Anthropology of Sacred and Spiritual Exam 2

Prophets

- A mouthpiece of the gods. Role is to communicate the words and will of the gods to his or her community and to act as an intermediary between the gods and the people. - E.g. Mohammad, or Moses

Transmigration

- In some religious systems the duration of a soul's residence after death is finite, so after death the soul passes from one body to another -human, animal, or even an inanimate object.

Shaman***

- Receives their power from the spirit world. They acquire their status and abilities such as healing, through personal communication with the supernatural during shamanic trances or altered states of conscious - Often use handheld drums and spirit helpers to help the members of their community by healing the sick, divining the future, and ensuring success in the hunt. - Chosen by spirits to become shamans, often comes in a dream or a trance

Neoshamanism

- Shamanism has been growing in the United States and Europe. -neoshamanism focuses on the individual, often as self-help effort -neoshamans focus on positive side of shamanism, avoiding "dark shamanism" - criticized for taking beliefs outside their cultural context

Ghosts-

- Souls Without Bodies -Distinction between two not always clear - both = manifestation of individual after death essentially negative force - tends to hang around community after death -can bring about illness or other misfortune, so must be dealt with

Magic (definition)

- The methods that somehow interface with the supernatural and by which people can bring about particular outcomes. It may be used for good, although sorcerers in particular generally are considered evil figures.

Muisak

- an avenging soul, which comes into being when someone is murdered. Located in the head of the dead person

. Inquisitions (with regard to witchcraft accusations)

- formal investigations by bishops and other religious authority.

angels

- in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, spirit beings who act as mediators between God and humans. -Demons were originally angelic creatures, created by God as good, innocent beings, and they became evil by their own actions -Satan and demons are believed to be closely associated with human evil

Korean Shamanism

- in KOREA, SHAMANS WERE ONCE MOSTLY MEN AND HAD CONSIDERABLE POLITICAL POWER, HOWEVER THEY WERE EVENTUALLY DRIVEN UNDERGROUND. -TODAY MOST SHAMANS ARE WOMEN, BELIEVE THAT SPIRITS PREFER PEOPLE WHOSE "MAUM" OR SOUL HAS ALREADY BEEN FRACTURED ->VULNERABLE -SINBYONG (TRANCE STATE) WHICH SIGNIFIES A PERSON AS BEING SELECTED AS A SHAMAN -KOREAN SHAMANS ARE CALLED TO GUIDE THE DEAD TO THE OTHERWORLD, TO CURE ILLNESSES, DIVINATION, AND TO ENSURE THE GOOD FORTUNE OF THE FAMILY/COMMUNITY

Law of Similarity

- things that are alike are the same = homeopathic or imitative magic.

Law of Contagion

- things that were once in contact continue to be connected after the connection is severed = contagious magic

Nekas Wakani

- true or ordinary soul

Arutam Wakani

- warrior soul. Must be acquired, and can be lost. A warrior can possess a number of these in a lifetime

Ordeals (as part of divination rituals. What are some examples?)

painful tests person suspected of guilt must undergo (hot knife; drowning)

Diviner

practices divination, a series of techniques that are used to obtain info about things that are not normally knowable. Such as things that will happen in the future, things that are occurring now but at a distance, and things that touch the supernatural, such as the identification of a witch. e.g - turning over cards to entering altered states of conscious.

The Function of Magic***

provide a measure of control over events that are socially weighty (example, social pressure to provide extra food for a large public ritual) For control of things that are uncontrollable and over others. Also to lower psychological stress

Noninspirational Divination (artificial)

reading of natural events or manipulation of oracular devices

Benge "poison" oracle

-determined by whether or not a fowl survives being administered a poison. The outcome of the oracle can be taken as law in certain circumstances when a Zande Chief is present.

Exposure:

-expose body to elements or to be consumed by animals Ex: Tibetan Sky Burial

Priests ***

-full time religious specialists-> often associated with formalized religious institutions -acts as a representative of the community & personifies an ideal person -> models of eithics and morality -responsible for prescribed rituals -> birth, death, illness, & wedding rituals -a priest is not blamed for the failure of a ritual -> might be due to the will of the deity who has already made a decision. -may have received a divine call -> dreams, visions, trances -training involves studying ritual knowledge and sacred narratives

Hmong Souls (basic concepts of the soul)

-person possesses number of souls. When one or more souls is lost, person becomes ill. Soul can be frightened out of body by traumatic event, or stolen by spirit. Shaman must enter altered state and search for lost soul. placenta is "jacket" for the soul. = protection for traveling to where ancestors live.

