ap environmental science ch 16

Approximately 30 million mobile devices were sold in 1998 in the United States. The number sold increased to 180 million devices in 2007. (b) Each mobile device sold in 2007 contained an average of 0.03 gram of gold. Calculate the number of grams of gold that were used in the production of the mobile devices sold in 2007.

(1.8 x 10^8 devices x 3x10^-2 grams) / 1 device = 5.4x10^6 grams or 5,400,000 grams OR (180,000,000 devices x 0.03 grams) / 1 device = 5,400,000 grams or 5.4x10^6 grams

Approximately 30 million mobile devices were sold in 1998 in the United States. The number sold increased to 180 million devices in 2007. (c) Assume that the average mass of each mobile device was 0.1 kilograms. The United States Environmental Protection Agency estimates that about 10 percent of the mobile devices sold in 2007 were recycled. Calculate the mass (in kilograms) of the mobile devices sold in 2007 that were not recycled.

(1.8x10^8 devices x 0.1 kg x 0.9) / 1 device = 1.62x10^7 kg or 16,200,000 kg OR (180,000,000 devices x 0.1 kg x 0.9) / 1 device = 16,200,000 kg or 1.62x10^7 kg

The city of Fremont operates a municipal solid-waste landfill. As represented in the diagram above, the annual precipitation of Fremont is 200 mm/year: 50 percent of this water infiltrates through the landfill cover soil into the waste, and 50 percent drains off the landfill. A drainage system withdraws 90 percent of the leachate generated within the landfill for treatment. The rest of the leachate travels through the bottom liner of the landfill into the surrounding soil. Most of the cadmium disposed of in the landfill remains in the landfill; the leachate withdrawn from the landfill by the drainage system has an average cadmium concentration of 2.0 g/m^3. Pumped to a treatment station, the leachate is treated at a cost of $10/m^3. (a) Calculate the volume, in m^3, of each of the following: - (i) The water infiltrated through the landfill per year

(200 mm rain x 1 m) / 1,000 mm = 0.2 m rain (10,000 m^2 x 0.2 m x 0.5 (50% infiltrated water) ) = 1,000 m^3

The city of Fremont operates a municipal solid-waste landfill. As represented in the diagram above, the annual precipitation of Fremont is 200 mm/year: 50 percent of this water infiltrates through the landfill cover soil into the waste, and 50 percent drains off the landfill. A drainage system withdraws 90 percent of the leachate generated within the landfill for treatment. The rest of the leachate travels through the bottom liner of the landfill into the surrounding soil. Most of the cadmium disposed of in the landfill remains in the landfill; the leachate withdrawn from the landfill by the drainage system has an average cadmium concentration of 2.0 g/m^3. Pumped to a treatment station, the leachate is treated at a cost of $10/m^3. (c) What is the annual cost of treating the leachate from the drainage system?

(900 m^3 treatable leachate x $10) / 1 m^3 = $9,000 per year

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is the trash collected from households and businesses. The graph below shows MSW generation in the United State from 1960 to 2012. (a) Use the data provided in the graph above to respond to the following. - (ii) Calculate the percent increase in total MSW generation from 1980 to 2012.

(present - past) / past [ (250 million tons - 150 million tons) / 150 million tons ] x 100 = 66% to 67%

love canal history

- 1892: Dr. William Love dug canals for the model city, near Niagara Falls, NY. He went bankrupt, never made the city. - 1942: Hooker Chemical buys the land. - 1947: Begin dumping waste into old canals. - 1951: Housing development in that area. - 1953: Hooker closed the dump, sealed with a clay cap. Board of Education wanted to buy the land for a school. Hooker would not sell. Under threat of seizure, Hooker sold it for $1 and issued a warning not to cut the clay cap, but still warns them not to use the area. - 1958: Roads/sewer dug in and around the site. - 1968: Hooker Chemical bought by OxyChem. - 1970s: Public noticed signs of toxic substances on school grounds, sick kids, and smell of chemicals in basements. - 1978: NY state restricts access to area. August--Governor declares NY state health emergency. Later Gov. Hugh Carey evacuates 236 families. President Carter declares it a disaster area. - 1980s: Site remediation includes a new clay cap, drainage systems that pump waste to a treatment plant. Some residents who remained claim the whole problem was blown out of proportion. - 1994: OxyChem agrees to $98 million settlement with NY state and is responsible for any future waste treatment. - 1996: OxyChem reimburses federal government $129 million for Love Canal remediation.

tipping fee

- A fee charged for disposing of material in a landfill or incinerator. - Called this because each truckload is put on a scale and, after the MSW is weighed, it is tipped into the landfill. - At solid waste landfills, these average $50 per ton in the US, although in certain regions, such as the Northeast, fees can be twice that much. - These create an economic incentive to reduce the amount of waste that goes to the landfill. - Many localities accept recyclables at no cost but charge for disposal of material destined for a landfill. - This practice encourages individuals to separate recyclables from MSW. - Some localities mandate that recyclable material be removed from the waste stream and disposed of separately. - However, if these become too high, and regulations too stringent, a locality may inadvertently encourage illegal dumping of waste materials in locations other than the landfill and recycling center.

love canal

- A neighborhood within Niagara Falls, NY. - Originally a hazardous waste landfill, this was covered with fill and topsoil and used as a site for a school and a housing development. - In 1978 and 1980, known cancer-causing wastes were found in the basements of homes in the area. - These substances included the solvents benzene, dioxin (which is a by-product of chemical manufacturing), and a degreasing agent known as trichloroethylene. - When it became clear that a disproportionately large number of illnesses, possibly connected to the chemical waste, had been diagnosed in the local population, the situation attracted national attention. - Much of the attention that this received was due to the mother of a then 5-year-old boy in the school near this. - Lois Gibbs, who at the time had no previous experience in community activism, is credited with drawing attention to the problem created by this and other locations. - The contamination was so bad that in 1983 that this was listed as a Superfund site and the inhabitants of the area were evacuated. - In 1994, the EPA removed this from the NPL because the physical cleanup had been completed and the site was no longer deemed a threat to human health. - However, the site remains a symbol of the dangers presented by improper disposal of hazardous waste in a residential neighborhood.

reduce, reuse, recycle (the three Rs)

- A popular phrase promoting the idea of diverting materials from the waste stream. - The phrase incorporates a practical approach to the subject of solid waste management, with the techniques presented from the most environmentally beneficial to the least. - there may be another, which would be the first one, for redesign

waste-to-energy (WTE) or resource recovery (RRF)

- A system in which heat generated by incineration is used as an energy source rather than released into the surrounding environment. - Incineration also releases a great deal of heat energy, which is often used in a boiler immediately adjacent to the furnace either to heat the incinerator building or to generate electricity, using a process similar to that of a coal, natural gas, or nuclear power plant. - Although energy generation is a positive benefit of incineration, as we shall see, there are a number of environmental problems with incineration as a method of waste disposal.

