anthropology chapter 8

external sanction internal sanction

Margaret Mead (1937) and Ruth Benedict (1946) distinguished between shame as an _______ _________ (i.e., forces set in motion by others, for example, through gossip) and guilt as an _______ ________, psychologically generated by the individual.

only in state societies

Formal laws are found

domesticated animals

within this system, many san now tend cattle for wealthier Bantu rather than foraging independently. San also have their own ______ _______, further illustrating their movement away from a foraging lifestyle.

missing migrants project

worldwide, IOM's ________ ________ _______ (MMP) recorded the deaths of more than 5,000 would-be migrants in 2017, mostly through drowning, as their boats capsized in the mediterranean. most migrants are from West Africa, the Middle East, and Afghanistan. lack of job opportunities at home is the main driver sending young west africans toward europe. political instability and war have been pushing refugees from the Middle East (especially syria and Iraq) and Afghanistan toward europe.

chiefdom

_______ refers to a form of sociopolitical organization intermediate between the tribe and the state. in _________, social relations are based mainly on kinship, marriage, descent, age, generation, and gender-just as in bands and tribes

prestige

_______, or "cultural capital" gives people a sense of worth and respect, which they may often convert into economic advantage.

sociopolitical

_________ was introduced as a key concept at the beginning of this chapter. so far, we've focused mainly on the political part of _________; now we focus on the social part. in this section well see that political systems have their informal, social, and subtle aspects along with their formal, governmental, and public dimensions.

eloquence communication skills

as with the big man, ________ and ________ _______ contribute to political success (e.g. Barack Obama, bill Clinton, and Ronald Reagan), although lack of such skills isn't necessarily fatal (e.g. President Bush). hair, height, health (and even a nice smile) are certainly political advantages.

subdue conquer

armies help states ________ and _______ neighboring non states, but conquest isn't the only reason state organization has spread. although states impose hardships, they also offer advantages.

tribes

as is true of foraging bands, there are no totally autonomous ______ in today's world, still, there are societies, for example, in papua New Guinea and in south America's tropical forests, in which tribal principles continue to operate.

ethnic groups

as part of a larger whole, pastoral tribes are constantly pitted against other _______ ________. within the context of the modern nation-state, that government becomes a final authority, a higher-level regulator that attempts to limit conflict among ethnic groups

social control

________ _______ mechanisms among the Makua extended well beyond the formal political system, as revealed in conversations about social norms and crimes. the Makua talk easily about norm violations, conflicts, and the sanctions that can follow them. Jail, sorcery, and shame are the main sanctions anticipated by the rural Makua.

horseback hunting

as the Plains tribes were undergoing these changes, other tribes also adopted ________ ______ and moved into the Plains. attempting to occupy the same area, groups came into conflict. a pattern of warfare developed in which members of one tribe raided another, usually for horses. the economy demanded that people follow the movement of the bison herds.

band tribe chiefdom state

decades ago, the anthropologist Elman Service (1962) listed four types, or levels, of political organization: ______, ________, ________, and _______. today, none of the first three types can be studied as a self-contained form of political organization, because all now exist within nation-states and are subject to state control.

denser populations complex economies

food production led to larger, _______ ______ and more _____ ______ than existed among foragers. many sociopolitical trends reflect the increased regulatory demands associated with cultivation, herding, and population increase. archaeologists have studied these trends through time, and cultural anthropologists have observed them across a range of more contemporary societies.

law

foragers lack formal _______ in the sense of a legal code with trial and enforcement, but they did have methods of social control and dispute settlement.

chiefdoms

geographic areas where ________ existed included the circum-Caribbean (e.g. Caribbean islands, Panama, Colombia), lowland Amazonia, the southeastern United States, and Polynesia. _______ created the megalithic cultures of europe, including the one that built Stonehenge.

small low population density

horticultural villages usually are _______, with ______ __________ _________ and open access to strategic resources. age, gender, and personal traits determine how much respect people receive and how much support they get from others. egalitarianism diminishes, however, as village size and population density increase. horticultural villages usually have headmen-rarely, if ever, headwomen.

enforcement agents

how do states enforce laws and judicial decisions? all states have _______ __________-some kind of police force. the duties of these enforcement officers may include apprehending and imprisoning criminals (those who have broken the law).

differential access

however, although chiefdoms are kin based, they feature _______ _______ to resources (some people have more wealth, prestige, and power than others do) and a permanent political structure

state-organized stratified

however, contemporary politics isn't just about personality, as big man systems are. we live in a _______-_________,_______ society with inherited wealth, power, and privilege, all of which have political implications. as is typical of states, kin connections play a role in-but once again can't guarantee-political success.

share

however, even the lowest-ranking man or woman in a chiefdom was still the chief's relative, and everyone, including the chief, had to ______ with their relatives. it was difficult to draw a line between elites and common people.

steal

if a man seemed to be taking additional wives just to enhance his reputation, a rival was likely to ________ one of them. most Inuit disputes were between men and originated over women, caused by wife stealing or adultery.

warrant chiefs

in 1914, the British had implemented a policy of indirect rule by appointing local Nigerian men as their agents-known as "_______ _______." these chiefs became increasingly oppressive, seizing property, imposing arbitrary regulations, and imprisoning people who criticized them. Colonial administrators further stoked local outrange when they announced plans to impose taxes on Igbo market women. these women were key suppliers of food for Nigeria's growing urban population; they feared being forced out of business by the new tax. Market women were key organizers of the protests.

archaic states

in _______ _______, these subsystems were integrated by a ruling system or government composed of civil, military, and religious officials.

chiefdom

in many parts of the world, _________ was a transitional form of organization that emerged during the evolution of tribes into states.

public policy

in nonstates, by contrast, its often difficult to detect any "______ ______." for this reason, I prefer to speak of sociopolitical organization in discussing the exercise of power and the regulation of relations among groups and their representatives.

social control

in studying political systems, anthropologists pay attention not only to formal, governmental institutions but to other forms of _______ ________ as well. the concept of ________ ______ is broader than "the political." _____ _________ refers to "those fields in the social system (beliefs, practices, and institutions) that are most actively involved in the maintenance of any norms and the regulation of any conflict"

stratum endogamy

kinship ties did not extend from the nobles to the commoners because of _______ ________-marriage within one's own group, commoners married commoners; elites married elites.

gender stratification

like foragers, horticulturalists tend to be egalitarian, although some have marked ________ _________: an unequal distribution of resources, power, prestige, and personal freedom between men and women.

malicious sorcery

local theories see sickness, social misfortune, and death as caused by ______ ______. life expectancy is short and infant mortality high in a Makua village. health, life, and existence are far more problematic than they are for most westerners. such uncertainty heightens fears relating to sorcery. any conflict or norm violation is dangerous because it might trigger a sorcery attack. the Makua see the chicken thief as the inevitable target of such an attack.

