AP EURO MEGA QUIZLET

Price revolution

A period characterized by a high rate of inflation in Europe, lasting from late 15th century-mid 17th century.

War communism

A policy in Russia where they nationalized banks/industries, had the requisition of grain from peasants and centralized the state administration under Bolshevik control.

Declaration of Pillnitz

A statement agreed upon by Leopold II and Fredrick William II to intervene if Louis XVI was threatened by revolution.

Political Democracy

A system of government in which power is vested in the people, who rule either directly or through freely elected representatives. Note: Democratic institutions, such as parliaments, may exist in a monarchy.

Student Protest Movement

- changing attitudes towards drugs and sex fostered a rebellion against the older generations - higher education opened up to student of the middle/lower class which led to more people question society. - There were problems in the universities (classes were too large, professors were awful, there was stale-ass curriculum). In France in 1968, students gathered in a demonstration to ask for a greater voice in the adminstration and soon conflict spread. Eventually students got workers involved in a strike, but the protest was brought to an end in may of that year. In West Germany, students led a protest against Axel Springer, leader of Germany's largest newspaper establishment, who they believed to be the embodiment of the olde order (but it failed). -Beyond that, students protested things like the second Vietnam war and the materialism present in Western society.

Russia in the 1820s/Alexander I

-19th century--> largely agricultural still, divine rights monarchy, serfs exists for half of this century. -Alexandar I=makes some liberal reforms, but when Napoleon invaded, he changed and became super reactionary and against liberal ideas. He dies and Nicholas II comes in.

Michelangelo

-painter, sculptor, architect. Influenced by Neoplatonism (reflection of the divine) -Ex. of his work-->Sistine Chapel, David, Creation of Adam

Pearl Harbor

12/7/1941, Japan launched an air attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, the chief American naval base in the Pacific. This attack technique was similar to the one Japan used on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur in 1904. Pearl Harbor caught the Americans by surprise. Next day US declares war on Japan, three days later, Hitler declares war on US, brings US into Euro conflict

Internal combustion engine

1st one produced in 1878. Led to development of cars and with airplanes (honestly idk about this definition)

Congress #2

2nd meeting @Troppau= revolution in Spain+Italy with restoration of Bourbon monarchs (Ferdinand VII and Ferdinand I)

Congress#3

3rd meeting @Laibach= only Austria, Russia, and Prussia met because they wanted the principle of intervention (which GB DID NOT approve) but they did it anyways. They reinstated both Ferdinands.

Congress#4

4th meeting @Verona=same 3 powers authorized France to invade Spain to crush the revolt against Fredinand VII. The Concert of Europe broke down and GB kind of left but didn't let them intervene in revolutions in Latin America.

ISIL

A group that formed from members of many extremist groups. They came together and adopted the name "Islamic State of Iraq and Syria" or ISIS. They are committed to destroying Islam's enemies, including Muslims who aren't committed to the "True Islam". Western governments used the acronym "ISIL" translating "L" to the Levant which is places like Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, etc.

Post-Impressionism

A late nineteenth-century style that relies on the Impressionist use of color and spontaneous brushwork but that employs these elements as expressive devices.

Mandates

Allies promised to recognize the independence of Arab states but in reality, France and GB had mandates and took control of Lebanon/Syria (France) and Iran/Palestine (GB). Basically the same thing as a colony if I'm going to be completely honest.

Berlin Conference

Also called the Congo Conference, this conference was called to divide Africa amongst the more powerful European nations. Arranged by Bismarck, it was intended to help Germany colonize because Germany was new to Imperialism. It's result was the "scramble for Africa."

War of Austrian Succession (causes and results) 1740-1748

Causes=Maria Theresa ascends to the throne, Fred the Great sees opportunity. Other nations join and see opportunity. Alliances are formed and a balance of power begins. Results=Treaty of Aix la Chapelle. Everything goes back to original owners except for Silesia. Nothing settled.

Authoritarian State

At the beginning of the 20's in Eastern Europe, there were many states with well established political democracies in places like Austria, Poland, Romania, etc. Many of these places, however, gave way to authoritarian regimes. This situation came about through several problems like the little tradition of liberalism/parliamentary politics, these were largely agrarian economy states, and ethnic conflicts threatened to hurt these countries. CHECKOSLOVAKIA AVOIDED IT BECAUSE THEY HAD LIBERAL TRADITIONS AND A STRONG INDUSTRIAL BASE Bulgaria-in 1923, a coup d'etat established a regime under Marshal Joseph Pilsudsk. Poland-King Alexander I abolished the constitution and established a dictatorship in 1929. Romania-King Carol II established an authoritarian regime in response to the growth of a legion the king didn't like Greece-Ioannis Metaxas imposed a dictatorship in 1936. Spain-established under Fransisco Franco.

Ausgleich of 1867

Austria compromised with Hungary and created the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary where each country had its own constitution, own bicamerial legislature and own cpaital​. They shared the same ruler (Francis Joseph), same army, same foreign policy and same system of finances. STILL SUCKED FOR THE MINORITIES BECAUSE IT SIMPLY ALLOWED THE AUSTRIANS AND HUNGARIANS TO DOMINATE THEM

Austria Hungarian Ultimatum/Declarations of war

Austria sent an ultimatum to Serbia (even though they didn't conclusively decide the assassin had direct ties to the Serbian gov't--> still unknown) that threatened war, but they decided to wait until the French state visit to Russia. On July 23rd, the day the French president left Russia, Austrian leaders issued their ultimatum to Serbia. The demands were so extreme that Serbia had little choice to reject some in order to retain sovereignty. Austria then declared war on Serbia on July 28. This sparked the rest of the declarations of war. On July 28th, Russia partially mobilizes but because only partial mobilization would cause chaos, they fully mobilized on July 29th. Germany saw this as an act of war and gave Russia an ultimatum to stop mobilization, which Russia ignored so Germany declared war on Russia on August 1st. The Germans then started the Schlieffen plan and had to declare and ultimatum on Belgium so the plan could work and they declared war on France on August 3rd. On August 4th, GB declared war on Germany because of the violation of Belgian neutrality and they wanted to continue being a world power.

Chechnya

Background: Declared independence in 1991; southern border of Russia; 1 million Muslims Military: Russia repeatedly invade Effects: Thousands of lives lost on both sides; serious human rights abuses; Chechen terrorists, Russian security forces; ongoing civil war in Chechnya

Start of Cold War

Basically that there were LOTS of disagreements between the Soviets and the U.S, causing tension and leading to the outbreak of the Cold war.

Domino Theory

Basically, it was thought that if Vietnam fell to Communism (which it did) that the rest of decolonized Asian countries would also fall to Communism (which they didn't).

Revolutions in Belgium, Poland and Italy (1830)

Belgium=The Congress of Vienna wanted to create a larger state on France's northern border so they had Belgium (Catholic) join the Dutch Republic (Protestant) which Belgium didn't like, so they had the major European powers recognize their independence. Poland+Italy=NOT SUCCESSFUL. Metternich crushed Italian revolts with Austrian troops and Polish insurgents didn't get support form GB or France so the Russians crushed the revolt.

Transubstantiation

Belief that bread and wine turns into blood and body of christ.

Max Planck

Berlin physicist who rejected the belief that a heated body radiates energy in a steady stream, but instead believed that energy is radiated discontinuously in irregular packets called "quanta." Quantum theory that raised questions about the subatomic realm of the atom.

Social welfare program (Germany

Bismarck felt threatened by socialism (so he outlawed the Social Democratic Party, and limited socialist meetings/publications). To try and woo workers away from socialism, he enacted social welfare legislation that gave sickness, accident+disability benefits and a pension which was the most productive system the world had ever seen. This stopped the growth of socialism, but not the growth of the Social Democratic Party.

German Possessions in Africa

Bismarck initially downplayed the significance of colonies but was pressure to join in the race so they established colonies in South-West Africa, the Cameroons, Togoland, and Tanganyika.

Italian Unification

Cavour put a lot of money into equipping a large army, but knew it was no match for Austria, so he enlisted the help of France. In 1858, he agreed with Napoleon III that France would help Italy drive Austria out and France would reciev​​​e Nice and Savoy as well as the Central Italian states ​would be ruled by Prince Napoleon (Napoleon's cousin). Cavour provoked Austrians into invading Piedmont (in 1859) and the French REALLY dominated. They ultimately signed a peace treaty (without telling France) because the war seemed like it would drag on endlessl​​​y and Prussia was mobilizing to help Austria. Cavour was upset, but ultimately happy because Parma, Modena, and Tuscany all turned to the nationalist cause. Garibaldi helped in the south (MORE INFO ON THE GARIBALDI CARD) and Prussia completed the unification b/c of the Austro-Prussian war which PRussia​ won (meaning Venetia was now under Italian control, not Austrian) and France also left Rome because of the war. Italy became a unified state w/ Rome as its capital on September 20th, 1870.

Florence Nightingale

British nurse whose emphasis on cleanliness and training for nurses revolutionized health care. She is well known for her work during the Crimean War.British nurse whose emphasis on cleanliness and training for nurses revolutionized health care. She is well known for her work during the Crimean War.

David Lloyd George

British prime minister who hoped to weaken German industrial output, eliminate most of the German navy and force Germany to pay for post-war rebuilding

Maximilien Robespierre

French lawyer who led the Jacobins (Mountain) during the most radical phases of the French Revolution, associated with the Reign of Terror-executed anyone who disagreed with him (this eventually led to him being beheaded)

Politiques

French moderates who though French unity was more important than any religious day sect

Marie Curie

French scientist and her husband who discovered that the element radium gave off rays of radiation that came from inside the atom itself. this made the central theme of "new physics" to be inquiry into atoms, subatomic particles, disintegrative processes of atoms, etc

Zeppelins

German airships that bombed England, but they were filled with Hydrogen gas so an airstriker could take them down easily.

Sudetenland

German troops came to occupy Sudentenland which was made up of a German majority.

Unrestricted submarine warfare

Germany declared this earlier on in the war and they later reestablished it in 1917, promising to torpedo any British ship. This brought the United States into the war.

Gironde+ Mountain

Gironde=Political faction stemming from the Jacobins; did not support Parisian military; did not want Louis XVI executed because they thought he would become a martyr. Represented the provinces + fear radical mobs in Paris Mountain=Political faction stemming from the Jacobins; very much supported Parisian military; wanted Louis XVI executed and won by a very narrow majority. Represented PAris+ lots of strength due to radical+popular elements in the city although many of the members where middle class.

Guernica

Guernica considered one of Picasso's (most significant artist of 20th century) greatest work. The mournful white, black and blue colors of the mural were inspired by the Spanish Civil War and the deadly terror bombing of Guernica by fascist planes in a single night. Picasso's cubist techniques heighten the terror of the complex work.

Military revolution

Gustavus Adolphus led a really well-run army and other European armies had adopted some of his practices. -Large standing conscription armies as opposed to large mercenary armies -They went from poorly trained militias to highly trained, highly disciplined individuals and the beginnings of military schools. -Swords and other more primitive weaponry to an increase in firearms and advanced battleships.

Poland

Hitler began to demand the return of Danzig (which was made a Polish seaport through the treaty of Versailles) to Germany which led GB to vow to protect Poland. They also hoped the Soviet Union would join as an ally but they signed the Nazi Soviet Non-Agression Pact. On September 1st, Germany invaded Poland and on September 3rd, GB+France declared war on Germany. The Soviet Union started moving into Eastern Poland on September 17th.

New Police Forces

Honestly don't really need to know much other than 1829-1830's, many countries (like France and GB) adopted a proper police force with uniforms and weapons to better protect the people and hopefully prevent crime.

Pop Art

Images from pop culture turned into fine art. Andy Warhol was an example of this with the Campbell cans and Marilyn Monroe. Often these works were mass produced.

Kristallnacht

In English it means "the night of broken glass". This happened in 1938 when there was the assassination of a secretary by a Polish Jew. The Nazis as a result burned synagogues, places of businesses, homes, etc. and cause lots of destruction.

War of the Roses

Civil wars that broke out in England in the 1450's (between Lancasters+Yorks+other Aristocratic Families)

Napoleon's Grand Empire

Enlarged France, the colonies of France and the countries he invaded

100 years war

FRANCE VS. ENGLAND reasons for war: There was a rivalry between France and England about who should be king, who should own Flanders, and who should own the English held land in France.

Constitutional Monarchy (Before Republic)

Form of government in which officials were elected by the people and the elected officials worked to serve the people; replaced the French monarchy in 1792

Republic (After Constitutional Monarchy)

Form of government in which officials were elected by the people and the elected officials worked to serve the people; replaced the French monarchy in 1792

Algeria

France wanted to keep Algeria because it was technically seen as an extension of actual French territory. Millions of French also lived in Algeria. Algerian national groups such as the National Liberation Front started a guerilla war until Charles de Gaulle gave them freedom in 1962. Thousands of French and Harkis (Algerian Muslims) fled because there was widespread violence against them after independence was gained.

Estates General

France's traditional national assembly with representatives of the three estates, or classes, in French society: the clergy, nobility, and commoners. The calling of the Estates General in 1789 led to the French Revolution. Assembly that met when the king said so (hadn't met for 175 years prior to the beginning of the Revolution); each of the three estates had one vote, and as a result, the responsibility of taxes was put on the Third Estate

Pierre Bayle

Protestant, leading critic of traditional religious attitudes - attacked superstition, religious intolerance, dogmatism, believed that the rational principles of textual criticism should be applied to the Bible, skepticism about religion & secularization of thought, wrote Historical and Critical Dictionary

France+Britain+ Prussia post seven years war

Prussia: vaulted to world status GB: controls all territory east of Mississippi, gained control of India, France: Loss of colonial empire (but keeps the Caribbean), French military reforms, desire for revenge (which led them to assist in American Revolution)

French Classicism

In second half of 17th century, France replaced Italy as cultural leader of Europe. Emphasis on clarity, simplicity, balance and harmony. rejected emotionalism and high drama of Baroque, but kept the grandeur of the portrayal of noble subjects

Reform Act of 1832

It disenfranchised 56 cotton bouroughs and franchised 42 new towns and cities giving new industrial communities a voice, a new property qualification was added to increase voting pool, though only resulted in 1 in 30 being represented in Parliament. Still only affected the upper middle class.

Polish Monarchy

Jagiello (prince of Lithuania) and Jadwiga (princess of Poland) married, and then unified much later in the 1560's. Monarchs would have to share power with the Sejms which sucked and led to their ultimate downfall.

Anti-Comintern Pact

Japan and Germany signed this to fight against communism.

The New Order in Asia

Japan set up the Great East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere which was meant to be a self-sufficient community that was to provide mutual benefits to the occupied areas of Asia and the home country of Japan. They promised independent governments would be established under Japanese tutelage but the real power was actually retained with the Japanese military. The natural resources of the countries were exploited and forced labor was common.

Bodin

Jean Bodin was a French jurist and political philosopher, member of the Parlement of Paris and professor of law in Toulouse. He is best known for his theory of sovereignty; he was also an influential writer on demonology.

Locke and tabula rasa

John Locke=English philosopher who advocated the idea of a "social contract" in which government powers are derived from the consent of the governed and in which the government serves the people; also said people have natural rights to life, liberty and property. He wrote Concerning Human Understanding Table Rasa=means "blank slate" -- Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke believed humans were born as a blank slate and were shaped by environment

Self Determination

Key/central principle @ the Paris peace conference

Peter the Great

Kind of an unusual leader. He westernized Russia. He increased Russia as a military power. Super great for Russia blah blah blah.

Victor Emmanuel II

King of Piedmont, Savoy, and Sardinia. Eventually became first king of a united Italy. Led the north in Italian unification and united with Garibaldi's south in 1861. Drove the pope into the Vatican city, and eventually made Rome the capital of Italy. His P.M was cavour.

Militarism

Large mass armies heightened tensions and made it inevitable that if war came, it would be highly destructive. Conscription had been established as a regular practice in most Western countries before 1914 and armies were giant!! There was also an influx of military leaders who made complex plans for mobilizing millions and gathering supplies. They were fearful that change of plans would cause chaos in the military so they insisted they couldn't be altered.

Popes as Patrons

Liked art. Bought a lot

Luftwaffe and panzers

Luftwaffe= the Air Force panzers= the name of the groups used for blitzkrieg.

Elizabeth Blackwell/ Women+Medical school

Medical universities were closed to women during much of the 19th century. Elizabeth Blackwell was accidentally admitted to the Geneva college but she persevered​ and got her M.D in 1849 and eventually her own clinic. Other women struggled for years to obtain degrees, so women made seperate medical schools. Still after graduation, women struggled to get jobs because they were still sometimes denied licenses or access to hospitals. Laws were passed in countries in Europe from the 1870's to early 1900's which said women were allowed to take qualifying exams.

Council of Trent

Met in march of 1545. Moderates wished to make peaceful concessions, conservatives DID NOT Final doctrine decrees=Catholic teachings in opposition to Protestantism, reaffirmation of Scripture+Tradition, supremacy of popes, efficacy of indulgences, necessity of both faith+good works, etc.

Kosovo Liberation Army

Military organization formed in 1998 by Kosovar militants who sought independence from Serbia)

Treaties of Tilsit

Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I signed this treaty which confirmed France's gains. The Prussian state was reduced to half its previous size. Prussia and Russia became allies of Napoleon against Britain.

Revolution in Transportation

New roads+canals+ *****RAILROADS*****. Originally made in Germany in the 1500's/1600's to pull coal. They were gradually improved. Railroad industry provided new jobs in upholstery, carriage-making, glass and train engineers. Railroad need for coal and iron fueled those industries.

Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation

Newtons law that all objects are attracted to one another and that the force of attraction is proportional to the objects quantity of matter and inversely proportional to the square of distance between them

Northern Renaissance

Occurred everywhere outside of Italy They were influenced by Italian artists -Gothic Cathedrals -Northern artists became masters at detail (Honestly I don't really know about this definition)

Destruction of Poland in the late 1700s

Poland didn't have a strong monarchy (kings elected by nobles) which led to their enemies (Austria, Russia, and Prussia) to divide up Poland. Pieces of Poland remained until 1795 when the state was completely obliterated.

Sejm

Polish diet which was a 2 chamber assembly dominated by landowners and nobles rather than townspeople.

Nepotism

Popes would elect their family members to become cardinals to strengthen their hold on the papacy.

Caravel

Portugues were the first to develop and use this type of ship. It had multiple advantages over traditional ships.

Thirty Years War

(1618-48) the last great religious war fought in Europe brought into France by Richelieu. began in Bohemia when protestant nobles revolted against the newly crowned Catholic emperor Ferdinand II when he revoked their religious freedoms. ended with Protestant-French victory by the Peace of Westphalia. reshaped the religious and political map of central Europe. (While it is in the "Wars of Religion" unit, it should be remembered that it was as much about political power. For example, the fight between the French and the Habsburgs was between two Catholic powers.)

Aristocrats

***Country houses***=very grand, built in Georgian style. There was an increased push for privacy. There would be a downstairs (common rooms--> drawing room, dining room, ball room) and an upstairs (private--> bedrooms). Servants also now lived in a different part of the house. Often built on sprawling estates. **Grand Tour**= sons of aristocrats would complete their education by traveling around Europes's biggest cities. Some men would be super chill and look at it as a vacation, while other would bring tutors to be kept on track academically.

Other peace treaties

***EFFECTIVELY REDREW MAP OF EUROPE** German+Russian empires lost considerable territory in E. Europe and Austria-Hungary disappeared completely. New nation-states emerged such as Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Poland and Austria. Romania acquired land from Russia/Hungary/Bulgaria and Serbia founded Yugoslavia. Compromises were made for the victors (France lost Russia as an ally on E. Germany border so they strengthened and expanded countries like Poland+ Czechoslovakia to serve as barriers which led to minority problems). The Ottoman Empire was dismembered.

Montesquieu

- French nobility - Criticized French institutions (Catholic Church and monarchy) - Interpreted English government inaccurately - Also wrote The Spirit of Laws in 1748 - Tried to apply scientific method to social and political areas Book: The Spirit of Laws - Three basic governments: Republics, Monarchy, and Despotism - Incorporated US constitution

Marshall Plan

-1947 American plan for providing economic aid to western Europe to help it rebuild -US would spend billions of dollars rebuilding Japan & western Germany -US realized that they needed to rebuild them & stabilize them in order to stop them from becoming communist -another example of containment -one of the most successful foreign aid programs in history -initially offered to East Bloc countries also but Stalin rejected it b/c he feared Western interference in the Soviet sphere

Willy Brandt & Ostpolitik

-1969-74r -chancellor of West Germany (CDP member) -tried to make amends across the iron curtain: -went to Poland & apologized for WWII -went to Auschwitz & paid homage to Polish dead -laid wreath at the tomb of the Polish unknown soldier & another at a monument commemorating the armed uprising of Warsaw's Jewish Ghetto against the Nazis -^^^ part of Brandt's policy of reconciliation with eastern Europe - Ostpolitik ("eastern policy" in German) - aimed at peace settlement for central Europe & the two German states -said that new foreign policy was needed -negotiated treaties w/ the USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia - formally accepted existing state boundaries in return for mutual renunciation of force or the treat of force -"two German states within one German nation" - Brandt's gov't entered direct relations w/ East Germany

the Commune/3rd republic in France

-After the second empire fell, French republicans wanted to set up a provisional gov't, but Otto von Bismarck made them choose a gov't with universal male suffrage. The monarchists won a majority in the National assembly, so the radical republicans formed an independent republican gov't in Paris called the "Commune". The national assembly was like "OH HELL NAH" and crushed the resistance (and massacred thousands and sent others to a penal colony). The national assembly wanted a monarch to rule, but their indecision led to the formation of a republican gov't that had a bicameral legislature chosen by universal male suffrage and a president who serves for 7 years. They made a condition in 1875 and their republic lasted for 65 years.

Conservatism

-Belief liberalism leads to revolution and instability -Obedience to political authority paramount. -Organized religion key to social order. -Community more important than individual rights. -Desire social stability through monarchial rule. -Tradition and hierarchy important tools to govern a nation -Anchors of society: monarchy, aristocracy, and church. -Men are NOT all created -It's ok for the gov't to interfere in the lives of its citizens. -Brutal in crushing dissent. ***KEY FIGURES: Edmund Burke, Klemens von Metternich, Joseph Maistre****

The bombing of Germany

-British started bombing raids in 42. -When the Americans stepped in, they changed their strategy to daytime missions with precision bombing of war industries. Overall, it didn't really diminish Germany's industrial capacity, but it did kill thousands.

John Locke

-English philosopher -advocated the idea of a "social contract" in which the government serves the people -people have natural rights to life, liberty and property.

Lutheranism

-Luther started the church in 1522. It spread all over Germany and Scandinavia. He translated the New Testament -Major importance on Sermons, music and pamphlets. -Many of the early converts were clergy + upper class -Only has baptism and communion -DOES NOT BELIEVE IN TRANSUBSTANTIATION- rather that his presence was in the blood and wine -Heavy importance on scripture

Central Europe (a.k.a Prussia+Austria) in the 1920s

-Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna consolidated (used to be 300 states, now only 38) -Metternich employed a large network of spies to keep an eye on liberals -

Changes in Crime and Punishment

-No longer a significant use of the death penalty. Previously there were hundreds of crimes punishable by death and executions were common to keep order in society. There also previously used to be a common sentence of forced labor. Philosophes said these punishments were too sever, eventually there was a decline in corporal and capital punishment.

Liberalism

-Promote constitutionalism -separation of powers in gov't is important. -Sanctity of the individual and individual rights are key. People and economy should be free of gov't control (laissez-faire) -Voting rights only for men in middle or upper class -Want to undermine the monarchy, tradition and church -Most supporters come from the middle class. **KEY FIGURES: Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, David Ricardo, John Stuart Mill*****

Mobilization in the Soviet Union

-Stalin created a system of "super-centralization" where he directed military and political affairs and all matters where meant to be subjected to the control of the Communist party. -When the Germans would advance, they would dismantle the factories and send them to the interior. -There was a second round of industrial revolution called the "battle of the machine" -There were incredible food shortages, labor shortages -Soviet women were a huge part of the efforts constituting almost 60% of the workforce in industry.

Factors that led to communists taking power and keeping power in Russia

-Strong military leadership from Trostky -War communism (on another card) -Red Terror/revolutionary terror and Cheka -Disunity on the White forces front (political differences/disagreements--> some wanted to reinstate the tsar, some wanted a political democracy) -mass support from the peasants

Merkel

-The first female chancellor in Germany!!! -Christian Democrat -pursued healthcare reform and new energy policies -She has a leading role in the EU and has accepted 1000's of Syrian refugees.

Cold War

-The war started in 1945. The war ended in 1991, w​hen the Soviet Union fell -Between the U.S and the U.S.S.R and their differing ideologies (democracy/capitalism vs. communism) as well as some misinterpretation of each other's actions -There was an escalating nuclear arms race that lead to ever-increasing tensions until the Cuban Missile Crisis had ended and they promised to ban nuclear testing. -After that there was a detente which was a relaxation of tensions between the United States and its two major Communist rivals, the Soviet Union and China

Second Napoleonic Empire (Under Napoleon III)

-Very authoritarian-->he controlled armed forces/police, and only he could introduce legislation/declare war. -The legislative corps seemed like a more representative gov't because they were elected by universal suffrage, but they couldn't initiate legislation or affect the budget. -Domestic policies: He stimulated economic growth, advanced infrastructure (through the building of a major French railway system), provided free medicine and hospitals to the working class, and he had Paris undergo reconstruction (wider streets, underground sewage, etc). -Liberalization of the empire: In the 1860's, there was growing opposition to his policies so he liberalized by allowing the working class to have trade unions and the ability to strike. The Legislative Corps also had more power in governmental affairs. This was great success for his rule, but it was short lived b/c war with Prussia in 1870 was the death blow for his rule.

1848 French Revolution

-a provisional gov't was established and they convened to draft up a new constitution and said universal male suffrage should happen. Nat'l workshops were developed which eventually became super burdensome on the gov't. There was a split between the moderate and radical. The gov't shut down the workshops which led to four bloody days of fighting and 1,000s were killed and 4,000 were sent to Algeria. The constitution was reestablished and Charles Louis Napoleon took power as a president but became a president by three years later.

Mobilization in GB

-by the summer of '44, 55% of GB citizens were in the army or in civilian "war work" -Women held 50% of the civil service positions -The gov't encouraged "dig for victory" and "grow your own food" to help with food production to try to combat the food shortages -they instituted rationing and a diet dominated by potatoes+bread

Mobilization for Japan

-created a planning board to control prices, wages, and the utilization of labor/allocation of resources. -Bushido--> loyalty/service to family, country, etc. Even sacrificing your life if necessary. -Women's rights went out the window and women were now just meant to bear more and more children

Social Impact of Total War

-expansion of jobs for women!! -growth in trade unions + their influence in the gov't -Demands for equal pay!! -Suffrage expansion!! -Death was common (From all classes--> except skilled workers who were usually lucky and worked in industry instead of going to war)

European Union

-in 1985, there was a common visa policy and elimination of border checks -In 1992, they made a united internal government with elimination of all trade barriers and a call for common currency. -1994: the European Community renames itself the European Union. -In 1995, the EU expanded to 15 states, then by 2000 it had 370 million members. The EU beyond a common currency and a singular market also developed a common agriculture policy so they could sell products competitively on the world market. They have built up a military of 60,000 and signed the Lisbon treaty which made a president position. -As of now, there are 28 nations in the EU.

pop culture and stuff (idk what to title this one honestly :/ )

-late 60s-70's was the age of rock, then it evolved into punk due to the environment of a bad economy, etc. -MTV came to be in the 80's so people like Michael Jackson were HUGE and their music videos were like an artform -satellite tv made sports a GLOBAL phenomeon and at a much cheaper rate!!