life-cycle analysis (cradle-to-grave analysis)

- A systems tool that examines the materials used and released throughout the lifetime of a product—from the procurement of raw materials through their manufacture, use, and disposal. - In theory, conducting this should help a community determine whether incineration is more or less desirable than using a landfill. - However, it can be difficult to determine the overall environmental impact of a specific material. - It is not possible to know whether the particulates and nitrogen oxides released from incinerating food waste are better or worse for the environment than the amount of methane that might be released if the same food waste were placed in a landfill. - So in the case of waste that contains food matter, it is not possible to directly compare the full environmental impact of disposal in a landfill versus incineration. - Although this may not be able to determine absolute environmental impact, it can be very helpful in assessing other considerations, especially those related to economics and energy use, which are usually relatively easy to quantify.

integrated waste management

- An approach to waste disposal that employs several waste reduction, management, and disposal strategies in order to reduce the environmental impact of MSW. - Such options include a major emphasis on source reduction and include any combination of recycling, composting, use of landfills, incineration, and whatever additional methods are appropriate to the particular situation. - According to this approach, no community should be forced into any one method of waste disposal.

source reduction

- An approach to waste management that seeks to cut waste by reducing the use of potential waste materials in the early stages of design and manufacture. - In many cases, this also increases energy efficiency because it means that manufacturing produces less waste to begin with and can minimize disposal processes. - Since fewer resources are being expended, this also provides economic benefits.

sanitary landfills

- An engineered ground facility designed to hold municipal solid waste (MSW) with as little contamination of the surrounding environment as possible. - Generally utilize a variety of technologies that safeguard against the problems of traditional dumps. - Constructed with a clay or plastic lining at the bottom. - Clay is often used because it impedes water flow and retains positively charged ions, such as metals. - A system of pipes is constructed below the landfill to collect leachate, which is sometimes recycled back into this. - Finally, a cover of soil and clay, called a cap, is installed when this reaches capacity. - The input of rainfall and other water sources are kept to a minimum because excess water in the this increases the rate of anaerobic decomposition and subsequent methane release. - Also, with a large amount of water entering this from both MSW and rainfall, there is a greater likelihood that some of that water will leave this as leachate. - Leachate that is not captured by the collection system may leach into nearby soils and groundwater. - Leachate is tested regularly for its toxicity and if it exceeds certain toxicity standards, the landfill operators could be required to collect it and treat it as a toxic waste.

there are no good options for disposing of hazardous waste

- Are more expensive to construct and require much more monitoring than a conventional MSW landfill. - They must be monitored for at least 30 years after they are closed to additional inputs. - The best recommendation for this is to avoid creating the waste in the first place. - In the case of households, many community groups and municipalities encourage consumers to substitute products that are less toxic or to use as little of the toxic substance as possible. - A consumer who brings a product to a household hazardous waste collection site typically does not pay for product disposal directly; the municipality or some other entity bears the cost. - Therefore, product substitution or product avoidance is often the best solution to the household hazardous waste problem.

brownfields criticism

- As an inadequate solution to the estimated 450,000 contaminated locations throughout the country. - Since the cleanup is managed entirely by state and local governments, management can vary widely from region to region. - Furthermore, the legislation lacks legal liability controls to compel polluter to rehabilitate their properties. - Without legal recourse, many sites remain unused and contaminated, posing a continued risk to public health.

siting controversy

- Because landfills are unsightly and smell bad they are not considered desirable neighbors. - These have been the source of considerable environmental injustice. - People with financial resources or political influence often adopt what has been popularly called a "not-in-my-backyard," or NIMBY, attitude about landfill sites. - Because of this, a site may be chosen not because it meets the safety criteria better than other options but because its neighbors lack the resources to mount an effective opposition. - In Fort Wayne, Indiana, for example, the Adams Center Landfill was located in a densely populated, low-income, and predominantly minority neighborhood. - On a scale of 1 to 10, with 10 being a geologically ideal site, the Adams Center Landfill would rate a "3, possibly 4" because the site held a substantial risk of water contamination.

international consequences

- Because of the difficulties involved in disposing of hazardous waste, municipalities and industries sometimes try to send the waste to countries with less stringent regulations. - There are numerous reports of garbage and ash barges that travel the oceans looking for a developing country willing to accept hazardous waste from the US in exchange for a cash payment. - Most famous is the story of the cargo vessel Khian Sea, which left Philadelphia in 1986 with almost 13,000 metric tons of hazardous ash from an incinerator. - It traveled to a number of countries in the Caribbean in search of a dumping place. - Some of the ash was dumped in Haiti, and some was dumped in the ocean. - In 1996, the US ordered that the ash dumped in Haiti be retrieved and returned to them. - After being held at a dock in Florida, the ash was deemed nonhazardous by the EPA and other agencies and in 2002, the ash was placed in a landfill in Franklin County, PA, not very far from its source of origin. - In 2003, a notable instance of a waste transfer in the other direction occurred. - A PA company that specializes in recovering mercury from a wide variety of products agreed to accept 270 metric tons of mercury waste generated by a company in the state of Tamil Nadu, India, during the manufacture of thermometers. - India had no facilities for recycling mercury waste, and most of the thermometers manufactured at the plant were shipped to the US and Europe, so the transfer of material seemed appropriate. - The mercury was shipped from India to the US, where the mercury was concentrated, purified, and then sold to industrial users of the metal. - Today, there are many fewer stories of hazardous waste being shipped from country to country and being "dumped" on countries not equipped to safely handle hazardous waste. - Since 2018, all US exporters of hazardous waste must file appropriate information in an EPA automated export system, which allows monitoring and presumably has reduced infractions.

Approximately 30 million mobile devices were sold in 1998 in the United States. The number sold increased to 180 million devices in 2007. (d) Discarded mobile devices become part of the electronic waste stream (e-waste). Mercury is often present in e-waste. Identify one negative human health effect, other than death, associated with exposure to mercury.

- Birth defects - Nervous system damage - Brain damage - Learning disabilities - Intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder) - Paralysis - Attention deficit disorder - Reproductive system damage - Low sperm count - Kidney damage - Hearing loss - Minamata disease - Mad Hatter's disease - Seizures - Visual impairment - Skin disorders - Headaches - Mental illness

composting design parameters

- C:N ratio 25-30:1 (energy v. protein) - Temperature 140-160°F - pH 6.8-7.3 - Water content 45-50% - NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) N 1-2%, P 0.6-0.9%, K 0.2-0.5%

advantages to sanitary landfills

- Can capture the natural gas or methane that is produced by underground decomposing material - Waste products can be used as direct fuels for combustion or can be processed into another fuel - Low operating costs - Little odor - No open burning - Filled land can be used for other purposes

Trash incineration is one way to generate electricity from MSW. Electricity can also generate from waste buried in landfills. (e) Composting is one way to reduce the amount of waste that enters a landfill. - (ii) Identify one disadvantage of composting.