neighbors chicken

make ideas about social control emerged most clearly in discussions about what would happen to someone who stole his or her _______ _______. most Makua villagers have a makeshift chicken coop in a corner of their home. Chickens leave the coop before sunrise each day and wander around, looking for scraps. villagers may be tempted to steal a chicken when it'd owner seems oblivious to its whereabouts. the Makua have few material possessions and a meat-poor diet, making free-ranging chickens a real temptation. their discussions about unsupervised chickens and the occasional chicken theft as community problems clarified their ideas about social control-about why people did not steal their neighbors chickens.

misinformation stereotypes

more negatively, the media also spread and reinforce _________ and _________. in doing so, they blur the distinction between facts, evidence, and complexity, on the one hand, and propaganda, mere assertion, and oversimplification on the other.

tribes

similarly, many horticulturalists and pastoralists live in ______. although most chiefdoms have farming economies, herding has been important in some middle eastern chiefdoms. nonindustrial states usually have an agriculture base.

il-rah

use of the same pasture land at different times of the year was carefully scheduled. ethnic-group movements were tightly coordinated. expressing this schedule is _________, a concept common to all Iranian nomads. a groups _______ is its customary path in time and space. it is the schedule, different for each group, of when specific areas can be used in the annual trek.

fiscal

states rely on financial, or _______ mechanisms (e.g. taxation) to support the government apparatus and agents just discussed. as in the chiefdom, the state intervenes in production, distribution, and consumption.

state

the ________ is a form of sociopolitical organization based on a formal government structure and socioeconomic stratification.

elites

the ________, sensing the threat of surging crowds and public rebellion, often discourage such gatherings. they try to limit and control holidays, funerals, dances, festivals and other occasions that might unite the oppressed. for example, in the American south before the civil war, gatherings of five or more slaves were prohibited unless a white person was present.

International organization for migration

the _________ ___________ for __________ (IOM) reports that 171,635 migrants and refugees entered Europe by sea (mainly via Italy and Greece, but also Malta, Cyprus, and Spain) in 2017. this figure was down from 363,348 arrivals in 2016. Europes migratory crisis year was 2015, when a million migrants and refugees sought asylum. their journey remains treacherous.

Yanomami

the _________ are native Americans who live in southern Venezuela and the adjacent part of Brazil. when anthropologists first studied them, they numbered about 26000 people, living in 200 to 250 widely scattered villages, each with a population between 40 and 250.

prestige

the ability to support more than one wife conferred a certain amount of _______, but it also encouraged envy. (_______ is social esteem, respect, or approval).

conflict resolution

the aboriginal Inuit, another group of foragers, provide a classic example of methods of settling disputes-_______ _________- in stateless societies.

anarchy

the absence of law did not mean total ________. as described by E. A. Hoebel (1954) in a classic ethnographic study of conflict resolution, a sparse population of some 20,000 Inuit spanned 6,000 miles of the arctic region.

Central Plains tropical Africa

the best examples of pantribal sodalities come from the _______ _______ of North America and from _______ ________.

oldest child

the chief would be the _______ _________ (usually son) of the _______ ______ of the _______ ______ and so on,. degrees of seniority were calculated so intricately on some islands that there were as many ranks as people. for example, the third son would rank below the second, who in turn would rank below the first. the children of an eldest brother, however, would rank above the children of the next brother, whose children in turn would outrank those of younger brothers.

reversal

the cornerstone of slave religion became the idea of a _________ in the conditions of whites and blacks. slaves also resisted directly, though sabotage and flight. in many new world areas, slaves managed to establish free communities in the hills and other isolated areas.

enforcement agents

the government uses its _______ ________ to maintain internal order, suppress disorder, and guard against external threats (with the military and border officials).

issue orders

the headman lacks the right to ______ ___________. he can only persuade, harangue, and try to influence public opinion. for example, if he wants people to clean up the central plaza in preparation for a feast, he must start sweeping it himself, hoping his covillagers will take the hint and relieve him

age grades

the sets moved through ______ ______, the most important of which was the warrior grade. members of a set felt a strong allegiance to one another. Masai women lacked comparable set organization, but they also passed through culturally recognized ______ _______: the initiate, the married woman, and the fable elder.

redistribution

the state may require a certain area to produce specific things, or ban certain activities in particular places. like chiefdoms, states have ___________ ("spreading the wealth around") but less of what comes in from the people actually goes directly back to the people.

sociopolitical groups

the strong ties that contemporary and recent foragers maintain with ________ _________ beyond the band make them markedly different from Stone Age hunter-gatherers.

public behavior public

the study of sociopolitical systems should also consider the sentiments and activity that may be hiding beneath the surface of evident, ________ _______. in ________, the oppressed may seem to accept their own domination, even when they are questioning it in private.

leader

the tonowi's supporters, acknowledging past favors and anticipating future rewards, recognized him, as a _______ and accepted his decisions as binding. the tonowi was an important regulator of regional events in Kapauku life. he helped determine the dates for feasts and markets. he initiated economic projects requiring the cooperation of a regional community.

sumptuary goods

those elites reveled in the consumption of _______ ________-jewelry, exotic food and drink, and stylish clothing reserved for, or affordable only by, the rich.

censuses

to keep track of whom they govern, states conduct _______. states demarcate boundaries-borders-that separate that state from others. customs agents, immigration officers, navies, and coast guards patrol the frontiers.

big men

unlike ______ _______, chiefs were exempt from ordinary work and had special rights and privileges. like _______ ______, however, they still returned a portion of the wealth they took in.

permanent regional

unlike bands and tribes, however, chiefdoms administer a ________ __________ political system. chiefdoms may include thousands of people living in many villages or hamlets. regulation is carried out by the chief and his or her assistants, who occupy political officials.

band

A small, kin-based group found among foragers is known as a

political organization

According to anthropologist Elman Service, the four types of ______ are band, tribe, chiefdom, and state.

Malay peasants

Scott (1985) uses ________ _______, among whom he did fieldwork, to illustrate small-scale acts of resistance-which he calls "weapons of the weak." the ________ ________ used an indirect strategy to resist an Islamic tithe (religious tax).

the South Pacific

The big man leadership position was found most characteristically in

mesopotamia

The earliest states developed in

nation-states

Today, all four types of political organization can be studied only within the context of

false

True or false: A handful of totally autonomous tribes has managed to survive into the 21st century.

bring non relatives together

Unlike chiefdoms, states

archaic states

_________ ________ granted different rights to nobles, commoners, and slaves. in American history prior to the emancipation proclamation, there were different laws for enslaved and free people. in European colonies, separate courts judged cases involving only natives and cases involving europeans. in contemporary America, a military Judicary coexists alongside the civil system.

wealth

economic status

roadblocks

global forces often face _________ to their international spread. although the internet makes possible the instantaneous global transmission of information, many countries restrict access to the internet and other mass media for moral or political reasons.

power

political status

formal mechanisms

states have _______ ________ (e.g., an army and a police force) designed to protect against external threats and to preserve internal order. when they are successful in promoting internal peace, states enhance production. their economies can support massive, dense populations, which supply armies and colonists to promote expansion.

population control judiciary enforcement fiscal support

states include the following: 1. ________ __________: fixing of boundaries, boarder control, establishment of citizenship categories, and censusing. 2.____________: laws, legal procedure, and judges 3.____________: permanent military and police forces 4. _______ _______: taxation

geographic mobility resettlement

states often promote _______ _______ and _______, severing long-standing ties among people, land, and kin.

community organizing political mobilization

the Igbo case also shows the importance of ________ _______ and _______ _______ in effective resistance.