Mobilization for the U.S

-mobilization brought an end to the Great Depression and lot of $$$ was put into industries like chemicals and electronics -There was also a lot of money devoted to projects like rocket engines and the atomic bomb (the Manhattan project) -Gross national product rose 15% each year the Americans were in the war.

Renaissance

-period of rebirth with a focus on greek+roman culture -age of recovery: from bubonic plague, economic recession, political disorder, etc. -emergence of secularism

George Eastman

-produced first Kodak camera for the mass market in 1888 -photography could only mirror reality

Mobilization for Germany

-to maintain the morale of the home front for the first 2 years, Hitler didn't let production change from consumer goods to armaments. He was able to do this because Blitzkrieg was successful and they could just use the land and food from the lands they conquered. -Albert Speer was made the minister of munitions and he tripled munitions production from 1942 to 1943. - -total mobilization didn't occur until 1944, but by then it was already too late.

Reasoning behind why so many revolutions failed

1. The unity of revolutionaries made revolutionaries possible but division destroyed that. Moderate liberals from propertied classes failed to extend suffrage to the working class, but when radicals pushed for universal suffrage, liberals pulled back. They instead wanted the old classes for the sake of order, so established gov't went back into place. 2. Nationalities fought against one another (again division). Countries like Hungary wanted autonomy from their leaders (Austria), but at the same time refuse the same to their minorities (Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes). Austria only was successful in regaining Hungary when they began to pit Hungary against its rebellious minority.

Peterloo Massacre

18,000 show up in St. Peter's fields, want universal male suffrage/ repeal corn laws, very orderly yet soldiers were ordered to open fire.

Congress #1

1st meeting @Aix-la-Chapelle=4 powers agreed to withdraw army occupation of France and to add France to the congress. Most peaceful meeting

Louis' wars

1st-Began by invasion of Spanish Netherlands, but Triple Alliance (Dutch+English+Swedes) made him sue for peace and only a adopt a few towns in the Spanish Netherlands 2nd-Began in 1672 with the invasion of the United Provinces. The new alliance of Brandenburg, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire ended the war in 1678. 3rd-invasion of the Holy Roman Empire. He had moderate success initially, but then the alliance of the League of Augsburg (Spain, Holy Roman Empire, Sweden, United Provinces, and England) made him end the war with the treaty of Ryswick and it made him give up most of his conquests 4th-War of Spanish Succession (on another card)

Woodrow Wilson

28th President of the United States, known for World War I leadership, created Federal Reserve, Federal Trade Commission, Clayton Antitrust Act, progressive income tax, lower tariffs, women's suffrage (reluctantly), Treaty of Versailles, sought 14 points post-war plan, League of Nations (but failed to win U.S. ratification), won Nobel Peace Prize

Italian States

5 major states existed that were independent. They ere Milan, Venice, Florence, Papal States, and Naples

Hitler Youth/Women's role in the Nazi State

A BIG THING in their platform was the indoctrination of the youth so there was the creation of the Hitler Youth (men) and the German Girls Association (women). Women's role in the Nazi state was to essentially be mothers (similar to Italy--> the would get the medals). They weren't supposed to be in any heavy industry, but that later changed when Germany began to rearm.

Martin Luther

A German monk who became the father of the Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther criticised aspects of the Catholic Church and the concept of Papal infallibility. In particular, he believed that it was the Bible alone - and not priests or the Church - which had legitimacy for interpreting the word of Christ. Martin Luther also translated the bible into German, making it more accessible to the general public

Squadristi

A band of armed fascists

Primitivism

A belief in the idea of simplicity, in both art and literature. Key people include Paul Gauguin and Pablo Picasso

Holocaust

A methodical plan orchestrated by Hitler to ensure German supremacy. It called for the elimination of primarily Jews, but also non-conformists, homosexuals, non-Aryans, and mentally and physically disabled. Below is the estimated death toll from the holocaust: Between five and six million Jews (but estimates are rough and they may be higher) More than three million Soviet prisoners of war More than two million Soviet civilians More than one million Polish civilians More than one million Yugoslav civilians About 70,000 men, women and children with mental and physical handicaps More than 200,000 gipsies Unknown numbers of political prisoners, resistance fighters, homosexuals and deportees

Cavour

A moderate and persuasive Italian statesman (of Piedmont) who pursued a policy of economic expansion, fostering business enterprise and he was A KEY FIGURE IN THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY.

Concert of Europe

A series of alliances among European nations in the 19th century devised by Prince Klemens von Metternich to prevent the outbreak of revolutions. Great Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria agreed to meet periodically to discuss interests in maintaining peace. 1st meeting @Aix-la-Chapelle=4 powers agreed to withdraw army occupation of France and to add France to the congress 2nd meeting @Troppau= revolution in Spain+Italy with restoration of Bourbon monarchs (Ferdinand VII and Ferdinand I) 3rd meeting @Laibach= only Austria, Russia, and Prussia met because they wanted the principle of intervention (which GB DID NOT approve) but they did it anyways. They reinstated both Ferdinands. 4th meeting @Verona=same 3 powers authorized France to invade Spain to crush the revolt against Fredinand VII. The Concert of Europe broke down and GB kind of left but didn't let them intervene in revolutions in Latin America.

mass society/social structure of the mass society

A society in which concerns of the majority--the lower classes--play a prominent role; characterized by the extension of voting rights, an improved standard of living for the lower classes, and mass education. Upper class: constituted 5% of the population, but controlled 30%-40% of the wealth. The group consisted up aristocrats, merchants, industrialiasts and plutocrats. Middle class=people in law, medicine, civil service, business managers, architects, etc. There was a difference between the lower middle class white-collar workers and the skilless peasants. This skilled ones had the same values as the middle/upper classes and they were the ones who were super active in preaching their worldview to others. Lower class=almost 80% of Europeans who were usually agricultural laborers, sharecroppers, and unskilled workers.

Catholic Reformation

A sort of counter-reformation. Revived only the best of Catholicism. Mysticism and monasticism were revived. Religious orders came back stronger.

Protestant Reformation

A split with the Catholic Church that proved to be difficult as the Church was entwined in the affairs of social+political life

Zemstvos

A system which was local assemblies made up of representatives of all classes (though nobles were favored). They could help with public services (like education, roads, etc.) They hired specialists that brought medicine and improved farming methods into the country, and they could levy taxes (though bureaucrats often interfered)

Italy (Post Unification)

A unified state but VERY different for north v. south Italy.

Viceroy

A viceroy is a regal official who runs a country, colony, city, province, or sub-national state, in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory

Aztecs/Incas

AZTEC=Cortez arrived in 1519, made an alliance w/ the enemies of the Aztecs. Montezuma gave gifts because they thought Cortez was the returning god. Decimated native population due to the pillaging, murder, and small pox INCAS=Another super advanced civilization. Pissaro arrives in 1530. He had 180 men, steel weapons, gunpoweder, horses. Small pox was an ally of his.

Nobility

About 2-3% of population. -Often immune from some taxation, severe punishment, they were top of the social order. -They were often involved in industries such as mining, metallurgy, and glassmaking. -some nobles in countries had no importance except title. Some even sank into the ranks of peasants. A heavy decline in amount of nobles over this century. diet= meat+fish+cheeses+nuts+sweets

Peasants

About 85% of Europe's population. In France, 40% of the free peasants owned little or no land by 1789. village=center of social life. maintained public order, but proved resistant to new innovations diet= dark bread (nourishing), water, wine, beer, soup, gruel (grain+vegetables). Corn and potatoes were introduced

Response to Imperialism (Africa, China, Japan and India)

Africa=There was an emergence of an educated class of Africans who were knowledgeable about Western life/culture. They exalted values like freedom and democracy but obviously, those weren't really present in the colonies. They were seen as inferior to white people and segregation was widespread. China=Lots of antiforeign violence such as the "boxer rebellion" which broke out between Chinese who belonged to an organization dedicated to pushing foreigners out of china against all foreign forces. They murdered foreign missionaries, Chinese converts to Christianity, railroad workers, foreign businessmen, etc. The response to this was immediate with 100s of thousands of troops from the spheres of influence coming in and restoring order. They demanded more concessions and Sun Yatsen overthrew the gov't to create the Chinese Republic (weak and ineffectual​). Japan=There was a revolt to restore the emperor as the head of the government (as opposed to most of the power with the Shogun and Samurais). Mutsuhito was the emperor and he called his reign "Meiji" (enlightened gov't) where he modernized Japan. Japanese went abroad for Western educations, he adopted a German style​ army and a British style navy, they had an industrial system to rival the U.S and they encompassed French values like social and legal equality (but then it became pretty authoritarian). India=GB brought some order by bringing things like railroads, banks, mines, industry and hospitals. They had western style schools (but it was only opened to the elite, upper-class Indians). They banned the practice of "sati"--> where the widow throws herself on the funeral pyre of her husband. With massive population growth, poverty became widespread and Indian wealth was used to support the British military. INDIANS WERE NEVER CONSIDERED EQUALS.

European Community

After 1970, W. Europe wanted to integrate their economies so the European Community was expanded with GB, Ireland, Denmark, Greece, Spain, and Portugal coming to a total of 12 countries that met frequently and provided a common front.

French Revolution of 1830

After Charles X issued the July Ordinances, many citizens got mad (then the July Revolution happened), so Charles fled and Louis-Philippe became the new monarch. A lot of his support came from the bourgeoisie and they were really the only class to experience any of the benefits Louis-Philippe added (expansion of the electorate, etc.) This led to further unrest.

Hollande

After Chirac, but before Hollande, Nicolas Sarkozy was president and tried to deal with unrest by having tax cuts for the wealthy and increased retirement age for state workers WHICH THE FRENCH HATED so Hollande stepped in. He revoked the tax cuts, returned the retirement age, added 60,000 teaching jobs, and encouraged the closure of failing factories (which caused protests).

Charles X

After Louis XVIII. He was very traditional, gives people old land before revolution, allows catholic church back into education.

Chirac

After Mitterand's second term ended, the French government moved to the right under Jacques Chirac. There was growing resentment against foreign-born residents had greatly increased and French voters advocated for restrictions on new immigration and Chirac wanted to send those immigrants back to their home countries.

Alexander II

After Russia was defeated in the Crimean war, Alexandar II was like "everything has to change in Russia!!!". The biggest problem was the issue of serfdom because it was a corrupt and failing system that held Russia back in terms of production. Many of the serfs were completely uneducated, so they were only able to the easiest of tasks and there were widespread revolts in the countryside. On March 3rd, 1861, Alexander issued his emancipation edit that allowed peasants to own property (but the land was usually SUPER bad) and they weren't completely free because they still had to pay dues to the state. He made other reforms like the system of zemstvos (ON ANOTHER CARD) He was eventually assassinated​

1956: Upheaval in Eastern Europe (Poland and Hungary/Hungarian Revolt)

After Stalin's death, many Eastern European states wanted more nationalistically oriented systems but with Poland and Hungary in particular, The Soviet Union was like "OH HELL NAH". Khrushchev denounced Stalin leading to protests breaking out and the Polish Communist Party made reforms, elected Wladyslaw Gomulka and said they had the right to follow their own socialist path. They were fearful of Soviet response so they agreed to be loyal to the Warsaw Pact and the U.S.S.R kind of let them do their thing. There was also a revolt in Hungary because many felt Communism was something from the Soviets and that they should have no part in it. To try and stop it, the leader Imy Nogy promised a free nation with no communism BUT KHRUSHCHEV SHUT THAT DOWN REAL QUICKLY, invaded Budapest, and placed Jánas Kádár in charge.

Struggle for power in Russia

After a series of strokes from 1922-1924, Lenin passed away. This started a struggle among the members of the Politburo. The left was led by Leon Trotsky who wanted to stop the NEP and launch the Soviet Union on a path of rapid industrialization. They also wanted to continue the Russian revolution because they believed it would spread communism internationally. On the Right, they were led by Joseph Stalin. They wanted a continuation of the NEP. He became the party general secretary where he appointed regional, district and city services. He then gained complete control of the Communist party and murdered Trotsky in 1940.

Austrian Empire/ Hungary (Pre Austria-Hungary)

After the Hapsburgs crushed the revolutions in 1848/1849, they ruled a centralized autocracy that abolished serfdom on September 7th, 1848. Industrialization brought about some economic+social change (urban proletariat, new industrial middle class, etc.). Under Alexander von Bach, local priveleges were changed to u​nified system of administration, law a​nd taxation. Hungary was under the rule of officers and Catholicism was seen as the religion of the state/given control of education. After Austrian defeat in Italian war (1859), Emperor Francis Joseph tried to make a bicamerical gov't called the REICHSRAT (the formula for electing representatives for this eventually made a German speaking majority which again alienated minorities).

Realism

An artistic movement that rose after 1850 which stated that the world should be viewed realistically. It was closely related to the growing materialistic outlook of society.

crystal palace

An exhibition hall built specifically for the Great Exhibition in 1851. It is significant because it showed England's technological advancements during the Industrial Revolution, built entirely out of steel and glass.

emigration

Areas with little industrialization+severe rurual overpopulation led to thousands of individuals emigrating to the industrial centers of Europe, but the industrialized regions weren't able to absorb the entire surplus population of heavily agricultural regions like Southern Italy, Spain and Romania where the land couldn't support the growing # of people. There was also persecution for being the minority ethnic groups (like Jews, Poles, Croats, and Romanians). Basically just know that between 1846 and 1932, 60 million Europeans left Europe, half bound for the United States, the rest headed to Canada/Latin America.

Impressionism

Art movement that originated in France in the 1870s; artists attempted to paint their impressions of the changing effects of light on objects in nature.

Communist China/Mao Zedong

At the end of WWII, there were 2 chines governments. One was a nationalist government (supported by Americans) and one was the Communist government under Mao Zedong. Full scale war broke out and many peasants were drawn to Mao's government where they surrounded Beijing then Shanghai and finally the other government fled to Taiwan. Mao was victorious in 1949. In 1955, the Chinese government collectivized farmland and nationalized most industry and when the farms failed, they started the "Great Leap Forwar" where everything was combined into communes to try to speed up economic prosperity BUT it was a diaster and food production plummted but Mao didn't give up. In 1966, he launched China on a new forced march towards communism.

Triple Alliance

Austria-Hungary Germany Italy (BUT SIKE they leave and join the allied side in WWI) Other forces for the central powers: Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire, etc.

Baader-Meinhof, Red Brigade

Baader-Meinhof: a left-wing terrorist group from Germany Red Brigade: a left-wing terrorist group from Italy Both of these groups attacked because they denounced capitalism and wanted to see it destroyed.

Jewish people in W. Europe v. E. Europe

Basically know that life was the worst for Jewish people in Eastern Europe. There was a quota system in Russia to let people into universities and they lived in the Pale of Settlement. As time went on, conditions improved for Western Jewish people, but it still sucked in the east. HONESTLY JUST LOOK AT THE WKST

Elizabethan Settlement (1559)

Basically protestant, but a more moderate Protestantism that avoided overly subtle distinction and extremes

Tokugawa Iesayu

Became a shogun(general) in 1603. He was instrumental in the restoration of Central authority in Japan. He expelled all the missionaries and European merchants from Japan (except a small group of dutch traders)

Population Growth

Began in 18th century, but took off in 19th century and they were easier to discern because records started being kept. Population in Europe went from about 140 million in 1750 to 266 million in 1850. Largely due to decreasing death rate.

New Legislative Assembly

Began in October 1791. Many of the Representatives weren't clerics+ nobles, but middle-class men who had experience through the national rule+jacobin clubs. The king tried to work with the assembly but France's relations with Europe led to his downfall

Problem of poverty

Beggars may have constituted around 16-20% of the pop. People turned to prostitution or begging. Attitudes changed about helping the poor: previously it was a Christian duty, now seen as contributing to idleness.

Mussolini+ Fascist Italy

Benito Mussolini formed the fascist party in 1919 and favored rightist-policies. He formed the Squadristis (mentioned on another card). Violence was crucial to his platform and many of his followers used unrestrained violence (a.k.a terrorist attacks which they thought would give them power--> it did). He eventually gained the support of middle+upper classes. He made a plan to march on Rome to seize power (But it was a bluff) and it worked and King Victor Emmanuel III made Mussolini the P.M. of Italy. In 1926, he established his fascist dictatorship, government could suspend any publications anti-catholic/anti-state, the Prime Minister was made the head of state, police could arrest any opposition, etc. They tried to create a police state (like Nazi Germany) but they were never as repressive, and they tried to assert control of individuals through education but the secondary schools had a lot of freedom. They glorified traditional attitudes: militaristic society, women were to stay home and have babies and not be in the workforce because they're super dumb (AM I RIGHT LADIES?????). Women were given prizes for childbirth.

population growth

Between 1850 and 1880 the population grew from 270 million to 460 million. Largely due to both the rising birthrates and the decline in deathrate. Things like smallpox vaccinations were made compulsory in the 1850's, improvements in the urban environment reduced fatalities from diseases like dysentery, typhoid fever, cholera, etc. There was improved nutrition (increase in food productivity, improvements in transportation) and food hygiene helped to decline the infant mortality rate.

Casualties of the war

Between 8 and 9 million soldiers were killed and another 22 million were wounded. The birthrate decreased because the people that would be having children were killed in the war.

Yeltsin

Boris Yeltsin was elected as president of the Russian Republic in June of 1991. A group of conservatives who wanted the traditional Soviet institutions to live on arrested Gorbachev and tried to seize power. Gorbachev refused to work with the conspirators and 1000's of people+ Boris stopped the coup when they took to the streets. After Ukraine voted for independence in December of 1991, the Soviet Union announced its dissolution a week later and then Yeltsin eventually became the president. Yeltsin was committed to introducing a free market economy but the transition WASN'T easy (b/c of economic hardships, social disarray, etc.). He sent Russia on a pluralistic political system but Russia was still weak with inequality and corruption and many people were like "LET'S GO BACK TO COMMUNISM".

Balkan Crisis 1908-1913

Bosnia and Herzegovina were under the protection of Austria, but in 1908, Austria annexed those territories. Serbia was outrage b'c they wanted to create a large Serbian kingdom with those states (but that's exactly why Austria did because they didn't want the threat to the empire). Russia backed the serbs(because they were fellow Slavs) so Serbia prepared for war, but William II said Russia had to back down or go to war with Germany so Russia backed down (but they swore revenge) In 1912, Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Greece organized the "Balkan" league and defeated the Ottomans in the 1st Balkan war. After this war, however, they were unable to decide how to divide up Macedonia and Albania so the 2nd Balkan war erupted in 1913. Greece, Serbia, Romania and the Ottoman Empire defeated Bulgaria so Bulgaria only got a small bit of Macedonia and the rest was divided up between Greece and Serbia (which created more tension). Serbia really wanted the Albanian territory to have a path to the Adriatic, but @ the London Conference, a separate Albania was created (which PISSED OFF Russia and Serbia and Serbia blamed Austria from keeping them from being a good nation). Also Austria still thought Serbia was a threat which meant S H I T WAS ABOUT TO HIT THE FAN

Albania+Yugoslavia

Both nations had strong Communist resistance movements during the war and the Communist Party took over shortly after the war. In Albania, there was a Stalinist regime that grew increasingly independent of the Soviet Union while in Yugoslavia. The leader, Tito, was a Stalinist but then changed to. more Marxist-Leninist ideal (which was a more decentralized economic/political system where workers could manage themselves) which upset Stalin BUT Tito insisted they weren't deviating from Communism, only Stalinism between 1948 and 1953 (Stalin's death) the satellite states developed Soviet-type 5 year plans with emphasis on heavy industry, eliminating non-communist parties and establishing institutions of repression (secret police+military forces)

March 1917 revolution

Bread rationing had been introduced so in March, strikes ensued. On March 8th (international women's day), 10,000 women marched through the streets of Petrograd and soon others joined and called for a general strike that shut the city factories down on March 10. Troops were ordered to disperse the crowds (shooting if necessary), but soon troops joined in with demonstrators and the Duma declared on March 12 that it was assuming gov't responsibility. On March 15th, they established a provisional gov't and the tsar abdicated. Though no particular group was responsible for the outburst, the moderate Constitutional Democrats (primarily representing a middle-class/liberal aristocratic minority) and they assumed responsibility. Gradaully the soviets (who had more radical interests) represented the lower class and were largely comprised of socialists gained majority and took power.

Brezhnev/ Brezhnev's Doctrine

Brezhnev=there was a sense of external security that allowed for a relaxation of authoritarian rule (allowed Wester music+art). He emphasized heavy industry which surpassed the U.S while overall industrial growth declined. There was a huge, complex bureaucracy. The Soviet system (based on guaranteed employment) bred apathy, complacency and drunkenness. In the 70's, they developed a system of patronage for those who wanted to rise up in the Soviet ranks. In the 80's, the Soviet Union was HURTING. Their economy sucked, infant mortality was on the rise and there was a decline in working conditions. Brezhnev's Doctrine=Assertion that the Soviet Union and its allies had the right to intervene in any society whenever they saw the need. The Brezhnev Doctrine justified the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968.

1878 Congress of Berlin

Brought together by Bismarck end the Russo-Turkish War (Where Serbia+Montenegro went against the Ottoman empire and lost. After that Russia entered the war against the Turks and won) and to prevent an entire European war. Peace was kept through the partition of the Ottoman Empire; Russians obtained Batum and Kars, Romania and Serbia gained independence, recognized Montenegro as an independent state, and divided Bulgaria into three zones still within the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary was to "occupy and administer" Bosnia, Britain received Cyprus (a large island), France was told they might expand from Algeria into Tunisia, Italy got cheated out of anything, and Germany got nothing. This treaty averted war for the time being but left both the Russians and Turks dissatisfied and later was one of the causes for the First World War.

German Rearmament

By 1935, Hitler began to believe he could break some of the provisions of the treaty without France or British intervention so he announced publicly that German rearmament had been going on for a while. He announced the creation of a new air force and a new military draft that would expand the German army from 100,000 to 500,000 troops. France, GB, and Italy condemned Germany's actions and warned against future aggressive steps but nothing concrete was done.

Pietism vs Catholic Piety

Catholic= still very important. High attendance at Mass. Still a focus on worship of saints, pilgrimages, and devotion to relics+saints Protestant=well organized by state authorities with a highly educated clergy.

Great Depression

Caused by a downturn in domestic economies and international financial crisis caused by the collapse of the stock market in 1929. For agriculture goods, countries such as Australia, Argentina, Canada and the U.S expanded production to assist the European countries at war, but after the war, Europe stepped up production causing a sharp decline in prices. There was also an increase int he uses of oil and hydroelectricity, causing a slump in the coal industry. Also, a lot of Europe's prosperity during this time had been built on American bank loans to Germany but starting in 1928, Americans pulled out money to invest in the booming New York stock market and when the stock market crashed in 1929, they pulled out even more. This weakened banks, even to the point of collapse sometimes. IT WAS THE WORST IN GERMANY WHERE UNEMPLOYMENT REACHED 40% IN '32. social+political repurcussions= women were often able to get lower-paying jobs while many men ramined unemployed. Man men were unhappy with this gender reverseral. Gov'ts were kind of powerless b/c the classic remedy (deflationary policy of balanced budgets) only served to worsen the economic crisis. One reaction was a renewed interest in Marxist doctrines/communism as well as some gov'ts having more say in affairs.

Otto von Bismarck

Chancellor of Prussia from 1862 until 1871, when he became chancellor of Germany. A conservative nationalist, he led Prussia to victory against Austria (1866) and France (1870) and was responsible for the creation of the German Empire (1871). He was a realpolitik.

De Gaulle

Charles de Gaulle was a leader of resistance groups during the war and played an important role in establishing the provisional government postwar. The 4th Republic had begun but there was weak parliamentary leadership so de Gaulle started the French Popular Movement. He eventually became president in 1958 and he drafted a new constitution for the 5th republic where he greatly enhanced the power of the president and participated in the nuclear arms race. He increased GNP by 5.5% in his first ten years in office and France became a major producer of things like cars. He nationalized the traditional industries (coal, steel, etc.) which led to large deficits, a higher cost of living than many other places in Europe, and super high consumer prices. Eventually with his inability to solve these problems along with violence, protests, and strikes, de Gaulle resigned in 1969.

Janissaries

Christian men converted to Islam. These were the personal troops to the sultan.

Nasser/Pan Arabism

Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser seized control of the Egyptian government in 1954 and two years later he nationalized the Suez Canal Company which was under GB and French control who saw this as a threat and attacked joined with Israel. The U.S who was concerned the attack would smash a revival of colonialism​ so they ​joined with the Soviet Union and supported Nasser and made the troops withdraw. Nasser promoted Arab unity and in 1958, Egypt united with Syria to form the United Arab Republic with Nasser as president. They hoped it would eventually include other Arab states but others didn't want to join so in 1961, the UAR ended and Syria had a new military government.

the Committee of Public safety

Committee of Public Safety Established and led by Robespierre, fixed bread prices and nationalized some businesses. Basically secret police and also controlled the war effort. Instigated the Reign of Terror. *had so much power because France was in a state of crisis-the threat of war made people less opposed to a group of people having a lot of power

Kepler

Date Alive: 1571-1630 Occupation: Astronomer Contributor of: Scientific Revolution Contributions: Using the knowledge and observations regarding planets ofhis teacher, Tycho Brahe, Kelper was able to successfully prove that planets orbited around the sun in an oval pathway.

Descartes

Date Alive: 1596-1650 Contributor of: Scientific Revolution Occupation: Philosopher/Mathematician Contributions: Descartes developed a scientific method that depended more on assumption compared to the empirical study and induction.

Beccaria

Definition: Cesare, Marquis of Beccaria-Bonesana (March 15, 1738 - November 28, 1794) was an Italian jurist, philosopher and politician best known for his treatise On "Crimes and Punishments" which condemned torture and the death penalty, and was a founding work in the field of penology and the Classical School of criminology. Significance: Beccaria is significant because his writings inspired people to think about certain rights that governments had. His anti- death penalty belief inspired many to follow his lead and has lead to the modern day anti- death penalty movement.

Encyclopedia (Diderot)

Definition: Encyclopedia, or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts and Crafts, was a general encyclopedia published in France between 1751 and 1772, with later supplements, revised editions, and translations. Significance: The Encyclopedia helped spread knowledge about the world which allowed more intellectuals to learn about interesting topics which led to some of these intellectuals questions the monarchy of French which led to the French Revolution.

Newton

Definition: Sir Isaac Newton (25 December 1642 - 20 March 1727) was an English physicist and mathematician who is widely regarded as one of the most influential scientists of all time and as a key figure in the scientific revolution. His book ''Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy'', first published in 1687, laid the foundations for most of classical mechanics. Newton also made seminal contributions to optics and shares credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the invention of the infinitesimal calculus. Significance: Sir Issac Newton is best known for creating the rules of classical physics and calcus. He also best known for his rules of gravity which stood unchallenged until Einstein changed the field in the 20th century.

William and Mary

Definition: William and Mary were King and Queen of England after the glorious revolution. Mary's father, James II, was overthrown by her daughter and son in law, Mary and William. Significance: Their reign marked an end to the chance of a return of England to Catholicism and the increased cooperation between Parliament and the monarchy led to a more democratic and free England. The English Bill of Rights, signed by William and Mary, inspired the future American Revolution which created the United States of America.

