AP Euro Semesters 1 and 2

Jan van Eyck

Northern Renaissance painter; Arnolfini Wedding; Man in a Red Turban

Theodor Herzl

a Jewish journalist and writer from Austria-Hungary. He is considered to have been the father of modern political Zionism and in effect the founder of the State of Israel. He formed the World Zionist Organization and promoted Jewish migration to Palestine in an effort to form a Jewish state.

inductive reasoning

reasoning that derives general principles from specific observations (outdated definition)

Hemophilia

disease characterized by heavy bleeding due to blood's inability to clot properly; carried by Empress Alexandra; manifested itself in heir to Russian throne

Ottoman Empire

empire that conquered Byzantine Empire using gunpowder by 1453 a contiguous transcontinental empire founded by Turkish tribes under Osman Bey in north-western Anatolia in 1299. conquest of Constantinople by Mehmet II in 1453

Milan

a city-state ruled by two families in the Renaissance: the Visconti and the Sforza

Henry of Navarre

Later becomes _____ IV; signed Edict of Nantes Involved in War of the Three _____

Egyptian Campaign

Napoleon Bonaparte's campaign in the Orient, ostensibly to protect French trade interests, undermine Britain's access to India, and to establish scientific enterprise in the region.

Infernal Regiments

No idea what this refers to. Sorry

Martin Bucer

Zwinglian humanist who tried to mediate between Luther and Zwingli; arranged Colloquy of Marburg; helped write English Book of Common Prayer; made Strasbourg a safe haven for German Lutherans

four elements

air, water, earth, fire

Evolutionary Conservatism

new conservatism (?) (sorry)

Francis Xavier

the other founder of the Jesuits

Waterwheel

a machine for converting the energy of free-flowing or falling water into useful forms of power, often in a watermill.

Henry Fielding

author of Tom Jones and Joseph Andrews an English novelist and dramatist known for his rich earthy humour and satirical prowess, and as the author of the novel Tom Jones.

Jacobites

people who wanted to restore James II and his heirs to the English throne

Aragon

place where Ferdinand II ruled; Catherine (Henry VIII's first wife) also came from here

Anne Boleyn

the second wife of Henry VIII; later beheaded; gave birth to later queen Elizabeth I though

Grand Tour

refers to a trip around Europe that an upper class student would take at the completion of his or her education

Sarajevo

the capital and largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with an estimated population of 369,534. (Franz Ferdinand was killed here)

Ole Romer

a Danish astronomer who in 1676 made the first quantitative measurements of the speed of light.

House of Hanover

a German royal dynasty which has ruled the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg (German: Braunschweig-Lüneburg), a namesake German kingdom, the Kingdom of Great Britain, the Kingdom of Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It succeeded the House of Stuart as monarchs of Great Britain and Ireland in 1714 and held that office until the death of Queen Victoria in 1901.

Putting out system

a means of subcontracting work. Historically it was also known as the workshop system and the domestic system. In putting-out, work is contracted by a central agent to subcontractors who complete the work in off-site facilities, either in their own homes or in workshops with multiple craftsmen.

Factory Acts: 1802, 1819, 1833

a series of Acts passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom to limit the number of hours worked by women and children, first in the textile industry, then later in all industries.

Girolamo Cardano

an Italian Renaissance mathematician, physician, astrologer and gambler. He wrote more than 200 works on medicine, mathematics, physics, philosophy, religion, and music. His gambling led him to formulate elementary rules in probability, making him one of the founders of the field. Did work in the field of algebra

Bauhaus

an art school in Germany that combined crafts and the fine arts, and was famous for the approach to design that it publicized and taught. It operated from 1919 to 1933.

Robert Hooke

author of Micrographia; an English natural philosopher, architect and polymath. published Micrographia, a book describing observations made with microscopes and telescopes, as well as some original work in biology; coined the term cell for describing biological organisms, the term being suggested by the resemblance of plant cells to monks' cells. (did many other things in science, though)

Copernicus

author of On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres; a Renaissance mathematician and astronomer who formulated a heliocentric model of the universe which placed the Sun, rather than the Earth, at the center.

Castiglione, Baldassare

author of the Book of the Courtier; said how a nobleman or diplomat should act

Treaty of Aix-la-chapelle

ended the War of the Austrian Succession following a congress assembled on 24 April 1748 at the namesake place

Physiocrats

followers of Quesnay's doctrines of government, believing that the inherent natural order governing society was based on land and its natural products as the only true form of wealth

Walter Gropius

founder of the Bauhaus School a German architect and founder of the Bauhaus School, who, along with Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright, is widely regarded as one of the pioneering masters of modern architecture.

Reparations

refers to the massive sums of money Germany had to pay for being "responsible" for WWI

Parlements

regional legislative and judicial bodies in Ancien Régime France. (maybe they were destroyed during French Rev?)

Emperor Charles V

ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and, as Charles I, of the Spanish Empire from 1516 until his voluntary retirement and abdication in favor of his younger brother Ferdinand I as Holy Roman Emperor and his son Philip II as King of Spain in 1556. He became heir to Hapsburg, Burgundian, and Spanish thrones after a series of events.

Isaac Newton

scientists who first proposed universal laws (his dealt with gravitation...) set up Enlightenment; his mechanics were applied to human beings

Lorenzo and Cosimo de Medici

the heads of two generations of the Medici family that established the family as the head of Florence

Elizabeth I

the monarch that followed the rule of Bloody Mary; turned England back Protestant; daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn

Pope Leo X

the pope that demands tons of indulgences; gets Luther really mad

Rationalism

the view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification."

National Coalition (British)

usually refers primarily to the governments of Ramsay MacDonald, Stanley Baldwin and Neville Chamberlain which held office from 1931 until 1940.

Pope Julius II

warrior pope; actually led troops into battle; got Michaelangelo to paint Sistine Chapel

Hapsburg-Valois Wars

wars fought between the two houses of France and the HRE; preoccupied Charles V (also referred to as Italian Wars)

Daniel Defoe

wrote Robinson Crusoe

Christine de Pisan

Italian-French female writer; wrote The Book of the City Ladies and books of poetry

Declaration of Independence

July 4th 1776; listed reasons why the colonies were breaking away from England; Jefferson was one of the writers

Leo X

Medici pope; criticized for selling indulgences

Hanseatic League

a confederation of cities mostly along the Baltic coast; banded together for preferential trading privileges; also for mutual defense

Spanish Inquisition (1478)

a country-wide persecution of people not of the Catholic faith in the namesake place (so pretty much persecuted Jews and Muslims); led to degradation of human resources in the long-run, though (but let the papacy favor this country); made this country predominantly Roman Catholic

Battle of Yorktown

a decisive victory by a combined force of American Continental Army troops led by General George Washington and French Army troops led by the Comte de Rochambeau over a British Army commanded by British lord and Lieutenant General Lord Cornwallis. The culmination of the Yorktown campaign, the siege proved to be the last major land battle of the American Revolutionary War, as the surrender by Cornwallis, and the capture of both him and his army, prompted the British government to negotiate an end to the conflict.

Anti-Corn Law League

a successful political movement aimed at the abolition of the unpopular namesake laws, which protected landowners' interests by levying taxes on imported wheat, thus raising the price of bread at a time when factory-owners were trying to cut wages. The League was founded in Manchester in 1838 by Richard Cobden and John Bright, with George Wilson as president, in charge of administrative duties. Joseph Ivimey, the Superintendent Registrar for St Pancras acted as the League's solicitor. When abolition was achieved in 1846, the League dissolved itself.

Act of Uniformity

an Act of the Parliament of England. It was actually passed in 1559. It set the order of prayer to be used in the English Book of Common Prayer. All persons had to go to church once a week or be fined 12 pence (equivalent to just over £11 in 2007), a considerable sum for the poor. By this Act Elizabeth I made it a legal obligation to go to church every Sunday.

Munster Revolt

revolt where Anabaptists tried to take over a German city and start a society there; lasted a few years until leaders were overthrown and kileld

Belgrade

the capital and largest city of Serbia. It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers, where the Pannonian Plain meets the Balkans. Its name translates to White city.

Gutenberg, Johannes

the creator of a namesake printing press...

2nd Battle of the Marne

the last major German Spring Offensive on the Western Front during the First World War. The German attack failed when an Allied counterattack led by French forces and including several hundred tanks overwhelmed the Germans on their right flank, inflicting severe casualties. The German defeat marked the start of the relentless Allied advance which culminated in the Armistice about 100 days later. Thus this can be considered as the beginning of the end of the Great War.