- Compost may attract undesirable animals (vermin). - Compost may emit foul odors or spontaneously combust. - Nutrients released from decomposing organic matter may run off into surface waters and cause water quality problems. - Compose may release methane. - Composting organic material requires a great investment of time and labor by humans.

brownfields

- Contaminated industrial or commercial sites that may require environmental cleanup before they can be redeveloped or expanded. - The Superfund designation is reserved strictly for those locations with higher risks to public health, and Superfund sites are managed solely by the federal government. - In 1995, the EPA created this program and it assists state and local governments areas that did not achieve conditions necessary to be in the Superfund category. - Old factories, industrial areas and waterfronts, dry cleaners, gas stations, landfills, and rail yards are common examples of these sites. - This legislation has prompted the revitalization of several sites throughout the country, - One notable instance is Seattle's Gas Works Park. - In 1962, the city of Seattle purchases the land, which had housed a coal gasification plant, to rehabilitate the site into a park. - After undergoing chemical abatement and environmental cleanup, the park has become a distinctive landmark for the city and is the site of many public events throughout the year.

composting

- Creation of organic matter (humus) by decomposition under controlled conditions to produce an organic-rich material that enhances soil structure, cation exchange capacity, and fertility. - Vegetables and vegetable by-products, such as cornstalks, grass, animal manure, yard wastes (like leaves and branches), and paper fiber not destined for recycling are suitable for this. - Normally, meat and dairy products are not in this because they do not decay as easily, and they produce foul odors and are more likely to attract unwanted visitors such as rats, skunks, and raccoons. - Outdoor compost systems can be as simple as a pile of food and yard waste in the corner of a yard, or as sophisticated as compost boxes and drums that can be rotated to ensure mixing and aeration. - Can attract unwanted animals such as rats, skunks, raccoons, and even bears. - But enhances soil quality when added to agricultural fields, gardens, and lawns.

disadvantages of sanitary landfills

- Dangerous chemicals can seep into the groundwater system. - Area surrounding the landfills can become heavily polluted--air pollution from toxic gases and VOCs. - Releases greenhouse gases (methane and CO2) unless they are collected. - Noise, traffic, and dust.

Trash incineration is one way to generate electricity from MSW. Electricity can also generate from waste buried in landfills. (d) Many landfills do not accept used tires. As a result, the tires are often dumped in poorly regulated piles. Describe one human health problem associated with piles of discarded tires.

- Discarded tires provide habitat for mosquitos/pests that can be disease vectors. - Tire may catch fire and release air pollutants that cause respiratory issues in humans.

ash disposal

- Discarding this is determined by its concentration of toxic metals. - This is tested for toxicity by leaching it with a weak acid. - If the leachate is relatively low in concentration of contaminants such as lead and cadmium, the ash can be discarded of in a conventional solid waste landfill. - This deemed safe can also be used for other purposes such as fill in road construction or as an ingredient in cement blocks and cement flooring. - If deemed toxic, this goes to a special landfill designed specifically for toxic substances. - Metals and other toxins in the MSW may be released to the atmosphere or may remain in the ash, depending on the pollutant, the specific incineration process, and the type of technology used. - Exhaust gases from the combustion process, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, move through collectors and other devices that reduce their emission to the atmosphere. - Acidic gases such as hydrogen chloride (HCl), which results from the incineration of certain materials including plastic, are recovered in a scrubber, neutralized, and sometimes treated further before disposal in a regular landfill or ash landfill.

long-term viability and MSW

- Durable goods will last for years, nondurable goods are disposable, and compostable goods are those largely made up of organic material that can decompose under proper conditions.

Approximately 30 million mobile devices were sold in 1998 in the United States. The number sold increased to 180 million devices in 2007. (e) Improper disposal of e-waste has harmed human health and caused environmental damage in developing countries. - (ii) Retailers or manufacturers could take specific steps to dramatically reduce the amount of e-waste. Describe a realistic change in current practices that would accomplish this.

- Encourage recycling/reuse (trade-in incentives, rebates, repurchase/buy-back, mail-in). - Reduce planned obsolescence as a design objective. - Production of modular units that can be reused/refurbished or parts (i.e. power supplies) that can be reused. - Make devices smaller and/or more durable. - Shift toward service flow economy. - Establish cradle-to-graze and/or cradle-to-cradle tracking of manufactured products.

resource conservation and recovery act (RCRA) 1976

- Expanded previous solid waste laws. - Its main goal was to protect human health and the natural environment by reducing or eliminating the generation of hazardous waste. - Under this law's provision for "cradle-to-grave" tracking (this law started this concept), the EPA maintains lists of hazardous wastes and works with businesses and state and local authorities both to minimize hazardous waste generation and to make sure that the waste is tracked until proper disposal. - 1984: was modified with federal Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA), which encouraged waste minimization and phased out the disposal of hazardous wastes on land. - The amendments also increased law enforcement authority in order to punish violators.

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is the trash collected from households and businesses. The graph below shows MSW generation in the United State from 1960 to 2012. (b) Two ways of managing MSW are incineration and disposal in landfills. - (ii) Identify one disadvantage of waste disposal in landfills.

- Ground water, surface water, or soil contamination through some transport mechanism. - Reduced quality of life and property value due to landfill and supply trucks. - Release of methane or CO2. - Odor source. - Attracts vermin. - Habitat destruction. - Preclusion of other land uses. - Explosion/seepage hazard from methane produced.

toxicity

- Harm, illness, or death caused by chemical means through ingestion, inhalation, or absorption.

source reduction in individual and on corporate or institutional levels

- If an instructor has two pages of handout material for a class, she could reduce her paper use by 50% if she provides her students with double-sided photocopies. - A copy machine that is designed so that it can automatically make copies on both sides of the page might have required more materials and energy during manufacturing than a copy machine that prints on only one side. - However by making potentially half as many copies as a single-side-only machine during its lifetime, the overall energy used to provide photocopies to a school will probably be less. - Further could be achieved if the instructor did not hand out any sheets of paper at all but sent copies to the class electronically, and the students refrained from printing the documents.

source reduction in manufacturing

- If the company creates new packaging that provides the same amount of protection to the product with less material, success of this has occurred. - Music compact discs were packaged in large plastic sleeves that were three times the size of the CD. - Today, when you can find a CD for sale, they are wrapped with a small amount of plastic material that just covers the CD case. - However, most people no longer purchase CDs but prefer to download or listen to music from the Web. - Less wrapping in CD packaging is an example of this on the corporate level. - Not purchasing CDs at all is an example of source reduction on the individual level.

