AP Biology: Carbon & The Molecular Diversity of Life

Glycosidic Linkage

A covalent bond formed between 2 monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction Involved in disaccharides and polysaccharides

Distinctive properties of organic molecules depend not only on the arrangement of carbon skeletons but also on various ________________ _____________ attached to the skeleton

Chemical Groups

Functional Groups

Chemical groups that contribute to function by being directly involved in chemical reactions

Fats are constructed from what two kinds of smaller molecules?

Glycerol and Fatty Acids

What are the 3 types of isomers?

Structural Isomers Cis-Trans Isomers Enantiomers

Quaternary Structure

The fourth level of protein structure The shape resulting from the association of two or more polypeptide subunits.

Are fats polymers?

*No*. Although fats are not polymers, they are large molecules assembled from smaller molecules by dehydration reactions

What are the 8 common protein functions?

1. *Enzymatic* Proteins: Selective acceleration of chemical reactions 2. *Defensive* Proteins: Protection against disease 3. *Storage* Proteins: Storage of Amino Acids 4. *Transport* Proteins: Transport of substances 5. *Hormonal* Proteins: Coordination of an organism's activities 6. *Receptor* Proteins: Response of cell to chemical stimuli 7. *Contractile and Motor* Proteins: Movement 8. *Structural* Proteins: Support

Amino Acids contain an asymmetric carbon. What are the 4 different partners of this "alpha carbon"?

1. Amino Group 2. Carboxyl Group 3. Hydrogen 4. R-Group (Side Chain)

Carbon chains form the skeletons of most organic molecules. What are the 4 ways in which carbon skeletons can vary?

1. Length 2. Branching 3. Double Bond Position 4. Presence of Rings

What are the 3 parts of a nucleotide?

1. Nitrogenous Base 2. Pentose Sugar 3. Phosphate Group

What are the 4 levels of Protein Structure?

1. Primary 2. Secondary 3. Tertiary 4. Quaternary

What are the 2 families of nitrogenous bases?

1. Pyrimidines 2. Purines

Triglyceride

3 fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule by an ester linkage

Methyl Group

A Carbon bonded to 3 Hydrogens Affects function and shape of sex hormones Affects expression of genes

Phosphate Group

A Phosphorus atom bonded to 4 Oxygen atoms Takes part in many important chemical reactions in the cell, releasing energy One of the 3 things that make up a nucleic acid

Ester Linkage

A bond between a hydroxyl group and a carboxyl group

Asymmetric Carbon

A carbon that is attached to 4 different atoms or groups of atoms Present in Enantiomers

Organic Compound

A compound containing carbon

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

A fatty acid possessing one or more double bonds between the carbons in the hydrocarbon tail Liquid at room temperature Where cis double bonds are located cause kinks that prevent the molecules from packing together closely enough to solidify

Dehydration Synthesis

A reaction that connects monomers in which two molecules are covalently bonded to each other and there is a loss of a water molecule

What does it take for a protein to be functional?

ALL 4 levels of protein structure must be present

Hydroxyl Group

An Oxygen and a Hydrogen Alcohols An example is Ethanol

Glycerol

An alcohol composed of a three-carbon chain, which can serve as the backbone for a triglyceride

Monosaccharides

Carbohydrate monomers (From these, more complex carbohydrates are built) AKA Simple Sugars Generally have a molecular formula that are some multiple of 1C:2H:1O Carbonyl Group and multiple Hydroxyl Groups In aqueous solutions, most 5- & 6-Carbon sugars form *rings* because they're the most stable form of these sugars under physiological conditions

Polysaccharide

Carbohydrate polymer composed of many sugar building blocks joined together by dehydration reactions (glycosidic linkages) Can serve as storage and building material

Disaccharide

Carbohydrates Double sugar which consists of 2 monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkage Most prevalent in Sucrose (Glucose & Fructose)

Carbonyl Group

Carbon double bonded to Oxygen Found in sugars creating 2 major groups of sugars *Ketone* if within the carbon skeleton *Aldehyde* if at the end of carbon skeleton

Carboxyl Group

Carbon, Hydrogen, Hydroxyl Found in acetic acid which makes vinegar sour What makes an amino acid an *acid* Is a source of Hydrogen ions

What are the 7 functional groups?