1864 Danish War

Denmark wanted to incorporate the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein which outraged Germany b/c they were regarded as Geran states. Austria and Prussia joined together, they beat Denmark and Prussia got Schleswig and Austria got Holstein. Bismarck knew that to expand Prussia's power, he had to move on without Austria or have it be under Prussia's control.

Anti-Semitism

Due to a revival of racism/extreme nationalism, anti-semitism was on the rise. In germany/austria= Christian socialists used anti-semitism as a way to gain more support and they blamed Jews for the corruption of German culture. In medieval times, Jews could convert to Christianity and "escape", but modern anti-semites thought Jews were racially stained and couldn't change in Eastern Europe=The worst treatment of Jews for the 30 years leading up to WWI where the majority of the Jewish population lived (72%). Russian Jews were admitted to secondary schools and universities under a quota system, they had to live in the pale settlement, persecution and pogroms were common and many tried to escape through emigration.

Crimean War

During this time period, the Ottoman empire kind of went to shit. They lost lands like Slovenia, Croatia, Hungary to the Austrian Empire as well as places like Greece and Serbia. Russia's proximity to many of these countries gave Russia a very powerful sphere of influence which scared a lot of countries (like G.B and France). War began in 1853 between Russia+Ottoman Empire b/c Russians wanted to protect a Christine shrine in Palestine (which France already had as a right) and the O.E said no so Russia occupied Modavia and Wallachia which led to war. A year later, G.B and France declared war on Russia (because they were worried about a large shift in power). Russia thought Austria would help them b/c they helped them back in 1848/1849, but Austria remained neutral. The war was not well-planned out. OVer 25,000 deaths with 60% of them coming from disease and lack of food Russian forces eventually fell in 1855 and Russia sued for peace which placed Moldavia and Wallachia under the protection of the 5 great powers. This was seen as the first "newspaper" war b/c telegraphs could get communication out and photographers could take pictures. This broke up the concert of Europe. Russia and Austria were now enemies, Russia stayed out of European affairs for two decades and Austria was left with NO big-power friends.

William of Orange

Dutch. Wanted to unify all 17 provinces, but he was unsuccessful.

Napoleon+ Growing Despotism

Equality was preserved in the law code, however things like conscription, the creation of new aristocracy, etc. meant that much equality had been lost. Napoleon shut down many newspapers, said all manuscripts were subject to gov't scrutiny and he banned writers such as Germaine de Stael who stressed Enlightenment ideals.

Poor Law of 1834

Established workhouses for jobless poor people to be forced to live in. Over 200,000 people were locked up in these houses and people thought they were in that condition because it was their fault. This tried to make their lives so wretched that they would change.

Worldwide Trade

European trade still dominated but overseas also did well. Especially the slaves. Trade between Europe and their colonies went from 19% to 34%. There was also growth of industries like sugar refining, tobacco processing, and textile manufacturing.

Zionist movement

For many Jews, Palestine had long been the land of their dreams. Theodor Herzel was a key character who published the "Jewish State" where he talked about settling in Palestine. Money was raised and some Jews settled there (even though Palestine was then a part of the Ottoman Empire and the Ottomans were opposed to Jewish immigration).

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

Formally acknowledged Lutheranism as equal to Catholicism and allowed for each German state leader to choose the religion in the State

Franco Prussian War (1870-1871)

France was unhappy with a strong German state and Napoleon needed a diplomatic triumph after their domestic probs. After Spanish Queen Isabella II had been deposed, a Prussian relative of William I, Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmarignen, was in line to the throne, but French objections made him withdraw him as a candidate. The French STILL weren't happy and they wanted a formal apology and Bismarck intercepted and edited a telegram that enraged France and started the war. France was greatly outmatched. They captured lots of the French army and Napoleon himself (who went into exile in England) and by May, a peace treaty was signed. The French had to pay 1 billion dollars, support German occupying forces, and give up Alsace/Lorraine to Germany. Before the war had even ended, the Southern German states entered the confederation and on January 18th, 1871, Bismarck was proclaimed Kaiser and Germany was unified. Prussia was the one to really make this all happen. Now the gov't was authoritarian with militaristic values over liberal. GERMANY BECAME THE STRONGEST POWER ON THE CONTINENT

Problems of Charles V (King of Spain)

French + Papacy= land disputes Ottoman Empire=constant threat of invasion Politics in Germany=Wanted Germany to return to Catholicism. Then the Schmalkadic Wars broke out and everything turned to shit so Charles the V gave up on trying to convert them to Catholicism.

Austro Prussian War

Gained the promise of neutrality of Russia, France and he made an alliance with an Italian state, He goaded an Italian Austria into war over the promise of Schleswig-Holstein. Many thought Austria would win quickly, but Prussia had superior weapons and a network of railroads, so they won. Bismarck didn't want a hostile Austria, so he only only made them give up Venetia and excluded them from German affairs. Northern states were brought into Prussia and the Southern States which were Catholic remained independent but signed military agreements. Previous to the war, Bismarck had been collecting taxes (illegally and without the consent of parliament) for building up the military. After the war, he passed a bill that legalized the taxes he'd collected and people were super supportive of his scucesses which ultimately proved the benefits of nationalism and liberalism. A new constitution was drafted that gave each German state its own local gov't, then a king, then, a chancellor. The Bundesrat (federal council from the states) and the Reichstag (elected by universal suffrage) were the two houses formed (there is more info on the "Unification of Germany" card).

Baron Haussman

Georges-Eugène Haussmann, commonly known as Baron Haussmann was a prefect of the Seine Department of France chosen by Emperor Napoleon III to carry out a massive urban renewal program of new boulevards, parks and public works in Paris that is commonly referred to as Haussmann's renovation of Paris. Critics forced his resignation for extravagance, but his vision of the city still dominates central Paris.

1848 German Revolutions

German states wanted reunification and liberal reforms after France's rebellion, so they had the Frankfurt assembly of intelligent officials but it had controversy because they claimed to be the gov't for all of germany and there were two viewpoints "Gross-Deutch" (BIG Germany) and "Kleindeutsch" (SMALL Germany). They chose the small Germany plan and IT DID NOT WORK so the rebellion failed.

Albert Einstein

German-born but worked in Switzerland. Pushed theories of thermodynamics into new terrain by publishing "The Electro-Dynamics of Moving Bodies. Theory of Relativity= space and time are not absolute but relative to the observer, and are interwoven into 4D space-time continuum. Matter was a form of energy. Formula E = mc^2--each particle of matter equals its mass times the square of light's velocity--was key theory explaining energy condensed in the atom. Led to atomic age.

Revolutionary upheavals in Germany/Austria-Hungary

Germany began to disintegrate into a conculsion of demonstrations and only the Social Democrats would be able to pick up the pieces though they divided into two groups. A majority favored a parliamentary democracy as a gradual approach+ the eventual elimination of the capitalist system. A minority who made their own sperate group who wanted immediate social evolution. Led by Karl Liebknecht+ Rosa Luxemburg formed the German Communist party in 1918, but they called on the traditional army and crushed the attempt to replace the gov't with communism. Austria-Hungary=Nationalistic forces broke Austria-Hungary and so independent states of Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia were formed. Other regions joined places like Italy and Romania.

Guest Workers

Guest workers are workers from other countries that have been recruited for work in a bunch of places in Western Europe such as Germany, France and GB. Governments/businesses actively recruit workers from places like Southern/Eastern Europe, North Africa, The Carribean, Pakistan and India. These immigrants have faced problems such as being socially/politically unwelcome and native people often don't want them to stay. Anti-foreign sentiment was on the rise and this led to many countries advocating and enacting legislation that puts restrictions on new immigration. Even some of the traditionally tolerant nations are now changing their policies such as the Netherlands who has enforced a Dutch language and culture test.

Stalinist Era (1929-1939)

He launched his 5-year economic plan to transform Russia from an agrarian economy to an industrial society. The industrial labor force increased by millions in the 30's. Real wages declined and strict laws limited workers freedom of movement. To inspire and pacify workers, gov't propaganda stressed the need for sacrifice for the social state. Stalin eliminated Kulaks from society, eliminated private property and instead collectivized it. He never hesitated to starve the peasants to make them comply with collectivization. He strengthened the party bureaucracy, those who resisted were sent to Siberia, Stalin purged the Old Bolsheviks as well as many of the army officers, diplomats, ordinary citizens, etc. Disturbed by the declining birthrate, Stalin outlawed abortion and made divorced father who didn't support their children pay heavy fines. There was also a fine for multiple divorces and homosexuality was a crime. The regime urged women to have large families, but in actuality, there wasn't a significant incline in the birthrate. A positive change is a program to enable workers/peasants to recieve a higher education

J. Millet

He painted scenes of rural life, especially peasants laboring in the fields. His Realism had some Romantic elements. His most famous work, "The Gleaners", shows three peasant women gathering grain in a field

Henry IV/Henry of Navarre

He was a calvinist leader who married a Catholic French monarch (a Valois) and when the st. bart's thing happened, he said he would convert to Catholicism, then later converted back to Calvinism and then went back to Catholicism.

Himmler

He was the head of the SS and he was in charge of the resettlement plans in the East. His job was to evacuate the Slavic People and replace them with the Germans. He uprooted 1 million Poles and made them go Southern Poland. He brought in 2 million Germans. Hitler's plan was to use Poles, Ukrainians, and Soviets as the slave force and Germans would come in and Germanize that land.

Slavic Russia/Hitler

Hitler believed the Russian revolution created the conditions for the German acquisition of land and that the Bolshevik seizure of power left Russia weak and vulnerable. He thought that once they had been conquered, German peasants could resettle there and the Slavs could be used as the slave population to build his empire. He wrote in "Mein Kampf" that war with the Soviet Union was inevitable.

Nazi Attack-USSR (Barbarossa)

Hitler thought if the Soviet Union were to be destroyed, that would be GB's last hope. He also wanted to defeat it because of the Jewish-Bolshevik leadership and pitiful army. It was delayed by problems with Greece (ITALY TOTALLY BOTCHED IT) but they finally invaded on June 22nd, 1941. They had 180 divisions stretching over an 1,800 mile front vs Russia's 460 divisions. Germans initially advanced rapidly, capturing 2 million soldiers and nearly capturing Moscow. They were successful, but they didn't reach their goal of eliminating the Soviet army/collapsing the Soviet State. Eventually, Stalingrad was the turning point of the war and from then on, the Germans were always on the retreat.

Austrian Anschluss

Hitler threatened Austria with invasion which led him to coercing the Austrian chancellor (Kurt von Schuschnigg) into putting an Austrian Nazi in power. On March 12th, 1938, Germans marched unopposed and a day later, they were formally annexed Austria.

1848 Austrian Revolution

Hungary wanted separation and their own legislature so they overthrew it and were granted their wish. The Czech republic wanted to do the same thing but Ferdinand I was like "OH HELL NAH" and the army brought the rebellions down.

Austrian Empire

Idk the significance of this, but I'm guessing that it probably has something to do with the fact that Austria was made up of many different nationalities which caused almost constant internal conflict. Some minority groups wished to break off and form their own state, while others basically lived as their own state within Austria.

Putin

In '99, Putin came in as president and vowed to strengthen the central government/ return the breakaway state of Chechnya. In 2001, he launched reforms such as the unrestricted sale/purchase of land and tax cuts. He attempted to deal with the chronic problems plaguing Russia by centralizing his control and silencing critics. In 2008, Dmitry Medvedev became president when Putin couldn't run for reelection under Russia's constitution so he became P.M. until he was reelected in 2012. In 2013, Ukraine wanted to align themselves with the EU and not Russia and everything kind of turned to S H I T.

Berlin Wall

In 1961, the Soviet Union built a high barrier to seal off their sector of Berlin in order to stop the flow of refugees out of the Soviet zone of Germany. The wall was torn down in 1989

Arab-Israeli Dispute

In 1964, the Palestine Liberation Organization was formed and a guerrilla movement called al-Fatah led by Yasir Arafat launched terrorist attacks on Israeli territory. In the 60's, the U.S had many enemies in the Middle East. In the spring of 1967, Nasser imposed a blockade against Israeli shipping so Israel launched preemptive air strikes against Egypt (and other countries) and wiped out most of the Egyptian air force. They also broke the blockade, occupied the Sinai peninsula, seized Jordanian territory, occupied all of Jerusalem and attacked the Syrian military position in the Golan Heights (called the 6 day war) which only caused more tensions.

Kosovo

In 1974, Kosovo became an autonomous province within Yugoslavia but in 1989, Milosevic stripped the autonomy and stopped them from speaking Albanian (the ethnic language). As a reponse, they founded the Kosovo Liberation Army and when Serbians began to massacre ethnic Albanians, the U.S and NATO stepped in to help solve the issued. They decided that they would have a plan where Kosovo would have broad autonomy for a 3-year interim period, but Milosevic refused so they started a bombing campaign that forced them into compliance.

Eurocommunism/Problems in Italy

In Italy in the 80's, the Communists took power and were advocated of Eurocommunism which basically tried to broaden communism by dropping the Marxist ideology. They eventually won control of several municipal governments in places like Rome+ Naples. In the 70's, Italy had a severe recession because they relied on imports and they also had a bunch of social/political problems: student unrest, mass strikes and terrorist attacks.

Rhineland Occupation

In March of '36, German troops moved into the demilitarized Rhineland because Hitler again thought there would be no response (which he was right because France had the right to act but wouldn't without GB who had pursued a policy of appeasement). This led Hitler to think the nations were weaker because they wouldn't use force

Ethiopia

In October 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia (opposed by GB+ France) which was supported by Hitler. In 1936 as a result, they established the Rome-Berline Axis

Manchuria/Japanese Goals in East Asia

In September 1931, Japanese soldiers seized Manchuria (which had natural resources that Japan needed). This action was protested by the League of Nations so they left and instead focused on taking over China. They began in the North which was approved by Chinese Nationalist leader, Chiang Kai-Shek because he thought it would appease the Japanese. It DID NOT and protests/fighting broke out as the Japanese continued to move south. Japan wanted to move into Siberia to obtain more natural resources that were needed, but the non-aggression pact signed with Germany prevented them from doing that. As a result, they looked to SE Asia instead.

Garibaldi

In Southern Italy, Giuseppe Garibaldi led the nationalist cause with his army of the red shirts. He began in Sicily where he helped the revolt against the Bourbon king. Naples and Sicily fell and he tried to conquer Rome, but Cavour interevented because Garibaldi wanted a democratic​e republic and Cavour DID NOT. Garibaldi backed off so as to not start a civil war.

Korean War

In WWII, the Allies wanted to rid Korea of Japanese control so in August 1945, the Soviet Union and the U.S separated 2 zones of occupation at the 38th parallel line. What happened was 2 separate governments emerged: A communist one in the north and an anti-communist one in the South. Tensions mounted to the point where North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950. American troops were sent in and the UN told them to move northward and try to unify Korea under a non-communist government. Mao Zedong heard that and was like "OH HELL NAH" and sent troops to aid the communists. After 2 more years of fighting, an armistice was signed and the boundary line remained with the West now also wary of China (so China only had one friend, the Soviet Union).

Welfare State

In postwar Europe, many states developed welfare systems to try and bring happiness to the people (pensions, medicine, education, etc.). They differed from country to country but common trends included benefits for sickness, accidents and unemployment. Something else was affordable healthcare though in some states you were given free medical care with some kind of insurance while other had to contribute towards the cost of medical care. Another feature was family allowances which usually give a fixed amount per kid and worked as an incentivizer to have more children post-war. They sought to remove class barrier by expanding the number of universities, providing scholarships or moving to modest or free tuition rates though in some states (GB+ France) the privileged only went. There was a question if women should be considered in a special category as mothers or just as individuals. Often the system was based on women staying home so married women who worked often had few benefits. Employers were also encouraged to pay women less to stop them from working.

Green Movement

In the 70's there were several ecological problems: air pollution that caused respiratory problems and corroded buildings, rivers/lakes/seas were heavily polluted, there were dying species and forests and then Chernobyl. This gave rise to the Green movement which competed successfully in places like Sweden, Austria and Switzerland. Eventually other parties incorporated these issues into their stance and the Green party became less popular.

Verdun and Somme

In the Battle of Somme in the summer of 1916, the British and French lost 600,000 soldiers for 125 square miles while the Germans lost 500,000 men. That same year, the unsuccessful German campaign against Verdun cost 700,000 lives on both sides.

Friederich Nietzsche

Intellectual who glorified the irrational. Thought western bourgeois society was decadent and incapable of any real cultural creativity because of its emphasis on being rational at the expense of emotions. Believed Christianity was at fault for this, as its mentality destroyed the human impulse for life and crushed human will. Said "God is dead." Believed in the superman, a higher kind of being.

Fall of Napoleon

Invading Russia in 1812 DID NOT go well. He was demoted to an island, but came back and was like "I'm still gonna be the emperor, I don't care what you guys say" and came back and asserted his rule and then was defeated in attacking Belgium at the battle of Waterloo and again was exiled to another small island (St. Helena) where he later died.

Italy's economic miracle

Italy faced a period of heavy reconstruction and they got rid of the monarchy in 1946 and instead became a democratic republic. In the elections, the Christian Democrats wone and Alcide de Gaspen took to power as the P.M. The Marshall Plan helped to stabilize the economy and production boomed. The government combined private ownership with government management.

Georges of Danton

Jacobin and close associate of Robespierre; executed in April 1794 because he began questioning the extremes Robespierre went to during the Terror

Charles I

King of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1625-1649). His power struggles with Parliament resulted in the English Civil War (1642-1648) in which Charles was defeated. He was tried for treason and beheaded in 1649 Charles tried to remove the more extreme members of parliament which angered John Pym + Puritans) and war began.

Henry VIII

King of England. Married 6 times and in order his wives were divorced, beheaded, died naturally, divorced, beheaded, survived him. Overall not a very nice guy. Big thing was that he wanted a male heir. He started the English Reformation

Nicholas II

Last czar of Russia during the revolution and WWI, abdicated, killed with family by the Bolsheviks Pre WWI under him, Russia underwent a massive industrialization process. He expanded the railroad system, he issued a series of protective tariffs, there was an increase in factories, there was an industrial working class, and there were poor living/working conditions.

Revolts in the Italian States

Led by Giuseppe Mazzini who wanted to create a united Italian republic. Many took to his call like Cristina Belgioioso who fled to Paris and started a newspaper espousing the Italian cause. Revolutions began in Sicily, then spread to Venetia+Lombardy to rid the Austrian rule, but it was reestablished in 1849. In Rome, France helped Pope Pius IX regain control. Elsewhere Italian rulers managed to recover their power again. Only Piedmont was able to keep its liberal constitution.

English Reformation

Led by King Henry VIII who wanted to divorce Catharine of Aragon. He wasn't able to do that because the pope said no and so he split with the church

Kulturkampf

Led by Otto von Bismarck. An attack against Catholics (b/c he didn't really think they were loyal to Germany). It was super counter-productive so he just dropped it.

Marquis de Lafayette

Led the National Guard, which Louis XVI allowed to be formed after the Bastille. A champion of liberty, having been involved with the American Revolution.

Leon Trotsky

Led the Red Army in the Soviet Union. Ultimately became a major political opponent and was murdered by Stalin. Led the Bolshevik revolution in 1918.

Treaty of Brest Litovsk

Lenin wanted peace, but he knew he had to give up land so he signed the treaty with Germany and gave up Eastern Poland, Ukraine, Finland and the Baltic Provinces. Peace actually DID NOT happen and they descended into Civil war.

Nationalism

Liberals believed the organization of nation-states would lead to a sense of fraternity, but rather it led to competition (over colonialism and industrial/commercial interests). There was also the formation of the alliances (Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance)

Factory Act of 1833

Limited the factory workday for children between 9 and 13 to 8 hours and that of adolescents between 14 and 18 to 12 hours-made no effort to regulate hours of work for children at home or in small businesses-children under 9 were to be enrolled by schools to be established by factory owners-broke pattern of whole families working together in the factory because efficiency required standardized shifts for all workers

Renaissance Papacy

Line of popes from end of Great Schism to start of reformation. These popes were involved in politics+wars.

Cardinal Mazarin

Louis XIV's chief minister. Hated by the French because he was Italian and hated by the centralized gov't because of the increasingly centralized power.

FACTORS THAT LED TO WWI (MANIA)

M-Militarism A-Alliances N-Nationalism I-Imperialism A-Assassination

V-E Day

MAY 8th, 1945!!!!!!!

Machiavelli/the Prince

Machiavelli-italian diplomat, politician, historian, humanist, and philosopher The Prince-One of the most famous political treatises ever. He believed that Italys wouldn't be small independent states, but rather a unified monarchy, and the leader should act on human nature rather than morality.

George Stephenson

Made the "rocket" a train that went 16 mph and by 1850, the trains reached 50 mph.

Richard Trevithick

Made the first steam-powered train that pulled 10 tons of ore and 70 people @ 5 miles per hour

Compass/Astrolabe

Magnetic compass=the magnetic compass was a compass that had a magnetized needle supporting a magnetic card. This compass showed from four to eight directions Astrolabe=This tool helped sailors measure the angle of the sun which could then be converted to find latitude

Robert Clive

Major-General Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive, KB, FRS, also known as Clive of India, Commander-in-Chief of British India, was a British officer and privateer who established the military and political supremacy of the East India Company in Bengal.

Qing Dynasty

Manchus came in and defeated Zi Cheng's army and then began the Qing(pure) dynasty. They righted the social+economic ills, restored peace, etc. They ruled well for over a century.

Mannerism and El Greco

Mannerism reacted its height of expression in the work of _______. His use of elongated and contorted figures, portrayed in unusual shades of yellow and green against an eerie background of trubulent grays, reflect his desire to create a world of intense emotion.

Cultural Revolution

Mao felt only an atmosphere of constant revolutionary fervor would allow China to reach the last part of Communism so in 1966, the Red Guards took to the streets to cleanse Chinese society of the four olds (old ideas, old culture, old customs and old habits) which they carried out for 10 years. They destroyed temples, books written by foreigners, old street signs, and attacked individuals who deviated from the regime. When he died in 1976, they observed a more rational approach.

Zimmerman Telegram

March 1917. Sent from German Foreign Secretary, addressed to German minister in Mexico City. Mexico should attack the US if US goes to war with Germany (needed that advantage due to Mexico's promixity to the US). In return, Germany would give back Tex, NM, Arizona etc to Mexico.

nationalism (concerning socialism)

Marx+Engels were against nationalism, but socialist parties varied from each country and they remained tied to national concerns and issues. In 1907+1910, Congresses of the Second International (leaders of socialism in major countries) passed resolutions advocating joint action by workers of different countries to aver war but they provided no real machinery to implement the resolutions. In WWI, many people in the working class as well as socialist leaders supported their national government showing that nationalism is a more powerful source.

anarchism

Marxism was becoming less radical which drove some people to turn to anarchism. Initially a non-violent movement they centered around two key ideas. 1. People are inherently good but they had been corrupted by the state 2.Freedom can only be achieved through by getting rid of the state and existing social institutions Gradually it turned to well-trained group could cause so much violence to be able to disingrate the state completely. They primarily used assassination as the primary instrument of terror (as seen in a Russia tsar, the president of the French Republic, and the king of Italy.

Tehran Conference

Meeting of the big three in which they decided on the allied attack plan: going through France to get to Germany, while the Red Army came in from the east.

mass consumption

Middle and upper-class Europeans were able to buy goods beyond just the necessary due to the fact that there were improvements in the standard of living, population growth, expanded transportation systems, urbanization and new modernized retailers. There was the expansion of retail shops into department stores, as well as catalogues and advertisments to show the customers the various options.

Gorbachev

Mikhail Gorbachev first became secretary of the Communist party in 1980 and by 1985, he became the leader of the U.S.S.R. He wanted to make many reforms because he saw how the Soviet Union had fallen behind. The cornerstone of his reforms was prestroika (restructuring) where he began to create a market economy with limited free enterprise and some private property. Then he started glasnot (openness​) where Soviets could openly discuss the strengths/weaknesses of the Soviet Union. In 1988, he called for a new parliament with members chosen from competitive elections and in 1990, he allowed the formation of other political​ parties. He also created a new state presidency so in March of '90, he became the first president. The U.S.S.R was a multiethnic empire and previously strict Communism kept a lid on the tension but the looser policies led to the outbreak of violence and the growth of nationalist parties that called for independence.

Gorbachev

Mikhail Gorbachev first became secretary of the Party and in 1980, he became a full member of the Politburo. In 1985, he became the leader of the U.S.S.R. He wanted to make many reforms because he saw how the Soviet Union had fallen behind. He instituted Perestroika and Glastnost (both on other cards). In 1988, he called for a new parliament where the members were to be chosen in competitive elections and in 1990, he allowed the formation of other political parties and struck down the clause in the Constitution which guaranteed the leading role of Communism. He also created a new state presidency so in March of 1990, he became the first president. The U.S.S.R was a multi-ethnic empire and previously under strict Communism, the ethnic tensions had kind of been contained, but Gorbachev loosened those policies and violence broke out. There was also the growth of nationalist parties who called for independence.

Greece

Mussolini thought the Balkans were in the Italian sphere of influence so he launched an attack on Greece in October of 1940 which failed and PISSED off Hitler because it exposed his Balkan fleet to GB airbases. He eventually turned some of his efforts to Greece and crushed it in six days.

Lateran Accords

Mussolini wanted the support of the Catholic Church so in 1929, he had the Lateran accords which recognized the sovereignty of Vatican City in return of the papacy recognizing the Italian state. It also gave the church a lot of $ and recognized the Church as the sole religion of the state and in return, the Catholic Church urged people to join the fascist regime.

Napoleon + Catholic Church

Napoleon did not follow a religion, but he knew the necessity to come together with it. Napoleon issued the concordant (mentioned later).

French Foreign Policy under Napoleon III: The Mexican Adventure

Napoleon wanted to dominate Mexican markets with French goods so troops were sent over in 1861. Great Britain and Spain were also over there to protect their interests because of the factions, but they left when order was restored. France stayed and instated Archduke Maximillian of Austria as emperor. His troops were needed back in Europe, so ulitmately Max surreneder​ed in May 1867, and he was executed in June.

NEP

New Economic Policy, (1921) put forth by Lenin allowed capitalist ventures, state kept control of banks, foreign trade, and large industries, small businesses were allowed to reopen for private profit stopped harassing peasants for grain, and peasants held on to small plots of land and sold surplus

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Made up of countries like U.S, G.B, Italy, Norway, Canada, Portugal, Denmark, Turkey and West Germany. They all agreed to help one another if one of them was attacked.

Edwin Chadwick

One of the best new urban reformers. he was obsessed with eliminating the poverty and squalor of the metropolitan areas. Became secretary of the Poor Law Commission. Wrote "Report on the Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britian" in which he advocated a system of modern sanitary reforms consisting of efficient sewers and a supply of piped water. Because of his actions, Britian's 1st Public Health Act created the National Board of Health, empowered to form local boards that would establish modern sanitary systems.