EPA hazardous waste characteristics

- Ignitability: it can catch on fire - Corrosivity: it can cause materials to corrode or degrade - Reactivity: it is not stable under normal conditions - Toxicity: its chemical components are harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed through the skin.

source reduction in material substitution

- In an office where workers drink water and coffee from paper cups, providing every worker with a reusable mug will reduce MSW. - In some categorization schemes, this could be considered reuse rather than this. - The break-even point, beyond which there are gains achieved by using a ceramic mug (though this depends on a variety of factors), might be approximately 50 uses. - The break-even point is shorter for a reusable plastic mug, in part because less energy is required to manufacture the plastic mug and, because it is lighter, less energy is used to transport it from the manufacturing facility to the point of use. - This may also involve substituting less toxic materials or products in situations where manufacturing utilizes or generates toxic substances. - For example, switching from an oil-based paint that contains toxic petroleum derivatives to a relatively nontoxic latex paint is a form of source reduction.

composting ratio

- In order to encourage rapid decomposition, it is important to have the proportion of carbon to nitrogen (C:N) that will best support microbial activity—about 30:1. - While it is possible to calculate the carbon and nitrogen content of each material that is put into a compost pile, most compost experts recommend layering dry material such as leaves or dried cut grass—normally brown material—with wet material such as kitchen vegetables—normally green material. - This will provide the correct carbon to nitrogen proportion for optimal composting. - Frequent turning or agitation is usually necessary to ensure that decomposition processes are aerobic and to maintain appropriate moisture levels—otherwise the compost pile will produce methane and associated gases and emit a foul odor. - If the pile becomes particularly dry, water needs to be added. - Although many people assume that a compost pile must smell bad, with proper aeration and the appropriate amount of moisture, the only odor will be that of fresh compost in 2 to 3 months' time.

when MSW is added to a landfill

- Is periodically compacted into compartments or "cells," which reduce the volume of solid waste, thereby increasing the capacity of the landfill. - The cells are covered with soil, which minimizes the amount of water that enters them and so reduces odor and anaerobic decomposition. - When a landfill is full, it must be closed off from the surrounding environment so that the input and output of water are reduced or eliminated. - Once a landfill is closed and capped, this within it is more or less sealed off. - Some water may enter from the outside environment, but this is minimal if the landfill is well-designed and properly sealed. - The design and topography of the landfill cap, which is a combination of soil, clay, and sometimes plastic, encourage water to flow off to the sides, rather than into the landfill. - Closed landfills can be reclaimed, meaning that some sort of herbaceous, shallow-rooted vegetation can be planted on the topsoil layer, both for aesthetic reasons and as a way to reduce soil erosion. - Construction on the landfill is normally restricted for many years, although parks, playgrounds, and even golf courses have been built on reclaimed landfills.

after sanitary landfill construction

- It is ready to accept MSW - Perhaps the most important component of operating a safe modern-day landfill is controlling inputs. - The materials that are suitable for a landfill are those least likely to cause environmental damage through leachate or by generating methane. - Composite materials made of plastic and paper, such as juice boxes for children, are good candidates for a landfill because they are difficult to recycle, while aluminum and other metals such as copper may contribute to leaching. - In addition, metals are valuable as recyclables. - Therefore, aluminum and copper should never go into a landfill. - Glass and plastics are both chemically inert, making them suitable for a landfill when reuse or recycling is not possible. - Toxic materials (such as household cleaners, oil-based paints, and automotive additives like motor oil and antifreeze), consumer electronics, appliances, batteries, and anything that contains substantial quantities of metals should not be deposited in landfills. - All organic materials, such as food and garden scraps and yard waste, are potential sources of methane and should not be placed in landfills.

leachate

- Liquid that contains elevated levels of pollutants as a result of having passed through municipal solid waste (MSW) or contaminated soil. - Initially, there were few concerns about what material went into a landfill. - Those responsible for collecting and disposing of solid waste in landfills did not recognize the many problems associated with landfills, such as components of the MSW generating harmful runoff and this. - Nor did they recognize the harm a landfill could cause when it was located near sensitive features of the landscape such as aquifers, rivers, streams, drinking-water supplies, and human habitation.

hazardous waste

- Liquid, solid, gaseous, or sludge waste material that is harmful to humans, ecosystems, or materials. - When deemed this, it should not be placed in a MSW landfill or incinerated and special means of handling and disposal are required. - EPA identifies four characteristics of this: ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, and toxicity. - Although the terms toxic and this are often used interchangeably, toxic waste is a category of this - While many substances are dangerous and can cause harm, substances that are toxic cause harm through chemical means when ingested or absorbed through the skin.

love canal extra information from A Closer Look

- Love Canal renamed Black Creek Village according to some accounts, but it is part of Niagara Falls and maintains that city address. Locally, it is referred to as "the fenced-in area." - There were toxicology issues of dose-response correlation between the canal and the problem areas. Due to groundwater transport and other effects, a house nearby the site may not be as affected as others in the area. - Items found: benzene, chloroform, lindane, TCE, dioxin (up to 200 different chemicals). - Ethical, political, scientific issues are in play. - This event was the lynchpin for CERCLA. It produced authority and money to address site remediation.

incineration steps

- MSW is sorted and certain recyclables are diverted to recycling centers. - The remaining material is dumped from a refuse truck onto a platform where certain materials such as metals are identified and removed. - A moving grate or other delivery system transfers the waste to a furnace. - Combustion rapidly converts much of the waste into carbon dioxide and water, which are released into the atmosphere along with heat. 1.) Waste is dumped into refuse bunker. 2.) Crane moves material from bunker to hopper. 3.) Waste is burned in incineration chamber. 4.) A baghouse filter helps clean air before it is released through chimney. 5.) Ash is collected and removed from plant. 6.) Heat energy can be used to create steam and generate electricity.

hazardous waste generators

- Majority of this is the by-product of industrial processes such as textile production, cleaning machinery, and manufacturing computer equipment, but it is also generated by small businesses such as dry cleaners, automobile service stations, and small farms. - Even households produce this, including materials such as oven cleaners, batteries, and lawn fertilizers. - All of these material have a much greater likelihood of causing harm to humans and ecosystems than other materials and should not be disposed of in regular landfills.

waste

- Material outputs from a system that are not useful or consumed. - In an ecological system, plant materials, nutrients, water, and energy are the inputs. - In a human system, inputs are very similar but contain materials manufactured by humans as well as natural materials. - Within this system, humans use these inputs and materials to produce goods. - And, as in any system, outputs are generated.

disadvantages of composting

- May attract rats and bugs. - Takes time and money, requires initial investment. - Efficiency depends on your amount of organic waste.