5,500

the first states emerged about ________ years ago. the first chiefdoms had developed perhaps a thousand years earlier, but few survive today.

tribes

the four labels in service's typology are much too simple to account for the full range of political diversity and complexity known to archaeology and ethnography. we'll see, for instance, that ________ have varied widely in their political systems and institutions.

pastoralism

these Iranian cases illustrate the fact that __________ often is just one among many specialized economic activities within a nation-state.

socioeconomic stratification

tribes lack _________ _________ (i.e., a class structure) and a formal government of their own.

marriage kinship

_________ and ________ create ties between members of different bands. trade and visiting also link them.

state

-economic type: agriculture, industrialism -examples: ancient Mesopotamia, contemporary United States and Canada -type of regulation: permanent, regional

band

-economic type: foraging -examples: Inuit, San -type of regulation: local

tribe

-economic type: horticulture, pastoralism -examples: yanomami, Kapauku, Masai -type of regulation: local, temporary, regional

chiefdom

-economic type: productive horticulture, pastoral nomadism, agriculture -examples: Qashqai, Polynesia, Cherokee -type of regulation: permanent, regional

small sample

Andersson began his research by focusing on a _______ ______ of people with whom he established close personal relationships. he wanted to understand how border controls affect individual migrants. he was particularly stuck by his informants' accounts of the various people and organizations they encountered (or tried to avoid) as they moved, and he extended his study to those intermediaries. he discovered an entire "illegality industry" deployed around, and benefiting financially from, migrants and their misfortunes. this industry supports border guards and police; defense, monitoring, and construction companies; nongovernmental aid organizations; journalists; and even academics building their careers on the study of migrants. among the greatest beneficiaries are human smugglers and traffickers, who increase their prices whenever and wherever border control is the tightest.

West Africa

Andersson did his fieldwork for the book between 2005 and 2014 and initially focused on would-be migrants from ______ _______ (mainly Senegal and Mali). although his study took place before the recent refugee crisis in the Middle East, the lessons he derived can easily be applied to today's refugees.

hegemony

Antonio Gramsci (1971) developed the concept of ________ for a stratified social order in which subordinates comply with domination by internalizing their rulers' values and accepting the "naturalness" of domination (this is the way things were meant to be).

displacement has increased

As a result of globalization, war, famine, and job seeking, population

tribes

Groups that are organized by kin groups and have economies based on nonintensive food production (horticulture and pastoralism) are known as

10 percent

Brazilian Yanomami were dying at a rate of ______ _________ annually, and their fertility rate had dropped to zero. since then, one Brazilian president has declared a huge Yanomami territory off limits to outsiders. unfortunately, local politicians, miners, and ranchers have managed to evade the ban. the future of the Yanomami remains uncertain.

Great Firewall of China

China has a sophisticated censorship system-sometimes called the "________ _________ of _______" off limits are social media websites, including Facebook, twitter, and youtube, that offer free interaction among people.

pan tribal sodalities

Groups that extend across an entire tribe and span multiple local groups are known as

norms

Cultural standards or guidelines that enable individuals to distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate behavior in a given society are known as

poverty oppression

Edwin Wilmsen (1989) contends that many San descend from herders who were pushed into the desert by______ or _______. he sees the san today as a rural underclass in a larger political and economic system dominated by the europeans and Bantu food producers.

shame

_______ can be a very powerful sanction. broinslaw Malinowski (1927) described how Trobriand Islanders might climb to the top of a palm tree and dive to their deaths because they couldn't tolerate the ______ associated with public knowledge of some stigmatizing action.

spread of horses

In North America, relationships between tribal villages strengthened as a result of the

during the evolution of tribes into states

In many parts of the world, the chiefdom emerged

sociopolitical organization

In nonstates the exercise of power and the regulation of relations among groups and their representatives is most appropriately termed

power authority

_______ is the ability to exercise ones will over others. _______ is the formal, socially approved use of power, e.g. by government officials)

public transcript

James Scott (1990) used the term "________ ________" to describe the open, public interactions between oppressed people and their oppressors.

larger denser

Kapauku cultivation supported a ________ and _______ population than does the simpler horticulture of the Yanomami. the Kapauku economy required collective cultivation and political regulation of the more complex tasks

shame

Makua fear sorcery, but they overwhelmingly mention _______ as the main reason not to steal a neighbors chicken. the chicken thief, having been discovered, would have to attend a formal, publicly organized village meeting, which would determine the appropriate punishment and compensation. the Makua were concerned not so much with a potential fine as with the intense and enduring ________ or embarrassment they would feel as a confirmed chicken thief.

gossip

Makua villagers tell the story of a man rumored to have fathered a child with his stepdaughter. the political authorities imposed no formal sanctions (e.g. a fine or jail time) on this man, but ________ about the affair circulated widely. the _______ crystallized in the lyrics of a song that groups of young women would perform. after the man heard his name and behavior mentioned in that song, he hanged himself by the neck from a tree. (previously we saw the role of song in the social control system of the Inuit. well see it again in the case of the Igbo Woman's war).

Kaobawa

Napoleon Chagnon (2013a) describes how one village headman, _________, guaranteed safety to a delegation from a village with which a covillager of his wanted to start a war. _______ was a particularly effective headman. he had demonstrated his fierceness in a battle, but he also knew how to use diplomacy to avoid offending other villagers. no one in his village had a better personality for the headship. nor (because ______ had many brothers) did anyone have more supporters

political systems social control

Nicholas Kottak (2002) studied _______ _______, and _______ ______ more generally, among the rural Makua of northern Mozambique.

managing economy

Polynesian chiefs were full-time specialists whose duties included ________ the _______. they regulated production by commanding or prohibition (often using religious taboos) the cultivation of certain lands and crops.

community formation

also working to discourage resistance are factors that interfere with ______ __________-such as geographic, linguistic, and ethnic separation.

hidden transcript

Scott used "________ __________" to describe the critique of the power structure that goes on out of sight of those who hold power.

sedentism has increased substantially.

Since the 1950s and 1960s, when anthropologists first systematically studied the San people,

populous large

States tend to be which of the following?

making distinctions among state citizens.

The coexistence of a military judiciary alongside the civil legal system in contemporary America is an example of the ways in which states manage their populations by

hegemony

The concept of a stratified social order in which subordinates comply with domination by internalizing their rulers' values and accepting the "naturalness" of domination was developed by Antonio Gramsci and is known as

make distinctions among state citizens

The different laws for enslaved and free people in the US (before the Emancipation Proclamation) is an example of the ways in which states manage their populations by

had supporters in multiple villages

The main difference between a village head and a big man is that the big man

chiefdoms

The megalithic cultures of Europe were created by

groups forced into marginal environments by states, colonialism, and world events.

The modern view of foragers, as explicated by such scholars as Susan Kent, is that they are

pierre Bourdieu

The notion that every social order tries to make its own arbitrariness seem natural and in everyone's interest—even when that is not the case—was first developed by

differential

When some people have more wealth, prestige, and power than others do, this is described as _____ access.