Diet of Augsburg

the meetings of the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire in the namesake German city. There were many such sessions, but the three meetings during the Reformation and the ensuing religious wars between the Roman Catholic emperor Charles V and the Protestant Schmalkaldic League in the early 16th century are especially noteworthy. Brought forth namesake confession

Schleitheim Confession

the most representative statement of Anabaptist principles, endorsed unanimously by a meeting of Swiss Anabaptists in 1527

quintessence

the perfect substance that makes up the celestial realm; cannot change in properties (according to Aristotle)

Berlin Airlift

the supplying of the namesake city with food and supplies through the air after it was closed off by the USSR (?)

Theory, Hypothesis, Experiment

three stages of the Scientific Method

General Charles de Gaulle

was a French general and statesman who led the Free French Forces during World War II. He later founded the French Fifth Republic in 1958 and served as its first president from 1959 to 1969.

Albrecht, Archbishop of Mainz

Elector and Archbishop of Mainz from 1514 to 1545, and Archbishop of Magdeburg from 1513 to 1545. obtained permission from Pope Leo X to conduct the sale of indulgences in his diocese; procured the services of John Tetzel to sell the indulgences.

Frederick William I

King in Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg (as Frederick William II) from 1713 until his death. He was in personal union the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel. Father of Frederick the Great treated him cruelly built up Prussia's army but doesn't really use it

Lord North

Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1770 to 1782. He led Great Britain through most of the American War of Independence. He also held a number of other cabinet posts, including Home Secretary and Chancellor of the Exchequer.

mass society

Refers to everything in society being created in large quantities (?)

Irish Question

Refers to how the namesake country would govern itself or whether it would get home rule (?)

Alfred Dreyfus

a French artillery officer of Jewish background whose trial and conviction in 1894 on charges of treason became one of the most tense political dramas in modern French and European history. Known today as the namesake "Affair", the incident eventually ended with his complete exoneration.

Auguste Comte

a French philosopher. He was a founder of the discipline of sociology and of the doctrine of positivism. He is sometimes regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term.

Volk

might refer to German folk culture and nationalism (?)

Cavaliers

refers to the Royalists in the English Civil War; rode horses

Invasion of Hungary (1956)

refers to the Soviet Invasion of the namesake country after it experienced a revolution against its Communist leaders (successfully crushed revolution)

la Belle Epoque

A period in French and Belgian history that is conventionally dated as starting in 1871 and ending when World War I began in 1914. Occurring during the era of the Third French Republic (beginning 1870), it was a period characterized by optimism, peace at home and in Europe, new technology and scientific discoveries. The peace and prosperity in Paris allowed the arts to flourish, and many masterpieces of literature, music, theater, and visual art gained recognition. Coincides with Gilded Age in US.

Vichy France

France during the regime of Marshal Philippe Pétain, during World War II, from the German victory in the Battle of France (July 1940) to the Allied liberation in August 1944. Following the defeat in June 1940, President Albert Lebrun appointed Marshal Pétain as premier. After making peace with Germany, Pétain and his government voted to reorganize the discredited Third Republic into an authoritarian regime.

Titian

Italian Renaissance artist; Venus of Urbino; Assumption of Mary

Charles, Elector of Bavaria (Charles II)

Prince-elector of Bavaria from 1726 and Holy Roman Emperor from 24 January 1742 until his death in 1745. A member of the House of Wittelsbach, he was notably the first person not born of the House of Habsburg to become emperor in over three centuries. supported by Frederick II to become Holy Roman Emperor after death of Austria's Charles VI over Maria Theresa; fights with him in first two Silesian Wars (War of Austrian Succession)

Huguenots

Protestants in France

House of Romanov

Russian royal family house; gained power with Michael Romanov; ended with Nicholas II

Christian Democrats

part of CDU?

Protectorate

refers to England under relatively absolute rule by Cromwell (?)

French Empire

refers to Napoleon's territory...

Bruni, Leonardo

Italian humanist, historian and statesman. He has been called the first modern historian; wrote History of the Florentine People and New Cicero

Edward VI of England

King of England and Ireland from 28 January 1547 until his death. He was crowned on 20 February at the age of nine. The son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, he was the third monarch of the Tudor dynasty and England's first monarch raised as a Protestant. Did Book of Common Prayer stuff and English Reform

The People's Will

Narodnaya Volya was a Russian left-wing terrorist organization, best known for the successful assassination of Tsar Alexander II of Russia. It created a centralized and well-disguised organization in a time of diverse liberation movements in Russia.

Dominion of Canada

North of the U.S... started becoming a modern country (?)

Anarchism

Refers to people ruling themselves without government...(?)

House of Vasa

Royal House of Sweden 1523-1654 and of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 1587-1668. It originated from a noble family in Uppland of which several members held high office during the 15th century. Started by Gustavus (Gustav I)

Paris Commune of 1871

a socialistic government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March until 28 May 1871. Though elected as the city council it eventually proclaimed its own authority to govern all of France. The killing of two French army generals by soldiers of the Commune's National Guard and the refusal of the Commune to accept the authority of the French government led to its harsh suppression by the regular French Army in "La Semaine sanglante" ("The Bloody Week") beginning on 21 May 1871. response to rule by Prussians (?)

Croatia

a unitary democratic parliamentary republic at the crossroads of Central Europe, Southeast Europe, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb.

Pacification of Ghent

an alliance of the provinces of the Habsburg Netherlands for the purpose of driving mutinying Spanish mercenary troops from the country and promoting a peace treaty with the rebelling provinces Holland and Zeeland.

James I

became king of England and Scotland (and Ireland) after death of Elizabeth I; first of the Stuarts

The 100 Days

marked the period between Emperor Napoleon I of France's return from exile on Elba to Paris on 20 March 1815 and the second restoration of King Louis XVIII on 8 July 1815. This period saw the War of the Seventh Coalition, and includes the Waterloo Campaign and the Neapolitan War.

Potemkin Villages

originally used to describe a fake village, built only to impress. According to the story, the namesake person erected fake settlements along the banks of the Dnieper River in order to fool Empress Catherine II during her visit to Crimea in 1787. The phrase is now used, typically in politics and economics, to describe any construction (literal or figurative) built solely to deceive others into thinking that some situation is better than it really is. Some modern historians claim the original story is exaggerated.

Electors

people who elected others (?)

Diet of Worms

place where Luther was summoned to recant beliefs; Luther refuses; condemned as a heretic and enemy of the state by namesake Edict

Factory Act 1802

placed orders upon Cotton Mill owners with regards to the treatment of apprentices (mostly children) and the cleanliness requirements of the Mill. It was introduced in response to recommendations given by physician, Thomas Percival after an outbreak of Malignant Fever at a Mill owned by Sir Robert Peel. Although the Act was ineffective in its implementation, it paved the way for future Factory acts which would regulate the industry.

Pope Clement VII

pope during Sack of Rome; tried to prevent Henry VIII from breaking with church (or rather hastened it?)

Classical British liberalism

refers to an ideology that favors less government intervention (?)

Anti-Semitism

refers to racism against Jews

Siege of Vienna 1529

the first attempt by the Ottoman Empire, led by Suleiman the Magnificent, to capture the city of Vienna, Austria. The siege signalled the pinnacle of the Ottoman Empire's power and the maximum extent of Ottoman expansion in central Europe. Thereafter, 150 years of bitter military tension and reciprocal attacks ensued, culminating in the Battle of Vienna of 1683, which marked the start of the 15-year long Great Turkish War.

Remilitarization of the Rhineland

took place on 7 March 1936 when German military forces entered this place. This was significant because it violated the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Treaties, marking the first time since the end of World War I that German troops had been in this region.

Alexander Herzen

Russian writer and thinker known as the "father of Russian socialism" and one of the main fathers of agrarian populism (being an ideological ancestor of the Narodniki, Socialist-Revolutionaries, Trudoviks and the agrarian American Populist Party). He is held responsible for creating a political climate leading to the emancipation of the serfs in 1861. His autobiography My Past and Thoughts, written with grace, energy, and ease, is often considered the best specimen of that genre in Russian literature. He also published the important social novel Who is to Blame? (1845-46).

Interchangeable parts

refers to parts of machines that can be changed (?) (Americans made these in rifles)(could be assembled more quickly)

Laissez faire

refers to pure capitalism with little government intervention

Argyle's Rebellion

refers to rebellion in Scotland that took place at same time as Monmouth's rebellion (?)

Mandates

refers to resolutions passed by the League of Nations (?)

Radical Revolution

refers to revolution under Jacobins (?)

Polish Catholic Church

refers to the Church of the country that produced Pope John Paul II (???)

Clockwork Universe

refers to the idea that the universe follows set scientific laws; only put into motion by God; according to Deism (?)

Baby Boom

refers to the increase in birth rate after WWII during the 1950s (?)