Cradle to Cradle: developing new approaches to waste

- Most automobile manufacturers, for example, maintain that they design and build their cars so that they can be easily taken apart and materials of different composition easily separated to allow recycling. - The EPA reported in 2016 that 75 percent by weight of automobiles were recycled and that most, but not all, of the recycled materials were metals. - Certain carpet manufacturers design their carpets so that when worn out they can be easily recycled into new carpeting. - This is typically done by making a base that is extremely durable with a top portion of the carpet that can be changed when the color fades, is worn out, or is no longer desired.

environmental consequences of landfills

- No matter how careful the design and engineering, there is always the possibility that leachate from a landfill will contaminate underlying and adjacent waterways (solution is to line landfills with geomembrane, geotextile, and clay cap, which is done after 5 years to allow settling). - Even after a landfill is closed, the potential to harm adjacent waterways remains. - Methane and other organic gases generated from decomposing organic material in landfills do release greenhouse gases, which contributes to climate change. - When solid waste is first placed in a landfill, some aerobic decomposition may take place, but shortly after the waste is compacted into cells and covered with soil, most of the oxygen is used up. - At this stage, anaerobic decomposition begins, a process that generates 50% methane and 50% carbon dioxide—both greenhouse gases—as well as other gaseous compounds. - The methane also creates an explosion hazard (handled property, methane may be recovered or flared off. Flaring methane is a better environmental solution than releasing it. It may be used as an energy source if recovered). - There may be end-uses for landfills, such as parks and golf courses.

e-waste

- One component of MSW that is small by weight but very important and rapidly increasing. - Consumer electronics, including televisions, computers, portable music players, and cell phones, account for roughly 2% of the waste stream. - Metals, such as mercury and cadmium, may eventually leach out of the bottom of the landfill into groundwater or surface water. - The toxic metals and other components can be extracted, but at present there is little formalized infrastructure or incentive to recycle them.

large-scale composting facilities

- Organic material is piled up in long, narrow rows of compost. - The material is turned frequently, exposing it to a combination of air and water that will speed natural aerobic decomposition. - As with household composting, the organic material must include the correct combination of green (fresh) and brown (dried) organic material so that the ratios of carbon and nitrogen are optimal for bacteria. - Various techniques are used to turn the organic material over periodically, including the use of rotating blades that move through the piles of organic material or a front loader that turns over the piles. - The respiration activity of the microbes generates enough heat to kill any pathogenic bacteria that may be contained in food scraps, which is typically a concern only in large municipal composting systems. - If the pile becomes too hot, it should be turned more frequently. - If the pile doesn't become hot enough, operators should check to make sure the C:N ratio is optimal, or they should slow the turnover rate. - Within a matter of weeks, the organic waste becomes compost. - These systems with relatively little mechanization and labor may take up to a year to create a finished compost.

municipal solid waste composition

- Paper, which includes newsprint, office paper, cardboard, and boxboard such as cereal and food boxes, make up 27% of 234 million metric tons (258 million US tons) of waste generated before recycling - Organic materials other than paper products make up another large category, with yard waste and food scraps together making up 28%. - Wood, which includes construction debris, accounts for another 6%. - So, not including paper products, which are more easily recycled, roughly 34% of this could be composted, although some wood construction debris is difficult to compost because of its size and thickness. - The combination of all plastics makes up approximately 13%.

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is the trash collected from households and businesses. The graph below shows MSW generation in the United State from 1960 to 2012. (a) Use the data provided in the graph above to respond to the following. - (i) Explain one probable cause (other than increased composting) for the change in per capita waste generation from 2000 to 2012.

- People or businesses practicing one of the following: refuse, reduce, reuse, recycle, or repurpose. - Lighter materials contribute to less MSW creation (e.g. plastic bottles not glass bottles). - Less material used in products/newspapers smaller, aluminum cans less massive). - Technology reduces waste generation (e.g., reading magazines online --> less paper). - Economic reasons --> less consumption --> less MSW produced.

refuse derived fuel (RDF)

- Processing of solid waste to remove metal, glass, and other unburnable materials; organic residue is shredded, formed into pellets, and dried to make fuel for power plants.

advantages of incineration

- Produces heat and power that can be used to generate electricity. - Can decrease the quantity of waste by 95%. - Less need for landfills.

landfill gas-to-energy project

- Project that exemplifies commitment to sustainable waste management and eliminated nearly all of the methane being released into the environment from landfills. - They want to reduce the environmental impact of waste disposal and improve the quality of life in Middlesex County.

closed-loop recycling

- Recycling a product into the same product. - Aluminum cans are a familiar example; they are collected, brought to an aluminum plant, melted down, and made into new aluminum cans. - This process is called this because in theory it is possible to keep making aluminum cans from only old aluminum cans almost indefinitely; the process is thus similar to a closed system.

open-loop recycling

- Recycling one product into a different product. - One product, such as plastic soda bottles, is recycled into another product, such as polar fleece jackets. - Although recycling plastic bottles into other materials avoids sending the plastic bottles to a landfill, it does not reduce demand for the raw material—in this case petroleum—to make plastic for new bottles.

advantages of composting

- Reduces waste that goes into landfills. - Enriches soil and helps it retain moisture and suppress plant disease and pests. - Reduces need for chemical fertilizers.

municipal solid waste (MSW)

- Refuse collected by municipalities (towns, cities) from households, small businesses, and institutions. - Other kinds of waste generated in the United States in addition to this include agricultural waste, mining waste, and industrial waste. - Waste other than this is typically deposited and processed on-site rather than transferred to a different location for disposal. - Liquids and gases are involved too - This, specifically, doesn't include industries

bottom ash

- Residue collected underneath the furnace.

life-cycle analysis for energy use

- Should also consider the energy content of gasoline or diesel fuel used and the pollution generated in trucking material to each destination, as well as the monetary, energy, and pollution savings achieved if the new glass is made from old glass rather than from raw materials (sand, potash, lime). - Reconciling all these competing factors is very challenging and the ultimate decisions based on such analyses are often debatable.

disadvantages of incineration

- Smoke is produced that includes particulates, heavy metals, and nitrogen. - Emissions may be potentially hazardous to human health and the environment and long-term health effects include cancer, birth defects, and neurological problems. - Toxic materials emitted may cause air pollution or be deposited on the land.

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is the trash collected from households and businesses. The graph below shows MSW generation in the United State from 1960 to 2012. (b) Two ways of managing MSW are incineration and disposal in landfills. - (i) Identify one disadvantage of waste incineration.

