.6 mya

type-specimen for homo ergaster no tools on the site

Mammalian biostratigraphy

uses sensitive evolutionary histories of certain mammals (e.g. Mimomys savini) to cross-match dated sequences established and verified by radiometric methods. Using these mammalian assemblages all together, with one species cross-checking another, a reliable method of relative dating can be achieved For Boxgrove, this is cross-indexed with marine isotope data, giving an age from between 524,000 to 478,000 BP