AP Euro- Chapter 16

Astronomer, was Europe's leading astronomer when he returned form studying in Denmark, he built the most sophisticated observatory of his day w/ grants from the king of Denmark, built another observatory in Prague for Rudolph II, he completed the most accurate data of the stars, he believed all the planets except the Earth revolved around the Sun and planets revolved in turn around the Earth-moon system.

What were the contributions of Tyco Brahe?

Thought black people were inferior to all other races, especially white people, races exist to show who is inferior/superior to who, it's natures way of dividing people.

What were the view of Hume on "race"?

It played down Newton's 3 laws of motion.

What was the significance of Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687)?

Developed law of inertia and experimental method, discovered Jupiter and its 4 moons with a telescope, believe his ideas and findings didn't detract from God or the Catholic Church.

What were the contributions of Galileo Glilei?

Brilliant mathematician, believed universe was built on mystical mathematical relationships and a musical harmony of the heavenly bodies, believed Ptolemy's astronomy was wrong, developed 3 new, revolutionary laws of planetary motion.

What were the contributions of Johannes Kepler?

He felt Ptolemy's cumbersome and occasionally inaccurate ruled detracted from the majesty of a perfect creator. He preferred alternative ancient Greek ideas: the sun was the center of the universe.

Why did Copernicus dispute Ptolemy's theory?

People used their beliefs on racial superiority to justify slavery and its growth in the 18th century, "If one "race" of humans could be seen as particularly fit for enslavement and liable to benefit from tutelage by the superior race."

How did racist views justify slavery?

Encyclopedias and made groups that collectively produced documents.

How did philosopher get their message to the public?

"The navigational problems of long sea voyages in the age of overseas exploration, along with the rise of trade and colonization, led to their own series of technological advances." King of Portugal employed a commission of mathematics in 1484 (helped seamen w/ long. and lat.) Creation of telescope, barometer, thermometer, pendulum clock, microscope, and air pump. Invention and extermination was finally permitted. Astronomy was popular.

How did Nautical Navigation contribute to these new views?

Lots of new jobs were created for those who participated n the Enlightenment.

How did the Scientific Revolution impact economics?

Argued that the human mind is really nothing but a bundle of impressions, impression originate in sensory experiences and habits of joining experiences together, his inquiry undermined the Enlightenment's faith in the power of reason.

Discuss David Hume's views.

Discriminatory laws against them, lived in tiny, overcrowded ghettos, banned from most jobs by law, some rulers relied on Jewish bankers to loan them money to raise an army and run the kingdom, Jews had access to foreign trade because there were other tiny Jewish communities across Europe, Haskalah gave Jews more freedom but those laws were later repealed due to public outrage, most progressive reforms happened under Joseph II because he permitted religious freedom.

Discuss Jewish influence on Europe

Discovered the circulation of blood through hate veins and arteries in 1628, 1st person to explain that the heart worked like a pump and the function of its muscles and valves.

Discuss the contributions of Harvey.

Rejected the Aristotelian and medieval method of using speculative reason and build general theories, argued that new knowledge had to be pursued through empirical research, created empiricism.

How did Francis Bacon contribute to the Scientific Revolution?

Interest in astronomy was inspired by belief that changing relationships between planets and starts influence things on Earth. Many famous astronomers were astrologers too.

How did Magic and Alchemy contribute to these new views?

They cause conversation, discussion, and debate which played a critical role in the Enlightenment.

How did it help spread enlightenment ideals?

Enlightenment thinkers believed their era had gone far beyond antiquity and that intellectual progress was very possible.

How did new world view affect the way people thought?

Claimed there were 4 human races, each of which had derived from an original race, believed the closest descendants of the original race were the white inhabitants of northern Germany, "race" was a new term, previously "nations" was used, Europeans were considered superior to every other race.

What were the views of Kant on "race"?

The French word for philosopher. A group of French intellectuals who proclaimed that they were bringing the light of knowledge to their fellow humans in the Age of Enlightenment.

What is a philosophe?

1. French was the international language of the learning class. 2. The rising unpopularity of King Louis XIV and his mistress called for reform. 3. French philosopher made it their goal to reach a larger audience of elites.

Why did the enlightenment reach its highest development in France?

Because he supported Copernican's and disproved many ideas supported by the Catholic Church.

Why was Galileo viewed as a heretic?

Because philosophy was considered distinct from and superior to mathematics, astronomy, optics, and mechanics. His ideas offered a common sense explanation for what people saw. Also his ideas fit with Christian ideas and doctrines.

Why was the church so willing to accept Aristotle's teachings?

Set forth new theory about how human beings learn and form their ideas. Baby's are born with a blank slate, human development is determined by education and social institutions. "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" contributed to their y of sensationalism.

Discuss Locke's views from his "Essay Concerning Human Understanding".

"A round earth is @ the center, surrounded by spheres of water, air, and fire. Beyond this small nucleus, the moon, the sun, and the 5 planets were embedded in their own rotating crystal spheres, with the stars sharing the surface of one enormous sphere. Beyond, the heavens were composed of unchanging ether."