Nazi Party

Originally called the German Worker's Party, but with Hitler's influence beginning in 1921, he changed the name and developed it into a mass political movement (through flags, badges, uniforms, and a police force). In the fall of '23, they decided to march on Berlin (which ultimately failed) and this so-called "beer hall putsch" landed Hitler in jail. This led Hitler to realize he needed to gain power through constitutional means. By 1929, they had a national party and they gradually recieved support (often middle class and upper class) and had a majority in the Reichstag. Hitler came to see that the Reichstag wasn't that important, so he instituted the "enabling act" which allowed him to circumvent Hindenburg and the republic and instead seize power and institute himself as a dictator. They enforced gleichshaltung, they got rid of Jewish/democratic elements, established concentration camps, eliminated autonomy of federal states and dissolved trade unions/other political parties. The only two sources of potential danger to Hitler's authority were the armed forces and the SA within his own party so he killed the leader of the SA (Ernest Rohm) among other high ranking officials

Industrial Revolution on the Continent

Other countries on the continent (France, Belgium German States) experienced some advancements and their own revolutions, but it was about a generation after GB. They also initially took a lot of British ideas, but they had more problems like poor transportation, toll stations/customs, increased price in goods, etc. They used tariffs to stop the inundation of British goods and some continental govt's were unstable or too meddlesome in the economy. Eastern Europe really experienced no change.

War of Spanish Succession

Over the succession of the Spanish throne. Coalition of England, United Provinces, Hapsburg Austria, and the German States were brought together because the throne was supposed to go Louis XIV's grandson, and that would greatly disrupt the ruling power in Europe. The war ended with Philip V, there was the start of the Spanish Bourbon dynasty, the thrones of Spain and France would remain separate, The Spanish Netherland, Milan + Naples were given to Austria, blah blah blah

Treaty of Versailles

Peace settlement with Allies. Germany was not present at these proceedings but they got a lot of the heat from the war. There was the "War Guilt Clause" which basically blamed Germany (+Austria) for the entire war. They also had to pay reperations, they had to reduce their army to 100,000 men, limit their weapons, cut their navy and eliminate the airforce. They lost African colonies to Belgium, Pacific Island to Japan, Alsace and Lorraine to France, and large section of Prussia to Poland as well as being forced to have army occupation.

Treaty of Versailles

Peace settlement with Allies. Germany was not present at these proceedings but they got a lot of the heat from the war. There was the "War Guilt Clause" which basically blamed Germany (+Austria) for the entire war. They also had to pay reperations, they had to reduce their army to 100,000 men, limit their weapons, cut their navy and eliminate the airforce. They lost African colonies to Belgium, Pacific Island to Japan, Alsace and Lorraine to France, and large section of Prussia to Poland as well as being forced to have army occupation. BIG POINT OF CONTENTION FOR HITLER

Mines Act of 1842

Prohibited underground work for all women as well as for boys under ten.

Convoy System

Protection of merchant ships from U-boat attacks by having ships travel in large groups escorted by warships.

King William I

Prussian king who wanted to double the size of the army and institute a mandatory 3 years of service. Middle-class liberals were worried that increased military would be used to support obedience to the monarchy, so when the parliament rejected the military budget, William I appointed Otto von Bismarck as the new P.M.

Reagan Revolution

Reagan had a new economic doctrine that promoted free-market economics privatization of health care, pensions, insurance and healthcare as well as cutting back on welfare. Under him, the largest peacetime military buildup in U.S history happened, and there were massive tax cuts (mostly for the rich). These policies helped in the short-term but ultimately tripled the debt and undermined the stability of the banking system.

Louis XVII

Restored to the throne in 1814. He keeps the napoleonic code, only about 100,00 can vote. He makes very few happy because ultraroyalists want the king to have more powers, liberals want him to have less. He appeals to conservatives more with his policies. Charles dissolves the legislature in 1830.

New French Calendar

Revolutionary Calendar Committee got rid of cycle of Christian holidays and seven day week cycle. Went to 10 day decadi. Months of the year were renamed usually based on seasons - e.g. Thermidor, Brumaire. At the end of the year, there were 5 (or 6) leftover days dedicated to festivals for virtues like Intelligence, Labor, Opinion and Reward.

1905 Russian Revolution

Russia's territorial expansion to the South+East and its designs on northern Korea led to confrontation with Japan. Japan made a surprise attack on February 8th, 1904 so Russia sent its fleet across, got DECIMATED and was humiliated. In the midst of Russo-Japanese war, tensions boiled over back in Russia. Peasants still had almost no land and laborers were oppressed. There was a breakdown of the transport system which led to food shortages and in 1905, there was a massive procession of workers went to the winter palace in St. Petersburg to present a petition of grievances but troops opened fire on the peaceful demonstration killing 100's and launching a revolution. Zemstovs (elected regional councils) demanded parliamentary gov't, ethnic groups revolted and peasants burned the houses of landowners. After a strike in 1905, Nicholass II issued the October manifesto where he granted civil liberties to agree to create a legislative assembly known as the Duma (elected directly) which satisfied middle class moderates, who now supported the govt's repression of a workers uprising in Moscow at the end of 1905. REAL CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY WAS SHORT-LIVED BECAUSE REFORMS DISSOLVED.

V-J Day

SEPTEMBER 2nd, 1945!!!!! technically they surrendered on August 14th, 1945, but the official terms of surrender weren't finalized until September 2nd.

Helsinki Accords

Signed by the U.S, Canada, and all European nations which recognized the borders established in Europe since the end of WWII (thereby acknowledging the Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe) as well as recognizing and protecting the rights of citizens.

Global Economy

Since the end of WWII, the U.S and other nations established the World Bank (which provides grants, loans and advice for economic development to developing countries) and the international monetary fund (which was meant to oversee the global financial system by supervising exchange rates and offering assistance to developing nations) -Also multinational corporations (on another card) -free trade (on other cards GATT and WTO) -There was a relaxation of trade barriers that created a boom in trade and bonds/equities were becoming part of the global economy and profits from financial transactions outpaced profits from manufactured goods.

Milosevic/Yugoslavia

Slobodan Milosevic led Yugoslavia and when Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Macedonia wanted independence, he refused unless they accommodated for the Serbian minority (because he was a Serbian nationalist). After that, Croatia and Slovenia were like "WE'RE STILL LEAVING, BYE!!!" and so Milosevic sent in the Yugoslavian army to try and control them. They eventually kind of gave up on Slovenia, but they captured 1/3 of Croatian territory before the ceasefire. He also acquired 70% of Bosnian territory and started an ethnic cleansing of Bosnian Muslims. Another thing he did was fight with Kosovo (more in-depth on another card). By 2000, the Serbian people were done with Milosevic so they built a new gov't that was friendly!!!! and not awful!!!! Troops remain over there to keep the peace between Serbians and Muslim-Croats and to help in Kosovo. Yugoslavia officially ended in 2004 when the country was renamed Serbia and Montenegro and 2 years later, Montenegro gained independence and in '08, Kosovo got independence.

"Equality, Liberty, Fraternity"

Slogan of French Republic

Poor Law Commissioners

Social investigators that investigated the standard of living in slums/tenements in cities and produced reports on their findings. Edwin Chadwick became secretary.

Civic Humanism

Social obligation to use classical knowledge to serve the state

evolutionary socialism/revisionism

Some marxists believed in a pure marxism that accepted the imminent collapse of capitalism. A severe challenge to this orthodox was evolutionary socialism/revisonism which argued that the middle class wasn't breaking down, but rather expanding, the proletariat was improving as working classes, standard of living improved. Evolution by democratic means, not revolution, would achieve the desired goal of socialsim. It was also thought that workers should continue to organize in mass political parties to create change.

Solidarity Movement

Soviet leaders realized that in order to keep their satellite states, they had to give them leeway in adopting their own policies. In Poland, worker unrest led to the rise of an independent labor party called Solidarity who were able to win a series of concessions (because it had the support of the workers, intellectuals and the Catholic church).

Spanish Civil War

Split between the Spanish Republicans and the Spanish Nationalists (supported Franco). The conflicted was complicated by foreign intervention. GB, France, Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union were to sign a nonintervention agreement, but Germany and Italy rejected that and instead sent troops+materials to assist Franco. Hitler used the war to test the weapons of his newly revived air force. GB+France DID NOT intervene so the left turned to the Soviet Union who sent tanks, planes, etc. There was also assistance from international brigades of volunteers. Gradually, Franco won and after they capture Madrid on March 28th. The Civil Ended with 40,000 people dead and another 200,000 who died after Franco's victory. HUGE PIECE OF BRINGING GERMANY AND ITALY CLOSER TOGETHER

team sports

Sports had been around for a long time, but rules and regulations were developed during this time. Formal groups were started (like the English Football Association and the American Bowling Congress). They were meant to provide training+skills for people to develop, especially adolescents (for military). Became a HUGE thing and they were generally male-oriented because they thought women were too fragile (which is dumb as hell)

4 major industries in the 2nd industrial revolution

Steel=replaced use of iron because it made smaller, lighter, and faster machines. Chemicals=used in things like textile, soap and paper industries. Germany came to dominate this industry. Electricity=major new form of energy that could easily be converted into other forms of energy (heat, light, etc.) In the 1870's, the 1st commercially practical generators were developed and by 1910, there were hydroelectric power stations that tied a source of power for homes, shops, etc. together. There were many new inventions like the lightbulb, electric lights and the telephone. This was great for factories (conveyor belts, cranes, etc.) Internal combustion engine (?)=led to development of cars and airplanes.

Working Conditions

Super bad. 12-16 hours a day, 6 days a week. No miniumum wage, no security of employment, the dampness in coal mines resulted in ruined lungs and deformed bodies. Children and women were paid less, etc.

Palestine/Israel

Tensions between Jews and Arabs intensified in the 30's where they were rejected for an independent state. When people learned of the Holocaust, they increased sympathy and in March 1948, the Truman administration approved the concept of an independent Jewish state in Palestine. The Jews in Palestine proclaimed the state of Israel in 1948, but the Arab neighbors saw this as a betrayal of the Palestinian people and refused to acknowledge the state.

Russian Civil war

The Bolshevik regime faced severe opposition and they fought against the white forces (Mensheviks, Socialist Revolutionaries, Aristocratic Liberals, and Allied Forces). They first fought against the white forces in Siberia, then in Ukraine and the Baltic Regions. In late 1919, 3 seperate white forces seemed to be closing in on the Reds but they were pushed back and by 1920, the white forces were defeated and Ukrain was retaken. In 1921, they took control of Georgia, Russian Armenia and Azerbaijan. Shortly after the tsar had abdicated, him and his entire family were taken into custody and on July 16th, they were murdered and their bodies were burned in a nearby mine shift (YIKES). Trostky had great military strength. He reinstated the draft and insisted on rigid discipline (those who refused orders would be killed). They also did well because the White forces weren't united (over political differences), there was war communism and there was "Revolutionary terror" to keep everyone in check. Another reason the red forces prevailed is because they twisted allied intervention as a way to instill patriotism and support (to come together and try to rid the nation of foreign influence).

Civil war in England

The English Civil War (1642-1651) was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians ("Roundheads") and Royalists ("Cavaliers") over, principally, the manner of England's government. The first (1642-1646) and second (1648-1649) wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third (1649-1651) saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651. The overall outcome of the war was threefold: the trial and execution of Charles I (1649); the exile of his son, Charles II (1651); and the replacement of English monarchy with, at first, the Commonwealth of England (1649-1653) and then the Protectorate under the personal rule of Oliver Cromwell (1653-1658) and subsequently his son Richard (1658-1659). The monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors' consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. Constitutionally, the wars established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without Parliament's consent, although the idea of Parliament as the ruling power of England was only legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution in 1688. **Religion was a major cause of the English Civil War. It was part of a Europe wide conflict between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. At the start of his reign (1625) King Charles I had married the Roman Catholic Henrietta Maria of France. **Conflict from 1640 to 1660; featured religious disputes mixed with constitutional issues concerning the powers of the monarchy; ended with restoration of the monarchy in 1660 following execution of previous king

German Unification

The Frankfurt assembly had failed so German nationalists looked now to Austria+Prussia. Prussia formed the Zollverein (on another card) and by 1853, Austria was the only German state not to join. In 1848, Prussia framed a constitution that had the appearance of a constitutional monarchy w/ a bicameria​l legislature and universal suffrage. By 1859, the lower house was mostly in the control of the growing middle class who wanted a real parliamentary system, but the king's executive power was too much. After the Danish War (1864) and the Austro-Prussian War (1866), Bismarck created a new constitution that gave each German state its own local gov't, then a king, then a chancellor (Bismarck). Army and foreign policy were controlled by the King/Chancellor. They created the Bundesrat (federal council from the states. Could veto any of the decisions made by the Reichstag) and Reichstag (elected by universal male suffrage). Before the Franco-Prussian war (1870-1871) had even ended, the Southern German states had entered the German confederation and on JANUARY 18th, 1871, Bismarck was proclaimed Kaiser and Germany was unified. Prussia was really the one to make this happen. Germany then became the strongest power on the continent (new balance of power).

Battle of Britain

The German victories in Denmark and Norway led to a change in gov't because people were upset with Neville Chamberlain and his policy of appeasement. He resigned and Churchill stepped in. Hitler hoped to make peace with G.B to gain living space in the east but Churchill was like "OH HELL NAH YOU NAZI BITCH". Hitler then realized he would have to invade Britain to attain his living space. He thought an amphibious invasion of GB would only be possible if they gained control of the air. In August 1940, a major offensive was launched against things like military bases+ war industries. The British sort of half fought back with the radar system that could warn them and the ultra intelligence operation which broke German military codes. The GB airforce suffered major losses but was saved when Hitler changed his bombing strategy technique to bombing cities and they were able to rebuild their forces. By September, Germany lost the Battle of Britain.

Glorious Revolution

The Glorious Revolution, also called the Revolution of 1688, was the overthrow of King James II of England (James VII of Scotland) by a union of English Parliamentarians with the Dutch stadtholder William III, Prince of Orange. (WILLIAM AND MARy) The English Parliament drove out an absolute monarch and replaced him with two constitutional monarch's William and Mary They gave a lot of power to Parliament

Greek Revolt

The Greeks revolted from the control of the Ottoman Turks. A sense of nationalism had occurred and Britain and France sent an armada to help the Greeks. Russia also declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Russia ultimately won and the Ottoman Empire let the three powers decide what to do with Greece. It was then declared independent and 2 years later, a new royal dynasty was established.

fugger bank/family

The House of Fugger was a 16th century family banking firm that arranged large loans to Charles V. In return they were given mines in the Habsburg possesions of central Europe. But the Fuggers went bankrupt when the Habsburgs didn't pay back their loans

First Vietnam War

The Indochinese Communist Party led by Ho Chi Minh formed a multiparty national alliance called the Vietminh and they seized most of Vietnam (which was then called French Indochina) and war broke out in 1946. China came to help the Vietminh and the U.S stepped in against them. At the Geneva Conference ('54), the French agreed to a peace settlement with Ho Chi Minh which temporarily divided Vietnam into a 1/2 communist and a 1/2 non-communist country where elections were to be held in two years.

Khrushchev

The Khrushchev era witnessed the marked retreat from Stalinization. He ended forced-labor camps and condemned Stalin for his violence. He also allowed a certain degree of intellectual freedom, reduced the powers of the secret police and closed some of the Siberian camps. Economically, Krushchev had multiple failures because he tried to put more emphasis on light industry+ consumer goods and tried to increase agricultural output by farming east of the Urals mountains which led to a dramatic decline. He wasn't well-liked among high-ranking officials because he made a lot of jokes, tried to curb bureaucratic privileges and he placed missiles in Cuba (which wasn't well received) so while he was on vacation in 1963, he was voted out of office/forced into retirement which was all engineered by Leonid Brezhnev.

Nazi New Order

The Nazi empire stretched from the English Channel to the outskirts of Moscow but this massive empire wasn't organized systematically or governed efficiently. Certain states such as Spain, Portugal, Switzerland and Turkey remained neutral and were outside of the empire. The German allies (Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Finland, Hungary) kept their independence but were restricted by the Germans as the war progressed. The rest of Europe was either directly annexed/made into German provinces or they were simply occupied with either civil or military officals (with countries with Aryan and supposedly "equal" people-Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands- receiving civil administration while other countries with "inferior" people such as France receiving military administration)

Mutual deterrence/new military alliances

The Soviet Union detonated their first atomic bomb in 1949 and soon the 2 nations became involved in an escalating arms race so the search for security to the form of mutual deterrence. The belief of mutual deterrence was that an arsenal of nuclear weapons would prevent war because both nations would know that if one were to drop the bombs, the other country would do the same so neither side would take the risk.

Warsaw Pact

The Soviet Union responded to NATO by forming the Warsaw Pact. The alliance linked the Soviet Union with 7 Eastern European countries: Poland, East Germany, Czeckoslovakia, Hungary , Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania.

Afghanistan

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan hardened the relations between the U.S and the U.S.S.R leading to President Carter canceling American participation in the '80 Olympic games in Moscow. With Reagan, he began the military build-up, introduced the nuclear-tipped cruise missile and was a fan of the Strategic Defense initiative.

Berlin Blockade/Berlin airlift

The Soviets wanted all control of Berlin and wanted to stop the creation of a separate West German State. This blockade didn't allow trucks or trains to enter West Berlin. The solution to the cutoff was the Berlin Airlift which worked nonstop for nearly a year to bring food, coal, oil, etc. The Soviets eventually lifted the blockade in May 1949. This blockade only served to worsen tensions between the U.S and U.S.S.R and ultimately bring about 2 German nations.

Stagflation

The U.S suffered from stagflation under both Ford and Nixon. Stagflation was a combo of high unemployment and high inflation.

Birth Control Pill

The birth control pill allowed women/couples to plan their families and with decreased birthrates as a result, more women went into the workforce, many of whom were married (previously only single women would really work). Working class-women still had lower salaries and women still entered traditionally female jobs.

The Great Slaughter (1916-1917)

The bloodiest part of the war Trench warfare baffled military generals, but outcries of action by citizens of European countries led to masses of men going to enemy lines after they had been battered by artillery barrages. This proved to NOT WORK AT ALL. Men would be absolutely decimated when they attempted to cross "no-man's land".

Gleichschaltung

The coordination of all institutions under nazi control. They got rid of Jewish/democratic elements, established concentration camps, eliminated autonomy of the federal states, dissolved trade unions and all other political parties. The Nazis were ruthless in their force and were ready to take control and many had begun to hate the democratic state, so the Nazis came t power easily.

European Coal Steel Community

The destructiveness WWII caused the need for European unity. In 1951, France, W. Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and Italy formed the Europe Coal and Steel Community which was meant to create a common market through the elimination of tariffs/other trade barriers which allowed countries to concentrate on the production of goods. They also signed the Rome treaty which eliminated customs for the 6 nations and created a large free-trade area and encouragement of cooperation and standardization.

Treaty of Paris

The end of the fighting between Great Britain and France during the 7 years war. France gave Canada and India to Great Britain but kept the West Indies. (Later resulted in France's support of the American colonies for independence from Britain.)

Treaty of Locarno

The foreign minister of Germany (Gustav Stresemann) and foreign minister of France (Aristide Briand) signed the treaty of Locarno in 1925 where it guaranteed the German's new Western borders w/ France+Belgium which many saw as an era of real peace.

Courbet

The most famous Realist artist. The word Realism was coined in 1850 to describe one of his paintings. He showed realistic portrayal of everyday life and one of his famous works, "The Stonebreakers" (1849) showed human misery of laborers breaking stones for roads.

Napoleon in control

The new constitution began and executive power rested in 3 counsels. Mainly in the 1st counsel (a.k.a) Napoleon who appointed members of the bureaucracy control of the army, and in 1804 he crowned himself Napoleon I. Gradually the dictatorship became more and more dictatorial.

Storm troopers

The police force developed by Hitler called the "sturmabteilung" a.k.a stormtroopers.

the SS

The police force who were led by Henrich Himmler who functioned on the principles of terror and ideology. This meant things like secret police, criminal police, concentration camps/execution camps and extermination of Jews.

De-Stalinization

The policy of liberalization of the Stalinist system in the Soviet Union. As carried out by Nikita Khrushchev, de-Stalinization meant denouncing Stalin's cult of personality, producing more consumer goods, allowing greater cultural freedom, and pursuing peaceful coexistence with the West.

The great Hunger

The potato blight in 1845 struck potato crops with a fungus that turned the potatoes black. Because potatoes were a staple of the diet in ________, this event drastically brought the population down. One million died of starvation and disease, and two million emigrated to American and Britain. The rural people who stayed believed that by moving to towns and cities would solve their poverty problem, making the 19th century a period of rapid industrialization.

Decolonization

The process by which colonies gained their independence from the imperial European powers after World War II. AFRICA Many political organizations formed by Africans became actual political parties and many were nonviolent but in places like Kenya (the Mau Mau Movement) and Egypt (The Wafd) they used terrorism. Some countries had a rather easy process such as Morocco and Tunisia who gained their independence in the mid 50's. Other countries struggled because either their colonial overlords wouldn't want to give up their possessions (like all of Portugal's colonies who didn't get independence until the 70's) or because they found themselves embroiled in the Cold War because of the U.S.S.R and the U.S fighting to spread/stop communism. In South Africa, the African National Congress wanted full equality for black people but were met with the apartheid and when the leader Nelson Mandela was arrested, they called for armed resistance. There were many challenges for the newly independent countries--> both religious and ethnic conflict because of artificial borders made by Europeans. ASIA The process of decolonization was initiated in 1946 when the Phillippines was granted independence and then India. After WWII, GB coordinated with both Hindu and Muslim leagues in India and they were unwilling to accept a single state so Pakistan was created for Muslims in 1947. This led to violence and over a million killed (including Ghandi). In '48, GB gave independence to Sri Lanka+Burma, in '49 was Indonesia and in '54 was Laos and Cambodia. In China at the end of WWII, there were two existing governments in China (a communist one and a non-communist one) and eventually, full-scale war broke out and Mao Zedong/Communism won.

Encomienda

The right to demand labor or tribute from Native Americans in a particular area, a kind of feudalism granting Spanish colonists control of conquered lands and obliging the Indians to provide forced labor and a fixed portion of their harvests

Naturalism

The term naturalism describes a type of literature that attempts to apply scientific principles of objectivity and detachment to its study of human beings. Unlike realism which focuses on literary technique naturalism implies a philosophical position. This was a continuation of realism but now it was a pessimistic view of the world, not optimistic. IT examined social problems and portrayed characters in the grip of forces beyong their control

Agricultural Revolution

The transformation of farming that resulted in the eighteenth century from the spread of new crops, improvements in cultivation techniques and livestock breeding, and consolidation of small holdings into large farms from which tenants were expelled. Led to the Industrial revolution because there was a surplus of food which led to people spending more of their income on manufactured good+ an increased in population which provided a surplus force for the new emerging industries+ Britain had a good supply of capital for investments in industrial machines+an effective central bank+ early industrial entrepreneurs+ample mineral resources+developing infrastructure+favorable business climate under Britain's gov't.

Irish question

The union act of 1801 united the two parliaments of Britain and Ireland. This caused A LOT of tension. In 1870, William Gladstone wanted to try to alleviate some of the tension with some land reform, but it didn't really do anything. Charles Parnell wanted to enact "home rule" (on another card) and William Gladstone tried to implement it, but it never passed and tensions only worsened.

Belgium+Central Africa

There was a lot of interest in the dense tropical jungles. King Leopold II of Belgium rushed to Africa in search of profits. He treated Africans like absolute S H I T (like so much so that other European leaders were like "Yo Leopold, you got to chill out with that ish") and he established Belgian settlements in the Congo.

Total War

They went into war with a sense of patriotism, but as the war dragged on there was a higher need for men+materials. Countries turned to a system of mass conscription/military draft. Free market capitalistic systems were temporarily stopped to experiment with price/wage/rent controls and the rationing of food supplies came into existence. Germany did well with help of Walter Rathenau who organized the war materials board which distributed the materials according to need (but they were bad at rationing---which led to food shortages and 750,000 civilians dead) GB tried to continue with limited gov't interference but the circumstances made them take a more active role. They developed the Ministry of Munitions to oversee proper munition production and they started conscription. France did not do well until Georges Clemenceau stepped in and established clear civilian control of a total war gov't. Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Italy were all far worse. They had backward economies and production lagged.

Enabling Act

This allowed the German government to dispense with constitutional forms for 4 years and it passed meaning Hitler no longer needed the approval of the Reichstag/Hindenburg. This is where Hitler became a dictator

Theatre of the Absurd

This became a super popular movement. Often these stories have no context and a confusing narrative. This reflected post-war times because this was an era of disillusionment.

Second Industrial Revolution

This term refers to the second wave of the late 18th century industrial movement which was generally focused in the United States and Germany. This second wave, with the movement from domestic systems of production to factory systmes, involved heavy industry and innovations such as mass production.

Munich Conference

This was between GB, France, Germany and Italy who basically ALLOWED HITLER TO DO WHATEVER HE WANTED TO

Lebensraum

This was part of Hitler's ideology. He believed in a Darwinian theory of struggle that stresses the right of "superior" nations to expand into other territories/countries and the right of superior leaders to gain authoritarian control.

Blanc

Thought social problems could be fixed because of government assistance. He wanted to make workshops that would manufacture goods, would be financed by the gov't but run by the people.

Populism

Thought up by Alexander Herzen. Populism involved a new society based on revolutionary acts of the peasants. Many lacked interest in revolutionary ideas, so populists resorted to violent acts like Vera Zasulich who shot and wounded the governor-​general of St. Petersburg and a group called the People's will who assassinated Alexander II.

Nixon's China Policy

U.S policy was determined by fears of Communist expansion in Asia. Nixon went to China in 1972 and met with Mao Zedong and they decided to put aside their differences to reduce tension. During the 70's the relations continued to improve (establishing diplomatic ties in '79) and cooperating against the threat of Soviet intervention in Asia.

Absolutism

Ultimate authority rested in the hands of a king who claimed to rule by divine right.

Spain (National State)

Under King Alfonso XII, a new constitution was drafted establishing a parliamentary gov't dominated by the conservatives+liberals. Young intellectuals who were part of "the Generation of 1848" called for reforms and both parties tried to support that because they wanted to win the masses support. The reforms did little for the unrest+the growth in socialism/anarchism. It showed reform would not be easy.

Sigmund Freud

Viennese doctor. But forth series of theories that undermined optimism about the rational nature of the human mind. Wrote "The Interpretation of Dreams" which contained the basic foundation for his idea that human behavior was determined by the unconscious (earlier experiences, inner forces). Relied on hypnosis on dreams to explore the unconscious. Believed in id (center of unconscious drives and ruled by pleasure principle), ego (seat of reason ruled by reality principle), and superego (locus of conscience and represented inhibitions and moral values that were imposed on people). Human being was battleground of these three forces.

Second Vietnam War

Vietnam had been divided ever since the end of the first Vietnam war with the Soviets supporting the North and the Americans supporting the South. In 1965, the Vietcong (Vietnamese Communist Guerillas) almost seized control of the entire country so president LBJ sent in troops/bomb because he didn't want communism to succeed. American policymakers saw this as a domino theory if Vietnam should fall to Communism. Despite their superiority in equipment and firepower, the U.S failed and because of the antiwar movement, Nixon finally pulled troops out in 1973. In the next 2 years, Vietnam was forcibly reunited with Communist armies.

French wars of religion

Wanted to stop growth of huguenots and calvinism. The Valois monarchy was staunchly Catholic. War began in 1562, but the Huguenots were able to hold their own. The St. Bartholomew Day Massacre happened and all shit hit the fan. Over 3,000 Huguenots died. blah blah blah

Kohl

When Germany was reunited, Chancellor Helmut Kohl became the leader. To revitalize E. Germany, they had to raise taxes and deal with high unemployment. They struggled with truly uniting the nation so he was replaced by Gerhard Schröder BUT HE SUCKED so Merkel stepped in.