-They are patrilineal. -They are exogamous. -They span multiple villages.

Which of the following are characteristic of Yanomami descent groups?

-village heads -"big men" -leaders of pan tribal associations

Which of the following are the main regulatory officials in tribes?

-administrative subdivisions -censuses -customs agents

Which of the following are tools that states use in regulating their populations?

dispute management; decision making; conflict resolution

Which of the following processes are part of political regulation?

-establishing laws -taxation -fixing boundaries

Which of the following specialized functions are characteristic and distinctive of states?

-taxation; - establishing laws; -fixing boundaries

Which of the following specialized functions are characteristic and distinctive of states?

based on a formal government structure and socioeconomic stratification.

While differential access is an aspect of chiefdoms, the state is a form of sociopolitical organization

lead by example and persuasion

Yanomami communities are led by village heads, who

morton fried

______ _____ offered the following definition of a political organization: political organization comprises those portions of social organization that specifically relate to the individuals or groups that manage the affairs of public policy or seek to control the appointment or activities of those individuals or groups.

Rural Makua

______ ______ tend to live in one community for their entire lives. such communities typically have fewer than a thousand people, so that residents can easily keep track of one another's identities and reputations. tight clustering of homes, markets, and schools facilitates the monitoring process. in this social environment, people try to avoid behavior that might spoil their reputations and alienate them from society.

political regulation

______ ________ includes such processes as decision making, dispute management, and conflict resolution. the study of ______ ______ draws our attention to those who make decisions and resolve conflicts. are these formal leaders? if not, who leads and how?

shame ridicule

______ and ________, used by women against men, played a decisive role in a protest movement in southeaster Nigeria in 1929. this is remembered as the "Abi Women's Riots of 1929" in British colonial history and as the "Women's War" in Igbo history. during this two-month "war," at least 25000 Igbo women joined protests against British officials, their agents, and their colonial policies. this massive revolt touched off the most serious challenge to british rule in the history of what was then the British colony of Nigeria.

tribes

______ have economies based on horticulture and pastoralism. living in villages and organized to kin groups based on common decent (clans and lineages), _______ have no formal government and no reliable means of enforcing political decisions

state organization

_______ ________ arose not just to manage agricultural economies but also to regulate the activities of ethnic groups within expanding social and economic systems.

Robert Carneiro

_______ ________ defines the state as "an autonomous political unit encompassing many communities within its territory, having a centralized government with the power to collect taxes, draft men for work or war, and decree and enforce laws"

state organization

________ ________ doesn't bring more freedom or leisure to the common people, who may be conscripted to build monumental public works. some projects, such as dams and irrigation systems, may be economically necessary, but residents of archaic states also had to build temples, palaces, and tombs for the elites.

hidden transcripts

________ ________ tend to be expressed publicly at certain times (festivals and carnivals) and in certain places (e.g. markets). because of its costumed anonymity, Carnaval (Mardigras in New Orleans) is an excellent arena for expressing normally suppressed feelings.

population displacements

________ _________ have increased with globalization and as war, famine, and job seeking churn up migratory currents. within states, people claim new identities based on their region, ethnicity, occupation, or religion-rather than only as members of a descent group or an extended family.

hunting fishing

________ and _______ by men were the primary Inuit subsistence activities. the diverse and abundant plant foods available in warmer wold areas, where female labor in gathering is important, were absent in the arctic.

states

________ are autonomous political units with social strata and a formal government. _______ tend to be large and populous, and certain systems and subsystems with specialized functions are found in all _________.

norms

________ are cultural standards or guidelines that enable individuals to distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate behavior

Ruben Andersson

_________ _______ is a Swedish anthropologist and postdoctoral fellow at the London School of Economics. his 2014 book Illegality Inc. is based on his ethnographic study of the actual and would-be migrants to europe, along with the people and agencies-some supportive, the majority just eh opposite-they encounter along the way. the books title reflects Andersson's contention that the European unions migration policies have created an "illegality industry" which is fueling, rather than curbing, illegal activity.

Carnavals

_________ celebrate freedom through immodesty, dancing, gluttony, and sexuality. ________ may begin as a playful outlet for frustrations built up during the year. over time, it may evolve into a powerful annual critique of stratification and domination and thus a threat to the established order. (Recognizing this threat, the Spanish dictator Francisco Franco outlawed Carnaval)

peasant's commoners

_________ diets suffered as they struggled to meet government demands for produce, currency, or labor. _________ perished in territorial wars that had little relevance to their own needs. to what extent are these observations true of contemporary states?

censorship

_________ is another tool that governments employ to secure their authority.

hegemony

_________, the internalization of a dominant ideology, is one way in which elites curb resistance to their power and privileged position. another way to discourage resistance is to make subordinates believe they eventually will gain power-as young people usually force when they let their elders dominate them. yet another way to curb resistance is to separate or isolate people while supervising them closely, as is done in prisons.

confinement

__________ requires prisons and jailers. if there is a death penalty, executioners are needed. government officials have the power to collect fines and confiscate property.

pantribal sodalities sodalities pantribal sodalities

___________ ________ are groups that extend across the whole tribe, spanning several villages. such ___________ were especially likely to develop in situations of warfare with a neighboring tribe. mobilizing their members from multiple villages within the same tribe, ________ ________ could assemble a force to attack or retaliate against another tribe.

generosity

a Yanomami village headman also must lead in ________. expected to be more generous than any other villager, he cultivates more land. his garden provides much of the food consumed when his village hosts a feast for another village. the headman represents the village in its dealings with outsiders, including Venezuelan and Brazilian government agents.

band

a _____ is a small, kin-based group (all of its members are related by kinship or marriage) found among foragers

stratum stratum stratification stratification

a ________ is one of two or more groups that contrast in social status and access to resources. each ________ includes people of both genders and all ages. the creation of a separate social _________ is called __________, and its emergence signified the transition from chiefdom to state, the presence of ________ is one of the key distinguishing features of a state.

less favorable

a case illustrates just how developed the Qashqai authority structure was. a hailstorm prevented some nomads from joining the annual migration at the appointed time. although everyone recognized that the latecomers were not responsible for their delay, the il-khan assigned them _______ _______ grazing land, for that year only, in place of their usual pasture. the tardy herders and other Qashqai considered the judgement fair and didn't question it. this is one example of how Qashqai authorities regulated the annual migration. they also adjudicated disputes between people, tribes, and descent groups.