- Specific air pollutant (e.g., CO, CO2, dioxin, halogens, particulates, SOx, NOx). - Ash disposal necessary. - Incinerator is expensive to construct and/or operate. - MSW supply and quality may be limited requiring additional fuel. - Reduced quality of life and property value due to incinerator and supply trucks.

Trash incineration is one way to generate electricity from MSW. Electricity can also generate from waste buried in landfills. (c) Describe the specific steps of a process used to produce electricity from waste buried in a landfill.

- Step: Acquire fuel (chemical energy). - Description of step: Methane collected or granted. - Step: Use fuel (chemical --> mechanical). - Description of step: Fuel is combusted to produce steam or hot air. - Step: Generate electricity (mechanical --> electricity). - Description of step: Steam or hot air spins/turns/rotates a turbine/generator to generate/produce electricity.

superfund amendments and reauthorization act (SARA) 1986

- Stressed the importance of permanent remedies and innovative treatment technologies in cleaning up hazardous waste sites. - Required Superfund actions to consider the standards and requirements found in other state and federal environmental laws and regulations. - Provided new enforcement authorities and settlement tools - Increased state involvement in every phase of the Superfund program - Increased the focus on human health problems posed by hazardous waste sites - Encouraged greater citizen participation in making decisions on how sites should be cleaned up - Increased the size of the trust fund to $8.5 billion. - Also required EPA to revise the Hazard Ranking System to ensure that it accurately assessed the relative degree of risk to human health and the environment posed by uncontrolled hazardous waste sites that may be placed on the National Priorities List (NPL).

siting

- The designation of a landfill location, typically through a regulatory process involving studies, written reports, and public hearings. - A landfill should be located in a loam or clay loam soil lined with clay or plastic to reduce migration of contaminants. - It should be located away from rivers, streams, and other bodies of water and drinking-water supplies. - A landfill should also be sufficiently far from population centers so that trucks transporting the waste and animal scavengers such as seagulls and rats present minimal risks to people. - However, the energy needed to transport MSW must also be considered in this; as distance from a population center increases, so does the amount of energy required to move MSW to the landfill. - Regional landfills, though, are becoming more common because sending all waste to a single location often offers the greatest economic advantage.

reduce

- The first choice among the three Rs because reducing inputs is the optimal way to achieve a reduction in solid waste generation. - This strategy is also known as waste minimization and waste prevention. - If the input of materials to a system is lowered, the outputs will also be lowered; in terms of waste, this means that when less material is used, there will be less material to discard. - Achieves this in material use and waste without an additional expenditure of materials or energy. - For that reason, this is considered the most environmentally beneficial

waste stream

- The flow of solid waste that is recycled, incinerated, placed in a solid waste landfill, or disposed of in another way. - The goods that we use are generally a combination of organic items, fibers, metals, and plastics made from petroleum. - A certain amount of waste is generated during any manufacturing process. - Is also generated from the packaging and transporting of goods.

life-cycle analysis economics

- The municipality might compare the costs of different disposal methods. - For example, a glass manufacturing plant might pay $5 per ton for green glass that it will recycle into new glass. - A municipality might do better if it received $5 for a ton of glass from a bottle manufacturing plant than if it paid a $50 per ton tipping fee so it could throw the material into a landfill. - But the municipality must also consider the lower cost of transporting the glass to a relatively close landfill rather than to a distant glass plant. - Normally, disposal of recyclables costs less than material destined for the landfill because the landfill always involves a tipping fee while recyclables either incur a lower tipping fee or generate revenue. - It is therefore essential for municipalities to have many choices and to be able to modify these choices as market environments change.

recycle

- The process by which material destined to become MSW are collected and converted into raw materials that are then used to produce new objects. - We divide this into two categories: closed-loop and open-loop. - Adoption of zero-sort recycling programs allow residents to mix all types of recyclables in one container that they deposit on the curb outside the home or bring to a transfer station. - At the sorting facility, workers sort the materials destined for this into whatever categories are in greatest demand at a given time and offer the greatest economic return. - Nevertheless, because this requires time, processing, cleaning, transporting, and possible modification before the waste is usable as raw material, it does require more energy than reducing or reusing materials. - Today, the goal in most these programs is to maximize diversion from the landfill, even if that means collecting materials that have little economic value. - Is usually the last choice among the three Rs when it comes to environmental implications.

incineration

- The process of burning waste materials to reduce volume and mass (90-95% reduction), sometimes to generate electricity or heat. - More than 3/4 of the material that constitutes municipal solid waste is easily combustible. - Because paper, plastic, and food and yard waste are composed largely of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, they are excellent candidates for this. - An efficient incinerator operating under ideal conditions may reduce the volume of solid waste by up to 90% and the weight of the waste by approximately 75%, although the reductions vary greatly depending on the incinerator and the composition of the MSW.

planned obsolescence

- The process of designing a product so that it will need to be replaced within a few years. - Became a typical characteristic of many products manufactured in the United States, from toasters to automobiles. - Disposable plate "TV dinners," throw-away napkins, and disposable plates and forks also became common. - In the 1960s disposable diapers became widely available and eventually replaced reusable cloth diapers. - Objects were more likely to contain mixtures of different materials, which makes them harder to use for another purpose and difficult to recycle. - The United States became the leader of what came to be known as the "throw-away society."

ash

- The residual nonorganic material that does not combust during incineration. - Particulates are an end product of combustion. - Because incineration often does not operate under ideal conditions, this typically fills roughly one-quarter the volume of the precombustion material.

fly ash

- The residue collected beyond the furnace from the chimney or exhaust pipe of a furnace

Trash incineration is one way to generate electricity from MSW. Electricity can also generate from waste buried in landfills. (e) Composting is one way to reduce the amount of waste that enters a landfill. - (i) Other than reducing the volume of waste, identify one advantage of composting.

- The resulting compost can be used or sold as fertilizer or soil amendments. - Municipal composting facilities may provide jobs. - MSW may emit less foul odor if organic material is composted. - Tipping fees and trash removal costs may be reduced due to removal of dense compostable material.

hazardous waste collection sites

- There are no regular sites of this and homeowners and small businesses are asked to keep their this in a safe location until periodic collections are held. - Every aspect of the treatment and disposal of this is more expensive and more difficult than the disposal of ordinary MSW. - Households use numerous substances, such as oil-based paints, motor oil, or chemical cleaners, that are easy to purchase but become regulated as soon as the municipality collects them. - This must be treated (made less environmentally harmful) before disposal. - To accomplish this, the waste must usually be altered through a series of chemical procedures. - Sites designated as collection facilities must be staffed with specially trained personnel. - Sometimes the materials brought to the facility are unlabeled and unknown and must be treated with extreme caution. - Ultimately, the wastes may be sorted into a number of categories, such as fuels, solvents, and lubricants. - Some items, such as paint, can be reused, while others are sent to a special facility for treatment.