Beer Hall Putsch

When Hitler+the Nazis decided to march on Berlin (among other German cities). This was quickly crushed and Hitler was imprisoned for 5 years. This event is SUPER important because it made Hitler realize he couldn't overthrow the republic by force, but instead by constitutional means.

Paris peace conference

Where the treaties were drawn up post WWI.

trade unions

Workers joined together to try to improve their conditions. By 1914, there were 4 million workers in trade unions in GB (although this was less than 1/5 the total workforce). THEY HAD THE MOST PEOPLE THAN ANY OTHER COUNTRY In France, trade unions were closely tied to socialist ideology, but because there were a bunch of socialist parties, there were SO many different groups. In 1895, they unified under a national organization called the General Confederation of Labor (but it was still pretty weak and ineffective) In Germany, there were many trade unions but the largest ones were the socialist ones. They used strikes+collective bargaining to achieve gradual improvements over revolution. By 1914, 3 million belonged to trade unions (85% of which belonged to socialist unions). GERMANY WAS THE SECOND LARGEST TRADE UNION COUNTRY

Auguste Comte

Wrote "System of Positive Philosophy" that created a hierarchy of all the sciences (math was the foundation for physical, earth & biological sciences, sociology was at the top) and it reinforced the Enlightenment's optimism in the potential of science. He thought the general laws of society would have to be based on the collection and analysis of data on humans and their social environment.

General Kemal

Y'all so in the Middle East, the Persian and Ottoman empires fell. GB+France wanted to divide up the Ottoman territories but Kemal created a new republic in Turkey in 1923. The trappings of a democratic system were put in place, but no opposition was allowed. It was westernized, though, because he abolished aristocratic titles, established popular education, made Turkey a secular nation, and gave rights to women (right to vote and access to majority of professions)

Mitterand

a bad economy brought France to the left politically and the Socialists under leader Francois Mitterand became president. He froze prices and wages to try to reduce the deficit and inflation. He passed a number of liberal measures like increasing minimum wage, expanding social benefits, adding a 5th week of mandatory vacation, higher taxes on the rich, nationalization of the banks/industry, granting local government more power BUT these policies largely failed and a lot of the government went back to private enterprise.

Kellogg Briand Pact

a pact between 63 nations where they pledged to renounce war

Tennis Court Oath

a pledge made by the members of France's National Assembly (mainly the third estate representatives) in 1789, in which they vowed to continue meeting until they had drawn up a new constitution

Republic of Virtue

a speech given by Maximilien Robespierre in 1794. In it, provided his political theory. advocates the use of terror in defending democracy, which he equated with virtue. advocated many of the ideals expressed in the French Constitution of 1793.The "Republic of Virtue" was part of the dechristianization of the French Revolution. The leaders renamed the cathedral Notre Dame de Paris to 'The Temple of Reason. 'The new French Revolutionary Calendar was created too

Psychoanalysis

a system of psychological theory and therapy that aims to treat mental disorders by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind and bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind by techniques such as dream interpretation and free association. SIGMUND FREUD

Gandhi/civil disobedience

an Indian activist who started a movement of non-violent resistance to force GB to grant independence and help the poor. Gandhi told people to pursue civil disobedience (refusing the GB regulations peacefully)

Rapprochement

an establishment or resumption of harmonious relations. During this time period, we saw a LOT of places gaining diplomatic relations with one another and entering into alliances with one another such as CENTO, SEATO, NATO, and The Warsaw Pact.

Pragmatic Sanction

an imperial or royal ordinance or decree that has the force of law. It was an edict issued by Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, on 19 April 1713 to ensure that the Habsburg hereditary possessions, which included the Archduchy of Austria, the Kingdom of Hungary, the Kingdom of Bohemia, the Duchy of Milan, the Kingdom of Naples, the Kingdom of Sicily and the Austrian Netherlands, could be inherited by a daughter.

Utopian Socialism

basically the ultimate goal of socialism. They wanted to have equality in social conditions and believed human cooperation was superior to that of the competition created by capitalism. They were against private property.

mercantilism

belief that the total volume of trade was unchangeable. States protected their economies by following certain praces: **Hoarding precious metals **implementing protectionist trade policies **promoting colonial development **increasing shipbuilding **supporting trading companies **encourgaging the manufacturing of products to be used in trade

Bill of Rights 1689/Toleration act of 1689

bill of rights=let parliament do things like make laws, levy taxes, and let the people have a jury trial, etc. Led to a constitutional monarchy BUT DID NOT solve religious problems toleration act=allowed Puritan dissenter freedom of worship (not Catholics). Though they didn't have full civil and political equality, it was still super important!!!

Europe as an industrial economy (1870s-1914)

can be seen as a time of material prosperity, but it can also be seen as a depression from 1873 to 1895 because prices fell and there were slumps in the business cycle that produced profits. From 1895 to WWI, there was an economic boom and an era of prosperity was ushered in (la belle époque a.k.a golden age) Germany replaced GB as the industrial leader after 1870 b/c they capitalized on many industries first and GB already had many established plants and couldn't switch over to the techniques as easily.

José de San Martín

Revolutionary leader, born in Argentina, who freed Chile and joined Bolivar to free Peru. He studied military in spain but came back to help in 1812.

iron law of wages

Ricardo's concept that if wages increased, childbirth would increase; if child birth increased, then the workforce would increase; if the workforce increased, then wages decreased; if wages decreased, then childbirth would decrease; workforce would decrease, wages would then increase; repeat.

Dmitri Mendeleyev

classified the material elements on the base of atomic weight and provided the systematic foundation for electricity.

Act of Supremacy -King Henry VIII

completed break of church by saying the king was "taken, accepted, and reputed the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England"

female teachers

compulsory education led to a high demand for teachers and by the 1880's, 2/3 of teachers were women.

Consumer culture/mass leisure

consumer= there was a dramatic shift of people from rural to urban areas and the number of people in agricultural dropped while there was an increase in white collar jobs. Real wages increased and buying on an installment plan was introduced. Shopping markets also made it much more convenient and easier to buy food. mass leisure= the incomes rose, the workweek was reduced, and there were more paid holidays. Music, sports, and media became commercialized and offered activities like concerts, sporting events, and tv viewing. There was also mass tourism because of the previous reasons+ some trips with low rates so millions traveled.

League of Nations

created prevent new causes of conflict that come from peace treaties. Was not particularly effective in maintaining the peace. The US didn't join the league and because of the determination to be less involved in Europan affairs. Weakened league from the beginning. Leagues only weapon for stopping aggression was economic sanctions-not that threatening.

Abstract Expressionism

energetic and spontaneous forms that break all form+structure. An example of this is Jackson Pollock's works (as shown in the picture).

music/dance halls

first constructed in London in 1849 and made primarily for men, though they were eventually broadened to entice both men and women. Dance halls became super popular by 1900.

French Policy of Coercion

in 1921, the Allied Reparations Commission settled on Germany paying 132 billion marks, payable in installments of 2.5 billion marks. With allied threats to occupy the Ruhr Valley (Germany's chief industrial+mining center), Germany made its first payment in 1921, but was unable to pay anymore. France then sent troops there because Germany pursued a policy of passive resistance by printing more money (causing hyperinflation) and the gains from the French occupation was not enough to offset the costs.

GATT

in 1947, the General Agreement on Tariffs and trade was created for global trade

Literacy+ newspapers

in countries like G.B, Germany, France, and all of Scandinavia, adult illiteracy was virtually eliminated by 1900. Countries without much of an investment in compulsory mass education were different: Serbia (79%), Romania (78%) and Russia (79%)

birth control

in the 1840's, vulcanized rubber was created for condoms (though there wasn't widespread use until WWI). There was also widespread use of coitus interruptus. In this time, women were more lax about abortion, infanticide and abandonment There was an increase in the awareness about birth control, though individuals who spoke about Birth control were often upper class approved because they wanted to lessen the amount of children born into lower classes.

Antiballistic Missile Treaty/Détente

in the 70's there was a reduction of tension between the U.S and the U.S.S.R so they signed the Antiballistic Missile Treaty where both countries agreed to limit their systems for launching missiles. They believed that a policy of "equivalence" was the best way to avoid a nuclear confrontation.

Émile

influential work on women's education. It talks about a boy who practiced independent thoughts+practical skills, who then marries Sophie, who received the education Rousseau thought women should have (one of obedience/home-life)

Conservatism vs. Liberalism

liberalism=promote constitutionalism, meritocracy, all men are created equal, speperation fo powers, individual rights, undermine tradition and church. Conservatism=leads to revolution, emphasis on traditional hierarchy, change must come slowly, not really concerned with individual rights, not all men are equal, monarch, aristocracy, and church are all important.

Iron Industry

lots of iron ore and new ideas of smelting iron to produce cast iron were devised and were based on the use of coke which yielded higher amounts. In 1780, Henry Cort developed a process of burning away impurities in the pig iron (product of smelting iron ore w/ coke) to produce a higher quality iron called wright iron. In 1740, Britain produced 17,000 tons of iron. In 1852, they produced more than 3 million tons.

Permissive Society/Sexual Revolution

many countries saw a sexual revolution which included sex education, decriminalization of homosexuality, gay rights movements, the introduction of the pill, and more sexually explicit content in movies and books. During this time, divorce rates increased dramatically and premarital/extramarital sex rates rose.

Mensheviks

meaning the "minority." Lenin applied this term to the majority moderate faction of the Russian Social Democratic Party opposed to him and the Bolsheviks. They wanted a party with a mass membership similar to the German SDP and other European socialist parties that functioned democratically. In the end, they lost control to the Bolsheviks.

Yalta

meeting of the big three in which they decided to divide Germany into occupation zones. Also, Germany would pay heavy reparations to Russia, and Russia agreed to attack Japan after Germany. This was also the one where they decided on unconditional surrender

Caravaggio

n influential figure in the transition from late Mannerism to Baroque, he made use of naturalistic realism and dramatic light and shade.

Pros of Napoleon

napoleonic code-->except for women religious tolerance science all men were equalized education bank of france

Transforms (Italy)

old political groups were transformed into new gov't coalitions through bribery. This ultimately made Italian politics more corrupt. When urban workers turned to violence, Giovonnia Giolitti created a social welfare legislation and universal male suffrage in 1912 and conquered Libya in 1914.

Rommel

one of the most distinguished German field marshals of World War II. He was the commander of the Deutsches Afrika Korps and also became known by the nickname "The Desert Fox" for the skillful military campaigns he waged on behalf of the German Army in North Africa. He was later in command of the German forces opposing the Allied cross-channel invasion at Normandy.

Boussett

principle advocate of divine right of kings; believed divine right meant that king was placed on throne by God, and therefore owed his authority to no man or group. (FRENCH)

Economic/Religious Imperialism

religious=only the fittest and superior nations/races wills survive and dominate. This was seen as justification for assuming control. Economic=great demand for natural resources/products not found in Europe such as rubber, oil, tin and large surpluses and capital that bankers/industrialists accumulated allowed them to seek higher rates of profits in underdeveloped areas.

The Commune

revolutionary municipal gov't set up in Paris, which effectively usurped the power of the Legislative Assembly

Animal husbandry

scientifically breeding animals to produce better yields/animals

James I

the first of the Stuarts to sit on the throne, raised as a Presbyterian, believed in the Divine Right of Kings, had to deal with financial problems, Elizabeth left lots of debt, he was a deficit spender, Parliament controlled the budget, he upset Parliament by bypassing their authority, was an Anglican when he was in England, retranslated the Bible in 1611, "King _____'s Bible", gave too much power to the Duke of Buckingham HE WAS SCOTTISH AND MARRIED A CATHOLIC

Lenin

the leader of the communist revolution. He condemned accomodations like those of the SPD and critcized trade unionism that settled for short-term reformist gains rather than work for true revolutionary change for the working class. He took the lead of the Bolsheviks, or "majority," in the Russian Social Democratic Party. He urged for the social revolution to united the proletariat and the peasantry. His two principles included an elite party and a dual social revolution.

Poor Act of 1834

tried to fix the unemployment problem by making poor houses where they lived and worked; families were separated and children were often recruited for factory work; based on the idea that poor people were lazy and morally lacking so they deserved that discipline

Schlieffen Plan

two front war with minimal deployment against Russia while most troops would invade France (through supposedly neutral Belgium) surround Paris, have it fall and then refocus on Russia. This plan failed because: -This plan was kind of old. It was developed in the 1870s, and some historians argue it was no longer applicable like 30 years later. -They thought Russia would be slow to mobilize and that they could take France easily. They were not. Russia mobilized fully super quickly. Germany had to revert some of its troop back to the Eastern front. -They thought there would be no resistance from Belgium. There was, however, which got German soldiers bogged down before they could invade France.

Kulaks

wealthy Russian farmers. Stalin sent them to Siberian work camps.

Scramble for Africa

• 1875-1912 • Initiated by King Leopold II of Belgium • By 1912 almost all of Africa was under European control

Emily Davison

Suffragette that got absolutely BODIED by the king's horse at the derby when she threw herself in front of it.

great exhibition

The British (under Queen Victoria) organized the first industrial fair at London in the Crystal Palace. The fair had 100,000 exhibits that showed a wide variety of products made in the Industrial Revolution. It was a display of Britain's wealth to the world and a symbol of success.

Leo Tolstoy

Russian realist-combined realism in description and character development with an atypical moralizing, which came to dominate his later work-War and Peace: monumental novel set against historical background of Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812-probed deeply into lives of a multitude of unforgettable characters-central message: human love, trust, and everyday family ties are life's enduring values

SDI

SDI (Space Defense Initiative): satellites in space would detect nuclear weapons

Flora Tristan

She went across France preaching about the liberation of France. She advocated for the communal living places.

Nazi Soviet Non-aggression pact

Signed because Hitler didn't want to have Germany fighting a two-front war again. He said that Russia could develop a sphere of influence in Eastern Europe and that Russia could have Eastern Poland while Germany took Western Poland.

Renaissance Women

Some argue that women had less rights, while some argued they enjoyed the Renaissance as well +=courtly, religious and intellectual environments -=less freedoms for emotional needs

Cortez

Spanish conquistador who defeated the Aztecs and conquered Mexico

Pizarro

Spanish explorer and conquistador Francisco Pizarro helped Vasco Núñez de Balboa discover the Pacific Ocean, and after conquering Peru, founded its capital city, Lima.

Collectivization

Stalin eliminated private property. By 1930, 10 million peasant houses had been collectivized and by 1934, the 26 million family farms had been collectivized into 250,000 units. He starved people into complying with this policy.

Methodism

Started by John Wesley. It split off into its own sect after John's death (which is NOT what John wanted).

Theodor Herzl

founded Zionism in 1890's , created a state for jewish people in Palestine

Anabaptists

-appealed to the lower class/peasants. -Radical reform approach -Believed in adult baptism, that communion was a "remembrance", **BELIEVED IN COMPLETE SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE (THIS IS SUPER IMPORTANT)****

Ivan the Terrible

1st ruler to take position of tsar-expanded territories and crushed power of Boyars (nobles).

John Stewart Mill

Argued for absolute freedom of opinion. He was a supporter of women's rights and when his attempt to give women voting rights failed. He wrote of the need for equality and how women were only different because of social practices.

Roman-Berlin Axis

Axis between Italy and Germany in 1936

Stasi

East German Secret Police REALLY BAD!!!!!!! AND SCARY!!!!!!

Primogeniture

Eldest son would receive all or largest share of parents' estate and thus treated as favorite

Huguenots

French Calvinists

Manchester

QUICKEST INDUSTRIALIZED CITY AND LARGEST???

De-Christianization

Saint names were removed from street names, churches were pillaged+closed, priests were encouraged to marry and Notre Dame became the "temple of reason". a new calendar was also developed.

Pogroms

an organized massacre of a particular ethnic group, in particular that of Jews in Russia or eastern Europe.

Terrorism

became a prominent part of European and U.S foreign policy. Terrorist attacks from both left-wing and right-wing terrorists were becoming more and more common.

Louis XI

devious prince that used the taille to score himself an income.

Pietism

pious sentiment, especially of an exaggerated or affected nature.

Socialism

similar to communism except communism has no religion and it talks about violent overthrow rather than gradual reforms made.

French Academy Royal Sciences

society funded by Louis XIV, which was thought to benefit the king and state and emphasized practical science for new tools and machines

Patronage

sponsorship by a patron

Humanist education

stressed liberal arts to follow a path of virtue+ wisdom. Subjects like history, philosophy, math, etc.

COMECON

the Mutual Economic Assistance that was made in Eastern Europe.

Silesia

the part of Austria that Frederick the Great captured, and started the War of Austrian Succession

Prince Henry (Portugal)

1394-1460, Portuguese prince. First European royal to heavily promote discovery and exploration. Motivated by mercenary as well as missionary factors. Seeking to promote Portuguese economic interests (challenging Muslim monopoly of gold trade) and to further Christian influence. Hope to find the kingdom of Prince Henry promoted settlement of islands in the Atlantic and exploration of the African coast. Founded the school for navigators at Sagres at the southwestern tip of Portugal.

Versalius

1543 wrote text called "On the Fabric of the Human Body" that has become the foundation of modern anatomy using dissections.

Spinoza

1632-1677; philosopher from the Netherlands; excommunicated from Jewish synagogue; pantheist/monist who denied the possibilty of revealed religion and inspiration of scripture; believed all governments to be unjust, wrote Ethics

Rump Parliament

53 members of the House of Commons that were Presbyterian and convicted Charles

Pascal

A French mathematician who refused dogmatism and skepticism, and allied with the Jansenists. He believed that it was better to believe in God than to not because if one didn't believe in God and God actually existed, one would be condemned to Hell

Zollverein

A German customs union that got rid of road tolls to stimulate trade. By 1853, Austria was the only German state not to join.

Gustav Stresemann

A German leader (foreign minister) who took power in the 20's. He committed Germany to carrying out the treaty as well as stabilizing the currency and ending inflation by making a new+temporary currency.

John Wesley

Anglican minister; created religious movement, Methodism; led to become missionary to the English people; apealed especialy to lower class; his Methodism gave lower and middle classes in English society a sense of purpose and community

St. Bartholomew Day Massacre (1572)

At the wedding of Henry IV and the Valois girl. Guise Family convinced the monarchy that they were a threat and 3,000 huguenots were killed. There was war and violence everywhere.

GB in Asia

Because of the exploration of Australia by James cook in 1770's, GB took an interest in the East. They subjugated much of India and in 1876, Queen Victoria was given the title Empress of India and Indians were now her colonial subject.

Robert Owen

Believed in Fourier's idea. He made an old factory in New Lanark, Scotland, and tried to make one in Indiana but it failed

China

By 19th century, the ruling Manchuria dynasty was in decline. In 1842, GB obtained Hong Kong and other countries rushed in (the only reason China wasn't completely dismembered in this was because of the rivalries between all the countries) and established spheres of influence like France, Germany, the U.S, and Japan. They pursued an "open-door policy"

30 years war

Called the last of the religious wars. Struggle between Catholicism+Calvinism -Took place in Germanic lands A LOT WENT DOWN AND MANY COUNTRIES WERE INVOLVED (LOOK MORE AT NOTES B/C THERE IS WAY TOO MUCH TO WRITE DOWN)

Calvin's Geneva

Calvin began ministry in 1536 and he made the Ecclesiastical Ordinances. The success in Geneva allowed for it to become a center of Protestantism. By mid 1500's, it became the dominant protestant religion in Europe.

Erasmus

Christian Humanist. He made a program of reform and stressed the importance of inner piety. He published a new Latin translation of the Bible. -Wrote "The Praise of Folly" which talked about clergy corruption, papacy problems, etc. **DID NOT WANT TO SEPERATE FROM THE CHURCH, ONLY WANTED TO REFORM IT***

Thomas More

Christian humanist. Wrote "Utopia"--> talks about the economic, social and political concerns he had.

Stalingrad

City in Russia, site of a Red Army victory over the Germany army in 1942-1943. The Battle of Stalingrad was the turning point in the war between Germany and the Soviet Union. Today Volgograd.

Baroque art

Classic ideals+ spiritual revival of 16th century. Use of dramatic effects heighten emotional inetnsity+ rich details. Ex. Bernini (St. Peter's Basilica) and Gentileschi ( "Judith beheading Holofernes")

Society of Thirty

Club of people from Paris Salons--> one of which was Marquis de Lafayette

Grand Alliance

Coalition of the United States, Britain, the Soviet Union, and others against the Axis powers.

Gulags

Concentration/work camps in the Soviet Union.

Ferdinand VII

Congress of Vienna restored him to power. He instituted limits on reform-->censorship, dissolve parliamnent, etc. This led to the 1820 revolt where the concert of Europe intervened in 1823.

Spanish Armada

DIASTER FOR SPAIN -they believed it was god's will to bring England back to Catholicism and that he would help them to win. He didn't -They were battered by both the English army and the storms. -The wars would continue for another 16 years but the early on defeat meant that England would remain Protestant.

Galileo

Date Alive: 1546-1642 Occupation: Astronomer/Mathematician Contributor of: Scientific Revolution Contributions: Galileo's best contribution was the telescope which he perfected. The telescope helped astronomers to view the skies and planets.

Social Contract

Definition: The social contract is a theory or model which addresses the questions of the origin of society and the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual. an implicit agreement among the members of a society to cooperate for social benefits, for example by sacrificing some individual freedom for state protection. Theories of a social contract became popular in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries among theorists such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, as a means of explaining the origin of government and the obligations of subjects. Significance: The social contract theory helped influence constitutions', such as the American constitutions, with the questioning of state governments ruling individual citizens and they're everyday actions.

Nobles of the Sword

Descendants of medieval French nobility. They were engaged in the Frondes

Harvey

Discovered the circulation of blood and the role of the heart in propelling it. Harvey developed an accurate theory of how the heart and ciculatory system operated.

Bourgeoisie

Division within the Third Estate; similar to the modern-day middle class

Pope John Paul II

Pope JPII was the first non-Italian pope since the 16th century and though he sometimes alienated people with his strong traditional views on things like birth control and clerical celibacy, his travels around the world/pursuit of social justice made him SUPER popular.

Truman Doctrine

President Truman's policy of providing economic and military aid to any country threatened by communism or totalitarian ideology

Benjamin Disraeli

Prime minister after Henry John Temple's death. He was a tory leader that helped to democratize GB more by lowering monetary requirements for voting (increased voters from 1 mill to 2 mill). This intensified the discipline to win the electorate.

Triangular Trade

Europe to Africa: manufactured goods (guns, gin, cloth, etc.) Africa to America: slaves America to Europe:tobacco, molasses, sugar, cotton, etc.

Robert Owens + Grand Nat'l Consolidated Trade Union

Formed in 1834 as a national federation of trade unions, whose primary purposes was to coordinate a general strike for the eight-hour working day. It broke up the summer of the same year it was formed because it didnt have enough support from the working class. (1771-1858) British cotton manufacturer believed that humans would reveal their true natural goodness if they lived in a cooperative environment

Prussian Civil Bureaucracy

Frederick I established the General Directory, which served as the chief administrative agent of the central government, military, police, and economic affairs.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTION ON ART--> Examine characteristics of both Baroque and Dutch art and have examples

REFERENCE THE SHEET WE GOT IN CLASS AND KNOW EXAMPLES OF BOTH TYPES OF ART!!!

Joseph Goebbels

Goebbels was head of Nazi propaganda and was instrumental in building hatred of the Jews. He attempted to flee Germany at the end of WWII, but committed suicide when captured by Allied forces. Organized Kristallnacht, and the Reichstag fire.

Irish Home Rule

Granted to Ireland in 1914, but internal division between N. Ireland and the rest of Ireland led to growing tensions and the outbreak of WWI meant the end of home rule :( (Sorry Ireland, maybe next time) Also the easter rebellion breaks out in 1916 so sorry Ireland

Jacobins

Radical republicans during the French Revolution. They were led by Maximilien Robespierre from 1793 to 1794.

san-culottes

Group of working-class citizens who, unhappy with the inaction of the Legislative Assembly, attacked the residence of the king, causing the Legislative Assembly to allow the people to vote

Leo XIII

He permitted the teachings of evolution as a hypothesis and responded to the challenges of modernization. In "De Rerum Novarum" he affirmed individual's right to private property but also criticised capitalism for the poverty of working classes. He said a lot of socialism was Christian in principle but condemned Marxist socialism for its antireligious foundations. He also said that Catholics should form their own socialist parties to help the working class. THIS ALL CAME ABOUT BECAUSE OF CRITICISM OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH AND SCIENCE THREATENING THE CHURCH'S ROLE IN PERSONAL LIFE AS WELL AS AT THE STATE LEVEL.

President Hindenburg

He was the president of the Weimar republic. He HATED the republic which led him to often rule by decree. Hitler succeeded him.

Henry Hudson

Henry Hudson was an English sea explorer and navigator during the early 17th century, best known for his explorations of present-day Canada and parts of the northeastern United States.

Decembrist Revolt

Revolts break out when Nicholas II takes the throne because people don't think he's liberal enough, so he crushed the revolt, and eliminates all opposition (execution, etc.)

Rembrandt

Initially did very grand work, then embraced the Dutch style is known as one of the only and one of the great Protestant painters.

Adolf Hitler

Initially tried to be an artist in Vienna, But was S H I T so he instead developed his ideology. In 1913, he moved to Munich, fought in WWI and then returned to get into politics. He joined the German Worker's party and by 1921, he had assumed total control. He renamed it the Nazi party and developed it into a mass political movement. He became chancellor in 1933 and in March of that year he started the dictatorship.

Nuremberg Laws

Instituted in 1935. They essentially separated Jews from Germans politically, socially, and legally.

Cotton Industry

Inventions like the flying shuttle, the spinning Jenny, and the water frame allowed for greaty yearn production. After about mid 1820's, the new macines overtook the manual workers. Factories were being built and then the steam engine was invented and production greatly increased.

July Ordinances (FRANCE 1830 revolution eventually)

Issued by Charles X which included rigid censorship, dissolved the legislative assembly and reduced the electorate causing the July revolution.

"Not a Step Back"

Issued by Stalin. Told the troops they had to stand their ground NO MATTER WHAT and that they would use bombed-out buildings, etc. as well fortified defense positions

Medici

Italian banking family, political dynasty, and later royal house.

Carbonari

Italian secret societies that formed to plan revolts. In 1820, Naples revolted, but IT DOES NOT GO WELL.

Vermeer

Johannes, Jan or Johan Vermeer was a Dutch painter who specialized in domestic interior scenes of middle-class life. Vermeer was a moderately successful provincial genre painter in his lifetime

Calvinism/John Calvin

John Calvin=moved from France to Basel under threat of persecution and he became a leader in protestantism. Calvinism=like Luther, believed in justification by faith to achieve salvation alone ***BELIEVED IN PREDESTINATION***** -only two sacraments are baptism and communion

Smallpox

KILLED A BUNCH OF NATIVES!! VERY BAD!!!

Madame de Pompadour

LOUIS XV's Mistress most famous mistress of 18th c, who influenced Louis in making important decisions and guiding advice on appointments and foreign policy

Boer War

Leading up to the Boer war, GB established themselves in South Africa during the Napoleonic wars, but Boers (descendants of Dutch colonists) were disgusted by this and they migrated to the Transvaal and Orange Free State. Tensions continue to rise, and war began in 1899. It was the Boers vs. British and due to the Boer's guerilla tactics, the British sustained high casualties. The British implemented concentration camps and mass newspapers back in GB wrote about the poor treatment and outrage ensued. The British ultimately won, but the cost of the Boer war demonstrated that increased military and monetary investment was necesary to maintain the GB empire. Also, in 1910, South Africa became a self-governing dominion within the British empire.