Disposal of the Body

-some believe that as long as body is intact, soul will not leave -some dispose of corpse quickly, others have it as centerpiece of funeral e.g Burial, Cremation, Consuming the Dead, Mummification, & Exposure.

Mummification:

-some stress importance of maintaining body after death -some smoke body, or preserve in salt or oil -ex: ancient Egyptians - death = next step in continuation of life = need to preserve body

Ancestors-

-soul becomes part of group of supernatural beings -even after death, person still valued member of kinship group, still contributing to social harmony -ancestors act as moral force, punishing descendants for misbehavior -not all souls become ancestors. e.g. men, or powerful people

Divination

-techniques for dealing with uncertainties of life through obtaining information about things unknown, including events that will occur in the future -know future = decision making is much easier Many forms of divination include magic =manipulate supernatural world in order to provide information -often involve contact with supernatural entities -other forms based on idea that world consists of things and events interconnected with one another (knowledge of movement of planets = reading future)

jinn

in Islam, a spirit being created of fire -The Qur'an tells of God's creation of three types of conscious beings: humans made from clay, angels made from light, and jinn made from fire without smoke -Jinn are normally invisible, but they can make themselves visible. In doing so they often take the form of a human or an animal -More often than not, jinn are troublemakers; provide an explanation for illness and bad luck The Hofriyati recognize three types of jinn: white, black and red The red jinn, called zairan, are associated with blood and fertility and they are capable of causing illness

J. Frazer's Theory of Magic

magic = pseudo-science based on direct action (no spirit intermediary). Part of evolutionary school that thought magic would be replaced by religion, which would be replaced by science

Tylor's Theory of magic

magic is logical way of thinking, but based on bad premises - assumes causal relationship between things that appear to be similar. Magic is separate from religion because no spirits involved. Today anthropologists associate magic with religion because it involves the supernatural

Law of Sympathy

magic that depends on the apparent association or agreement between things

. Funeral Rites (what do they do for dead and living?)

The Living: -permit and channel expressions of grief -grieving can be public or private, and for varying lengths of time Some believe that grief must be held in, with no public display of emotion -others believe in dramatic displays, and grievers may be paid for performance -move the soul away from community so it won't cause harm The dead: -One function of funeral ritual is to aid the soul in its journey -these journeys can be dangerous or difficult -some believe souls may be reborn in another individual or animal -some believe destiny of soul depends on person's life = form of social control -final destination of soul is usually some distance from where person lived; may be at a known geographic location = mountaintop or island; may be in sky or underground -souls of certain classes of people may go to specific places (shamans, warriors, etc.)

Yanomamo Souls

cannibalistic practices of cremating dead, pulverize bones, and mix with plantain soup -do this so dead will find home in bodies of the living -Complex of souls. Cosmos composed of 4 layers. Shamans can remove = much work to recover; last part of soul related to belief that each person has animal that is born, and grows along with, each child. When one dies, the other does also.

Heresy

crimes against god

Necromancy

divination through contact with ancestors or the dead -Can obtain knowledge by observing living or dead animals. Birds, black cat crossing path, reading entrails of sacrificed animals. May also read bones of animals

Fortuitous Divination

happen without any conscious effort on part of the individual

Tear Catchers

mourners filling glass bottles with their tears, and placing them in tombs as a symbol of their respect for the deceased. It was also used to show remorse, guilt, love and grief. The women cried during the procession, and the more tears collected in tear bottles meant the deceased was more important. Tear bottles were designed with special seals, which allowed the tears to evaporate. By the time that the tears were assumed to have evaporated, the mourning period was considered over.

goddesses-

-Some scholars believe that early human religions centered on fertility, a lunar cycle as opposed to a solar one, and the worship of goddess -With the development of monotheistic religions, the goddess was further suppressed

Doctrine of Signatures

-Often related to traditional herbal medicine. -Belief that signs telling of a plant's medical use are somehow embedded within the plant's structure and nature. -Some believe God provided these signatures so people could determine the use of particular plants in healing.

Religious Specialists

-ability to contact the supernatural -work full time or part time -two major categories: priest & shaman

Witchcraze

-An historical period which has no specific start or end dates yet spanned just over two centuries, beginning in Continental Europe, spreading to the British Isles, and finally ending in the United States. -Due to Church-promoted mass hysteria and paranoia, the Witch-Craze was a time when simply being accused of Witchcraft could have you summarily executed without even having the benefit of a fair trial. It is estimated that between 500,000 and 4,000,000 people were slaughtered on the charges of witchcraft and heresy during this time, a European genocide almost as devastating as the Holocaust yet little remembered due to its socio-political rammafications.