18th Century demographic changes

refers to the increase in population and diversity during the 1700s (?)

Gustave Flaubert

an influential French writer widely considered one of the greatest novelists in Western literature. He is known especially for his first published novel, Madame Bovary (1857), for his Correspondence, and for his scrupulous devotion to his style and aesthetics. (realist writer?)

Danish Civil War (1533 - 36)

a war fought between Bishops and Lutheran King Christian III; reduces power of Catholics (and drives them out)

Constantinople

was the center and capital of the Byzantine empire until it fell to the Turks in 1453

Florence

a city-state where the Medici ruled and where most of the (Italian) Renaissance took place

Regicide

refers to the killing of a king (in England's case, Charles I...)

National Party (German)

(I think it's this, but I'm not really sure) was a First Republic political party in Czechoslovakia, representing German population of Sudetenland. Its chairman and political face was Rudolf Lodgman von Auen. In elections, it worked together with the German National Socialist Workers' Party (DNSAP). Both parties were outlawed in 1933.

Risorgimento

19th-century movement for Italian unification that culminated in the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. It was an ideological and literary movement that helped to arouse the national consciousness of the Italian people, and it led to a series of political events that freed the Italian states from foreign domination and united them politically.

Haskalah Movement

AKA the Jewish Enlightenment, was a movement among European Jews in the 18th-19th centuries that advocated adopting enlightenment values, pressing for better integration into European society, and increasing education in secular studies, Hebrew language, and Jewish history.

Cottage Industry

An industry where the creation of products and services is home-based, rather than factory-based. While products and services created by this are often unique and distinctive given the fact that they are usually not mass-produced, producers in this sector often face numerous disadvantages when trying to compete with much larger factory-based companies.

Alexander III

Emperor of Russia, King of Poland and Grand Prince of Finland from 13 March [O.S. 1 March] 1881 until his death on 20 October [O.S. 8 October] 1894. He was highly conservative and reversed some of the liberal measures of his father, Alexander II. During his reign Russia fought no major wars, for which he was styled "The Peacemaker" (Russian: "Миротворец").

SPD (German)

In charge in Germany after the Emperor and his High Command of the Army bowed out. Marxist but revisionist (toned-down, pre-Leninist). Led by union officials and party managers. In 1912, SDs been largest group in the Reichstag. By 1918 they were prudent, cautious, conservative. Bolshevik Revolution had effect of making SDs seem moderate. Awkward spot to be in during hard times. They were between the pro-Bolshevik movt in Germany on their "left" and the junkers on their "right." Basically, more afraid of the left than the right since the latter largely discredited because of outcome of the war. The SDs formed a coalition with the Center Party(Catholic & conservative) and the Liberal Democrats in the new Constituent Assembly. (Nazis stole power from them?)

Presbyterianism

a branch of Reformed Protestantism which traces its origins to the British Isles; angered by entry of English into Anglo-Spanish war against French Huguenots

Mehmet II

Sultan of the Ottoman Empire twice, first for a short time from 1444 to September 1446, and later from February 1451 to 1481. At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople and brought an end to the Byzantine Empire, transforming the Ottoman state into an empire. He continued his conquests in Asia, with the Anatolian reunification, and in Europe, as far as Bosnia and Croatia.

Zimmerman Telegram

a 1917 diplomatic proposal from the German Empire for Mexico to join the Central Powers, in the event of the United States entering World War I on the side of the Entente Powers. The proposal was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence. Revelation of the contents outraged American public opinion and helped generate support for the United States declaration of war on Germany in April of that year.

October Manifesto

a document that served as a precursor to the Russian Empire's first constitution, which would be adopted the next year. The Manifesto was issued by Emperor Nicholas II, under the influence of Count Sergei Witte, on 30 October 1905 as a response to the Russian Revolution of 1905.

Sforza family

a family that acquired the dukedom and Duchy of Milan from the previously ruling Visconti family in the mid-15th century, and lost it to the Spanish Habsburgs about a century later.

Mississippi Bubble

a financial scheme in 18th-century France that triggered a speculative frenzy and ended in financial collapse. The scheme was engineered by John Law, a Scottish adventurer, economic theorist, and financial wizard who was a friend of the regent, the Duke d'Orléans. Economic crash due to inflation (over-printing of money) and over-speculation in New World colonies

Trench warfare

a form of land warfare using occupied fighting lines consisting largely of trenches, in which troops are significantly protected from the enemy's small arms fire and are substantially sheltered from artillery. The most prominent case of trench warfare is the Western Front in World War I. It has become a byword for stalemate, attrition and futility in conflict.

power loom

a mechanised loom powered by a line shaft. The first one was designed in 1784 by Edmund Cartwright and first built in 1785.

Bourgeoisie

a member of the French upper class or upper-middle class

English Civil War

a series of armed conflicts and political problems between Parliamentarians (Roundheads) and Royalists (Cavaliers).

Three partitions of Poland

a series of three partitions that took place in the second half of the 18th century and ultimately ended the existence of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Polish: Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów; Belarusian: Рэч Паспалітая Абодвух Народаў; Lithuanian: Abiejų Tautų Respublika), resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland, and Lithuania, its partner in the Commonwealth, for 123 years. The partitions were conducted by the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia and Habsburg Austria, which divided up the Commonwealth lands among themselves progressively in the process of territorial seizures.

Flora Tristan

a socialist writer and activist. She was one of the founders of modern feminism. She wrote several works, the best known of which are Peregrinations of a Pariah (1838), Promenades in London (1840), and The Workers' Union (1843). She was the grandmother of the painter Paul Gauguin.

Paris Commune

a socialistic government that briefly ruled Paris starting from the middle of March 1871. Though elected as the city council, it eventually proclaimed its own authority to govern all of France.

Corporate State

a state that believes that the state is the most important basis of soceity (?) (sets up fascism perhaps?)

Quadruple Alliance

a treaty signed in Paris on 20 November 1815 by the United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. It renewed the alliance first agreed to in 1813 and it modified the aims of the alliance from defeating Napoleon Bonaparte to upholding the settlement following the Napoleonic Wars: with France's admission in 1818, it became the concert system, though British government distaste for the other allies' reactionary policies meant that it lapsed into ineffectiveness after the mid-1820s.

Symbolists

adherents to the late nineteenth-century art movement of French, Russian and Belgian origin in poetry and other arts. In literature, the style had its beginnings with the publication Les Fleurs du mal (The Flowers of Evil, 1857) by Charles Baudelaire. The works of Edgar Allan Poe, which Baudelaire admired greatly and translated into French, were a significant influence and the source of many stock tropes and images. The aesthetic was developed by Stéphane Mallarmé and Paul Verlaine during the 1860s and '70s. In the 1880s, the aesthetic was articulated by a series of manifestos and attracted a generation of writers.

Blitzkrieg

an anglicised term describing a method of warfare whereby an attacking force spearheaded by a dense concentration of armoured and motorized or mechanized infantry formations, and heavily backed up by close air support, forces a breakthrough into the enemy's line of defense through a series of short, fast, powerful attacks; and once in the enemy's territory, proceeds to dislocate them using speed and surprise, and then encircle them. Through the employment of combined arms in maneuver warfare, it attempts to unbalance the enemy by making it difficult for them to respond effectively to the continuously changing front, and defeat them through a decisive Vernichtungsschlacht (battle of annihilation).

Dada

an art movement of the European avant-garde in the early 20th century. anti-war; against rationality; idea above aesthetics Marcel Duchamp

Capitalism

an economic system in which trade, industry and the means of production are controlled by private owners with the goal of making profits in a market economy. Central characteristics of it include capital accumulation, competitive markets and wage labor. In such an economy, the parties to a transaction typically determine the prices at which assets, goods, and services are exchanged.

Imperialism

an unequal human and territorial relationship, usually in the form of an empire, based on ideas of superiority and practices of dominance, and involving the extension of authority and control of one state or people over another. Britain, France, Belgium, US, and other countries were heavy practitioners of it

United Provinces

another name for Dutch Republic

Pauper apprentices

children of paupers who were bound out by the local parish overseers and churchwardens. Some had to travel long distances to serve in the factories of the industrial revolution, but the majority served their terms within a few miles of their homes.

Council of Constance

church council that resolved the Great Schism; put one pope back in power; occurred in 1415

William and Mary

refers to the two monarchs that deposed James II

Duma

council assemblies which were created by the Czar of Russia. Simply, it is a form of Russian governmental institution that was formed during the reign of the last Tsar, Nicholas II.

Non-aligned countries

countries not aligned with either the Western or Eastern Blocs (?)