Explain the "Aristotelian" view of the universe

After Charles VI of Austria died his daughter took his place (Maria Theresa of Austria) and Frederick II saw this as a good opportunity to use his army to attack the province of Silesia, "he defied solemn Prussian promises to respect the Pragmatic Sanction (a diplomatic agreement that guaranteed Maria Theresa's succession), "other countries fought for her land in the European War of the Austrian Succession and Maria Theresa was force to give almost all of Silesia to Prussia", Frederick fought against Britain and France to keep his land, "Maria Theresa formed a alliance w/ France and Russia to regain Silesia", her goal was (during the 7 Years' War) to conquer Prussia and divide up its land, Her plan and alliance failed, her goal was never reached, Frederick II alter called off the attack when Peter III became ruler of Russia, Frederick II greatly respected Peter III, All of these reasons, during the 7 Years' War, "tempered Frederick's interest in territorial expansion and brought him to consider how more human policies for his subjects might also strengthen the state."

Describe and discuss why Frederick the Great was enlightened.

Wrote in Encyclopedia and wanted it to change the general way of thinking.

Describe the major works and contribution of Diderot.

Studied physics and mathematics, published science articles, provided 1st and only translation of Newton's Principal into French, was;t in university bc she was a women.

Describe the major works and contributions of Madame du Chatelat.

Wrote The Persian Letters which pioneered the Republic of Letters method, studied history and politics, didn't like the growing absolutism under Louis XIV, wanted to prevent tyranny, he showed how forms of gov. were shaped by history and geography.

Describe the major works and contributions of Montesquieu.

Arrested 2 times for insulting noblemen, wrote 70+ witty volumes, met Châtelat and lived with her, reformer, believe in servants, wrote works praising England, and its science, challenged Catholic Church and Christian theology, Praised Louis XIV and King Frederick the Great of Prussia, mixed glorification of science and reason with an appeal for better individuals and institutions.

Describe the major works and contributions of Voltaire.

Believe uniform force moved an object @ a constant speed and that the object would stop as soon as that force was removed. Believed in spheres consisted of incorruptible "quintessence" or 5th essence. Sublunar world consists of 4 imperfect elements. "light" elements (air and fire) move upward and "heavy" elements (water and earth) moved downward. Natural direction didn't always occur, sometimes elements mixed and could be affected by outside sources. (humans)

Discuss Aristotle's ideas on physics and motion

1. The methods of natural science would and should be used to examine and understand all aspects of life. Everything was to be submitted to rationalism. 2. The scientific method was capable of discovering the laws of human society as well as those of nature. 3. Progress! Armed with the proper method of discovering the laws of human existence, Enlightenment thinkers believed, it was atlas impossible for human beings to create better societies and better ppl.

Discuss the 3 central concepts of the Enlightenment

Was the transition in Europe from a society where literacy consisted of patriarchal and communal reading of religious texts to a society wearer literacy was commonplace and reading material was broad and diverse, book production increased and types of books published changed, more reflection was done over reading.

Discuss the Reading Revolution and its impact on Europe.

Helped found the modern science of chemistry, under Paracelsus he experimented and discovered the basic elements of nature, believed everything was composed of atoms, 1st to create a vacuum and disprove Descartes's belief that vacuums were impossible in nature, created law that states a pressure of a gas varies inversely w/ volume.

Discuss the contributions of Boyle.

Pioneered use of chemicals and drugs to address what we saw as chemical, rather than humoral, imbalances.

Discuss the contributions of Paracelsus.

Studied anatomy by dissecting human bodies, wrote "On the Structure of the Human Body", <---it's 200 precise drawings revolutionized the understandings of human anatomy.

Discuss the contributions of Vesalius.

1. She worked hard to continue Peter the Great's effort to bring the culture of Western Europe to Russia. She imported Western architects, musicians, and intellects. 2. Domestic reform. "In 1767 she appointed a legislative commission to prepare a new law case. Didn't complete 2nd goal, but did restrict the practice of torture and allowed limited religious toleration. She tried to improve education and strengthen local gov. 3. Territorial expansion, she was successful. "her armies subjugated the last descendants of the Mongols and the Crimean Tartars, and began the conquest of the Caucasus." Her greatest achievement was the Partition of Poland. Her army won battles against the Ottomans and threatened to disturb the balance of power between Russia and Austria in Europe. Frederick II proposed a deal.

Discuss the three goals of Catherine the Great

Hired mathematics, optics, and astronomy professors within philosophy.

How did Medieval Universities contribute to these new ideas?

Saw a perfect correspondence between geometry and algebra and that geometrical spatial figures could be expressed as algebraic equations and vice versa, he discovered analytic geometry provided scientists w/ an important new tool, investigated the nature of matter, developed idea that matter was made up of identical "corpuscles" that collided together in an endless series of motions, thought vacuums were impossible aka every action has an equal or opp. reaction.