Vision Quest

-An individual enters into an altered state of consciousness, makes contact with the world of spirit beings, and receives a gift of supernatural power -Guardian spirits are often the spirit beings encountered in these visions -Sometimes part of a coming-of-age ritual

concept of god

-Gods are individualized supernatural beings, each with a distinctive name, personality, and sphere of influence that encompasses the life of an entire community or a major segment of the community -Generally speaking, gods are more powerful than spirits -They possess great supernatural power and control or influence major forces of nature -Gods are personalized individuals with names, origins, and specific attributes -The number of gods found within a religious system varies from one to more than a thousand -Gods are anthropomorphic, that is, they resemble people in their physical appearance and personalities -Like humans, they can be influenced by gifts in the form of offerings and sacrifices and by praise and flattery, and sometimes they can be tricked -The behavior of humans on earth reflects the orders and commandments of the gods -Some gods are very concerned about the fate of human beings and will establish close relationships with them and have a great influence in human lives

Cremation:

-May be reaction to decay, which is thought by some to be dangerous -may be way to destroy corpse so soul cut off from former body -in US may be more economical than burial

Emergence of Witches

-Much of anthropological understanding comes from Africa, but witchcraft also common in early European history -because common belief was that only God could heal, individuals who practiced healing arts and midwifery often stigmatized and thought of as witches -with interest of Christian churches, witchcraft came to be associated with Satan and demons

incubi and succubae

-One common activity of demons, is demonic possession -This was considered a major cause of strange behaviors by humans and much of Jesus' healing ministry involved performing demonic exorcism Incubi: Male demons who have sex with humans while they sleep Succubae: Female demons who have sex with humans while they sleep

Magic & Science contrast

-Science = methodology for coming to understanding of world thru objective observations, experimentation, and development of hypotheses and theories. Deals only with empirical observations (those made through senses) -BUT even with use of science in activities such as farming, bad things still happen -thus one wants to extend control over the unexpected as much as possible -can make prayer or offering to a god, but response depends on good will of that god -alternative is to control situation directly = connect with supernatural world to bring about desired end. All one needs to have is knowledge of magic

Burial:

-Some may bury bodies near or under house (wish to keep ancestor nearby) -Body may be preserved, such as through embalming or mummification -May be accompanied by grave goods, or sacrificial victims

spirit possession in Sudan

-Spirit possession occurs when a zar enters the body of a woman -Women isolated; worth and happiness depend on fertility and ability to bear sons -Woman unable to bear children loses status -Depression due to the anxiety of marriage and a woman's fertility may lead to possession -It is also possible that the zar is responsible for misfortune surrounding her reproductive life -Once the zar has entered her body, she will continue to be possessed, and must meet demands of the spirit -When not possessed, women will participate in singing and drumming, which are enjoyable, all-female social events in a world where such social activities are relatively rare

Shuar concept of 3 souls and relation to headshrinking

-The Shuar people of the Ecuadorian Amazon traditionally practiced headhunting and head shrinking

Shamanic Role and Rituals

-The control of spirit helpers and the ability to enter altered states of consciousness are central to the role of shaman -These spirits help the shaman fight hostile forces and also help him or her diagnose or treat illnesses -Through ritual, shaman makes a "soul journey, traveling into the supernatural realm between upper and lower worlds

Witches and Functional Analysis

-Witchcraft can offer an explanation for things that happen in the world, particularly bad things that affect people's lives (Azande) -Witchcraft beliefs can enforce social norms and behaviors -Witches fulfill our need to blame someone for the misfortunes we experience in daily lives -Rituals to get rid of witchcraft offer people a sense of control over unfortunate events

types of gods

-Within a particular religious system, the gods as a collective make up a pantheon -Usually, the gods within the pantheon form a hierarchy with a supreme god at the top -In many ways a pantheon resembles a human society, often with a division of labor Attribute gods: Specialized deities (god of war, water, etc.) Creator gods: Are responsible for the creation of the physical earth and the plants and animals that live on it

Aspects of Witchcraft

-Within anthropology, generally refers to individuals who have innate ability to do evil -Doesn't necessarily rely on ritual to achieve evil ends, but simply wills misfortune to occur -Witchcraft can be unconscious and unintentional

Tibetan Sky Burials

-may place in tree or on high platform -spirit lifted to heavens by birds of prey

Witchcraft in small-scale societies (some characteristics)

-only evil witches, no good witches -witches will death and destruction -power of witch lies WITHIN the body of the witch. It is a supernatural power

Souls***

-the noncorporeal, spiritual component of an individual -usually reserved for spirits that inhabit the human body -soul essentially good - but can bring misfortune if neglected -may hang around a while, but normally goes on to another place -may be full-size duplicate of living individual, or may be small and reside in some specific place in the body -different souls have different fates, and are responsible for different things