Boris Godunov

de facto regent of Russia from c. 1585 to 1598 and then the first non-Rurikid tsar from 1598 to 1605. The end of his reign saw Russia descend into the Time of Troubles. Took over after Ivan IV's successor(s) died

Decree Abolishing the Feudal System

declared with the idea of calming the populace and encouraging them towards civility. paved the way for the Assembly to make the Declaration of the Rights of Man. a decree that does the titular action; makes everyone pay taxes; everyone can hunt freely; etc.

Third World

defines countries that remained non-aligned with either NATO (with the United States, Western European nations and their allies representing the First World), or the Communist Bloc (with the Soviet Union, China, Cuba, and their allies representing the Second World).

Sixtus IV

head of the Catholic Church from 9 August 1471 to his death in 1484. His accomplishments as Pope included the establishment of the Sistine Chapel; the group of artists that he brought together introduced the Early Renaissance into Rome with the first masterpiece of the city's new artistic age, the Vatican Archives. He also furthered the agenda of the Spanish Inquisition and annulled the decrees of the Council of Constance. He was famed for his nepotism and was personally involved in the infamous Pazzi Conspiracy.

St. Helena

island to which Napoleon was exiled for the last time; it is an island of volcanic origin in the South Atlantic Ocean. It is part of the British Overseas Territory of St Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, which also includes the Ascension Island and the islands of Tristan da Cunha. The British used the island as a place of exile, most notably for Napoleon I, Dinuzulu kaCetshwayo and more than 5,000 Boer prisoners.

Philip II

king of Spain and Portugal; During his marriage to Queen Mary I, he was King of England and Ireland and pretender to the kingdom of France; Under his rule, Spain reached the height of its influence and power, directing explorations all around the world and settling the colonisation of territories on all the known continents; during his reign there were separate state bankruptcies in 1557, 1560, 1575, and 1596. This was partly the cause for the declaration of independence which created the Dutch Republic in 1581. A devout Catholic, he is also known for organizing a huge naval expedition against Protestant England in 1588, known usually as the Spanish Armada which was unsuccessful partly due to storms and grave logistical problems.

Charles I

monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649 (spoiler alert). Noted for dismissing Parliament multiple times; raised money through ship money; arrested members of Parliament; accused of Catholic sympathies started English Civil War

Natural Law

refers to laws that exist in nature...(Locke)

Realpolitik

politics or diplomacy based primarily on power and on practical and material factors and considerations, rather than explicit ideological notions or moral or ethical premises. In this respect, it shares aspects of its philosophical approach with those of realism and pragmatism.

Professionalization of Medicine

refers to revolutionary measures taken in medicine to professionalize it (?) (medical boards and licenses and examinations and such?)

Occupation of Ruhr

refers to the French occupation of part of Germany after WWI in order to get reparations (if not in the form of money, then in the form of factory production and raw materials)

Mary, Queen of Scots

queen regnant of Scotland from 14 December 1542 to 24 July 1567 and queen consort of France from 10 July 1559 to 5 December 1560. claimed Elizabeth's throne as her own and was considered the legitimate sovereign of England by many English Catholics, including participants in a rebellion known as the Rising of the North. Perceiving her as a threat, Elizabeth had her confined in a number of castles and manor houses in the interior of England. After eighteen and a half years in custody, she was found guilty of plotting to assassinate Elizabeth, and was subsequently executed.

Classical Style

style in architecture, literature, and the arts, which sought to emulate the ideals of Classical antiquity and especially those of Classical Greece. While still tightly linked to the court culture and absolutism, with its formality and emphasis on order and hierarchy, the new style was also a cleaner style—one that favored clearer divisions between parts, brighter contrasts and colors, and simplicity rather than complexity, and the typical orchestra size increased.

Marquis de Louvois

the French Secretary of State for War for a significant part of the reign of Louis XIV. He and his father would increase the French Army to 400,000 soldiers, an army that would fight four wars between 1667 and 1713.

Second Republic

the republican government of France between the 1848 Revolution and the 1851 coup by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte which initiated the Second Empire. It officially adopted the motto Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité. It witnessed the tension between the "Social and Democratic Republic" (French: la République démocratique et sociale) and a liberal form of Republic, which exploded during the June Days Uprising of 1848.

Tories

the royalist faction (favored Charles) of Charles II's Parliament; controlled from 1681 - 1685

Dutch Revolt

the successful revolt of the northern, largely Protestant Seven Provinces of the Low Countries against the rule of the Roman Catholic King Philip II of Spain, who had inherited the region (Seventeen Provinces) from the defunct Duchy of Burgundy. (The southern Catholic provinces initially joined in the revolt, but later submitted to Spain.)

Addison and Steele

the two editors who published The Tatler and The Spectator; periodicals; foreign and domestic news

INF Treaty

a 1987 agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union. Signed in Washington, D.C. by U.S. President Ronald Reagan and General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev on December 8, 1987, it was ratified by the United States Senate on May 27, 1988 and came into force on June 1 of that year. The treaty eliminated nuclear and conventional ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with intermediate ranges, defined as between 500-5,500 km (300-3,400 miles).

J.M.W. Turner

a British Romantic landscape painter, water-colourist, and printmaker. He was considered a controversial figure in his day, but is now regarded as the artist who elevated landscape painting to an eminence rivalling history painting. Although renowned for his oil paintings, he is also one of the greatest masters of British watercolour landscape painting. He is commonly known as "the painter of light" and his work is regarded as a Romantic preface to Impressionism. Some of his works also are cited as examples of Abstract Art existing prior to recognition in the early twentieth century. The Slave Ship Rain, Steam, and Speed The Fighting Temeraire

Lusitania

a British ocean liner, holder of the Blue Riband and briefly the world's biggest ship. She was launched by the Cunard Line in 1907, at a time of fierce competition for the North Atlantic trade. In 1915 she was torpedoed and sunk by a German U-boat, causing the deaths of 1,198 passengers and crew. In firing on a non-military ship without warning, the Germans had breached the international laws known as the Cruiser Rules. Although the Germans had reasons for treating Lusitania as a naval vessel, including that the ship was carrying war munitions and that the British had also been breaching the Cruiser Rules, the sinking caused a storm of protest in the United States. It also influenced the decision by the US to declare war in 1917.

Ramsay Macdonald

a British statesman who was the first ever Labour Party Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, leading a Labour Government in 1924, a Labour Government from 1929 to 1931, and a National Government from 1931 to 1935. Historians credit him, along with Keir Hardie and Arthur Henderson, as one of the three principal founders of the Labour Party. His speeches, pamphlets and books made him an important theoretician, but he played an even more important role as Leader of the Labour Party. He entered Parliament in 1906 and was the Chairman of the Labour MPs from 1911-14. His opposition to the First World War made him unpopular, and he was defeated in 1918. The fading of wartime passions made it easier for an anti-war politician to find a platform, and he returned to Parliament in 1922, which was the point at which Labour replaced the Liberal Party as the second-largest party. (alternated with Baldwin before replaced by Chamberlain)

Paul Cezanne

a French artist and Post-Impressionist painter whose work laid the foundations of the transition from the 19th-century conception of artistic endeavour to a new and radically different world of art in the 20th century. His often repetitive, exploratory brushstrokes are highly characteristic and clearly recognizable. He used planes of colour and small brushstrokes that build up to form complex fields. The paintings convey his intense study of his subjects. He can be said to form the bridge between late 19th-century Impressionism and the early 20th century's new line of artistic enquiry, Cubism. Both Matisse and Picasso are said to have remarked that he "is the father of us all." Mont Sainte-Victoire The Card Players The Bathers Still Life with Fruits

Cardinal Richelieu

a French clergyman, noble and statesman. Consecrated as a bishop in 1608, he later entered politics, becoming a Secretary of State in 1616. He soon rose in both the Catholic Church and the French government, becoming a Cardinal in 1622, and King Louis XIII's chief minister in 1624. He remained in office until his death in 1642; he was succeeded by Cardinal Mazarin, whose career he had fostered. crushed nobility; took away military and political rights of Huguenots while preserving religious freedom; used intendants

Talleyrand

a French diplomat. He worked successfully at the highest level (usually as foreign minister) for the regime of Louis XVI, through several governments of the French Revolution and then for Napoleon, Louis XVIII, Charles X, and Louis-Philippe. Most of them distrusted him but, like Napoleon, found him indispensable.

Maximilien Robespierre

a French lawyer and politician, and one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution. As a member of the Estates-General, the Constituent Assembly and the Jacobin Club (Jacobin leader during the Reign of Terror), he advocated against the death penalty and for the abolition of slavery, while supporting equality of rights, universal suffrage and the establishment of a republic. He opposed war with Austria and the possibility of a coup by the Marquis de Lafayette. As a member of the Committee of Public Safety, he was an important figure during the period of the Revolution commonly known as the Reign of Terror, which ended a few months after his arrest and execution in July 1794.