How did Rene Descartes contribute to the Scientific Revolution?

Law, medicine, and theology were held to the asme standards as Aristotelian ideas. 15th century Aristotle texts were lost to the west due to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. 14th and 15th century universities established new professorships of mathematics, astronomy, and optics within philosophy.

How did new views of the universe take shape in the 14th and 15th centuries?

Bc ppl still believed in Ptolemy's views and everything Copernican's believed in challenged societal norms.

How did the Copernican Hypothesis challenge accepted beliefs?

Some religious leaders accepted his ideas, some didn't. Protestant didn't believe Copernicans. Catholics didn't really care, waited till 1616 to declare Copernican's hypothesis invalid.

How did the Copernican Hypothesis challenge religion?

Stimulated scientific progress. Artists turned to realism and use of geometry to convey 3 dimensional perspective. Encouraged scholars to practice close observation and use mathematics to describe natural world.

How did the Renaissance contribute to these new views?

Gov.s intervened to support and sometimes direct research, the new scientific community became closely tied to the state and its agenda.

How did the Scientific Revolution impact politics?

Stuck to religion @ 1st, but then began to embrace the ideas.

How did the Scientific Revolution impact religion?

international scientific community rose.

How did the Scientific Revolution impact social life?

Women were banned from science for the most part, but there were some accessions in universities.

How did the Scientific Revolution impact women?

Believed only a divine creator could infuse universe w/ such meaningful mystery. Practitioners strove to understand and control hidden connection they perceived among different elements of natural world. Idea that objects possessed invisible/ "occult" qualities.

How idd Astronomy and Astrology contribute to these new views?

Based on 2 fundamental concepts: the general will and popular sovereignty, general will is sacred and absolute, general will is not necessarily the will of the majority.

Jean Jacques Rousseau on "The Social Contract and the General Will".

Believed men are superior to women, women should be subordinate in social life, thought privileged women should renounce their frivolous ways and stay @ home t care for their children.

Jean Jacques Rousseau on Gender Roles.

Drew on Enlightenment ideals to rule, nicknamed "revolutionary emperor", abolished serfdom in 1781, decried peasants could pay landlords in cash instead of labor on land, rejected because they lacked the cash to pay landlords.

The Austrian Habsburgs: Joseph II

Set out to reform her nation, she was more motivated by traditional power politics than Enlightenment ideas, remarkable and old fashioned absolutist, after War of the Austrian Succession "she was determine to introduce reforms that would make the state stronger and more efficient." 1. She initiated church reform to limit the papacy's influence, eliminate some religious holidays, and lowered # of monasteries. 2. "A whole series of administrative renovations strengthened the central bureaucracy, recreated tax system, taxed lands on nobles. 3. "Gov. sought to improve the lot of the agricultural population, reduced the power of lords over serfs and partially free peasant tenants."

The Austrian Habsburgs: Maria Theresa

Craftsmen and shopkeepers and middle class men played role in the creation of a new public sphere, philosophes found an audience among common people, Enlightenment philosophes thought commoners didn't have any time or talent for philosophical speculation and that elevations peasants would be a long and potentially dangerous.

What role did common people play in the Enlightenment?

Was an idealized space where members of society came together as individuals to discuss issues relevant to the society, economics, and politics of the day.

What role did public sphere play in the Enlightenment?

Exercised great influence on artistic taste, argued that feminine influence in the drawing room went hand in hand w/ the emergence of polite society and the general attempt to civilize a rough military nobility, education expanded for women, philosopher were bothered by how subordinate women were required to be.

What role did women play in the Enlightenment?

A regular social gathering held by talented an rich Parisians in their homes, where philosophes and their followers met to discuss literature, science, and philosophy.

What was a salon?

A term coined by historians to describe the rule of 18th century monarchs who, without renouncing their own absolute authority, adopted Enlightenment ideals of rationalism, progress, and tolerance.

What was enlightened absolutism?

"An early modern term for the study of the nature of the universe, its purpose, and how it functioned; it encompassed what we would call "science" today."

What was natural philosophy?

The idea that the sun, not the Earth, was the center of the universe.

What was the Copernican Hypothesis?

It progressed women's rights (somewhat), astronomy, astrology, mathematics, science, anatomy, biology, etc. It changed the way Europeans looked at and thought of their daily life.

What was the overall influence of the enlightenment on Europe?

After being imprisoned and threatened with torture he was forced to take back his Copernican errors.

What was the result of his trial?

Newton's law that all objects are attracted to one another and that the force of attraction is proportional to the objects' quantity of matter and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

What was the significance of Newton's Law of Gravity?

They believed change could best come form above rather than below, since gov.s clearly weren't going to give up their power Enlightenment philosophers and their audiences thought a benevolent absolutism offered the best opportunities for improving society, gov. officials were pals the most educated people in society, some rulers tried to reform their gov.s and officials to Enlightenment ideas-aka enlightened absolutism

Why did philosophes focus on enlightening monarchs rather than the people?