Ming Dynasty

Ruled from 1369 to 1614. A new era began under the Ming Dynasty and there was expansion into Mongolia, Central Asia and Vietnam. Great success with keeping peace with the nomadic tribesmen in the North. The empire failed due to an epidemic and a peasant revolt (led by Li Zicheng)

Ferdinand and Isabella

Rulers of Spain. When they married they united the States of Castile + Aragon. They asserted that Catholicism was incredibly important-->started the inquisition and mandatory expulsion of Jewish and Muslim individuals

Industrial Revolution in the U.S

Like European countries on the continent, the U.S fell behind Britain initially and used their ideas. Later on, however, they had a large increase in workers (immigration from Ireland, Scotland, etc.) and inventions of their own like the Harpers Ferry Arsenal which made muskets with interchangeable parts.

Bank of England

Like other banks, they received deposits+exchanged foreign currencies, but they also gave loans. They also started the notion of national debt which allowed for countries to finance for larger gov't undertakings and larger armies.

Christian Humanism

Like regular humanism, but there was also a focus on religion-->reform of church+ society through classical education

Cahiers

List of problems compiled by the three estates; used so they could be discussed at the Estates General meeting

cult of domesticity

Marriage was seen as the only honorable career available for most women, it was a matter of economic necessity and because going to the convents wasn't as much of an option many spinsters resorted to in-house work. Most women chose to marry however as seen in the increase in marriage rates and decline in illegitmatacy rates.

Potsdam

Meeting in which Truman demanded free elections throughout eastern europe, but Stalin refused because he was afraid that free elections would lead to anti-soviet govts.

White Army

Mensheviks Socialist Revolutionaries Aristocratic Liberals Allied Forces

Star Chamber

No juries + allowed to use torture to extract confessions

nobility of the robe

Nobles joined with the Parliament of Paris (those opposed to the taxes post 30 years war) They started multiple Fronds (revolts)

Napoleon Bonaparte

Overthrew French Directory in 1799 and became emperor of the French in 1804. Failed to defeat Great Britain and abdicated in 1814. Returned to power briefly in 1815 but was defeated and died in exile.

Triennial Act

Parliament must meet at least once every 3 years.

Zemsky Sobor

Russian nat'l assembly.

David Hume

Scottish philosopher whose skeptical philosophy restricted human knowledge to that which can be perceived by the senses (1711-1776)

Long Parliament

Session form November 1640 to September 1641. Restricted royal authority. Abolition of arbitrary courts/private taxes and passage of the Triennial act.

American revolution impact of Europe

Showed Europeans that the rights of man, liberty, equality weren't utopian ideals, but rather, reality.

Conquistadors

Spanish 'conqueror' or soldier in the New World. They were searching for the 3-G's: gold, God, and glory.

Ultraroyalists

Super supporters of the king.

Belgium

The fastest industrializing nation on the continent.

Símon Bolívar

The most important military leader in the struggle for independence in South America. Born in Venezuela, he led military forces there and freed Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. He was called the "George Washington" of Latin America.

Fourier

The person who thought of creating phalansteries.

Deism

The religion of the Enlightenment (1700s). Followers believed that God existed and had created the world, but that afterwards He left it to run by its own natural laws. Denied that God communicated to man or in any way influenced his life.

Symbolist

These were individuals who reacted against realism and primarily wrote poetry about the external world as a collection of symbols to reflect the human mind. They also believed art should function for its own sake instead of serving society.

SEATO

This is the Southeast Asian/Oceania/Middle East/ European alliance of Thailand, GB, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, and the Phillippines.

Edmund Burke

This man started the political view of conservatism by writing that society was a contract where the state was like a partner. No generation could destroy this contract, and had to preserve it and transfer it to the next generation. He was against violent revolutions and instead believed in gradual change/improvements.

Anglo Naval Pact

This pact was made between Britain and Germany and was meant as another piece of appeasement. The British allowed the Germans to build their navy to up to 35% of the British navy. The Germans initially did only this, but then defied this pact and grew their navy to a much more significant size (almost to the size of the GB navy).

Marshall Plan

This program included 13 billion dollars to rebuild and help the economy of war-torn Europe (and was secretly meant to stop the spread of Communism) but it helped to split Europe into 2 competing blocs which some argue pushed Stalin to want further control of Eastern Europe.

WTO

This replaced the General Agreement on Tariffs in 1995 and it was made to establish trade agreements/settle trade disputes. There are 150 countries in WTO.

Mirandola's "Oration on the Dignity of Man"

This talked about free will for both salvation/damnation and choosing a spot in the universe

Appeasement

This was a policy most commonly used by the British. They felt the conditions set in the Versailles treaty were too harsh and they felt if they appeased some of the demands and satisfied some of the wants of the Germans, then there would be peace and resolved conflict. What really happened is that they gave into ALL OF HITLER'S DEMANDS AND LET HIM GAIN POWER SO THEY COULDN'T STOP HIM.

Totalitarian States (Fascist Italy+ Nazi Germany, etc.)

Totalitarian=extend the functions/power of the central state, expected active loyalty and commitment of citizens to the regime's goals, use of modern mass propaganda and high speed communications, control of the economic, political, social, intellectual and cultural aspects of life, led by a single leader/single party and rejected limited government power and constitutional guarantees of freedom.

Social Order

Until very late into 18th century, social order was not determined by wealth, but by the traditional "estates" determined by heredity.

Versailles

Versailles had many purposes. Iy was the king's residence, a reception hall for states affairs and meeting place/home for many aristocrats/nobles.

Philip II (SPAIN)

Wanted to consolidate the lands that he had--> Spain, Netherlands, parts of Italy -Wanted only Catholicism -He wanted a strong monarchical government as opposed to independent states

Marie Antoinette

Wife of Louis XVI; universally disliked by the French citizens for her extravagant fashion sense and apparent indifference to the struggles of the lower classes; executed along with her husband

Indulgences

a way to reduce the amount of punishment one has to undergo for sins

Suffragettes

a woman seeking the right to vote through organized protest.

Blitzkrieg

a.k.a lightening war. This tactic was used to prevent trench warfare. This was based on mechanized columns+ massive air power to annihilate armies quickly. It was the air force with tanks/armored tanks to carry infantry

Resistance movements

active resisters assassinated German officials, disseminated anti-German newspapers and spied on German military positions. Some grew strong enough to battle the Germans. After the Soviet Union was invaded in 1941, Communists assumed leadership role in underground resistance movements but there was sometimes conflict between the different resistance groups (like Charles de Gaulle who was like "OH HELL NAH" to the French Communist Resistance group). Women had a huge part in the resistance movement. They would serve as message carriers, plant bombs, spy on military movements, smuggle Jews into neutral countries, etc.

plutocrats

aristocrats who invested in things like shares, bonds, public utilities, etc.

Existentialism

born from the desperation of both world wars and the breakdown of traditional values. It revealed the anxieties of the 20th century and became well-known through Jean-Paul Saitre and Albert Camus. The central point of their work was the absence of God leaving humans alone with no future or hope. They said humans could only find hope within themselves and they must give their own lives meaning.

Imperialism

competitive nation-states and growing nationalism led to the growth of imperialism because nations wanted to acquire colonies for economic reasons as well as preventing other countries form harming their interests. Failure to enter the imperialist's race was percieved as weakness. Patriotic fervor was used to arouse interest in imperialism

uncertainty principle

created by Werner Heisenberg and it shattered the confidence in predictability and dared to propose the uncertainty was the root of physical laws

Michael Faraday

discovered electromagnetic induction and put together a primitive generator that was the foundation for electricity.

Revival of religion

don't be lazy according to religions--> used by entrepreneurs to justify long hours and stuff. Honestly idk.

Computer

early computers require 1000's of vacuum tubes to function and took up a lot of space. Grace Hopper was instrumental in inventing COBOL (a computer language that enabled computers to respond to words as well as numbers). In '71, the invention of the microprocessor which combines 1000's of transistors on a single chip led to the development of the personal computer.

Trade Unions

early labor organizations that brought together workers in the same trade, or job, to fight for better wages and working conditions

2008 Economic Crisis

easily available mortgages drove up housing values and in response, investment banks began selling financial investments called collateralized debt obligations which were based on bundles of mortgages. By September 2008, many financial institutions were approaching or in bankruptcy and by November, stocks lost almost 8 trillion. When Greece's economy went in the toilet, it threatened the euro because they had to give Greece a bailout of 240 million Euros. Beyond that, countries faced other severe economic problems like rise in unemployment, property value plummeting, and the welfare state is partially dismantled. Austerity measure put into place reduced pensions, wages, and health care services leading to homelessness.

commercial capitalism

economic/political system where a country's trade+industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state. Several industries such as mining and shipbuilding boomed.

Napoleon III

elected president in 1848, but many of his contemporaries dismissed him and said his success was only because of his name. They were SUPER wrong however, because he was a patient+clever man who taught other authoritarian govt's that they could use liberalism+nationalism to increase their own power. Over 3 years, he garnered the support of much of the French public and gained a lot of control in the national assembly. He restored universal suffrage and in 1852, he became emperor Napoleon III.

Raphael

fantastic painter with many madonnas and frescoes -Ex. of his work--> School of Athens, The Sistine Madonna, Transfiguration

Estates General

gave input on decision like establishing a royal army +levying taxes (For France)

bullion

gold+silver

Guest workers

government run programs in western europe designed to recruit labor for the booming postwar economy

Frederick William II (Frederick the Great)

granted religious freedom, reduced censorship, improved education, reformed the justice system, and abolished torture. Granted limited use of free speech+press -Didn't interfere with serfdom b/c nobility was still far too powerful. He made it more aristocratic by reserving bureaucracy for high-up people. Great interest in military affairs.

Individualism

habit of being independent/self-reliant

Heliocentric

having or representing the sun as the center, as in the accepted astronomical model of the solar system.

2 European economic zones

high standard of living=GB, France, Germany, Belgium, etc.) low standard of living=Southern Italy, Most of Austria-Hungary, Spain, Portugal, Russia, Greece, etc.)

Id, ego, superego

id= center of unconscious drives and was ruled by the pleasure principle. This contains lustful desires/drives and crude appetites/impulses ego=seat of reason/coordinator of inner life that use the reality principle where people rejected pleasure to live together in society superego=the focus of conscience and represented/moral. values that society in general imposed on people which forced the ego to curb the id

Cartels

independent enterprises that worked together to control prices/fix production quotas, therby restraining the kind of competition that led to reduced prices

Louis XVI

king of France from 1774 to 1792, 1789 he summoned the Estates-General, but he did not grant the reforms that were demanded and revolution followed. Louis and his queen, Marie Antoinette, were executed in 1793.

ministerial responsibility

king's ministers respond to parliament instead of king

Procurator

layman who represented interests of tsar+ assured Peter of effective domination of Russian Orthodox Church

Reason of state

look beyond dynastic interests and consider long-term of your country. State's interest above all else.

Act of Supremacy

made Elizabeth I the "supreme governor" rather than the "supreme head of church" in order to not upset Catholics

Charles de Calonne

minister of finance, encouraged internal trade and lower taxes but tax everyone including nobles, didn't get passed

Charles Darwin

natural selection and evolution

Emile Zola

naturalism author who showed how alcoholism/environments affected people and he used Darwin's theory talking about survival and the importance of hereditary.

Hapsburgs

ne of the most influential and outstanding royal houses of Europe. The throne of the Holy Roman Empire was continuously occupied by the Habsburgs between 1438 and 1740.

Table of Ranks

non nobles (civil officers) had to rise through a 14 step process and at step 8, they became nobles

Jean Bodin

philosopher on absolutism; "only a strong absolutist monarch can provide order" (wrote during the FRENCH CIVIL WARS)

French Monarchy

post 100 years war, France was in shambles (desolate farmland, ruined commerce).

Radio, movies, mass communication

pretty self explanatory but during this time, radio and movies developed and were used for a form of mass communication.

Robert Walpole

prime minister in 1757 - furthered imperial ambitions by acquiring Canada and India in the Seven Years' War; dismissed by the new king, George III

Tariffs

protective tariffs were introduced to guarantee protection of products in their domestic industries.

Marie Antoinette

queen of France (as wife of Louis XVI) who was unpopular her extravagance and opposition to reform contributed to the overthrow of the monarchy; she was guillotined along with her husband (1755-1793)

Treat of Adrianople, 1829

recognized Greek autonomy after Russia had defeated the Turks in a war

10 Hour Act

reduced working day for children 13-18 to ten hours

War Communism

reforms put forth by Lenin and the Bolsheviks such as nationalizing private property, banks, and placing workers commitees in charge of factories

Whigs

remmove James and establish a protestant king

Humanism

revived Greek+Roman culture

Edict of Fontainebleau

revoked the Edict of Nantes. In addition to doing this, Louis XIV destroyed many Huguenot churches and schools.

Phalansteries

self-contained model communities (ideally 1,620 people) that people would live in for mutual benefit. They would rotate work assignments frequently to relieve people of undesirable work. These were thought of by Charles Fourier.

Secularism

separation of state from religious institutions

English Royal Society

society funded by merchants and scientists and emphasized theoretical science, which allowed them with more options

Da Vinci

stressed realism and idealized nature. EX. of his work--> Last Supper, Mona Lisa, Viru

Metternich

the Austrian foreign minister who was the leader of the Congress of Vienna; claimed that he was guided by the principle of legitimacy.

Volkish Thought

the belief that German culture is superior and that the German people have a universal mission to save Western civilization from inferior races.

Politburo

the institution that became the leading organ of the communist party in Russia.

Tito

the leader of a resistance movement in Yugoslavia that led a band of guerillas against German forces with 250,000 soldiers. His real name is Josip Broz

Declaration of the rights of man and the citizen

the new constitution that the National Assembly (1789) wrote that gave all citizens free expression of thoughts and opinions and guaranteed equality before the law

Feminism/Friedan & "The Feminine Mystique"

there was revived interest in the women's liberation movement and there were portests to try and gain equal political and lefal rights. An important individual in this movement was Betty Friedan who was uneasy about being the traditional housewife son in 1963, she published "The Feminine Mystique" where she analyzed the problems and inequality that middle-class American women faced. It instantly became a classic and in 1966, she founded the National Organization for Women (NOW) which was formed to try and help women achieve equality.

Middle Passage

transportation of slaves to the new world. 300-450 people would be packed into a ship, with a mortality rate of 10%. As many as 10 million slaves were moved to the Americas between 1500s-1800s. The effects were catastrophic. Many native tribes went into poverty, faced depopulation, and there was increased warfare between African tribes, etc.

Poussin

was the leading painter of the classical French Baroque style, although he spent most of his working life in Rome. Most of his works were on religious and mythological subjects painted for a small group of Italian and French collectors.

Persian Letters

written by Montesquieu; described a Persian in France writing to another back in the middle east and compared Louis XIV to the Persian ruler; criticized French government

Friederich List

wrote National System of Political Economy, which advocated fast and large-scale industrialization to develop nation's strength and the use of protective tariffs to make people buy domestic goods.

95 theses

wrote in response to use of indulgences. Gained support but was completely ignored by Pope Leo X.

Social Darwinism/Racism

Using Darwins terminology, Herbert Spencer argued that societies were organisms that evolved through time from a struggle with their environment and progress came about through the survival of the fittest and no intervention from the state. Racism= nationalists/racists said nations, too, were in a struggle for existence and that only the fittest survived.

Revolt in the Netherlands

VERY RICH PART OF PHILIP'S EMPIRE -divided religiously and culturally, so there were 17 indecent states. Anger over taxing and Philip wanting to strengthen the monarchy, so they revolted. They got help from Elizabeth I. -The struggle continued until 1609 where only the Arras remained under Spanish control

Railroads and canals

Very important especially railroads. There were 2,000 miles of railroads in 1840 and 6,000 in 1850.

18th Century Hospitals

Very poorly kept up and extremely crowded. they sucked!!

Concordant

The Pope could remove bishops, Catholicism was reinstated as the majority religion (but not the religion of the state), the Catholic Church is not the enemy of France, however, Napoleon could elect bishops, he kept the land taken during the revolution.

Sputnik/Space race

The Soviet Union inaugurates the "Space Age" with its launch of Sputnik, the world's first artificial satellite. The spacecraft, named Sputnik after the Russian word for "satellite," was launched at 10:29 p.m. Moscow time from the Tyuratam launch base in the Kazakh Republic. Visible with binoculars before sunrise or after sunset, Sputnik transmitted radio signals back to Earth strong enough to be picked up by amateur radio operators. Those in the United States with access to such equipment tuned in and listened in awe as the beeping Soviet spacecraft passed over America several times a day. In January 1958, Sputnik's orbit deteriorated, as expected, and the spacecraft burned up in the atmosphere.

War in Iraq

The U.S accused Saddam Hussein of supporting the Taliban and making weapons of mass destruction so they invaded in '03 and defeated the Iraqi army but foreign terrorists and Islamic militants still meant problems. Then it kind of turned into a hot mess because it seemed that the country would descend into Civil war but the U.S stepped in and stabilized it in 2007. Americans then left in 2011.

Americanization

The U.S was very influential in shaping pop culture internationally through movies, music, ads and tv. Motion pictures were the primary vehicle for the diffusion of American pop culture. American networks unloaded their products internationally at a low price and only the quota system stopped American TV from completely​ inundating these countries. American music was also super popular!!! Jazz, blues and rock'n'roll all came from the U.S and spread around the world which inspired artists like the Beatles.

West Germany

The Western zones unified in 1949 under chancellor Konrad Adenauer who cooperated with Western nations and desired reconciliation with places like France. With the worry that South Korea might fall to Communism, West Germany rearmed in 1955 and joined NATO. Economically, he pursued a policy of new currency and free markets which led to rapid growth and low unemployment rates. Postwar, there were the Nuremberg trials to condemn nazis as war criminals and in the process of denazification, they were addressed in the school curriculum. He resigned in 1966.

Transformation of Liberalism GB

The failure to enact reforms called for collective ownership and control over production/distribution and exchange. In 1906, the liberals gained control and they held it to 1914. They enacted a system of social welfare. This was advanced by David Lloyd George (who later became the prime minister). Liberals moved away from laissez-faire and towards social reforms. The National Insurance Act of 1911 gave benefits to workers with sickness/unemployment as well as pensions over age 70. The house of Lords (landed aristocrats) were generally opposed to social reform measures so the liberals pushed through a law to restrict the house of Lords form stopping legislation enacted by the house fo commons. After 1911, the House of Lords largely became a debating society

Margaret Thatcher/ "Thatcherism"

The first female P.M of GB and a member of the Conservative party. She promised to lower taxes, limit social welfar and helped to control inflation. Her economic policy was termed "Thatcherism" which improved the economy but only certain areas prospered and education faltered. She took a hard line approach to Communism and focused on rebuilding the army.

Aryans

The so-called "superior" race of Germans

Emigration

The solution to overpopulation was emigration. In 1821-1850, the average number of emigrants was 110,000 a year from places like Ireland and Germany, but there was an increase in the bad harvest years. People would also emigrate internally.

Agricultural Revolution

The transformation of farming that resulted in the eighteenth century from the spread of new crops, improvements in cultivation techniques and livestock breeding, and consolidation of small holdings into large farms from which tenants were expelled

Consumer Revolution

The wide-ranging growth in consumption and new attitudes toward consumer goods that emerged in the cities of northwestern Europe in the second half of the eighteenth century.

Dawes Plan

This reduced the reparations Germany was to pay and stabilized the payments on the basis of the ability to pay. Americans also gave a 200 million dollar loan which led to heavy American investments and an age of European prosperity (1924-1929).

Emilie du Chatelet

a French natural philosopher, mathematician, physicist, and author during the early 1730s.

Copernicus

a Renaissance- and Reformation-era mathematician and astronomer who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe,

Bernini

a baroque architect and sculptor. Made the Colonnade for piazza in from of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome and was his greatest architectural work

Maginot Line

a fortification built before World War II to protect France's eastern border against Germany.

Cottage Industry

a merchant would buy the raw materials and "put them out" to rural workers who would spin it into yarn and then cloth. Capitalist entrepreneurs would sell for a profit. Often a family enterprise: women+children would spin while men wove.

Scientific Method

a method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.

Romanticism

a movement in the arts and literature that originated in the late 18th century, emphasizing inspiration, subjectivity, and the primacy of the individual.

New Social Classes: The Industrial Middle Class

a new middle-class group, the bourgeoise developed. Even though the term had been around for a while, the definiton changed. It used to be a merchant, lawyer, artisan,etc. who had special rights from a charter. Now it was people involved in comerce, industry, banking of all levels.

Charivari

a noisy mock serenade performed by a group of people to celebrate a marriage or mock an unpopular person (RELATES TO THE CARNIVAL AND PUBLIC HUMILIATION )

Relics

a part of a deceased holy person's body or belongings kept as an object of reverence.

Suffragist

a person advocating the extension of suffrage, especially to women.

Glastnost

a policy of the Soviet government allowing freer discussion of social problems; "openness"

Kant

a professor in East Prussia and the greatest German philosopher of the age, argued in 1784 that if serious thinkers were granted the freedom to exercise their reason publicly in print, then enlightenment would follow-suggested that Prussia's Frederick the Great was an enlightened monarch because he permitted freedom of press

St. Theresa of Avila

a prominent Spanish mystic, Roman Catholic saint, Carmelite nun and author during the Counter Reformation, and theologian of contemplative life through mental prayer.

India

cheapest labor here could not compete in quality or quantity when it came to cotton. They prevented them from

War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)

conflict caused by the rival claims for the dominions of the Habsburg family; before the death of Charles VI, Holy Roman emperor and archduke of Austria, many of the European powers had guaranteed that Charles's daughter Maria Theresa would succeed him

New rights for Women (On the eve of WWI)

divorce was legalized and property rights were givin​g by the beginning of the 1900s to women in many countries all over Europe. Some women had gained access to higher education. WOMEN STILL COULDN'T VOTE IN MANY COUNTRIES FOR SOME D U M B A S S REASON (Except in Norway, Sweden, etc.)

Vincent Van Gogh

dutch post impressionist artist. painted "the starry night" 1889. mentally ill in later life. cut off his own ear. influential in the world of painting, very famous

Industrial Factory

employees hired workers who no longer owned means of production but were simply paid wages to run the machines. A new type of discipline was necesary. MAchines could not sit idle, so employers had to create a set time for working. Factories had intense regulations and severe punishments for things like being late.

Fuhrerprinzip

a single-minded party united under 1 leader (a.k.a Hitler)

enclosure acts

allowed land to be legally enclosed to the landed aristocracy. Pushed out small farmers.

Lend-lease

allows America to sell, lend, or lease arms or other war supplies to any nation considered "vital to the defense of the U.S."

Cubism

an artistic movement in France beginning in 1907 that featured surfaces of geometrical planes

Simone de Beauvoir

an educated woman involved in the existentialist movement, politics, and writing. She wrote "The Second Sex" which talked about freedoms for women as well as their limits (receiving second-class status in a male-dominated society).

Airplanes

appeared on the battlefront by the end of 1915. Initially used to spot the enemy's position, but they soon began to attack ground targets. Fighting for control of the air became a big battle. Initially soldiers would shoot handheld guns, but then they shifted to machine guns attached to the planes​​

The Law of the General Maximum

established price controls on goods declared of 1st necessity. The controls failed to go well

mass education

attending secondary school and university and receiving a classical education. States began to offer compulsory primary school education (ages 6 to 12) and by 1900, many of these countries had come to finance schools, give salaried and trained teachers and free education for the masses. Liberals though education was important to personal+social improvement and conservatives liked it to improve the quality of military recruits. The chief motive for mass education was political because the voting expansion meant it was meant it was necessary to have an educated electorate and mass compulsory education instilled patriotism and nationalism. Girls and boys were still taught differently--> girls had little math and science, but a lot of homemaking skills. Boys were taught things like carpentry and military skill.

Hyperinflation

in 1914--> it was 4.2 marks to the dollar in 1923--> it was 4.2 trillion marks to the dollar This happened in Germany because of passive resistance to occupation in the Ruhr valley by French troops

After the fall of the Soviet Union

in 1989 and 1990, Eastern European countries developed new governments and scrapped the old order. Most, however, struggled with little to no experience with democracy and there were ethnic troubles. By the 21st century, things were looking up because some countries had a prosperous free market​, and joined the NATO and/or the EU.

Vatican II

ever since the enlightenment, Christianity had been on the defensive. Pope John XXIII summoned the ecumenical council (Vatican II) where he liberalized a number of practices to try to revive Catholicism. The Church attendence rose slightly in the 40's/50's but then started to go back down in the 60's.

Principle of Intervention

foreign nations could invade and defend to restore legit monarchs.

Weimar Republic

formed by a coalition of social democrats, the Catholic center party, and German democrats. In 1925, Paul von Hindenburg was elected president (but DID NOT like the republic). The republic didn't have control over institutions like the army, bureaucrats/judges, etc. They also had economic difficulties where individuals who lived on fixed incomes saw their stipends become worthless (because of the inflation of '22 and '23). This led to many people turn to extremist parties. Because it was so weak, Hitler could come to power

witchcraft

in the 16th and 17th century, fuses was an incredibly high increase in trials+ executions. Possibly 100,000 people were charged with witchcraft. These most often occurred in places where there was still Protestant-Catholic controversies, as well as social disorder/turmoil. Women were the primary victims

James Joyce

influential Irish writer noted for his many innovations (such as stream of consciousness writing) (1882-1941)

Ambassadors

initially--> servants of all Christiandom later--> Only became agents of the the territorial state that sent them. They were able to use nay methods that were beneficial to the political interests of his own state.

Bolsheviks (a.k.a Communists)

meaning the "majority." Lenin applied this term to his faction of the Russian Social Democratic Party of the Soviet Union after the Russian Revolution. They guided Lenin's principles of an elite party and a dual social revolution. They siezed power in November 1917 and transformed the political landscape of the twentieth century; they worked within their nations' political systems intstead of exerting significant prewar influence on members of other socialist groups.

Congress of Vienna

meeting of the members of the Quadruple Alliance (Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia), who wanted to defeat France and ensure peace after the war. 3 main goals were to redistribute territory, establish a balance of power, and keep future revolutions from happening. Proved successful as it prevented any major World Wars from 1815-1914. Leader of this meeting was Prince Klemens von Metternich.

sea coal

mineral coal, as distinct from other types of coal such as charcoal.

Joint Stock investment banks

mobilized enormous capital resources for investment (especially important for railroads).

Cons of Napoleon

napoleonic military tactics censorship secret police debt reestablishing slavery single ruler women deposing leaders

King George III

new king after George I and George II; dismissed William Pitt the Elder; replaced him with Lord Bute; determined to strengthen monarchical authority and to wield the power of patronage personally; periodic bouts of insanity + later appointed William Pitt the Younger

chapbooks

short brochures (both spiritual and secular) that were for the lower classes. They increased the literacy rates for both men (29%-47%) and women (14%-27%)

Mein Kampf

talked about his ideology which included things like extreme German nationalism, virulent anti-semitism, and vicious anti-communism.

Metternich

the Austrian foreign minister who was the leader of the Congress of Vienna; claimed that he was guided by the principal of legitimacy. Kind had business everywhere

Red Terror

the Cheka was known as the Red Terror and they executed 1000s of all classes.