Antoine Watteau

a French painter whose brief career spurred the revival of interest in colour and movement (in the tradition of Correggio and Rubens). He revitalized the waning Baroque style, and indeed moved it to the less severe, more naturalistic, less formally classical Rococo. Embarkation for Cythera

Jean-Paul Sartre

a French philosopher, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the key figures in the philosophy of existentialism and phenomenology, and one of the leading figures in 20th-century French philosophy and Marxism. His work has also influenced sociology, critical theory, post-colonial theory, and literary studies, and continues to influence these disciplines. He has also been noted for his open relationship with the prominent feminist theorist Simone de Beauvoir. He was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature but refused it, saying that he always declined official honors and that "a writer should not allow himself to be turned into an institution".

Arthur Rimbaud

a French poet born in Charleville, Ardennes. As part of the decadent movement, he influenced modern literature and arts, inspired various musicians, and prefigured surrealism. All of his poetry was written as a teenager; he gave up creative writing completely before he turned 20. His "genius, its flowering, explosion and sudden extinction, still astonishes". He was known to have been a libertine and a restless soul. He traveled extensively on three continents before his death from cancer just after his thirty-seventh birthday.

Louis Blanc

a French politician and historian. A socialist who favored reforms, he called for the creation of cooperatives in order to guarantee employment for the urban poor. In 1841 he published his Histoire de dix ans 1830-1840, an attack upon the monarchy of July. Also wrote Histroire de la Revolution Francaise and Histoire de la Revolution de 1848 head of the national workshops

Adolphe Thiers

a French politician and historian. He was a leading historian of the French Revolution, with a multivolume history that argued that the republicanism of the Revolution was the central theme of modern French history. He served as a prime minister in 1836, 1840 and 1848. He was a vocal opponent of Emperor Napoleon III, who reigned 1848-71. Following the overthrow of the Second Empire he again came to power and his suppression of the revolutionary Paris Commune of 1871 killed thousands of Parisians. From 1871 to 1873 he served initially as Head of State (effectively a provisional President of France), then President. He lost power in 1873 to Patrice de Mac-Mahon, Duke of Magenta.

Raymond Poincare

a French statesman who served three times as Prime Minister, and as President from 1913 to 1920. He was a conservative leader, primarily committed to political and social stability. Trained in law, he was elected a Deputy in 1887, and served in the cabinets of Dupuy and Ribot. In 1902, he co-founded the Democratic Republican Alliance, the most important center-right party under the Third Republic, becoming Prime Minister in 1912 and President in 1913. He was noted for his strongly anti-German attitudes, and twice visited Russia to maintain strategic ties. At the peace conference, he favoured re-occupation of the Rhineland, which he was able to carry out in 1923 as Prime Minister.

Moses Mendelssohn

a German Jewish philosopher to whose ideas the Haskalah (the 'Jewish enlightenment' of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries) is indebted. Although himself a practicing orthodox Jew, he has been referred to as the father of Reform Judaism.

Albert Speer

a German architect who was, for a part of World War II, Minister of Armaments and War Production for the Third Reich. He was Adolf Hitler's chief architect before assuming ministerial office. As "the Nazi who said sorry", he accepted moral responsibility at the Nuremberg trials and in his memoirs for complicity in crimes of the Nazi regime. His level of involvement in the persecution of the Jews and his level of knowledge of the Holocaust remain matters of dispute.

Hermann Hesse

a German poet, novelist, and painter. His best-known works include Steppenwolf, Siddhartha, and The Glass Bead Game, each of which explores an individual's search for authenticity, self-knowledge and spirituality. In 1946, he received the Nobel Prize in Literature.

Karl Liebknecht

a German socialist and a co-founder with Rosa Luxemburg of the Spartacist League and the Communist Party of Germany. He is best known for his opposition to World War I in the Reichstag and his role in the Spartacist uprising of 1919. The uprising was crushed by the social democrat government and the Freikorps (paramilitary units formed of World War I veterans). He and Luxemburg were murdered. After their deaths, he and Rosa Luxemburg became martyrs for Socialists. According to the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution, commemoration of Liebknecht and Luxemburg continues to play an important role among the German far-left.

Paracelsus

a German-Swiss Renaissance physician, botanist, alchemist, astrologer, and general occultist. He founded the discipline of toxicology. He is also known as a revolutionary for insisting upon using observations of nature, rather than looking to ancient texts, in open and radical defiance of medical practice of his day. He is also credited for giving zinc its name, calling it zincum, and for the terms "gas", "chemistry", and "alcohol". Modern psychology often also credits him for being the first to note that some diseases are rooted in psychological illness. pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine. also considered the father of toxicology

Albert Einstein

a German-born theoretical physicist. He developed the general theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongside quantum mechanics). While best known for his mass-energy equivalence formula E = mc2 (which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation"), he received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". The latter was pivotal in establishing quantum theory.

converso

a Jew or Muslim who converted to Catholicism in Spain or Portugal, particularly during the 14th and 15th centuries, or one of their descendents. Mass conversions once took place under significant government pressure. The Treaty of Granada (1491) at the last surrender of Al-Andalus issued clear protections of religious rights; the Alhambra Decree (1492) began the reversal.

St. Peter's Basilica

a Late Renaissance church located within Vatican City. Designed principally by Donato Bramante, Michelangelo, Carlo Maderno and Gian Lorenzo Bernini, it is the most renowned work of Renaissance architecture and remains one of the largest churches in the world. While it is neither the mother church of the Roman Catholic Church nor the cathedral of the Bishop of Rome, it is regarded as one of the holiest Catholic sites. It has been described as "holding a unique position in the Christian world" and as "the greatest of all churches of Christendom".

Edvard Grieg

a Norwegian composer and pianist. He is widely considered one of the leading Romantic era composers, and his music is part of the standard classical repertoire worldwide. His use and development of Norwegian folk music in his own compositions put the music of Norway in the international spectrum, as well as helping develop a national identity, much like Jean Sibelius and Antonín Dvořák did in Finland and Bohemia respectively.

Marshall Josef Pilsudski

a Polish statesman; Chief of State (1918-22), "First Marshal" (from 1920), and leader (1926-35) of the Second Polish Republic. From mid-World War I he had a major influence in Poland's politics, and was an important figure on the European political scene. He was the person most responsible for the creation of the Second Republic of Poland in 1918, 123 years after it had been taken over by Russia, Austria and Prussia. Under him, Poland annexed Vilnius from Lithuania following Żeligowski's Mutiny but was unable to incorporate most of his Lithuanian homeland into the newly resurrected Polish State. He believed in a multicultural Poland with recognition of numerous ethnic and religious nationalities. His arch-rival Roman Dmowski by contrast called for a purified Poland based on Polish-speaking Catholics with little role for minorities.

Vasco da Gama

a Portuguese explorer, one of the most successful in the Age of Discovery and the commander of the first ships to sail directly from Europe to India. He is one of the most famous and celebrated explorers from the Discovery Ages, being the first European to reach India by sea.

Lenin

a Russian communist revolutionary, politician and political theorist. He served as the leader of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic from 1917, and then concurrently as Premier of the Soviet Union from 1922, until his death.

MMM Invest

a Russian company that perpetrated one of the world's largest Ponzi schemes of all time, in the 1990s. By different estimates from 5 to 40 thousand people lost up to $10 million. The exact figures are not known even to the founders. (led to increased regulation of Russian finances and stock market?)

John Knox

a Scottish clergyman and a leader of the Protestant Reformation who is considered the founder of the Presbyterian denomination in Scotland. He is believed to have been educated at the University of St Andrews and worked as a notary-priest. Influenced by early church reformers such as George Wishart, he joined the movement to reform the Scottish church. He was caught up in the ecclesiastical and political events that involved the murder of Cardinal Beaton in 1546 and the intervention of the regent of Scotland Mary of Guise. He was taken prisoner by French forces the following year and exiled to England on his release in 1549.

John Law

a Scottish economist who believed that money was only a means of exchange that did not constitute wealth in itself and that national wealth depended on trade. He was appointed Controller General of Finances of France under King Louis XV. In 1716 he established the Banque Générale in France, a private bank, but three-quarters of the capital consisted of government bills and government-accepted notes, effectively making it the first central bank of the nation. He was responsible for the Mississippi Bubble and a chaotic economic collapse in France. He was a gambler and a brilliant mental calculator. He was known to win card games by mentally calculating the odds. He originated economic ideas such as "The Scarcity Theory of Value" and the "Real bills doctrine". His views held that money creation will stimulate the economy, that paper money is preferable to metallic money which should be banned, and that shares are a superior form of money since they pay dividends.