Mesoamerica central andes

a few thousand years later, states arose in two parts of the Western Hemisphere-__________ (Mexico, Guatemala, Belize) and the ______ ________ (Peru and Bolivia).

inter-village raiding

a few tribes still conduct small-scale warfare, in the form of ________ _________. tribes have more effective regulatory mechanisms than foragers do, but tribal societies have no sure means of enforcing political decisions. the main regulatory officials are village heads, "big men," decent-group leaders, village councils, and leaders of pan tribal associations. all these figures and groups have limited authority,

blood feud

a jilted husband had several options. he could try to kill the wife stealer. however, if he succeeded, one of that man's relatives surely would try to kill him in retaliation. one dispute might escalate into several deaths as kinsmen avenged a succession of murders. no government existed to intervene and stop such a _______ _________ (a murderous feud between families). however, one also could challenge a rival to a song battle.

precedent legislative

all states have laws based on ________ and ________ proclamations. without writing, laws may be preserved in oral tradition. crimes are violations of the legal code ("breaking the law"), with specified types of punishment. to handle crimes and disputes, all states have courts and judges.

normalize migration

a more effective policy than creating barriers to immigration, Andersson argues, would be to ________ __________ and provide people with legal, safe, and efficient ways of moving across national and continental borders. for our 21st-century world, he continues, we need a "political strategy that takes into consideration the globalized nature of human movement." "ultimately, we need to unfenced migration"

kinship reciprocity sharing

a social system based on ________, ________, and _______ is appropriate for an economy with few people and limited resources. people have to share meat when they get it; otherwise, it rots. the nomadic pursuit of wild plants and animals tends to discourage permanent settlement, wealth accumulation, and status distinctions.

internal domestic

a striking contrast between states and non states is intervention in ________ and ________ disputes, such as violence within and between families. governments step in to halt blood feud and regulate previously private disputes. however, states arent always successful in curbing internal conflict. about 85 percent of the worlds armed conflicts since 1945 have begun within states-in efforts to overthrow a ruling regime or as disputes over ethnic, religious, or human rights issues.

malice

according to Nicholas Kottak (2002), the Makua reportedly mention the existence of sorcerers and sorcery, although they arent explicit about who the sorcerers are. they see sorcery as based on _______, which everyone feels at some point. having felt ________ themselves, individual makua probably experience moments of self-doubt about their own potential status as a sorcerer. they recognize that others have similar feelings.

Pierre Bourdieu

according to _______ _________, every social order tries to make its own arbitrariness (including its mechanisms of control and domination) seem natural and in everyone's interest-even with that is not the case. often promises are made (e.g., things will get better if you're patient).

censoring shaming

after hearing about the tax, thousands of Igbo women assembled in various towns to protest both the warrant chiefs and the taxes on market women. they used a traditional practice of _______ and ________ men through all-night song-and-dance ridicule (called "sitting on a man"). this process entailed constant singing and dancing around the houses and offices of the warrant chiefs. the women also followed the chief's every move, forcing the men to pay attention by invading their space. wives of the warrant chiefs also urged their husbands to listen to the protesters' demands.

norms

all societies have ways of settling disputes (of variable effectiveness) along with cultural rules or norms about proper and improper behavior. ________ are cultural standards or guidelines that enable individuals to distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate behavior in a given society.

labor monetary

although American politicians often use their own wealth, inherited or created, to finance campaigns, they also solicit _______ and _______ contributions (rather than pigs) from supporters. and like big men, successful American politicians try to be generous with their supporters.

sedentism sedentary

although _______ has increase substantially in recent years, some San groups (along rivers) have been ________ for generations. others, including the Dobe Ju/'hoansi San studied by Lee and the Kutse San whom Susan Kent studied, have retained more of the hunter-gatherer lifestyle.

stratification

although it offers certain advantages, we should not think of the state as "better" than other forms of sociopolitical organization. _________ and the state are anti ethical to the egalitarian and free-ranging way of life practiced by our foraging ancestors. we have just considered some of the demands that states place on ordinary people. it should not be surprising, then, that certain groups have managed to resist or escape state organization by adopting lifestyles that are difficult for states to supervise. for example, James C. Scott (2009) discusses how a belt of Southeast Asian highland societies with economies based on shifting cultivation have survived for generations outside the control of Staes based in the lowlands of the same countries.

state societies

although rules and norms are cultural universals, only ________ _______, those with established governments, have laws that are formulated, proclaimed, and enforced.

person office il-khan

among the Qashqai, however, allegiance shifted from the ________ to the _______. the Qashqai had multiple levels of authority and more powerful chiefs or khans. managing 400,000 people required a complex hierarchy. heading it was the ________, helped by a deputy, under whom were the heads of constituent tribes (khans themselves), under each of whole were descent-group heads.

village fissioning

among the Yanomami, when a village is dissatisfied with its headman, its members can leave and found a new village. this happens from time to time and is called ________ _________.

office

an _______ is a permanent position in a political structure; it must be refilled when it is vacated. the political system that is the chiefdom endures across the generations, thus ensuring permanent political regulation.

authority legal systems

anthropological studies have reveal substantial variation in _______ and in ______ ______ in different societies.

states colonialism world events

anthropologists once viewed contemporary and recent foragers (inaccurately) as primitive, isolated survivors of the Stone Age. a more recent and accurate view of contemporary and recent foragers sees them as groups forced into marginal environments by _______, _______, and ______ _______.

political systems power politics

anthropologists share with political scientists an interest in ______ _______, _______, and _______. here again, however, the anthropological approach is global and comparative and includes nonstates, whereas political scientists tend to focus on contemporary and recent nation-states.

egalitarian

band leaders are leaders in name only. bands are ________ societies. that is, they make only a few social distinctions, based mainly on age, gender, and individual talents or achievements. in these _________ societies, the "leaders" are merely first among equals. if they give advice or make decisions, they have no sure way to enforce those decisions.

fall

bear in mind that chiefdoms and states can _______ (disintegrate) as well as rise. before Rome's expansion, much of europe was organized at the chiefdom level, to which it reverted for centuries after the fall of Rome in the fifth century C.E.

inherited position

big man was not an ________ _______; men achieved that status through hard work and good judgement. they created wealth by breeding, raising, and trading pigs. as a man's pig herd and prestige grew, he attracted supporters. he sponsored pig feasts in which pork (provided by the big man and his supporters) was distributed to guests, bringing him more prestige and widening his network of support.

several villages

big men could forge regional political organization, albeit temporarily, by mobilizing supporters from _______ ________. other principles in tribal societies-such as a belief in common ancestry, kinship or descent-could be used to link local groups within a region. the same descent group, for example, might span several villages, and its dispersed members might recognize the same leader.

certain characteristics

big men were marked by ________ _______ that distinguished them from their fellows. key attribute included wealth, generosity, eloquence, physical fitness, bravery, supernatural powers, and the ability to gain the support and loyalty of others.

minds bodies

both Bourdieu (1977) and Michel Foucault (1979) argued that it is easier and more effective to dominate people in their _______ than to try and control their ________. besides, and often replacing, physical coercion are more insidious forms of social control. these include various techniques of persuading and managing people and of monitoring and recording their beliefs, activities, and contacts.

international business

censorship can be a barrier to _________ _________. the world trade organization (WTO) favors freedom of access to the internet for commercial reasons: to allow free trade. WTO rules allow member nations to restrict trade to protect public morals or ensure public order, but with the understanding that such restrictions will disrupt trade as little as possible.