Palestinian Territories/Anti-Western sentiment

the Israeli-Palestinian conflict where the U.S supported Israel led to anti-western/anti-U.S sentiment among many Muslims as well as Ayatollah Khomeini (leader of Iran) who blamed the U.S for the corruption of his country. Another instance of anti-western sentiment was the U.S involvement in Saudia Arabia+ Kuwait and in Iraq where many innocent people died.

Duma

the Russian parliament, after the revolution of 1905, instituted by Nicholas II. It served as the representative body that the people demanded during the revolution. Nicholas reserved himself ministerial appointments, financial policy, and military and foreign affairs. This body faced many dissolutions and was used by various parties to take better charge in the government.

Proletariat

the body of wage-laborers whose labor became a commodity of the labor marketplace. Wage laborers lost significant ownership of the means of production, such as tools and equipment, and of control over the conduct of their own trades. This was a huge part of the factory system in the boom of industrialization.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

the controller of finances (under Louis XIV) who stressed mercantilism. He oversaw training of employees and gave special privileges to those whos started new industries. Bankrupted treasury for wars,etc.

Predestination

the divine foreordaining of all that will happen, especially with regard to the salvation of some and not others. It has been particularly associated with the teachings of St. Augustine of Hippo and of Calvin.

Great Schism

the division or conflict in the Roman Catholic Church from 1378 to 1417, when there were rival popes at Avignon and Rome. also called Schism of the West. the separation of the Eastern Church from the Western Church, traditionally dated 1054.

Einsatzgruppen

the mobile killing squads. They killed about 1,000,000 people but were deemed to slow and ineffective so it escalated to death camps

Conservatism

obedience to political authority, organized religion is crucial to social order, hated revolutionary upheavals, unwilling to accept either the liberal demands for civil liberties and representative gov't or nationalistic aspirations generated by the French revolution, community over individual rights, tradition lends to order. **Usually hereditary monarchs, bureaucracies, landed aristocracy, etc.

Pauper Apprentices

orphans or bonded children that were in the care of local parishes who were often under strict discipline, recieved inadequete food+recreation and became deforemd from being kept in weird positions for a long time.

Tithes

owed by a peasant, often 1/3 of crops. Aristocrats would claim hunting rights on the land of peasants and monopolies on peasant enterprises.

3rd estate

peasants

1524 Peasant Rebellion

peasants unhappy with conditions (abuse, taxes, etc.) so rebellion began first in SW Germany and then spread. The peasants thought that Martin Luther would support them, but he did NOT (wrote a response that instead supported the nobility). The rebellion was crushed by may of 1525.

Intendants

people who would execute the orders of the French central gov't. They came to be more powerful than provincial governor which grew the power of the monarchy.

Mercator projection

projection of a map of the world onto a cylinder in such a way that all the parallels of latitude have the same length as the equator.

The Great Fear

rural panic during the beginning of the French Revolution (1789-1799). As the National Assembly devised a constitution, people in the countryside, already facing severe food shortages, struggled with rumors about as aristocratic plot to pay beggars and vagrants to burn crops or barns. These rumors sometimes inspired violent attacks on aristocrats or on property holders' records of peasants' dues.

Mannerism

s a style in European art that emerged in the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520, lasting until about 1580 in Italy, when the Baroque style began to replace it. ... Mannerism in literature and music is notable for its highly florid style and intellectual sophistication.

Urbanization

the process of making an area more urban. Some fought this because nature was being destroyed.

Scandinavian cooperatives

they were super successful with the great depression. 1. They encouraged the development of rural+industrial cooperative industries and privately owned business also did well. 2. They expanded social services such as pensions, free prenatal care, annual paid vacations.

mass politics

expansion of political democracy through voting rights for men and creation of mass political parties.

Corn Laws

extremely high tariffs on any grain imported to G.B. Becomes almost unaffordable to buy food for some.

New Model Army

An army created in 1645 by Oliver Cromwell to fight for the Parliamentary cause in the English Civil War. Led by Thomas Fairfax, it was a disciplined and well-trained army which later came to possess considerable political influence. EXTREME PURITANS --> fought for the Lord

Atomic Bombs

-dropped in Hiroshima and Nagasaki -American planes dropped atomic bombs in Japan on August 6 and 9, 1945 -the mass bombing of cities and civilians, one of the terrible new practices of WWII, now ended the final nightmare: unprecedented human destruction in a single blinding flash -killed about 200,000 people between the two bombs

Multinational Corporations

-general electric, Sony, Mitsubishi -responsible for more than 1/2 of the world's industrial production with the majority of these businesses centered in Germany, the U.S and Japan.

John Paul II

(1978-2005) A Polish pope in Germany who called for human rights in an effort to end communism and succeeded. He also urged his people to tear down the Berlin Wall. He was much loved, and holds the second longest reign.

Seven Years War

(Could be called the first World War.) Prussia's well trained army invaded Saxony. (An Ally of Austria.) This caused France and GB to be mad at each other over their colonies again for some reason so they start fighting. Those two fought in North America (its called the French and Indian War) and in the West Indies, India, and central Europe. Prussia was losing until the Russian tsar died and a pro-Prussian one withdrew Russia from the Franco-Austrian alliance. Prussia got to keep all the territory, including Silesia which he won earlier. Britain and France ended their fighting with the Treaty of Paris.

Nicholas I

(Mentioned in Russia in the 1820's card) -The only other notable thing about him in this chapter is that he sent troops to crush the rebellions in Austria in 1848 and helps Austria to reestablish total control.

Francis Ferdinand's Assassination

(crown prince) heir to Austrian throne from 1896: assassinated on June 28, 1914 during good-will mission in Sarajevo, Bosnia (Aus-Hung) by Serbians, sparking WWI: caused Germany and other Austro Allies to declare war on Serbia and its allies

Apartheid

(in South Africa) a policy or system of segregation or discrimination on grounds of race.

Thomas Hobbes

- English materialist/ political philosopher who advocated absolute sovereignty as the only kind of government that could resolve problems caused by the selfishness of humans - wrote "Leviathan" and believed people were naturally cruel, greedy, and selfish; believed only a powerful government could keep an orderly society

Chamberlain

1938; gullible British Prime Minister; declared that Britain and France would fight if Hitler attacked Poland. He pursued a policy of appeasement and was eventually replaced by Winston Churchill.

3 estates

1st estate- clergy 2nd estate- nobility 3rd estate-peasants

Dada Movement

A European artistic and literary movement (1916-1923) that flouted conventional aesthetic and cultural values by producing works marked by nonsense, travesty, and incongruity. attempted to enshrine the purposelessness of life. They were revolted by the insanity of life so they tried to create "anti-art".

C. Debussy

A French composer of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, known for his free rhythms and indefinite keys. His music is often compared to the paintings of the impressionists. The piano piece "Claire de lune" ("Moonlight") and the orchestra piece La Mer (The Sea) are two of his best-known works.

Henri Bergson

A French philosopher who accepted rational, scientific thought was a practical instrument for providing useful knowledge but thought it was incapable for people to arrive at tr​uth. TO him, reality could only be grasper intuitively​ ​and experienced directly.

Death/Concentration Camps

A camp where prisoners of war, political prisoners, or members of minority groups are confined, typically under harsh conditions. It was made most notorious because of Hitler's usage of the camps to exterminate Jews.

Reichstag Fire

A fire broke out in the Reichstag and Hitler convinced Hindenburg that it had been set by communists and that led to Hitler suspending the basic rights of citizens/the right to arrest anyone without reason.

Balance of Power

A distribution of power among several states so no one single country can dominate the interests of others

Geoffrin

A famous woman who had many salons and brought together many of the most influential figures. She faced criticism from men because of the power she held, but through salons, women were able to take a larger interest in many topics.

Georges Sorel

A frenchman who advocated Revolutionary socialism (nonrational/advocated violent action as the only way to achieve the true aims of socialism. He recommended the use of the general strike which was a mythic image of the working class seizing power).

James Watt's Steam Engine

A machine that turns the energy released by burning fuel into motion. Thomas Newcomen and Thomas Savery built the first steam engines, but they were inefficient. James Watt vastly improved the steam engine. This meant factories didn't have to be near water and entrepreneurs could choose where they wanted to build their factories. production greatly increased.

Irish Republican Army (IRA)

A militant organization of Irish nationalists who used terrorism and guerilla warfare in an effort to drive British forces from Northern Ireland and achieve a united independent Ireland

French National Front

A political group with anti-foreign sentiment and strong French nationalism.

fronds

A revolt. There were two revolts. the first fronde which started in Paris and ended in compromise(1648+1649) The second fronde was the nobles of the sword who wanted to overthrow Mazarin. The Fronde was crushed, largely due to internal conflict among nobles. ***AFTER THESE TWO FRONDES, MANY CITIZENS JUST BEGAN TO TRUST IN THE CROWN****

Unconditional Surrender

An announcement by FDR with Churchill's endorsement that the war would end only with this. The conquered governments would be no longer, no compromise could be reached. Later people believe that this stiffened enemy resistance

Paracelsus

Advanced the treatment and diagnosis of disease. Thought that diseases were caused by chemical imbalances.

Tony Blair

After the Thatcher debacle with trying to replace local property taxes with a flat rate (so the rich would pay the same as the poor) that caused revolts, Tony Blair stepped in in 1997. He had centrist policies and started an international anti-terrorist group and supported U.S intervention in Iraq (Which Britons​ didn't like). After him, Gordon Brown (Labour Party) became P.M, then David Cameron (Conservative) and now Theresa May (Conservative).

Reform in GB (1870's-1890's)

After the reform act of 1867, William Gladstone made further expansion through the Reform Act of 1884 (which gave the vote to all men who paid taxes regularly-added another 2 million voters). The redistribution act eliminated historic boroughs and established constituencies w/ pretty much equal representation. In 1911, the members of House of Commons were given salaries which opened up the door to non-wealthy individuals.

GB Nationalization

After the war, the Labour Party (with promises of social welfare, etc.) greatly defeated Churchill's conservative party. Clement Attlee became the P.M and nationalized the Bank of England, the coal+steel industries, public transport He also did things like the National Insurance Act (comprehensive social security program and national medical insurance) and the National Health Service Act of 1946 (created a system of socialized medicine so doctors would work with state hospitals). Building a national welfare state was EXPENSIVE so they dismantled the GB empire and reduced military aid to Turkey+ Greece.

Tories

supported James even though they hated Catholics

Civil/Napoleonic Code

Also known as the Civil Code of 1804, this safeguarded all forms of property, allowed freedom of religion, and gave Napoleon dictatorial power. It also ensured equality of all men before law.

Containment

American fears of Soviet aims led to further intervention into European affairs and a containment of Soviet aggressive moves. George Kennan, an American diplomat, favored counter-force and after the Soviet blockade of Berlin in 1948, it became the formal policy.

Columbus

An Italian navigator who was funded by the Spanish Government to find a passage to the Far East. He is given credit for discovering the "New World," even though at his death he believed he had made it to India. He made four voyages to the "New World." He arrived in Bahamas in August of 1492.

Kerensky

An agrarian socialist who became prime minister. He refused to confiscate land holdings and felt that continuation of war was most important. He was the leader of the provisional gov't before it was overtaken by Lenin.

Plantation system

The division of the land into smaller units under private ownership became known as the plantation system. Starting in Virginia the system spread to the New England colonies. Crops grown on these plantations such as tobacco, rice, sugar cane and cotton were labour intensive.

William Pitt

As secretary of state in charge of the Seven Years' War, this British official sent tons of troops to confront the French in Canada. Proved instrumental in helping Great Britain emerge as a world power from the war. Helped England gain Canada and India.

mass tourism

As wages increased and workers were given paid vacations, tourism opened up.

National Assembly

Assembly formed by the Third Estate; joined also by the clergy and, eventually, the nobility; main goals were to overthrow the monarchy and to create a new constitution

Blank Check

Austria enlisted the help of Germany who responded with the "blank check" which basically said that they had Germany's support no matter what happened (even war).

MAYBE ADD A TERM OR TWO FOR DEMOCRATIC STATES IN THE WEST DURING THE DEPRESSION

BASICALLY KNOW THEY ALL SUFFERED :/

Alfred Dreyfus/Dreyfus Affair

Basically the deal with this was that Alfred Dreyfus (A french high-ranking military official) w was convicted of selling army secrets to Germany and was condemned to life imprisonment (THOUGH HE LITERALLY DID NOTHING). The actual people who did this were probably French Catholic Military Officials, but the right-wing journalists had an absolute FIELD DAY with this to push their personal agenda and further anti-semitism. Public outrage ensued and the impact went beyond france. Theodor Herzel (Zionism movement) was the guy to actually free Alfred in 1905.

Portuguese+French Possessions

Before 1880, France+Portugal had the only other European settlements in Africa. Portugal had Angola and Mozambique (East Coast) and beginning in 1830, France began their conquest of Algeria. By 1900, France had French West Africa, Tunisia and a lot of Morrocco (the other part went to Spain)

Directory

Body of five directors that held executive power in France; lasted from November 1795 to November 1799; unpopular in France because it seemed as though it would end the Revolution

Red Army

Bolsheviks

John Maynard Keynes

British economist who condemned the traditional view that depression should work themselves out and instead said unemployment came from a decline in demand and that demand could be increased by public works.

Carnival + Taverns

Carnival=celebrated leading up to Lent and full of indulgences that weren't allowed during Lent. People ate a lot of meat, had a bunch of sex, heavily drank and fought one another. Taverns=taverns were regular meeting places for men in the community to play games, conduct business matters and drink. Many poor people drank themselves into oblivion.

Ottoman Empire

Conquered Constantinople in 1453. They wanted to complete conquest of Balkans. They took Romanian territory of Wllachia in 1476. Hungary kept them at bay until sultan Suleiman seized Belgrade by 1526. Extended their power until 1683, when they were expelled by Vienna and Hungary and they would never again be a threat to Europe

Printing Press

Created sometime between 1445 and 1450 by Johannes Gutenberg. The 1st book printed was Gutenburg's Bible in 1455 or 1456 -by the year 1500, over 1,000 printers w/ 4,000 titles were made

Brahe

Date Alive: 1546 - 1601 Occupation: Astronomer Contributor of: Scientific Revolution Contributions: Brahe provided important, extensive observations of planets that were used by many of the scientists including his assistant, Johannes Kepler, who proved planets orbited around the sun in an oval pathway.

Ceausescu

Dictator Nicolae Ceausecu rejected the reforms by Gorbachev and after the crushing of a demonstration in 1989, more demonstrations sprouted up and the army stopped supporting repression so he and his wife were captured and executed on Christmas day :/

Peace of Pyrennes

Ended the thirty years war for France and Spain, which dragged on after it had ended in Germany.

Puritans

English Protestants who thought Reformation of Church of England was incomplete. They wanted a more radical and separate break.

Virginia Woolf

English author whose work used such techniques as stream of consciousness and the interior monologue

Petrarch

Father of humanism. He sought forgotten Latin manuscripts, ransacked monasteries and used pure Classical Latin.

Dutch Realism

Focus on everyday secular life -portraits, group portraits, still life Rembrandt (girl with pearl earring) and Leyster (female) (self-portrait)

Joseph Lister

Followed the work of Pasteur and he used carbolic acid (a disinfectant) to eliminate many infections.

Laissez-faire

Free the economy from gov't intervention and control. Instead, have free international trade.

Diderot

French philosopher, art critic and writer who served as the founder, chief editor and contributor to the Encyclopedia.

Paul Cezanne

French postimpressionist painter who influenced modern art (especially cubism) by stressing the structural components latent in nature (1839-1906)

Acronym for the Treaty of Versailles (GARGLE)

G-Guilt Clause A-Army (reducing the army to 100,000/no airplanes/no ships) R-Reparations (6.6 Million to be paid) G-Germany lost Land (Alsace-Lorraine to France, Danzig a "free city, German colonies become mandates of the League of Nations, etc.) L-League of Nations (set up) E-extra stuff (Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia made into states)

Victorian Age (1837-1901)

GB was fairly stable because of economic growth, it had good representation for the industrial middle class (Reform Act of 1832), citizens had a sense of pride in their leader (Queen Victoria) and in their nation. The Prime minister at the time was Henry John Temple, Lord Palmerston who was a whig but he didn't have strong party loyalty and he made political compromises easily. After he died, Benjamin Disraeli became the P.M. After Disraeli, William Gladstone became the P.M.

War in Afghanistan

George Bush wanted retaliation for 9/11 so the U.S + NATO began bombing Taliban-controlled command systems and Al-Queda hiding places. Afghan forces opposed to the Taliban eventually helped to push them out and a new government came in.

Louis Pasteur

He formulated the germ theory of disease (bacteria causes disease, heat kills bacteria, etc.). He also developed pasteurization and made a vaccination for rabies which later applied to diptheria, typhoid fever, cholera, and plague.

Francisco Franco

He led the Spanish Nationalists and he established a dictatorship that lasted until his death in 1975. His gov't outlawed political opposition, favored large landowners, business, the Catholic Clergy and curtailed the media.

Concert of Europe

Heavy emphasis on conservatism. This was an agreement among European leaders to try to destroy all ideas of revolution and countries would cross borders to reestablish sovereignty.

High Culture vs. Popular Culture

High culture= literary and artistic world of the educated and wealthy ruling classes. Philosophers, intellectuals, poets, etc. were supported by wealthy, literate laymen. Popular culture=written and unwritten lore of the masses. Expansion of publishing/reading due to the increasing group of literate people.

Diplomatic Revolution

Hitler pushed the rest of Europe into letting germany get back their armed military and even take control of some land and no one in Europe tried to stop them so Hitler achieved his diplomatic revolution.

Czechoslovakia

Hitler stepped up his demands of the Czechs. He initially asked for the autonomy of the Sudetenland but in September of 1938, he demanded cession of Sudetenland​​ to Germany. After that, Hitler came to occupy the Czech lands while the Slovaks declared their independence and became a puppet state (Slovakia) of Nazi Germany.

House of Commons and House of Lords

House of Commons=landed gentry who served as justices of peace in the counties House of Lords=the peers who sat for life

Truman Doctrine

In 1946, the Communist People's Liberation Army and the anti-communist forces were fighting for control in Greece. Great Britain initially had primary responsibility in postwar reconstruction fo the Meditteranean but they had to pull out in 1947 so Truman responded with the Truman Doctrine. This plan stated that they would give financial aid to countries who claimed they were threatened by Communist expansion so they stepped in to help Turkey and Greece with 400 million dollars in aid.

Cuban Missile Crisis

In 1959, Fidel Castro overthrew Fulgencio Batista and established a Soviet supporting totalitarian government. In 1961, America tried to invade Cuba (bay of pigs) but failed and the next year, the U.S.S.R decided to station nuclear weapons in Cuba which JFK decided to blockade. As a response, Russia said they would turn back if Kennedy pledged not to invade Cuba. This ordeal brought the U.S+ Russia SUPER close to war but in that same year, the 2 powers decided to ban nuclear tests in the atmosphere.

Munich Olympic Games

In 1972, 27 African nations threatened to pull out of the Munich Olympics because of apartheid in South Africa. Also at the Munich Games, the Palestinain terrorist group Black September seized eleven Israeli athletes as hostages, all of whom died in confrontation at an airport.

Lech Walsea

In 1988, demonstrations in Poland led to the Polish regime to agree to parliamentary elections and a new government was formed under the Solidarity movement leader, Lech Walsea.

Papal States

In central Italy. Usually under the control of popes, but Great Schism allowed for individual territories (Urbino, Bologna and Ferrara) to become indecent of papal authority.

Conscription

In many countries, conscription was normal, but now even in GB which had a large base of volunteers in the army had to begin conscription to supply all the necessary manpower for the war.

Colonial Contributions to WWI

In the Middle East, GB officer Lawrence of Arabia incited Arab princes to overthrow the Ottoman Empire and Egypt/Mesopotamia with the help of forces from India, Australia, and New Zealand. Allied forces used the war to try to take Germany's colonies, but it was not an easy process and they only fell shortly before the war's end. Many Africans were also recruited into the actual armies, but casualties were high because of unfamiliar terrain/climate. A final way African were used was for labor and production within Africa so they could move supplies/produce munitions, etc. In Asia+the Pacific, Japan joined the Allies to take possession of German territories in China and islands in the Pacfic. New Zealand and Australia jumped in and helped too.

Child Labor

In the late 1800s a significant portion of the labor force was made up of children under the age of 15, some as young as 5 years old. These child laborers did not attend school. They worked in sweat shops which were workshops in tenements rather than factories.

Trench Warfare

In the west, a stalemate developed where troops were down in trenches. Throughout the entirety of the war, they only moved like 5 miles yet casualties were SUPER high. There was usually some sort of regular schedule with the warfare. They would be up 30 minuted to sunrise to prepare for attacks and if nothing happened they would have breakfast and tend to their daily duties, and then later in the day they would generally stand guard and finally once more before the end of the night. There was kind of a system of "live and let live" where they would occasionally warn the other side about attacks and things like that.

Prague Spring

In what became knows as the Prague Spring, the government of Czechoslovakia, under Dubcek, began to experiment with a more liberal communism. Dubcek expanded the freedom of discussion and other intellectual rights at a time when they were being suppressed in the Soviet Union. This STOPPED REAL QUICK and led to the Prague Spring where the Red Army came in, replaced Dubcek with Gustáv Husák and they abolished the reforms/reestablished the old order.

Industrialization on the Continent (Leading up to the 2nd Industrial revolution)

Increased mechanization of industries such as textiles, iron and cotton. The continent progressed, but remained behind G.B in every industry. This was largely b/c Britain had a giant system of railroads and elimination of certain international trade barriers.

Persian Gulf

Iraq invaded Kuwait so the U.S stepped in to help Kuwait and the Soviets supported the U.S. After that conflict, the Soviet Union was no more so the U.S became the premier military power in the world.

home rule

Ireland would have a separate parliament but not complete independence

Monroe Doctrine for Asia/Great East Asia Prosperity Sphere

Japan invaded the Dutch East Indies+some Pacific islands and by spring of 1942, much of SE Asia and West Pacific (which Japan called the "Great East Asia Prosperity Sphere") and Japan announced their intention of freeing Asia from colonialism.

Ghettos

Jews were separated from the general population. They were forced to live in dilapidated housing with inadequate supplies. Described by an inhabitant as "a prison without a roof." After staying in a ghetto for an extended amount of time, the Jews were sent to concentration camps.

D-Day

June 6, 1944 - Led by Eisenhower, over a million troops (the largest invasion force in history) stormed the beaches at Normandy and began the process of re-taking France, turning point of World War II The Germans believed the allied forces were going to come in through Northern France, so this came as a suprise.

Henry VII/Tudors

Killed last Yorkist in 1485 and became king. He stopped private armies, established a strong monarchical government and started the Court of the Star Chamber

Charles de Gaulle

Leader of the Free French movement. General that resigned in 1946 after re-establishing the free, democratic Fourth Republic. Came back to lead the Fifth Republic in 1959.

Oliver Cromwell

Leader of the New Model Army in the English Civil War, where he led the Roundheads to victory against the Cavaliers. He became Lord Protector of Great Britain Under cromwell, Britain became a commonwealth (republic)

Toussant L-Ouverture

Leader of the uprising in San-Dominique. Napoleon captured him and he later died in prison.

Frederick the Elector

Leader of Brandenburg-Prussia. He improved the power of the military (had a standing army of 40,000 men), centralized gov't, and had a heavy use of mercantilism

entrepreneurs

Lots of entrepreneurs (mainly in GB). This was not an easy task because you had to raise capital, determine the markets, organize factory+labor and train supervisors. Opportunities for $$ were great, but risks were also great (intensely competitive so only way was to feel secure was through constant expansion, fear of bankruptcy was constant, most early industrial entrepreneurs were small.)

Cardinal Richelieu

Louis XIII's chief minister. He lessens the threat of Huguenots by maintaining religious privileges, but taking away military and political rights. This made them more loyal subject. He also had a network of spies to take out the more extreme nobles.

Edict of Nantes

Made Catholicism the official religion of France, yet gave huguenots the ability to worship in select places and gave them political equality

Backlash/American Culture

Marshall McLuhan predicted that advances in mass communication would lead to a breakdown of cultural barriers and that the world would be united but many critics argued that Western/American culture HAS BEEN SHOVED DOWN THE THROAT of less developed countries.

mestizos/mulattoes

Mestizos=whites+American Indians Mulattoes=whites+Africans

Abundance of Capital

Money to invest in new industrial machines and the factories

Party of Movement vs. Party of Resistance

Movement=Led by Adolphe Theirs. They wanted ministerial responsibility, active foreign policy, expansion of the franchise. ***THIS ONE WON** Resistance=Led by François Guizot. Thought France was at the "perfect" form of gov't and it needed no more changes.

Josephine de Beauharnais

Napoleon's first wife. After failing to give birth to an heir, Napoleon divorced her in favor of the younger Archduchess Marie Louise.

bank of France

National Bank created by Napoleon that required every citizen pay taxes, Money used to make loans to businesses, controls money supply (inflation, recession)

Hermann Goring

Nazi minister of the interior/head of police in Prussian state where he made a force of entirely SA members (which legitimized Nazi terror)

Barb wire, machine guns, poison gas

New inventions during this war.

New Maps

New maps were made that were significantly more accurate.

Example of India

Newly industrialized countries intentionally limited the mechanization of countries under their control. They cut off credit, increased land prices and raised prices on goods not approved by British authorities.

Holy Roman Empire/Hapsburgs

Not a strong monarchy. LOTS of inbreeding. -Lots of civil war and dissension

Reunification of Germany

On November 4th, 1989, half a million people flooded the streets of East Berlin and demanded the wall be torn down. Soon the government capitulated and by November 9th, there were open borders. In March of 1990, East Germany held their first ever free elections and after months of negotiation, Germany reunited on Oct 3rd, 1990.

JAMES II (England)

Open and devout Catholic. Wanted to further Catholic interests by defying the Test Act and giving Catholics high positions. He also issued a new Declaration of Indulgence, giving Catholics more freedoms Parliament largely ignored him because he was old and his daughters were Protestant, but then he had a Catholic son and they were like "oh shit"

Anticlericalism

Opposition to the church's involvement in politics; especially in the liberal-nation states of the late century.

Anti-Corn Law League

Organized by manufacturers, sought to appeal the Corn Laws for six years, wanted to abolish the tariffs protecting the domestic price of grain.

Reign of Terror

Period lasting from June 1793 to July 1794 during which thousands of citizens were killed due to being suspected of being against the republic; supported by Robespierre, who said that the only way the utopia could be kept was to eliminate all who were against them

Westernization of Russia

Peter the Great pushed for Russia to become more westernized. He brought back technology and ideas from the West. Really changed the

William Gladstone

Prime Minister after Benjamin Disraeli. He helped to make many reforms such as opening civil service positions to exams rather than patronage, introduction of secret ballot for voting, abolishing the purchase of military commission and introducing the Education act of 1870 (elementary school for all children)

Elizabeth I

Queen of England. Laid the foundations for a world empire. Daughter of Anne Boleyn and Henry VIII. FANTASTIC LEADER. Avoided war and entangling alliances, strengthened the economy and the government, etc. -She was all about not having religious division. She didn't actively persecute Catholics, but rather kind of let them do their thing.

Realpolitik

Realpolitik is a politics based on the needs of the state. Power was more important than the rule or belief governing one's personal behavior. Otto Von Bismarck was a master of realpolitik.

Columbian exchange

Reciprocal importation and exportation of plants and animals between Europe (horses, cattle, wheat, etc.) and the New World (potatoes, chocolate, corn, tomatoes, and tobacco).