Thomas Carlyle

a Scottish philosopher, satirical writer, essayist, historian and teacher during the Victorian era. He called economics "the dismal science", wrote articles for the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, and became a controversial social commentator. wrote The French Revolution: A History (Dickens used this for TOTC) part of Romanticism; wrote about heroes that changed the world (?)

Slobodan Milosevic

a Serbian and Yugoslav politician who was the President of Serbia (originally the Socialist Republic of Serbia) from 1989 to 1997 and President of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia from 1997 to 2000. He also led the Socialist Party of Serbia from its foundation in 1990. His presidency was marked by the breakup of Yugoslavia and the subsequent Yugoslav Wars. In the midst of the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999, Milošević was charged with war crimes including genocide, and crimes against humanity in connection to the wars in Bosnia, Croatia and Kosovo by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY).

Alexander Dubcek

a Slovak politician and, briefly, leader of Czechoslovakia (1968-1969). He attempted to reform the communist regime during the Prague Spring. Later, after the overthrow of the government in 1989, he was Chairman of the federal Czecho-Slovak parliament. He was the recipient of the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought of the European Parliament, in 1989.

Nationalism

a belief, creed or political ideology that involves an individual identifying with, or becoming attached to, one's nation. (very strong with French?)

Birth Control Pill

a birth control method that includes a combination of an estrogen (estradiol) and a progestogen (progestin). When taken by mouth every day, these pills inhibit female fertility. They were first approved for contraceptive use in the United States in 1960, and are a very popular form of birth control. (came into existence after WWII?)

Joint-stock company

a business entity which is owned by shareholders. Each shareholder owns the portion of the company in proportion to his or her ownership of the company's shares (certificates of ownership). This allows for the unequal ownership of a business with some shareholders owning a larger proportion of a company than others. Shareholders are able to transfer their shares to others without any effects to the continued existence of the company. (started in transport but moved to banking and industry?)

Crystal Palace

a cast-iron and plate-glass building originally erected in Hyde Park, London, England, to house the Great Exhibition of 1851. More than 14,000 exhibitors from around the world gathered in the Palace's 990,000 square feet (92,000 m2) of exhibition space to display examples of the latest technology developed in the Industrial Revolution. Designed by Sir Joseph Paxton, the Great Exhibition building was 1,851 feet (564 m) long, with an interior height of 128 feet (39 m). Because of the recent invention of the cast plate glass method in 1848, which allowed for large sheets of cheap but strong glass, it was at the time the largest amount of glass ever seen in a building and astonished visitors with its clear walls and ceilings that did not require interior lights.

Labour Party (Britain)

a centre-left political party in the United Kingdom. It has been described as a broad church, containing a diversity of ideological trends from strongly socialist, to more moderately social democratic. Founded in 1900, it overtook the Liberal Party in general elections during the early 1920s and formed minority governments under Ramsay MacDonald in 1924 and 1929-31. The party was in a wartime coalition from 1940 to 1945, after which it formed a majority government under Clement Attlee. It was also in government from 1964 to 1970 under Harold Wilson and from 1974 to 1979, first under Wilson and then James Callaghan.

Great Chain of Being

a concept derived from Plato and Aristotle, and developed fully in Neoplatonism. It details a strict, religious hierarchical structure of all matter and life, believed to have been decreed by God. It starts from God and progresses downward to angels, demons (fallen/renegade angels), stars, moon, kings, princes, nobles, men, wild animals, domesticated animals, trees, other plants, precious stones, precious metals, and other minerals. (probably destroyed during the Scientific Revolution)

Berlin Conference

a conference that took place in the namesake city that regulated European colonisation and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period, and coincided with Germany's sudden emergence as an imperial power. Called for by Portugal and organized by Otto von Bismarck, first Chancellor of Germany, its outcome, the General Act of the __________, can be seen as the formalization of the Scramble for Africa. The conference ushered in a period of heightened colonial activity by European powers, while simultaneously eliminating most existing forms of African autonomy and self-governance.

Second Balkan War 1913

a conflict which broke out when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its share of the spoils of the First Balkan War, attacked its former allies, Serbia and Greece, on 16 (O.S.)/29 June 1913. Serbian and Greek armies repulsed the Bulgarian offensive and counter-attacked, entering Bulgaria. With Bulgaria also having previously engaged in territorial disputes with Romania, this war provoked Romanian intervention against Bulgaria. The Ottoman Empire also took advantage of the situation to regain some lost territories from the previous war. When Romanian troops approached the capital Sofia, Bulgaria asked for an armistice, resulting in the Treaty of Bucharest, in which Bulgaria had to cede portions of its First Balkan War gains to Serbia, Greece and Romania. In the Treaty of Constantinople it lost Edirne to the Ottomans.

Bosnia-Herzegovina

a country in Southeastern Europe. Its capital and largest city is Sarajevo. Bordered by Croatia to the north, west and south, Serbia to the east, and Montenegro to the southeast, it is almost landlocked, except for 20 kilometres (12 miles) of coastline on the Adriatic Sea surrounding the city of Neum.

(Former Yugoslav Republic of) Macedonia (FYSM)

a country located in the central Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. It is one of the successor states of the former Yugoslavia, from which it declared independence in 1991. It became a member of the United Nations in 1993. A landlocked country, it is bordered by Kosovo to the northwest, Serbia to the north, Bulgaria to the east, Greece to the south, and Albania to the west. The country's capital is Skopje

surrealism

a cultural movement that began in the early 1920s, and is best known for its visual artworks and writings. The aim was to "resolve the previously contradictory conditions of dream and reality." Artists painted unnerving, illogical scenes with photographic precision, created strange creatures from everyday objects and developed painting techniques that allowed the unconscious to express itself and/or an idea/concept. works feature the element of surprise, unexpected juxtapositions and non sequitur; however, many artists and writers regard their work as an expression of the philosophical movement first and foremost, with the works being an artifact. Leader André Breton was explicit in his assertion that it was, above all, a revolutionary movement.

taille

a direct land tax on the French peasantry and non-nobles in Ancien Régime France. The tax was imposed on each household and based on how much land it held.

Cholera

a disease that comes from impure water (prevalent in England due to pollution?)

Archbishop Thomas Cranmer

a leader of the English Reformation and Archbishop of Canterbury during the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI and, for a short time, Mary I. He helped build the case for the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, which was one of the causes of the separation of the English Church from union with the Holy See. Along with Thomas Cromwell, he supported the principle of Royal Supremacy, in which the king was considered sovereign over the Church within his realm.

Cesare Borgia

a man idolized by Machiavelli in The Prince; son of Pope Alexander VI; received territory and power from his father but was unable to retain it long after his father died (immortalized in Assassin's Creed)

Henry III of France

a monarch of the House of Valois who was elected the monarch of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1573 to 1575 and ruled as King of France from 1574 until his death. He was the last French monarch of the Valois dynasty. Involved in War of the Three _____

Spinning jenny

a multi-spindle spinning frame. It was invented in 1764 by James Hargreaves in Stanhill, Oswaldtwistle, Lancashire in England. The device reduced the amount of work needed to produce yarn, with a worker able to work eight or more spools at once. This grew to 120 as technology advanced.

Red Brigades

a paramilitary organization, based in Italy, which was responsible for numerous violent incidents, assassinations, and robberies during the so-called "Years of Lead". Formed in 1970, the organization sought to create a "revolutionary" state through armed struggle, and to remove Italy from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. They attained notoriety in the 1970s and early 1980s with their violent attempts to destabilise Italy by acts of sabotage, bank robberies, and kidnappings.

Prague Spring

a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia during the era of its domination by the Soviet Union after World War II. It began on 5 January 1968, when reformist Alexander Dubček was elected First Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, and continued until 21 August when the Soviet Union and other members of the Warsaw Pact invaded the country to halt the reforms.

Act of Supremacy

a piece of legislation that granted King Henry VIII of England Royal Supremacy, which means that he was declared the supreme head of the Church of England.

Levellers

a political movement during the English Civil War which emphasized popular sovereignty, extended suffrage, equality before the law, and religious tolerance, all of which were expressed in the manifesto "Agreement of the People". They came to prominence at the end of the First English Civil War and were most influential before the start of the Second Civil War. (seen as radicals)(wanted to give fairly big rights)(ex: free speech to all)

Revolutions of 1830

a revolutionary wave in Europe. It included two "romantic" revolutions, the Belgian Revolution in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and the July Revolution in France along with revolutions in Congress Poland and Switzerland.

The Fronde

a series of civil wars in France between 1648 and 1653, occurring in the midst of the Franco-Spanish War, which had begun in 1635. provoked in response to Cardinal Mazzarin; finally resulted in the disempowerment of the territorial aristocracy and the emergence of absolute monarchy.