Bantu speakers

chapter 7 describes how the Basarwa of San of Botswana have been affected by government policies that relocated them after converting their ancestral lands into a wildlife reserve. more generally, San speakers ("bushman") of Southern Africa have been influenced by ______ ______ (farmers and herders) for 2,000 years and by europeans for centuries.

distribution consumption

chiefs also regulated _________ and __________, at certain seasons-often on a ritual occasion, such as a first-fruit ceremony-people would offer part of their harvest to the chief through his or her representatives. products moved up the hierarchy, eventually reaching the chief. conversely, illustrating obligatory sharing with kin, chiefs sponsored feasts at which they give back some of what they had received.

archaic states

compared with chiefdoms, ______ _______ drew a much firmer line between elites and masses, distinguishing at least between nobles and commoners,

Kapauku Papuans

consider the _______ _________, inhabitants of Iran Jaya, Indonesia (located on the island of New Guinea). anthropologist Leopold Popisil (1963) studied the ___________, who grew crops (with the sweet potato as their staple) and raised pigs. their cultivation system was too labor intensive to be described as simple horticulture. it required mutual aid in turning the soil before planting. the digging of long drainage ditches, which a big man often helped organize, was even more complex.

Basseri Qashqai

consider two Iranian pastoral nomadic tribes- the _______ and the _________. starting each year from a plateau near the coast, these groups took their animals to grazing land 17,000 feet above sea level. the ________ and the ________ shared this route with one another and with several other ethnic groups.

international national local

constant and instantaneous reporting has blurred the distinction between the ________, the _________, and the _________. geographic distance is obscured, and risk perception is magnified, by the barrage of "bad news" received daily from so many places. many people have no idea how far away the disasters and threats really are. was that suspicious package found In Paris or Pasadena? did that bomb go off in New York or New Delhi? votes in Athens, Greece, or Rome, Italy, can affect the American stock market more than votes in Athens or Rome, Georgia.

each day

during a Brazilian gold rush between 1987 and 1991, one Yanomami died ______ ________, on average, from such attacks. by 1991, there were some 40,000 miners in the Brazilian Yanomami homeland.

spread of horses

during the 18th and 19th centuries, Native American populations of the Great Plains of the United States and Canada experienced a rapid grown of pan tribal societies. this development reflected an economic change that followed the ________ of ________, which had been reintroduced to the americas by the Spanish, to the area between the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi River.

small bands

during the winter, when the bison dispersed, a tribe fragmented into _______ _______ and families. in the summer, when huge herds assembled on the plains, the tribe reunited. they camped together for social, political, and religious activities, but mainly for communal bison hunting.

sustain life

each Inuit had access to the resources he or she needed to ______ ______. every man could hunt, fish, and make the tools necessary for subsistence. every woman could obtain the materials needed to make clothing, prepare food, and do domestic work. Inuit men could even hunt and fish in the territories of other local groups. there was no notion of private ownership of territory or animals.

khan il-khan khan

each tribe had its own leader, known as the _______ or ________. the Basseri _______, because he dealt with a smaller population, faced fewer problems in coordinating its movements than did the leaders of the Qashqai. correspondingly, his rights, privileges, duties, and authority were weaker. nevertheless, his authority exceeded that of any political figure discussed so far.

archaic nonindustrial

early states are known as ________, or _______, states, in contrast to modern industrial nation-states.

oppressed

elites want to isolate the _________ rather than bringing them together in a group. consequently, southern U.S. plantation owners sought slaves with diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds, and limited their rights to assemble. despite the measures used to divide them, the slaves resisted, developing their own popular culture, linguistic codes, and religious vision. the masters stressed portions of the Bible that emphasized compliance (e.g., the book of Job). the slaves, however, preferred the story of Moses and deliverance.

economy social political

ethnographic and archaeological studies in hundreds of places have revealed many correlations between the ______ and _______ and ________ organization.

nonstates states

in _______, people customarily share with their relatives, but people who live in _______ also have to turn over a significant portion of what they produce to the state. officials standardize weights and measures and collect taxes on goods passing into or through the state. of the revenues the state collects, it reallocates part for the general good and keeps another part (often larger) for itself-its agents and agencies.

public

in ________, the elites and the oppressed may observe the etiquette of power relations. the dominants act like masters while their subordinates show humility and defer. but resistance often is seething beneath the surface.

songs

in a public setting, contestants made up insulting ______ about each other. at the end of the match, the audience proclaimed the winner. However, if the winner was the man whose wife had been stolen, there was no guarantee she would return. often she stayed with her abductor.

superordinate subordinate

in archaic states-for the first time in human history-there were contrasts in wealth, power, and prestige between entire groups (social strata) of men and women. the _________ (higher or elite) stratum had privilege access to valued resources. access to those resources by members of the __________ (lower or underprivileged) stratum was limited by the privileged group.

secret societies

in certain parts of western and central Africa, pan tribal sodalities are _______ ________, made up exclusively of men or women. like our college fraternities and sororities, these associations have secret initiation ceremonies. among the Mende of Sierra Leone, men's and women's _______ ________ were very influential.

social relations

in chiefdoms, _______ ________ are mainly based on kinship, marriage, descent, age, generation, and gender-as they are in bands and tribes. this is a basic difference between chiefdoms and states.

informal

many anthropologists have noted the importance of "_______" processes of social control, such as fear, stigma, shame, and gossip, especially in small-scale societies. gossip and shame, for example, can function as effective means of social control when a direct or formal sanction is risky or impossible. gossip can be used to shame someone who has violated a social norm

state-omened

many countries limit access to porn sites. in cuba, internet service is controlled by a _________-_______ telecom company. availability is limited to crowded government approved Wi-Fi hotspots in cities. internet access is so limited and costly for most cubans that formal censorship is unnecessary

big man

many indigenous cultures of the South Pacific had a kind of political figure that anthropologists call the "______ _____." such a leader achieved his status through hard work, amassing wealth in the form of pics and other native riches. characteristics that distinguished the _______ ______ from his fellows, enabling him to attract loyal supporters (a large network of friends), included wealth, generosity, eloquence, physical fitness, bravery, and supernatural powers. those who became _____ _______ did so because of their personalities rather than inheriting wealth or position.

age gender

many of these tribes had once been foragers whom hunting and gathering had been individual or small-group affairs. they never had come together previously as a single social unit. _______ and ________ were available as social principles that could quickly and efficiently forge unrelated people into pan tribal societies.

adaptive strategies

many plains Indian societies changed their _______ _______ because of the horse. at first they had been foragers who hunted bison (buffalo) on foot, Later the adopted a mixed economy based on hunting, gathering, and horticulture. finally, they changed to a much more specialized economy based on horseback hunting of bison (eventually with rifles)

big man

may societies of the South Pacific, particularly on the Melanesian Islands and in Papua New Guinea, had a kind of political leader that we call the ______ _______. the ______ _______(almost always a male) was an elaborate version of the village head, but with one significant difference. unlike the village head, whose leadership was limited to one village, the ______ _______ had supporters in several villages. the _______ ______ thus was a regulator of regional political organization.

nation-states food producers

modern foragers live in _____-_____ and an interlinked world. all foragers now trade with______ _______. the pygmies of Congo, for example, for generations have shared a social world and economic exchanges with their neighbors who are cultivators. furthermore, most contemporary hunter-gatherers rely on governments and on missionaries for at least part of what they consume.