Why Magic "Works"

1) the human mind frequently sees coincidence as evidence of causation 2) often attempts to bring about events that will occur naturally, such as rain 3) people don't usually expect magic to bring about the impossible (make me fly) 4) there's always a ready explanation if expected results don't arrive = ritual not done right; someone with more powerful magic is overriding your magic; someone performing counter-magic 5) selective memory = forget failures and remember successes

Omnibenevolent

All-loving, or infinitely good

Soul in Roman Catholicism

Destiny of each soul is determined by God. (Based primarily on one's behavior in life) main issue is presence of sin Sounds in state of grace but need purification go to purgatory

Consuming the Dead:

Ex: yanomamo

Oracles of the Azande

Iwa - the rubbing board oracle Dakpa - the termite oracle Benge - the poison oracle

Rules of Magic: ***

Law of Sympathy, Law of Similarity, and Law of Contagion.

Gods & Spirits***

Myths describe the actions of these beings, and their behavior may be seen as a model for human behavior -Gods are individualized supernatural beings, each with a distinctive name, personality, and sphere of influence that encompasses the life of an entire community or a major segment of the community -Spirits are less powerful than gods and usually are more localized Frequently, spirits are collections of nonindividualized supernatural beings and are not given specific names and identities They often exhibit complex personalities One can ask for their assistance Offerings, entertainment, and attention will promote the development of a beneficial relationship between people and the spirit world

Profile of a Witch

Personal characteristics of witch - antithesis of good person = cannibalism, incest, hatred, jealousy, greed -witchcraft beliefs become a way of objectifying antisocial behavioral traits

Dark shamanism

The term "dark shaman" reflects distinct features of assault sorcery and malicious witchcraft -"The ability to cure entails the ability to kill"

Effective Magic

There are documented cases of magic working, especially death magic. -basis = extreme state of fear = many symptoms such as agitation, sleeplessness, sweating -family/victim may believe that death is inevitable -patient = socially dead and family withdraws support/food/water

Function of Death Rituals

Think of death rituals as rites of passage - move individual from status of living to dead (or other post-death state) -loss of someone can be very traumatic = impact on family and community = disruption of social fabric -need to mend this -way of channeling behavior during highly emotional state -funeral rituals provide explanation for what happened and why

Yup'ik Souls

Western Alaska = newborn has soul of someone recently died in grandparental generation -animals also have immortal souls - based on reciprocal relationship between humans and animals (ex: if seal feels hunter adhering to rules of Yup'ik society, will allow self to be killed. Belief that soul of killed seal retreats to bladder. Bladders collected, inflated and hung during 5-day festival then shoved through hole in ice to be reborn.)

Tana Toraja Ancestors

When a Torajan dies, family members of the deceased are required to hold a series of funeral ceremonies, known as Rambu Soloq, over many days. During this time, the deceased is not buried but is embalmed and stored in a traditional house under the same roof with his or her family. Until the funeral ceremonies are completed, the person is not considered to be truly dead but merely suffering an illness. The dead relative is referred to simple as "a person who is sick" or "the one who is asleep". Remarkably, this could even last several years after death, depending on how long it takes the family to raise money. During this time, the deceased family member is symbolically fed, cared for and taken out, and is very much a part of their relative's lives.

Witches and Social Tensions

Witchcraft accusations reflect underlying tensions in society -individuals with antisocial behavior = likely targets Witchcraft accusations are based on real social tensions that exist in a particular society Greed, envy, hatred can be the source of such tension Witches are often identified through divination

Presentiments

a feeling in a person that something is about to occur

Otiose gods

a god who is too remote and too uninterested in human activities to participate in the activities and fate of humans.

Sorcerer

a magician that specialized in evil or antisocial magic, often works on behalf of a client

Healer

a religious specialist who concentrates on healing

Social death versus physical death

social death stretched out over long period -physically dead person often said to have fever or to be sleeping - all smoke ascending ritual forbidden -soul begins to separate from body -dead body wrapped and placed along south wall of house with head to west = said to be asleep -people greet and converse with dead. Soul stays close by and has power to cause trouble or bring blessings

Inspirational Divination

some form of spiritual experience, such as direct contact with supernatural being through altered state of consciousness (also called natural or emotive divination)

Omniscient

state of being all-knowing

Omnipotent

state of being all-powerful

Endocannibalism

the eating of one's own people

Deliberate Divination

those that someone sets out to do (reading tarot cards)

Durkheim's Theory of Magic

thought magic separate from religion because it involved desires/needs of individual rather than society. BUT we know that magic (to make rain for example) can be carried out for social benefit