Cradle to Cradle by William McDonough and Michael Braungart

- They argue that it is first necessary to assess existing practices in order to minimize waste generation before, during, and after manufacturing. - Beyond that, manufacturers of durable goods such as automobiles, computers, appliances, and furniture should add one more component to the design of the product: be certain that it is designed so that when they are no longer useful, components can be recycled with as little of the material as possible becoming part of the waste stream. - Finally, they point out that many organisms in the natural world, such as the turtle, produce very hard, impact-resistant materials, such as a shell, without producing any toxic waste. - They suggest that humans should examine how a turtle creates such a hard shell without the production of toxic wastes. - Humans can use this example as a goal for other kinds of production where no toxic wastes would be produced. - More recently, they have introduced the term upcycle to describe the conversion of a waste material to something of higher quality and greater value than the original product.

environmental consequences of incineration

- Tipping fees are generally higher for these than at landfills; national averages around $70 per US ton. - We have seen that these may release air pollutants such as organic compounds from incomplete combustion of plastics and metals contained in the sold waste that was burned (solutions for NOx can be handled with wet scrubbers and ammonia injection and SO2 can be handled with dry scrubbers). - These produce air pollution as well as ash that is more concentrated and thus more toxic than the original MSW (solution can be to contained them with a baghouse). - Incinerators may not completely burn all the waste deposited in them and because the contents of MSW are extremely variable and lumped all together, it is difficult to have a uniform burn. - The same load may contain food waste with high moisture content and, right next to that, packaging and other dry, easily burnable material. - It is difficult for any incinerator—even a state-of-the-art modern facility—to burn all of these materials uniformly. - Inevitably, MSW contains some toxic material. - Rather than being dissipated to the atmosphere, most metals remain in the bottom ash or are captured in the fly ash. - Incinerator ash that is deemed toxic must be disposed of in a special landfill for toxic materials (hazardous waste). - Advantages include significant volume reduction and energy generation (refuse derived fuel (RDF)).

national priorities list (NPL)

- Under Superfund, the EPA maintains the contaminated sites that are eligible for cleanup funds. - As of 2018, there were 1,342 Superfund sites—at least 1 in every state. - NJ, with 114 Superfund sites, has the most. - CA has the next highest number with 98 sites, followed by PA with 95, NY with 86. - Since its inception, many have observed that CERCLA has not had enough funding to clean up the numerous hazardous waste sites around the country. - The listing sites in a state does not necessarily include all contaminated sites within that state. - For example, the department of environmental protection in NJ, a state that has 114 listed Superfund sites, believes that there are more than 9,000 sites where soil or groundwater is contaminated with hazardous chemicals.

throw-away society

- Until a society becomes relatively wealthy, it generates little waste. - Every object that no longer has value for its original purpose becomes useful for another purpose. - In 1900 in the United States, virtually all metal, wood, and glass materials were recycled, although no one called it recycling back then. - Those who collected recyclables were called junk dealers, or scrap metal dealers. - After World War II and with the rapid population growth that occurred in the United States, consumption patterns changed. - The increasing industrialization and wealth of the United States, as well as cultural changes, made it possible for people to purchase household conveniences that could be used and then thrown away. - Families were large, and people were urged to buy "labor-saving" household appliances and to dispose of them as soon as a new model was available.

reuse

- Using a product or material that was intended to be discarded. - Rather than disposal, this allows a material to cycle within a system longer before it becomes an output. - Here we are increasing the residence time of something in the system and reducing the waste disposal rate. - Sometimes this may involve repairing an existing object, which costs time, labor, energy, and materials. - Energy may also be required to prepare or transport an object for use again by someone other than the original user. - Although energy is involved in the transport and preparation of the containers, it is still less than the energy that would be required for recycling or disposal. - This sometimes involves the expenditure of energy and generates waste. - For example, in order to transport, wash, and sterilize the beverage bottles in the example previously cited, energy is expended and wastewater is generated. - So this does have environmental costs that typically exceed reducing the use of something, but it is preferable to using new material.

comprehensive environmental response, compensation, and liability act (CERCLA) 1980

- Usually referred to as the Superfund Act. - A US federal act that (1) imposes a tax on the chemical and petroleum industries, (2) funds the cleanup of abandoned and nonoperating hazardous waste sites, and (3) authorizes the federal government to respond directly to the release or threatened release of substances that may pose a threat to human health or the environment. - Is well known because of a number of sensational cases that have fallen under its jurisdiction. - Amended in 1986 via the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) - The revenue from this tax is used to fund the cleanup of abandoned and nonoperating hazardous waste sites where a responsible party cannot be established. - The name superfund came from this provision.

The city of Fremont operates a municipal solid-waste landfill. As represented in the diagram above, the annual precipitation of Fremont is 200 mm/year: 50 percent of this water infiltrates through the landfill cover soil into the waste, and 50 percent drains off the landfill. A drainage system withdraws 90 percent of the leachate generated within the landfill for treatment. The rest of the leachate travels through the bottom liner of the landfill into the surrounding soil. Most of the cadmium disposed of in the landfill remains in the landfill; the leachate withdrawn from the landfill by the drainage system has an average cadmium concentration of 2.0 g/m^3. Pumped to a treatment station, the leachate is treated at a cost of $10/m^3. (a) Calculate the volume, in m^3, of each of the following: - (ii) The leachate that is treated per year

1,000 m^3 x 0.9 (90%) = 900 m^3

sanitary landfill steps

1.) Solid waste is transported to landfill. 2.) Waste is compacted by a specialized machine. 3.) Leachate collection system removes water and contaminants and carries them to a wastewater treatment plant. 4.) Landfill is capped and covered with soil and then planted vegetation. 5.) Methane produced in closed cells is extracted and either burned off or collected for use as fuel.

integrated solid waste management plan

1.) Waste generation --(separated raw waste)--> incineration/WTE/RRF --> (in between) can go to sanitary landfill --> energy recovery 2.) Waste generation --(separated raw waste)--> compost --> recovered material 3.) Waste generation --(raw waste)--> sanitary landfill--(CH4)--> energy recovery 4.) Waste generation --> recycling reuse --> (in between) can go to sanitary landfill --> recovered material - Incineration/WTE/RRF: 95% of waste goes away, can take the heat from the burning and use it for energy, making a plant out of it with free fuel - Energy recovery: getting electricity and heat out of this, refuse derived fuel (RDF, ash has to taken care of, free fuel from trash) - Recovered material: mulch, used back in the environment - Sanitary landfill: for municipalities hazardous raw waste goes to chemical landfills, lined with material that's impenetrable to prevent liquids coming out and leaching, CO2 and methane come out, methane can be piped out and burned which makes it turn into CO2 + H2O

municipal composting facility steps

1.) Waste is dumped in tipping area. 2.) Compostable and noncompostable materials are separated. 3.) Noncompostable material is removed to landfill 4.) Compostable material is aerated and turned one or more times (to speed up aerobic respiration) for a period of 30 days to 1 year. 5.) Composted material is allowed to cure. 6.) Finished compost is transported for use.