Protective tariff

a tariff levied on imports to protect the domestic economy rather than to raise revenue.

Dialectic of History

according to Hegel, refers to the notion that history is a series of theses and antitheses that respond to each other (?)

Home Rule Act of 1914

an Act passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom intended to provide home rule (self-government within the United Kingdom) for Ireland. It was the third such bill introduced by a Liberal government in a thirty-year period in response to the Irish Home Rule movement. Controversial; eventually part of it revoked (?)

Thomas Jefferson

an American Founding Father, the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776) and the third President of the United States (1801-1809). He was a spokesman for democracy and the rights of man with worldwide influence. At the beginning of the American Revolution, he served in the Continental Congress, representing Virginia and then served as a wartime Governor of Virginia (1779-1781). Just after the war ended, from mid-1784 he served as a diplomat, stationed in Paris. In May 1785, he became the United States Minister to France.

Jethro Tull

an English agricultural pioneer from Berkshire who helped bring about the British Agricultural Revolution. He perfected a horse-drawn seed drill in 1701 that economically sowed the seeds in neat rows, and later a horse-drawn hoe. His methods were adopted by many large landowners, and they helped form the basis of modern agriculture.

British East India Company

an English and later (from 1707) British joint-stock company formed for pursuing trade with the East Indies but which ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent, North-West Frontier Province and Balochistan. taxes on its tea helped lead to the American Revolution

Second Treaty of Paris

(maybe this one)(not sure) signed on 20 November 1815 following the defeat and second abdication of Napoleon Bonaparte. In February, Napoleon had escaped from his exile on Elba; he entered Paris on 20 March, beginning the Hundred Days of his restored rule. Four days after France's defeat in the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon was persuaded to abdicate again, on 22 June. King Louis XVIII, who had fled the country when Napoleon arrived in Paris, took the throne for a second time on 8 July.

Ferdinand of Austria

(might be this guy, but I'm not sure) Holy Roman Emperor from 1558, king of Bohemia and Hungary from 1526, and king of Croatia from 1527 until his death. Before his accession, he ruled the Austrian hereditary lands of the Habsburgs in the name of his elder brother, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. The key events during his reign were the contest with the Ottoman Empire, whose great advance into Central Europe began in the 1520s, and the Protestant Reformation, which resulted in several wars of religion.

Helsinki Agreements (Accords)

(think it's this) the final act of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe held in Finlandia Hall of Helsinki, Finland, during July and August 1, 1975. Thirty-five states, including the USA, Canada, and most European states except Albania, signed the declaration in an attempt to improve relations between the Communist bloc and the West.

William Makepeace Thackeray

an English novelist of the 19th century. He was famous for his satirical works, particularly Vanity Fair, a panoramic portrait of English society. (realist writer(?))

Thomas Gainsborough

an English portrait and landscape painter. The Blue Boy Mrs. Richard Brinsely Sheridan

Cardinal Mazzarin

an Italian Catholic cardinal, diplomat, and politician, who served as the chief minister of France from 1642 until his death; succeeded his mentor, Cardinal Richelieu. Fronde started because people did not like him

Count Camillo di Cavour

an Italian statesman and a leading figure in the movement toward Italian unification. He was the founder of the original Liberal Party and Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, a position he maintained (except for a six-month resignation) throughout the Second Italian War of Independence and Garibaldi's campaigns to unite Italy. After the declaration of a united Kingdom of Italy, he took office as Italy's first Prime Minister; he died after only three months in office, and thus did not live to see Venetia or Rome as part of the new Italian nation.

Coal Mines Act of 1842

an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It prohibited all females and boys under ten years old from working underground in coal mines. It was a response to the working conditions of children revealed in the Children's Employment Commission (Mines) 1842 report. The Commission was headed by Lord Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury.

Mein Kampf

an autobiographical manifesto by Nazi leader Adolf Hitler, in which he outlines his political ideology and future plans for Germany. Volume 1 was published in 1925 and Volume 2 in 1926. The book was edited by the former Hieronymite friar Bernhard Stempfle, who later died during the Night of the Long Knives. Hitler began dictating the book to his deputy Rudolf Hess while imprisoned for what he considered to be "political crimes" following his failed Putsch in Munich in November 1923. Although Hitler received many visitors initially, he soon devoted himself entirely to the book. As he continued, Hitler realized that it would have to be a two-volume work, with the first volume scheduled for release in early 1925. The governor of Landsberg noted at the time that "he [Hitler] hopes the book will run into many editions, thus enabling him to fulfill his financial obligations and to defray the expenses incurred at the time of his trial."

European Union

an economic and political union of 28 member states that are primarily located in Europe. The EU operates through a system of supranational independent institutions and intergovernmental negotiated decisions by the member states.

Gottlieb Daimler

an engineer, industrial designer and industrialist born in Schorndorf (Kingdom of Württemberg, a federal state of the German Confederation), in what is now Germany. He was a pioneer of internal-combustion engines and automobile development. He invented the high-speed petrol engine.

Jonathan Swift

author of A Modest Proposal and Gulliver's Travels an Anglo-Irish satirist, essayist, political pamphleteer (first for the Whigs, then for the Tories), poet and cleric who became Dean of St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin. He is remembered for works such as Gulliver's Travels, A Modest Proposal, A Journal to Stella, Drapier's Letters, The Battle of the Books, An Argument Against Abolishing Christianity, and A Tale of a Tub.

Pascal

author of Pensees; a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and Christian philosopher. invented the mechanical calculator. important mathematician, helping create two major new areas of research: he wrote a significant treatise on the subject of projective geometry at the age of 16, and later corresponded with Pierre de Fermat on probability theory, strongly influencing the development of modern economics and social science. Following Galileo and Torricelli, in 1646 he refuted Aristotle's followers who insisted that nature abhors a vacuum. Following a mystical experience in late 1654, he had his "second conversion", abandoned his scientific work, and devoted himself to philosophy and theology. His two most famous works date from this period: the Lettres provinciales and the Pensées, the former set in the conflict between Jansenists and Jesuits. In this year, he also wrote an important treatise on the arithmetical triangle. Between 1658 and 1659 he wrote on the cycloid and its use in calculating the volume of solids.

Samuel Johnson

author of The Rambler (a periodical) an English writer who made lasting contributions to English literature as a poet, essayist, moralist, literary critic, biographer, editor and lexicographer. He was a devout Anglican and committed Tory, and has been described as "arguably the most distinguished man of letters in English history". (wrote dictionary of English language; very intelligent as a child)

Alexander Pope

author of The Rape of the Locke and Essay on Man an 18th-century English poet, best known for his satirical verse and for his translation of Homer. Famous for his use of the heroic couplet, he is the third-most frequently quoted writer in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations, after Shakespeare and Tennyson.

Bodily humors

blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile

Book of Common Prayer

book of prayer and Protestant stuff assembled by Edward VI and Cranmer; reintroduced by Elizabeth I

Magellan

captain of the first crew to circumnavigate the globe

Venice

city-state famed for its waterways and gondolas

Committee of Public Safety

created in April 1793 by the National Convention and then restructured in July 1793, formed the de facto executive government in France during the Reign of Terror (1793-1794), a stage of the French Revolution. It succeeded the previous Committee of General Defence (established in January 1793) and assumed its role of protecting the newly established republic against foreign attacks and internal rebellion. As a wartime measure, it was given broad supervisory powers over military, judicial, and legislative efforts. It was formed as an administrative body to supervise and expedite the work of the executive bodies of the Convention and of the government ministers appointed by the Convention. As it tried to meet the dangers of a coalition of European nations and counter-revolutionary forces within the country, it became more and more powerful. Jacobins eventually took over; Robespierre was an effective dictator

Northern (Christian) Humanism

describes the focus in Northern countries on spiritual matters (?); precursor to Reformation

Catherine of Aragon

first wife of Henry VIII; gave birth to later Bloody Mary; marriage was eventually annulled

Ignatius Loyola

founder of the Jesuits; wrote Spiritual Exercises

Carbonari

groups of secret revolutionary societies founded in early 19th-century Italy. The Italian groups may have further influenced other revolutionary groups in Spain, France, Portugal and possibly Russia. Although their goals often had a patriotic and liberal focus, they lacked a clear immediate political agenda. They were a focus for those unhappy with the repressive political situation in Italy following 1815, especially in the south of the Italian Peninsula. Members of these groups, and those influenced by them took part in important events in the process of Italian unification (called the Risorgimento), especially the failed Revolution of 1820, and in the further development of Italian nationalism.