Polynesia

much of our ethnographic knowledge about chiefdoms comes from_____________, where they were common at the time of European exploration.

resources

nevertheless, in chiefdoms as in states, some men, women, and even children had more prestige, wealth, and power than others did. these elites controlled ____________ such as land and water. Earle (1987) characterizes chiefs as "an incipient aristocracy with advantages in wealth and lifestyle"

states non states

nevertheless, service's typology foes highlight some significant contrasts in political organization, especially those between _______ and ______. for example, in bands and tribes-unlike states, which have clearly visible governments-poetical organization does not stand out as separate and distinct from the total social order. in bands and tribes, it is difficult to characterize an act or event as political rather than merely social.

complex expensive

one of Anderson's main conclusions is that the current system of deterrence is ______ and _________, and is not working as intended. the europeans union's costly, militarized, high-tech border-control system includes razor-wire fences, naval blockades, drones, and command centers, in the nations through which migrants typically move (e.g. turkey, Ukraine, Mauritania, Morocco, Libya), the EU subsidizes police officers to seek out and stop would-be migrants. despite these barriers, migrants and refugees keep coming.

tithe

peasants were expected to pay the __________, usually in the form of rice, which was sent to the provincial capital. in theory, the ________ would come back as charity, but it never did. peasants didn't resist the _______ by rioting, demonstrating, or protesting. instead, they used a "nibbling" strategy, based on small acts of resistance. for example, they failed to declare their land or lied about the amount they farmed. they underpaid, or they delivered rice contaminated with water, rocks, or mud to add weight. because of this resistance, only 15 percent of what was due was actually paid.

associations sodalities

principles other than kinship also can link local groups, especially in modern societies. people who live in different parts of the same nation may belong to the same labor union, sorority or fraternity, political party, or religious denomination. in tribes, nonkin groups called _________ or _________ may serve a similar linking function. often, sodalities are based on common age or gender, with all male sodalities more common than all-female ones.

eastern southeastern age set

raiding of one tribe by another, this time for cattle rather than horses, was common in ________ and ________ Africa, where pan tribal sodalities also developed. among the pastoral Masai of Kenya, men born during the same four-year period were circumcised together and belonged to the same named group, an ______ ______ thought their lives.

sociopolitical typology

service's labels band, tribe, chiefdom, and state are categories or types within a ______ _______. these types are associated with particular adaptive strategies or economic systems. thus, foragers (an economic type) tend to have band organization (a sociopolitical type).

sea

since 2015, over 1.5 million migrants have entered europe by _______. note, however, that this figure represents considerably less than 1 percent of Europes total population of about 742 million. Andersson contends that europe is wealthy enough to easily absorb this number of arrivals. he also notes that, despite right-wing outrange in europe and the United States, most refugees today wind up in poorer, rather than wealthier nations.

prestige

social status

seniority descent

social status in chiefdoms was based on ________ of _______. Polynesian chiefs kept extremely long genealogies. some chiefs (without writing) managed to trace their ancestry back dozens of generations. everyone in a chiefdom was related to everyone else. presumably, all were descended from the same founding ancestors.

outright diseases

some Yanomami were killed ________. the miners introduced new _________, and the swollen population ensured that old diseases became epidemic.

headmen

some bands had _________. there were also shamans (part-time religious specialists). however, these positions conferred little power on those who occupied them.

public resistance

some contexts enable or encourage ______ _______, particularly when people are allowed to assemble, the setting of a crowd offers anonymity, while also reinforcing and encouraging the common sentiments that have brought those people together.

active resistance

sometimes, the hidden transcript may include ______ ________, but it is individual and disguised rather than collective and defiant.

mesopotamia

state formation began in _________ (currently Iran and Iraq). it next occurred in Egypt, the Indus Valley of Pakistan and India, and northern china.

administrative subdivision

states also regulate population through ________ ________: provinces, districts, "states," counties, and parishes. lower-level officials manage the populations and territories of the subdivisions.

non relatives

states bring _________ together and oblige them to pledge allegiance to a government.

citizens noncitizen

states grant different rights to ___________ and ________. status distinctions among citizens are also common.

chiefly redistribution

such a flow of resources to and then from a central place is known as ______ _______, which offers economic advantages. If different parts of the chiefdom specialized in particular products, _______ _______ made those products available to the entire society. _________ ________ Also helped stimulate production beyond the basic subsistence level and provided a central storehouse for goods that might become scarce in times of famine.

social strata

such moves, if accepted by the society, created separate _______ _________-unrealted groups that differ in the access to wealth, prestige, and power.

british authority

the Igbo uprising is seen as the first major challenge to _______ _______ in Nigeria and West Africa during the colonial period. this case shows how women effectively used their social power (through song, dance, noise, and "in-your-face" behavior) to subvert the formal authority structure and, in so doing, gained greater influence within that structure. These examples from the Makua and the Igbo show how gossip, ridicule, and shaming can be effective process of social control, which can result in governmental change.

generalization

the Kapauku big man exemplifies a __________ about leadership in tribal societies: if someone achieves wealth and widespread respect and support, he or she must be generous. the big man worked hard not to hoard wealth but be able to give away the fruits of his labor, to convert wealth into prestige and gratitude. a stingy big man would lose his support. selfish and greedy big men sometimes were killed by their fellows.

jail sorcery attack shame

the Makua perceived three main disincentives or sanctions: _______ (cadeia), ______ _______ (enretthe), and ________ (ehaya). (as used here, a sanction refers to a kind of punishment that follows a norm violation).

tribal society

the Masai live in a _______ ______. the sociopolitical organization of such tribal herders is based on descent groups and pan tribal sodalities. other pastoralists, however, have chiefs and live in nation-states.

horticulturalists

the Yanomami are ________ who also hunt and gather. their staple crops are bananas and plantains (a banana-like crop).

Venezuela Brazil

the Yanomami are not isolated from outside events. they live in two nation-states, ________ and ________, and attacks by outsiders, especially Brazilian ranchers and miners, have plagued them.

political manipulation

the _______ ________ of the media is not new. would-be guardians of morality and authoritarian regimes always have sought to silence dissident voices. what is new is the potentially instantaneous and global reach of the voices that question both authority and democracy. new media including cell phones, Facebook, twitter, and youtube, have been used to muster public opinion and organize protests in places as distant as Istanbul, Turkey; Kiev; Ukraine; and Ferguson, Missouri.

chiefdom state

the _______ and the _______, like many categories used by social scientists, are ideal types. that is, they are labels that make social contrasts seem sharper than they really are. in reality there is a continuum from tribe to chiefdom to state. state societies had many attributes of chiefdoms but retained tribal features. some advanced chiefdoms had many attributes of archaic states and thus are difficult to assign to either category. recognizing this "continuous change," some anthropologists speak of "complex chiefdoms" which are almost states.

wealth power prestige

the influential sociologist Max Weber defined three related dimensions of social stratification: 1. economic status, or ________, encompasses all a persons material assets, including income, land, and other types of property. 2. _______, the ability to exercise one's will over others-to get what one wants-is the basis of political status. 3. ___________-the basis of social status-refers to esteem, respect, or approval for acts, deeds, or qualities considered exemplary.

tonowi

the key political figure among the Kapauku was the big man. known as ________, he achieved that status through hard work, amassing wealth in the form of pigs and other native riches.

personal traits

the khan's authority still came from his ______ _______ rather than from his office. that is, the basseri followed a particular khan not because of a political position he happened to fill but because of their personal allegiance and loyalty to him as a man. the khan relied on the support of the heads of the descent groups into which basseri society was divided.