Charles II

Returned to England after 11 years of exile. Parliament continued to have a lot of power, but the "cavalier parliament" was created. They restored Anglican Chruch as official church of England.

Principle of Legitimacy

Returning the legitimate monarchs to the throne (done in Spain+France-Bourbon but ignored elsewhere)

Society of Jesus/St. Ignatius of Loyola

Run in almost a militant fashion. Began in 1540 where there was absolutely obedience education, and a strict hierarchy. -To stop protestantism=they created schools that combined liberal arts with religion. BECAME REALLY POPULAR -They also did a BUNCH of missionary work and reconverted a lot of people -St. Ignatius was a solider who got injured, got into religion and then gradually started the Jesuits.

Triple Entente

Russia GB France Other forces for the allies: United States, Japan, etc.

Fyodor Dostoevsky

Russian author that thought the major problem of Western civilization was the loss of belief and that the failure to incorporate spirit would result in tyranny. He wrote "Crime and Punishment" and "The Brothers Karamazov"

Boyars

Russian nobles

Ricardo

Said increase in population would mean more workers which would cause wages to go below the subsistence level. The result is misery and starvation.

Bertha von Suttner and "New Women"

She became the head of the Austrian peace society and protested the growing arms race of the 1890s. She won a Nobel peace prize. New Woman=Women who renounced traditional feminine roles such as Maria Montessori who thought women should follow a rational, scientific approach to life. She started Montessori schools where students could learn at their own pace.

Alexandra Kollontai/Zhenotdel

She helped to create women's programs in Russia and made marriage a civil act, legalized divorce, permitted abortions and decreed equality of men and women (though that was kind of reversed ultimately). Zhenotdel was a women's bureau sent to explain the social change in Russia (though many in this bureau were murdered because men didn't want change/liberation of women)

Alexander III

Son of Alexander II. When his father was assassinated, he thought liberal reforms were a mistake and instead he expanded the powers of the secret police, he persecuted revolutionary groups/advocates, he placed entire districts under watch if the inhabitants were expected of treason and he made Russia pursue a policy of "Russiafication" meaning that the only language taught in schools was russian.

Giuseppe Mazzini

Started the Italian nationalist group called Young Italy in 1831 who set the goal fo creating a united Italian republic.

Napoleon + French Bureaucracy

The Nat'l Assembly divided France into 83 departments (which Napoleon kept) but Napoleon got rid of the locally elected assemblies and instituted prefects instead. These individuals supervised local gov't and they were the central govt's agents. There were no tax exemptions due to birth, status, or special arrangement. Promotion in civil and military offices only happened through ddemonstratedability and the aristocracy was now based on merit in the state service.

Spanish Nationalists

The Right who supported Franco's military coup, the monarchy, military, an agrarian economy and the Catholic Church

Declaration of Indulgence (Charles II ENGLAND)

The Royal Declaration of Indulgence was Charles II of England's attempt to extend religious liberty to Protestant nonconformists and Roman Catholics in his realms, by suspending the execution of the Penal Laws that punished recusants from the Church of England. Charles issued the Declaration on 15 March 1672.

Denazification

The allies agreed on this process postwar. Kind of self-explanatory

Taille

The annual direct tax on land or property

Final Solution

The answer to the Jewish and undesirables "problem." Consisted of Jews being deported to labor and concentration camps in an attempt to kill off the Jewish race with the most benefit to the government. Propaganda helped the public accept it.

Modern Diplomacy

The art or practice of conducting international relations, as in negotiating alliances, treaties, and agreements

Potsdam

The conference in 1945 were the "cold war" basically began, for Stalin declared that the Soviets would dominate eastern european countries under his control, creating a BIG communism problem for the US and Britain

Vichy France

area in southern france that was a puppet government; petain was made president; germany was really controlling

Repeal of the Corn Laws

The law lead to protests and demonstrations by urban laborers, supported by radical intellectuals. Eventually in 1846, when much of the working class allied with the middle class, the Corn laws were repealed in 1846. Their elimination was Britain's first steep towards free trade.

Chartism

The movement of supporters of the People's Charter (drawn up in Britian in 1838), which sought to transform Britain into a democracy and demanded universal suffrage for men, vote by secret ballot, equal electoral districts, annual elections, and the elimination of property qualifications for and the payment of stipends to members of Parliament.

New French Calendar

The new French calendar was designed to remove all religious and royalist influence. It consisted of 12 months with each month have three 10 day weeks. Each month had a name for a corresponding season so months would be named things like "harvest" and "frost". There would be extra days at the end of the year that would be used to celebrate values like honesty and integrity.

Modernism

The new artistic and literary styles that emerged in the decades before 1914 as artists rebelled against traditional efforts to portray reality as accurately as possible (leading to Impressionism and Cubism) and writers explored new forms.

Scientific Revolution

The scientific revolution refers to the rapid advances in European scientific, mathematical, and political thought, based on a new philosophy of empiricism and a faith in progress that defined Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Oct 1917 Revolution

The seizure of power by force by the Bolsheviks from the Provisional Government (that had replaced Tsar Nicholas II after the February Revolution) in November of 1917. After the forceful seizure of power, Lenin set himself up as the first head of a Marxist state with aspirations to change the country, making several decrees in his effort use socialist ideas (Confiscation of large estates and businesses & establishment of political monopoly- no rival political parties).

Salons

These were meeting places for philosophical discussion that was for the upper and middle-class citizens who would talk about different doctrines. These were informal gatherings, usually sponsored by middle-class or aristocratic women.

Luddites

These were the angry old cottage industry workers who lost their jobs and customers to machines and as a result, they began to secretly destroy the machines

AMERICA IN THE WAR

They came in when Germany began using unrestricted submarine warfare again, and they were also PISSED about the sinking of the Lusitania and the Zimmerman telegram (Bad move on your part Germany). Americans didn't really send troops until like 1918, but they came in guns blazing and gave the allies a moral boost. They gradually wore down the central powers until they couldn't do anything else but give up.

Russians in Asia

They explored the Pacific coast through Siberia in 637 and in the 18th century they made a claim on Alaska (Which they sold to the U.S in 1867) and gradually 7 million russians moved into Siberia. They also secued control of the Black sea, the trans-Caspian area and Turkestan. GB and Russia made Afghanistan a buffer state from Turkestan and India. They then tried to move into Korea, prompting the Russo-Japanese war, which they got absolutely destroyed in.

Allied Intervention in the Russian Civil War

They initially came to try to get Russia back into the war, but eventually they just kind of stayed in Russia and they had anti-Bolshevik sentiment.

Provisional Gov't

This was the gov't established in Russia after the king abdicated. This was very weak and didn't last long, and it was replaced by the Bolshevik's control.

Elizabethan Era/Spain's Golden Century

Time in Spain and England where it was the greatest of literature, theatre, etc. Had figures like Lope de Vega (Spain) and Shakespeare (England).

El Alamein

Town in Egypt, site of the victory by Britain's Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery over German forces led by General Erwin Rommel (the 'Desert Fox') in 1942-1943.

Medical associations/schools

Traditionally people would study under a system of apprenticeship, but now countries all over the Western world created medical schools. It used to be really hard to impose standards and some individuals would be granted degrees after only months of lectures. In 1893, John Hopkins University created a four-year curriculum and use of laboratories which became the standard model.

Battle of Midway

U.S. naval victory over the Japanese fleet in June 1942, in which the Japanese lost four of their best aircraft carriers. It marked a turning point in World War II.

Progress (in Enlightenment)

United over ideas of reason, reform and freedom, philosophes fought bigotry, religious fanaticism, slavery, etc.

Ulbrecht and Honecker (Eastern Germany)

Walter Ulbrecht helped E. Germany become a faithful Soviet satellite. Industry was nationalized, and agriculture was collectivized. Many left to W. Germany which led to the creation of the Berlin wall. E. Germany had the best economy in the Satellite states and his successor, Erich Honecker ruled with an iron fist and increased the power of the secret police.

Catharine Macaulay

Well known writer of the 1700s. Wrote a lot about English history+debate of women's education.

Shakespeare

William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet, and the "Bard of Avon".

globalization

With trading posts in the New World, there were lots of international commerce.

Women's March to Versailles

Women marched from Paris to Versailles; killed the guards and stuck their heads on sticks and attacked the palace; forced the royal family to move to Paris, putting them at the mercy of the people. Demanded bread. Recieved a lot of flour.

3 big power players (a.k.a the "Big Three") at Paris Peace Conference

Woodrow Wilson (USA) Georges Clemenceau (France) David Lloyd George (GB)

Dunkirk

a city in northern France on the North Sea where in World War II (1940) 330,000 Allied troops had to be evacuated from the beaches at Dunkirk in a desperate retreat under enemy fire

Surrealism

a 20th-century avant-garde movement in art and literature that sought to release the creative potential of the unconscious mind, for example by the irrational juxtaposition of images. sought a reality beyond the material and found it in a world of unconscious through fantasies, dreams and nightmares.

Lusitania

a British passenger ship that was sunk by a German U-Boat on May 7, 1915. 128 Americans died. The sinking greatly turned American opinion against the Germans, helping the move towards entering the war.

H. Grotius

a Dutch journalist who called for an international code based on natural law. Believed that one body of rules could reduce the dealing of governments to a system of reason and order

Claude Monet

a French painter who used a impressionism called "super-realism," capture overall impression of the thing they were painting

Bauhaus

a German interdisciplinary school of fine and applied arts that brought together many leading modern architects, designers, and theatrical innovators

Rasputin

a Siberian preacher who became friends of the Tsars, but hated by the public, twisted and cheated and exploited Alexandra.

protective tariffs

a government's way of supporting and aiding their own economy by laying high tariffs on the cheaper, imported goods of another country, ex. when France responded to cheaper British goods flooding their country with high tariffs on British imports.

Cholera

a great epidemic that spread through Europe in the 1830s and 1840s that touched all classes, and the middle-class demanded a solution. Physicians blamed the outburst of disease on the lack of sanitation, and that the filth of the city spread the disease; this caused a mass clean-up issued by gov't officials.

Expressionism

a movement focused on the artist's inner experience or personal vision that often had a strong emotional dimension. absurd, abstract, and unconcious.

Cheka

aimed to destroy all opponents of the regime (especially prosecuted upper classes/bourgeoisie)

Ernest Renan

author of Life of Jesus, in which he questioned the supernatural claims and literal truth of scripture

German Enlightenment

avoided direct political confrontations with authority. Had leaders like Gotthold Lessing, Moses Mendelssohn, and Immanuel Kant.

Postmodernism/Postculturalism

basically rejects objective truth and instead focuses on the relative nature of reality and knowledge. They said things like language was a construct and western culture is based on binary oppositions.

Joseph II of Austria

embodied rational, impersonal force; son of Maria Theresa and co-ruler with her. wished to improve the lot of people; believed in religious toleration; sought to reduce Hungarian autonomy; land system taxation -abolished serfdom and tried to give the peasants hereditary rights to their holdings. -Proved overwhelming for Austria--> many grew to hate him

War in the East

far more mobility. At the start of the war, Russia moved into Eastern Germany but was decisively defeated at both the Battles of Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes. Austria initially did not fare well and was beaten by the Russians on many occasions but Germany came back strong and beat Russia to the point where they would no longer be a threat to the German empire (and then Russia left because of the whole civil war thing/overthrowing the gov't).

Castiglione and the "Book of the Courtier

ideals for what a good aristocrat should be *They're born, not made *impeccable character *Must participate in classical education and in the military

Pugachev Rebellion

illiterate Cossack, Emelyn Pugachev, succeeded in welding the disparate elements of discontent into a mass revolt; spread across southern Russia from the Urals to the Volga River; peasants seized landlords' estates & killed more than 1500 estate owners & their families -Eventually, he was betrayed by his own and killed by Catherine the Great

Renaissance man

individual with achievements in many areas of life

Gustavus Adolphus

joins Thirty Years' War in 1629, king of Sweden, Protestant leader, stands up for fellow Protestants, military genius, wins a lot for Protestant team; killed in 1632 at battle of Luetzen.

2nd estate

nobility

September 11, 2001

one of the most destructive acts of terrorism ever with 3,000 killed.

Nationalism

patriotic feeling, principles, or efforts. Guiding principle in many revolutions (Austria, Germany, Italy).

Greenhouse effect

process by which atmospheric gases trap heat close to Earth's surface and prevent it from escaping into space

Monroe Doctrine

said European intervention would provoke U.S response, but in return, the U.S wouldn't interfere in European Affairs.

TEST ACT OF 1673 (Charles II ENGLAND)

said only Anglicans could hold military and civil offices

Flying Shuttle

sped up process of weaving on a loom

Social Democratic Party

the German Social Democratic Party, founded in 1875 because of the labor agitation of Ferdinand Lasalle who wanted workers to participate in German politics. It was divided between those who advocated reform and those who advocated revolution. Bismark largely repressed this party, believing socialsim would undermine German politics and society. Being a socialist in Germany eventually meant sacrificing a respectible German life and possibly, a career. Its members had the goal of getting more and more representatives in the Reichstag. Leading up to WWI, the party continued to grow and gain power.

Stadholder

the chief magistrate of the United Provinces of the Netherlands.

Cecil Rhodes

• Politician and financier • Wanted to extend wealth through expanding British power • Realized that Afrikaner government were major in impediments to profitable gold production • Organized an attempt to overthrow Afrikaner government1

Perestroika

• cornerstone of Gorbachev's radical reforms; "restructuring" • Mikhail Gorbachev's economic, political, and social reforms in the Soviet Union • included glasnost

Ethnic Cleansing

• killing or forcibly removing Bosnian Muslims from their lands: some 250,000 were killed and 2 million were displaced • revived memories of Nazi atrocities during WWII • European governments failed to take a stand against these activities

developing nations

• term used to refer to poor nations • mainly in the Southern Hemisphere • primarily farming nations with little technology and serious population problems

Court Etiquette

"people of quality" were meant to adhere to strict standards like the daily duties of the king. There was an elaborate structure of seniority.

Peace of Westphalia

(1648) is the collective name for two treaties ending the Thirty Years' War that were signed by the Holy Roman Empire, minor German states, Spain, France, Sweden, and the Dutch Republic. It confirmed the principle of "cuius regio eius religio" (that a ruler's religion determined that of his country) introduced by the Peace of Augsburg, but mandated relative tolerance of other (Christian) faiths. It adjusted the borders of German states and strengthened their princes with respect to the Emperor and transferred most of Lorraine and some of Alsace to France.

Voltaire

(1694-1778) French philosopher. He believed that freedom of speech was the best weapon against bad government. He also spoke out against the corruption of the French government, and the intolerance of the Catholic Church.

Jane van Eyck

One of the 1st to use oil paint. He, like other northern artists, mastered empirical observation and accurate portrayal of details.

Al Qaeda

A global militant Islamist and takfiri organization founded by Osama bin Laden, Abdullah Azzam, and several other militants.

White collar jobs

After 1870, there were fewer jobs in manufacturing, however larger industrial plants/expansion of gov't services led to a demand of white-collar workers at relatively low wages which led them to hire more women. There was an increase in clerks, secretaries, typists, salesclerks, telephone operators, teachers and nurses. A lot of the work was unexciting and didn't require much education beyond literacy (except nurses and teachers). It gave women freedom from the domestic patterns expected of them.

Tanks

Appeared on the Europe battlefields in 1916 (but the first model was super ineffective). In 1918, the GB model MArk V was introduced which was more powerful/more maneuverable which was successful in pushing back the German army. The tank came a little too late to do much in WWI, but it created a new kind of warfare for WWII.

Thomas Malthus

Argued that when the population goes unchecked there will be severe overpopulation and ultimately starvation and that misery/poverty were the inevitable results of nature.

Robert Koch

Developed new methods of culturing bacteria and straining microscope slides for examination. In 1882, his work led to the discovery of tuberculosis bacteria. He did an experiment on pigs demonstrating that a specific bacterium was the causative agent of the disease. They identified the organisms of at least 21 diseases including gonorrhea, typhoid, pneumonia, and cholera.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy, 1790

Document issued by the National Assembly ordering that all bishops and priests of the Catholic church be elected and paid by the state and that they must take an oath of allegiance to the Civil Constitution. The pope refused to the clergy to accept this arrangement.

Edward VI, Mary Tudor

Edward VI=Son of the 3rd wife of Henry VIII. He became leader at 9 years old. Under him the country became more Protestant because leaders told him what decisions to make. Mary Tudor=Catholic leader who wanted to return England to Catholicism. Unsuccessful. She was dubbed "Bloody Mary" because she killed a lot of protestants

Peace of Utrecht

Ended the War of Spanish Succession in 1713

Women and the Enlightenment

Feminist ideas were presented systematically for the 1st time during the enlightenment. Mary Astell was a female writer who advocated for a private woman's college. She wrote about a lot of other subjects about marriage and she became extremely popular. Another famous female author was Elizabeth Singer Rowe who talked about subjects like lack of education+freedoms Many male writers stuck to traditional views of women, but scientists at start of 18th century began to undermine that. Debate would continue.

Rousseau

Philosophe who published the "Social Contract." he posited that people are born good but are corrupted from education, laws, and society. He advocated a government based on popular sovereignty and was distrustful of other philosophes' suffocating conformity to "reason."

Philip IV

Offered hope for revival of Spain's energies b/c of chief minister Gaspar de Guzman. -He better centralized the gov't and curtailed power of Catholic Church -HE SUCKED MILITARY WISE -Spain kind of went down the toilet after that.

Peace of Westphalia

Officially ended war in Germany in 1648. This officially made Spain a second-class power and France a first-class power. -German provinces were able to choose their own religions -France+Swedes+Germany gained land -Hapsburgs lost some authority.

pluralism

Oftentimes the wealthy would hold the highest clergy position and high church officials often held more than one office-->led to ignoring their duties and sometimes a lack of qualifications

storming of the Bastille

On July 14th, 1784, 8,000 Parisians invaded a small, old prison in Paris to look for arms and gunpowder in response to rumors that Louis XVI was going to sack the eliminate the National Assembly. They killed the defender of the armory, paraded his head around on a stick. This showed a complete collapse of royal authority.

Emmeline Pankhurst

Organized a suffragist movement to demand voting rights for women, made controversial tactics like breaking windows, pelting politicians with eggs and burning railroad cars.

Burschenschaften

People at universities who rallied others to try and help unify Germany. This was opposed to by the various German state leaders and other worldwide leaders.

joint stock companies

People bought shares in a company and received dividends on their investment while a board of directors ran the company and made the important business decisions.

German Labor Front workbook

The German labor front was a state-run union led by Robert Ley who said that every worker had to have a workbook to hold a job and in order to get a workbook you had to submit to the Nazi policies of the Labor Front.

Spanish Republicans

The Left who supported the popular front/ concentrated in urban areas (Barcelona+Madrid). They wanted modernization, women's rights and secularization.

NGO's

There is a growth of nongovernmental organizations that again deal with things like religion, peace, youth, etc. issues.

Treaty of Tordesillas

Treaty of Tordesillas. Treaty of Tordesillas, (June 7, 1494), agreement between Spain and Portugal aimed at settling conflicts over lands newly discovered or explored by Christopher Columbus and other late 15th-century voyagers. Spain got better end of the deal.

John Law

Tried to start a nat'l bank for France and paper currency, but the stocks went too high and his company went bankrupt. This led to people to lose confidence in paper money. French public finance progressed slowly during the 18th century.

A. Renoir

painter who used a impressionism called "super-realism," capture overall impression of the thing they were painting

developed nations

• term used to refer to rich nations • primarily in Northern Hemisphere • has well-organized industrial and agricultural systems, advanced technologies, and effective educational systems

Global Warming

• threat to the environment • has the potential to create a global crisis • increase in temperature of the earth's atmosphere caused by the greenhouse effect

Travel Literature

- People curious about stories of exotic places the explorers wrote about - People realized that there were highly developed civilizations other places in the world (especially China)

Maria Theresa

Austrian. curtailed role of provincial assemblies. Clergy and nobles had to pay property and income taxes. Strengthened army and was staunchly Catholic and conservative. Not open to Philosophes calls for reforms. NOT AN ENLIGHTENED LEADER AT ALL!!

Adam Smith

Believed economic liberty was the foundation of a natural economic system. Argued that the mercantile system of England gave favored to merchants and industries, most tariffs be abolished. Encourage economic growth through individual selfish economic interest. Argued self-interest/greed was compatible with society's best interest. Wanted Capitalism over Mercantilism and believed in Laissez-Faire

French Enlightenment

Had the most daring critiques of the Church+ State form the likes of Voltaire, Diderot, and Rousseau. They were kind of stuck in the middle b/c they enjoyed less freedom than countries like G.B, yet they had higher levels of prosperity/cultural development than many other European states.At first many publications were banned in France, but by 1760, they were super chill and let most everything slide.

Pogroms

Jewish communities were looted and massacred.

DECLINE OF DUTCH

PRETTY SELF EXPLANATORY. DURING THE 18TH CENTURY, THE DUTCH KIND OF JUST WENT DOWN THE TOILET. THERE WERE REVOLTS FROM THE PATRIOTS WHICH ULTIMATELY UNDERMINED THE NETHERLANDS. :(

Natural Rights

Privileges that ought not to be withheld from any person. --> equality before the law, freedom of speech+press, freedom of religious worship, right to hold property, etc.

Abolitionists

The Enlightenment fueled the abolitionist movement in Britain, France, U.S. Many began to denounce slavery during this time period because of the realization of how awful it was (through the accounts of slaves)

The Enlightenment

The enlightenment was a time in the 1700's in Europe when people began to question old ideas and search for knowledge. The name Enlightenment refers to the light of knowledge that supposedly replaces the darkness of superstition and ignorance. Enlightenment thinkers believed that science and reason could improve people's lives. - 1700's - Cosmopolitan Movement Especially in France - Following the Revolution as a result - Taking scientific approach to human society and hoping to improve society - The popularization of the ideas and the perspectives (rational view) - Religious View: Deism (inspired by Newton) - Growth of social sciences (Sociology and Phycology)

Moses Mendelssohn (Part of German Enlightenment)

Wanted to unite German+ Jewish culture and believed reason would make people believe that Judaism was a rational religion.

Rationalism

a belief or theory that opinions and actions should be based on reason and knowledge rather than on religious belief or emotional response.

Physiocrats

a member of an 18th-century group of French economists who believed that agriculture was the source of all wealth and that agricultural products should be highly priced. Advocating adherence to a supposed natural order of social institutions, they also stressed the necessity of free trade.

Skepticism

a skeptical attitude; doubt as to the truth of something. Became increasingly apparent during the Scientific Revolution. -Some challenged religious uniformity ( Pierre Bayle, a Huguenot, challenged Louis XIV's stance) -Others challenged the authority of the Bible through historical criticism and challenge of things like miracles and new discoveries in geology (fossils older than supposed Noah and the flood date)

Coffeehouses

became centers for the discussion of writing and ideas of Enlightenment, but also one of institutions connected to transatlantic plantation slave economy(coffee and sugar consumed there)

Gotthold Lessing (Part of German Enlightenment)

complained of lack of freedoms and wanted religious toleration

Louis XV

grandson of Louis XIV and king of France from 1715 to 1774 who led France into the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War, more concerned with mistresses than matters of the state...eventually, he took action to defend his absolutist inheritance after Parliament objection. "The magistrates are my officers...In my person only does the sovereign power rest." Louis XV really enjoyed the lavish lifestyle that came to him upon becoming king. Instated the Parliament, but later dissolved it due to their opposing his absolutist style. **HE WAS HEAVILY INFLUENCED BY THOSE AROUND HIM AND CREATED AND CHANGED POLICIES ACCORDINGLY. MISTRESSES AND CHIEF MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT WOULD SWAY HIS OPINION***

Changes in Medicine

-Hierarchy of physicians, then surgeons, then general practitioners. -In 18th century, doctors began to go through more training (dissecting + analyzing human anatomy) -Doctors stopped practicing being both a barber+ a surgeon and instead practiced purely medicine. -Surgeries were often quite crude and there was no anesthesia.

Changes in education

-Shift in focus on classics to a new focus on math, sciences, modern languages -Education was still largely for the elite in the community. It was meant to keep people in their social classes. -With criticism from philosophes, new school were created to provide a broader education. Men had schools for modern language+ geography + science/math. Women had schools with largely the same stuff such as domestic skills.

Geocentric Theory

A Geocentric theory is an astronomical theory which describes the universe as a Geocentric system, i.e., a system which puts the Earth in the center of the universe, and describes other objects from the point of view of the Earth

Enlightened Absolutism

A new system of monarchy exhibited by Frederick II and Joseph II of Austria. Essentially they must allow natural rights/religious toleration, they must foster the arts, sciences, and education and they must obey laws and enforce them equally for all their citizens.

German Hanovers

After the last Stuart ruler died, the distantly related German Hanovers now had the English throne. They didn't speak English or know much about how to successfully run England, so much of the work was on the chief ministers. This was an important step towards the modern cabinet system.

Francis Bacon

Date Alive:1561-1626 Occupation: Scientist Contributor of: Scientific Revolution Contributions: Made the most important contribution to the scientific revolution because he proved the existence of gravity which was then a key aspect in the creations of many important inventions such as the airplane and the space shuttle. Francis Bacon also was important to the foundation of the scientific thought. Francis Bacon is often referred to the father of empiricism and one of the first ones to include experimentation in sciences. He also was motivational to scientists as he set an intellectual tone and helped create an environment encouraging scientific work.

Catherine the Great

Definition: Catherine II, also known as Catherine the Great (2 May 1729 - 17 November 1796), was the most renowned and the longest-ruling female leader of Russia, reigning from 1762 until her death in 1796 at the age of sixty-seven. Her husband was murdered Significance: Catherine the Great is significant because she changed Russia into a superpower in Europe by reforming her government and making her nation more productive and western. **She tried to reform Russia and bring it properly into the Enlightenment but failed.**

Revolts in Latin America

Ideas of enlightenment began to influence Creole elites like Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín as well as the growing merchant class to create change. Napoleonic Wars destroyed Bourbon monarchy in Spain and decreased their authority in their colonies in Latin America. The struggle for independence in Venezuela was led by Simon Bolivar (the Liberator), who freed Colombia and Venezuela. Jose de San Martin, the 2nd liberator, freed Chile and worked with Bolivar to free Peru. The Continental powers wanted to send troops to restore Spanish control, but this time when Britain opposed, they won. The British proposed action with the U.S. to keep Europe from interfering.

Balance of Power

Prussia and Austria gained more land to offset Russia, France was prevented from gain too much power by taking portions of land and giving it to Prussia, the Netherlands and the Germanic Confederation. When Napoleon came back and France was supportive, they were punished by making France smaller, paying an indemnity and accepting army occupation.

Frederick William I

Prussian king; son of the Great Elector; by end of reign in 1740, doubled army's size, made it 1 of the best armies in Europe; by the treaty of Utrecht, his duchy of east Prussia was recognized as a kingdom.

The Junkers

Prussian nobles. Under Frederick II, they still played a large role b/c serfdom was still big and the junkers held a lot of property and influence. He used them as officers in the army to imbue a sense of service to the king.

Philosophes

Thinkers of the Enlightenment; Wanted to educate the socially elite, but not the masses; were not allowed to openly criticize church or state, so used satire and double-meaning in their writings to avoid being banned; Salons held by wealthy women also kept philosophes safe; They considered themselves part of an intellectual community, and wrote back and forth to each other to share ideas