The city of Fremont operates a municipal solid-waste landfill. As represented in the diagram above, the annual precipitation of Fremont is 200 mm/year: 50 percent of this water infiltrates through the landfill cover soil into the waste, and 50 percent drains off the landfill. A drainage system withdraws 90 percent of the leachate generated within the landfill for treatment. The rest of the leachate travels through the bottom liner of the landfill into the surrounding soil. Most of the cadmium disposed of in the landfill remains in the landfill; the leachate withdrawn from the landfill by the drainage system has an average cadmium concentration of 2.0 g/m^3. Pumped to a treatment station, the leachate is treated at a cost of $10/m^3. (b) Given that the cadmium concentration in the water draining from the landfill is 2.0 g/m^3, calculate the mass, in kg, of cadmium that is released into the surrounding soil per year.

1000 m^3 - 900 m^3 = 100 m^3 OR 1000 m^3 x 0.1 = 100 m^3 (100 m^3 drainage water x 2.0 g Cd x 1 kg) / (1 year x 1 m^3 x 1,000 g) = 0.2 kg Cd/year

The city of Fremont operates a municipal solid-waste landfill. As represented in the diagram above, the annual precipitation of Fremont is 200 mm/year: 50 percent of this water infiltrates through the landfill cover soil into the waste, and 50 percent drains off the landfill. A drainage system withdraws 90 percent of the leachate generated within the landfill for treatment. The rest of the leachate travels through the bottom liner of the landfill into the surrounding soil. Most of the cadmium disposed of in the landfill remains in the landfill; the leachate withdrawn from the landfill by the drainage system has an average cadmium concentration of 2.0 g/m^3. Pumped to a treatment station, the leachate is treated at a cost of $10/m^3. (d) Discuss two viable methods for reducing the amount of cadmium entering the municipal waste input.

Category of reduction: Disposal options - Sort waste stream for cadmium-containing products (batteries, e-waste, paints and pigments, stabilizers, pesticides) headed to landfills. - Deposit these materials at a dropoff site or recycling facility, or return to manufacturer. Category of reduction: New/substitute technology or alternate materials Avoid use of cadmium-containing products by: - using rechargeable batteries (e.g., lithium rechargeable). - applying new technology and/or alternate materials that do not use cadmium. Category of reduction: Incentives and/or disincentives - Place restrictions on disposal of materials that contain cadmium (batteries, e-waste, paints and pigments, stabilizers, pesticides). - Pass cradle-to-graze (RCRA) legislation. - Provide rebate incentives for using cadmium-free products. - Provide incentives for manufacturing cadmium-free products (e.g., research grants). - Place a deposit (payable on return) or surcharge on cadmium-containing products. Category of reduction: Education Make the public aware of (any one of the following): - concerns (health, environmental) associated with cadmium - methods of cadmium-containing product/battery reduction/recycling - availability of new/substitute technology

The city of Fremont operates a municipal solid-waste landfill. As represented in the diagram above, the annual precipitation of Fremont is 200 mm/year: 50 percent of this water infiltrates through the landfill cover soil into the waste, and 50 percent drains off the landfill. A drainage system withdraws 90 percent of the leachate generated within the landfill for treatment. The rest of the leachate travels through the bottom liner of the landfill into the surrounding soil. Most of the cadmium disposed of in the landfill remains in the landfill; the leachate withdrawn from the landfill by the drainage system has an average cadmium concentration of 2.0 g/m^3. Pumped to a treatment station, the leachate is treated at a cost of $10/m^3. (e) Explain a shortcoming of one of the methods that you identified in part (d).

Difficulty and/or expense identified with: - educating the public about benefits of recycling waste that contains cadmium - providing efficient systems for cadmium waste pickup (recycling/reuse) - sorting - achieving 100 percent cadmium removal from waste or 100 percent cadmium - safe disposal, new technology, and substitute material development - enforcement/regulations/compliance - recycling (e.g., energy requirements) - determining if a product contains cadmium

Approximately 30 million mobile devices were sold in 1998 in the United States. The number sold increased to 180 million devices in 2007. (e) Improper disposal of e-waste has harmed human health and caused environmental damage in developing countries. - (i) State two reasons why large quantities of e-waste from the United States are shipped to developing countries rather than being recycled in the United States.

Economic: - Lower labor costs in developing countries. - Disposal is cheaper in developing countries. - Shipment/recycling/disposal in developing countries is cheaper than transporting and landfill tipping fees within the US. - Corruption of officials allow evasion of more expensive recycling and disposal options. - (Note: "Cheaper" earns only 1 point unless 2 distinct reasons are given). Public relations: - Recycling or disposal inside the US may be a public relations problem (NIMBY). - When e-waste is shipped outside of the US, companies often avoid internal scrutiny. Regulatory/liability: - Laws and enforcement may be lax. - Environmental impacts of disposal in the US (pollution) may be more visible long-term. - US workers are more likely to be able to sue successfully over health problems. - "Watchdog" organizations common in the US may be less common in developing countries.

holistic approach to waste management

Manufacturing (changes in package design, changes in practices) ---> Uses (changes in purchasing habits backyard composing increasing reuse) --> Waste (recovery for recycling composting) --> Disposal (incineration or landfill) Manufacturing + use = source reduction Manufacturing, use, + waste = waste reduction

Approximately 30 million mobile devices were sold in 1998 in the United States. The number sold increased to 180 million devices in 2007. (a) Calculate the percent increase of mobile devices sales from 1998 to 2007.

[ (180 million - 30 million) / 30 million ] x 100% = 500% OR [ (180 - 30) / 30 ] x 100% = 500%

types of plastics

∆ 1: polyethylene terephthalate (PET/PETE)--clothing fibres, containers for liquids and foods. ∆ 2: high density polyethylene (HDPE)--bleach bottles, plastic bottles, milk jugs. ∆ 3: polyvinyl chloride (V/PVC)--window and door profiles, wiring and cables, medical devices. ∆ 4: low-density polyethylene (LDPE)--squeezable bottles, lids, toys, plastic bags. ∆ 5: polypropylene (PP)--plastic containers, reusable water bottles, car parts, outdoor furniture. ∆ 6: polystyrene (PS)--clear disposable cups, styrofoam packaging, audio and video cassette casings. ∆ 7: other--baby bottles, sippy cups, water cooler bottles.