Carbonyl Group Carboxyl Group Hydroxyl Group Sulfhydryl Group Methyl Group Phosphate Group Amino Group

Protein

Def. A biologically functional molecule made up of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific 3D structure

Polymer

Def. A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds

Nucleic Acid

Def. A polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers Holders of hereditary information

Polypeptide

Def. A polymer of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds

Primary Structure

Def. A protein's unique sequence of amino acids

Hydrocarbon

Def. An organic molecule consisting only of carbon and hydrogen

Amino Acid

Def. An organic molecule with both an amino group and a carboxyl group

Catalysts

Def. Chemical agents that selectively speed up chemical reactions without being consumed in the reaction

Denaturation

Def. In proteins, a process in which a protein loses its native shape due to disruption of weak chemical bonds and interactions, thereby becoming biologically inactive Opposite of renaturation

Peptide Bond

Def. The bond between amino acids in which a carboxyl group is adjacent to an amino group and they become joined by a dehydration reaction

Secondary Structure

Def. The coiling and folding of the polypeptide chains in a protein The result of H-bonds between the repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone (NOT the side chains) Within backbone, O atom partial (-) charge and H attached to N partial (+) charge 𝝰-helix and 𝛃-helix

Monomer

Def. The repeating units that serve as the building blocks of a polymer

What is the difference between deoxyribose and ribose?

Deoxyribose lacks an oxygen

What is the sugar in DNA? In RNA?

Deoxyribose/Ribose

When 2 Carbon atoms are joined by double bonds, what shape does the molecule take?

Flat (Planar)

Saturated Fatty Acids

Have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds Solid at room temperature (straight chains so fat molecules can pack together tightly)

Phospholipids have 2 ends and each one exhibits different behaviors toward water. Identify the 2 sides and their behavior.

Hydrocarbon Tail - Hydrophobic Phosphate Group (Head) - Hydrophilic

Cis-Trans Isomers

Isomers in which the carbons have covalent bonds to the same atoms, but these atoms differ in their spatial arrangements due to the inflexibility of double bonds

Enantiomers

Isomers that are mirror images of each other and that differ in shape due to the presence of an *asymmetric carbon*

Structural Isomers

Isomers that differ in the covalent arrangement of their atoms

Amino Group

Made up of a Nitrogen bonded to 2 Hydrogens Acts as a *base*

No matter the size of the polypeptide, it has a single amino end which is known as the ____________________, and a single carboxyl end which is known as the ____________________.

N-Terminus/C-Terminus

Are hydrocarbons polar or nonpolar?

Nonpolar (Hydrophobic)

Pyrimidine

One family of nitrogenous base 1 6-membered ring of Carbon and Nitrogen atoms C, T, U

Purine

One family of nitrogenous base 6-membered ring fused to a 5-membered ring A, G

Hydrolysis

Opposite of dehydration synthesis A water molecule is added to a polymer to break it down into monomers

𝛃-pleated sheets

Part of secondary structure of proteins 2 or more segments of polypeptide chain lying side by side connected by H-bonds between parts

𝝰-helix

Part of secondary structure of proteins A delicate coil held together by H-bonding between every fourth amino acid

Cellulose

Polysaccharide used as building material A major component of the tough walls that enclose plant cells

Phospholipid

Similar to fat molecule but has only 2 fatty acids attached to glycerol rather than 3 Third hydroxyl group of glycerol joined to phosphate group

Starch

Storage Polysaccharide Stored by plants A polymer of glucose monomers used as stored energy which can be withdrawn using hydrolysis

Glycogen

Storage Polysaccharide Stored by animals A polymer of glucose that is extensively branched Hydrolysis of it in liver and muscle cells releases glucose when the demand for sugar increases

Sulfhydryl Group

Sulfur bonded to a Hydrogen atom Stabilizes protein structure Called Thiols Maintains the curliness or straightness of hair

When a Carbon atom forms 4 single bonds, what shape does the molecule take?

Tetrahedral

Phosphodiester Linkage

The linkage of nucleotides into a polynucleotide involves a dehydration reaction Adjacent nucleotides joined by a phosphate group covalently linking the sugars of 2 nucleotides

Valence

The number of unpaired electrons in the valence shell of an atom The number of covalent bonds an atom can form

Hydrogenated

Unsaturated fats have been synthetically converted to saturated fats by adding hydrogen

Isomers

Variations in the architecture of organic molecules Compounds that have the same numbers of atoms of the same elements but different structures and hence different properties