Baidu

the local search engine, _________, which observes the nations censorship rules, drove google out of china in 2010. despite these roadblocks, china has more than twice as many internet users (about half its population) as the United States (where over 88 percent have access).

sorcery shame sorcery sorcery

the main sanctions-_______ and, above all, _________-came from society rather than from the formal political system. first, _________: once someone discovered his chicken had been stolen, he would, the Makua though, ask a traditional healer to launch a _______ attack on his behalf. this would either kill the thief or make him very ill

fear

the media also promote ________, which often is manipulated for political reasons. waves of internationally transmitted images and information can reinforce the perception that the world is a dangerous place, with threats to security and order everywhere.

dissident voices

the media have the capacity to enlighten by providing users with unfamiliar information and viewpoints and by offering a forum for ________ ________. as reported in 2017 by North Korean defector Thae Yong-ho, formerly that nation's number two diplomat in Britain, his nation-state sanctioned television programming has been losing out to popular culture offerings from South Korean TV, and western movies and cartoons smuggled in on DVDs.

poro

the men's group, the ______, trained boys in social conduct, ethics, and religion, and its supervised political and economic activities. leadership roles in the _________ often overshadowed village headship and played an important part in social control, dispute management, and tribal political regulation, age, gender, and ritual can link members of different local groups into a single social collectivity in a tribe and thus create a sense of ethnic identity, of belonging to the same cultural tradition.

nuclear family band

the most significant social groups were the _______ _______ and the ________. personal relationships linked the families and the bands.

settled nomadic

the nature of san life has changed considerable since the 1950s and 1960s, when a series of anthropologists from Harvard University, including Richard B. Lee, embarked on a systematic study of their lives. Studying the San over time, lee and others have documented many changes. such longitudinal research monitors variation in time, while fieldwork in many San areas has revealed variation in space. one of the most important contrasts is between _______ (sedentary) and ______ groups.

pastoralism

the political systems associated with ________ varied considerable, ranging from tribal societies to chiefdoms.

position

the protests were remarkable effective. the tax was abandoned, and many of the warrant chiefs resigned, some to be replaced by women. other women were appointed to the native courts as judges. the _______ of women improved in Nigeria, where market women especially remain a powerful political force to this day. many Nigerian political events in the 1930's, 1940's, and 1950's were inspired by the women's war, including additional tax protests. this women's war inspired many other protests in regions all over Africa

densely populated

the scope of political authority among pastoralists expands considerably as regulatory problems increase in _______ ________ regions.

social groups

there are more significant _______ _______among the Yanomami than exist in a foraging society. the Yanomami have families, villages, and decent groups. their descent groups, which span more than one village, are patrilineal (ancestry is traced back through males only) and exogamous (people must marry outside their own descent group). however, beaches of two different descent groups may live in the same village and intermarry.

band tribe chiefdom

there is archaeological evidence for early bands, tribes, and chiefdoms that existed before the first states appeared. however, because anthropology originated long after states did, anthropologists never have been able to observe "in the flesh" a ______, _______, or ________ outside the influence of some state. there still may be local political leaders (e.g. village heads) and regional figures (e.g. chiefs) of the sort discussed in this chapter, but all now exist and function within the context of state organization.

shame guilt

they regarded ______ as a more prominent form of social control in non-Western societies and ________ as a more dominant emotional sanction in Western societies. of course, to be effective as a sanction, the prospect of being shamed or of shaming oneself must be internalized by the individual. in small-scale societies, in a social environment where everyone knows everyone else, most people try to avoid behavior that might harm or spoil their reputations and alienate them from their social network.

levels

this definition certainly fits contemporary North America. under "individuals or groups that manage the affairs of public policy" come various agencies and _______ of government. those who seek to influence public policy include political parties, unions, corporations, lobbyists, activists, political action committees (including super PAC's), religious groups, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)

foraging economy bands

to the extent that foraging continues to be their subsistence base, groups like the San can illustrate links between a ________ ______ and other aspects of life in _______. for example, San groups that still are mobile, or that were so until recently, emphasize social, political, and gender equality which are traditional band characteristics.

village head

traditionally among the Yanomami the only leadership position has been that of ________ _______ (always a man). a______ _______ is chosen based on his personal characteristics (e.g. bravery, persuasiveness) and the support he can muster from fellow villagers. the position is not inherited, and the authority of the village head, like that of the leader of a foraging band, is severely limited.

men women

traveling on land and sea in a bitter environment, Inuit ______ faced more dangers than _______ did. the traditional male role took its toll in lives, so that adult women outnumbered men. this permitted some men to have two or three wives.

horticultural pastoral

tribes typically have a _________ or ________ economy and are organized into villages and/or descent groups (kin groups whose members trace descent from a common ancestor).

enemy camps summer bison hunt

two activities demanded strong leadership: organizing and carrying out raids on ______ ________(to capture horses) and managing the ________ ______ ______. all the Plains societies developed pantribal sodalities, and leadership roles within them, to police the summer hunt. leaders coordinated hunting efforts, making sure that people did not cause a stampede with an early shot or an ill-advised action. leaders imposed severe penalties, including seizure of a culprit's wealth, for disobedience.

social sanctions

we see from this discussion that people arent just citizens of governments; they are also members of society and _______ __________ exist alongside governmental ones. such sanctions also exemplify other "weapons of the weak," because they often are wielded most effectively by people-for example, women or young people-who have limited access to the formal authority structure, as in the Igbo case.

kinship basis

we see that a key difference between chiefdom and state was the chiefdom's ______ ______. however, chiefs and their closest relatives, backed by their wealth and power, sometimes launched attacks on the kinship basis of their chiefdom. in Madagascar, they would do this by demoting their more distant relatives to commoner status and banning marriage between nobles and commoners.

political organization

we've seen how the scale of _______ ________ has expanded through time and in relation to economic changes. we've examined means of conflict resolution, or their absence, in various types of society. we've looked at political decision making, including leaders and their limits. weve also recognized that all contemporary humans have been affected by states, colonialism, and the spread of the world system.

mediator

when conflict erupts within the village, the headman may be called on as a ________ who listens to both sides. he will give an opinion and advice. if a disputant is unsatisfied, the headman has no power to back his decisions and no way to impose punishments. like the band leader, he is first among equals.

band-organized

with its many villages and descent groups, Yanomami sociopolitical organization is more complicated than that of a ________-_________ society. the Yanomami face more problems in regulation relations between groups and individuals. although a headman sometimes can prevent a specific violent act, inter village raiding has been a feature of some areas of Yanomami territory, particularly those studied by Chagnon.