CERN

helped create World Wide Web a European research organization whose purpose is to operate the world's largest particle physics laboratory. manages LHC

Declaration of Pillnitz

joint agreement by Austria and Prussia saying that they would help the French king if necessary a statement issued on 27 August 1791 at the namesake castle near Dresden (Saxony) by the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II and Frederick William II of Prussia. It declared the joint support of the Holy Roman Empire and of Prussia for King Louis XVI of France against the French Revolution.

Charles XI (Sweden)

king of Sweden; His father died when he was five years old, so Charles was educated by his governors until his coronation at the age of seventeen. Soon after, he was forced out on military expeditions to secure the recently acquired dominions from Danish troops in the Scanian War. Having successfully fought off the Danes, he returned to Stockholm and engaged in correcting the country's neglected political, financial and economic situation, managing to sustain peace during the remaining 20 years of his reign. Changes in finance, commerce, national maritime and land armaments, judicial procedure, church government and education emerged during this period. rebuilds absolute monarchy in Sweden

Charles X

known for most of his life as the Count of Artois before he reigned as King of France and of Navarre from 16 September 1824 until 2 August 1830. An uncle of the uncrowned King Louis XVII, and younger brother to reigning Kings Louis XVI and Louis XVIII, he supported the latter in exile and eventually succeeded him. His rule of almost six years ended in the July Revolution of 1830, which resulted in his abdication and the election of Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans, as King of the French.

Canals

man-made waterways... revolutionized transport in Britain though

Giuseppe Mazzini

nicknamed The Beating Heart of Italy, was an Italian politician, journalist and activist for the unification of Italy. His efforts helped bring about the independent and unified Italy in place of the several separate states, many dominated by foreign powers that existed until the 19th century. He also helped define the modern European movement for popular democracy in a republican state.

Indian National Congress

one of the two major political parties in India, the other being the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). It is the largest and one of the oldest democratically-operating political parties in the world. founded in 1885 by Allan Octavian Hume, Dadabhai Naoroji, Dinshaw Wacha, Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee, Surendranath Banerjee, Monomohun Ghose, Mahadev Govind Ranade and William Wedderburn. was the largest and most prominent Indian public organization, and central and defining influence of the Indian Independence Movement. fueled Indian nationalism

Society of Jesus (Jesuits)

order founded by Ignatius Loyola; eventually adopted by Pope Paul III; missionaries and stuff

Pope Alexander VI

poster child for bad pope; Lucrezia and Cesare were his children; very debauched and corrupt

First Consul

refers to the position Napoleon held before becoming Emperor of France (?)

Martin Luther

started Reformation by writing 95 Theses; did a ton of other stuff (Diet of Worms)(translated Bible into German)

Whigs

the Puritan faction of Charles II's Parliament; controlled it from 1678 - 1681; they were generally against Charles

Berlin Crisis

the last major politico-military European incident of the Cold War about the occupational status of the German capital city, Berlin, and of post-World War II Germany. The U.S.S.R. provoked this with an ultimatum demanding the withdrawal of Western armed forces from West Berlin—culminating with the city's de facto partition with the East German erection of the Berlin Wall.

Rasputin

the man, the myth, the legend a Russian peasant, mystic and private adviser to the Romanovs, who became an influential figure in the later years of tsar Nicholas. This was especially the case after August 1915 when the Emperor left Petrograd for Stavka at the front, leaving his wife Alexandra Feodorovna to act in his place. Some people—then and now—believe that Rasputin's personal influence over the Tsarina became so great that it was he who ordered the destinies of Imperial Russia, while she compelled her weak husband to fulfill them. obsessed with religion appeared to be able to heal Alexei, son of the tsar (had hemophilia); gained influence and was admired by Tsarina Alexandra isolated royal family from public; increased unpopularity (probably most famous in his manner of death)

Zionism

the national movement of Jews and Jewish culture that supports the creation of a Jewish homeland (contemporary supporters have said it needs to be in Israel) Theodor Herzl started this mvt

Glorious Revolution

the overthrow of King James II of England (James VII of Scotland and James II of Ireland) by a union of English Parliamentarians with the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau (William of Orange). William's successful invasion of England with a Dutch fleet and army led to his ascending of the English throne as William III of England jointly with his wife Mary II of England. (bloodless)

deductive reasoning

the process of reasoning from one or more general statements (premises) to reach a logically certain conclusion

Peace of Augsburg

treaty between Charles V and the forces of the Schmalkaldic League, an alliance of Lutheran princes, on September 25, 1555, at the imperial city of __________, now in present-day Bavaria, Germany. It officially ended the religious struggle between the two groups and made the legal division of Christendom permanent within the Holy Roman Empire. princes determined religion; Catholicism and Lutheranism allowed; not Calvinism

Alberti, Leon Battista

An Italian Renaissance poet and writer, among other things; he was also an architect and humanist; author of "How To Paint" and recommended grid system for painting

Bosch, Hieronymous

Arguably one of the greatest artists ever (at least in my opinion); Northern Renaissance artist; created works such as The Garden of Earthly Delights; The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things; Death and the Miser

Elba

Following the Treaty of Fontainebleau, French emperor Napoleon I was exiled here after his forced abdication in 1814 and arrived at Portoferraio on May 3, 1814 to begin his exile there. He was allowed to keep a personal guard of six hundred men. Although he was nominally sovereign of this place, the island was patrolled by the British Royal Navy. During the months Napoleon stayed on the island, he carried out a series of economic and social reforms to improve the quality of life, partly to pass the time and partly out of a genuine concern for the well-being of the islanders. Napoleon stayed there for 300 days. He returned to France on February 26, 1815 for the Hundred Days.

Duke of Parma

He is best known for his successful campaign 1578-1592 against the Dutch Revolt, in which he captured the main cities in the south (now Belgium) and returned them to the control of Catholic Spain.

David Ricardo

IRON LAW OF WAGES and COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE a British political economist. He was one of the most influential of the classical economists, along with Thomas Malthus, Adam Smith, and John Stuart Mill. He began his professional life as a broker and financial market speculator. He amassed a considerable personal fortune, largely from financial market speculation and, having retired, bought a seat to enter Parliament. He held his parliamentary seat for the last four years of his life. Perhaps his most important legacy is his theory of comparative advantage, which suggests that a nation should concentrate solely on those industries in which it is most internationally competitive, trading with other countries to obtain products which are not produced nationally.

Durer, Albrecht

Northern Renaissance artist; noted for woodcuts, self-portraits, Knight, Death, and the Devil, and Apocalypse series

Protective tariffs

Refer to taxes on foreign imports that are put in place to protect domestic industries (Became more prevalent at this time?)

Torricelli

an Italian physicist and mathematician, best known for his invention of the barometer. wrote namesake law regarding the speed of a fluid flowing out of an opening, which was later shown to be a particular case of Bernoulli's principle. gave the first scientific description of the cause of wind

Sarajevo

city where Franz Ferdinand and his wife were killed

Line of Demarcation / Treaty of Tordesillas

division of the world into two parts by the pope for Spain and Portugal; a lot better for Spain though

Constitution of the United States

drafted during the namesake convention in Philadelphia; replaced the Articles of Confederation

Richard III

fairly unpopular British monarch; took over after Edward IV (York family I think) died; named Lord Protector over Edward V (Edward IV's son) and Richard (other son of Edward); Edward IV's marriage was declared invalid though, so this person became king; princes in tower disappeared (thought this person killed them); eventually killed by Henry VII at Bosworth Field

Jansenists

followers of a Calvinistic movement within Catholicism; condemned by papacy followers of a Christian theological movement, primarily in France, that emphasized original sin, human depravity, the necessity of divine grace, and predestination.

New Model Army

formed in 1645 by the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War, and was disbanded in 1660 after the Restoration. It differed from other armies in the series of civil wars referred to as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms in that it was intended as an army liable for service anywhere in the country (including in Scotland and Ireland), rather than being tied to a single area or garrison. Its soldiers became full-time professionals, rather than part-time militia. To establish a professional officer corps, the army's leaders were prohibited from having seats in either the House of Lords or House of Commons. This was to encourage their separation from the political or religious factions among the Parliamentarians. (created by Cromwell in response to the frequent absences of unpaid troops)

Ego

in Freudian psychology, refers to the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality. According to Freud, this develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world. It functions in both the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.

(Fire Storm) Bombing of Hamburg

included numerous strategic bombing missions and diversion/nuisance raids. As a large port and industrial centre, Hamburg's shipyards, U-boat pens, and the Hamburg-Harburg area oil refineries were attacked throughout the war.

First Balkan War 1912

lasted from October 1912 to May 1913, pitted the Balkan League (Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria) against the Ottoman Empire. The combined armies of the Balkan states overcame the numerically inferior and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies and achieved rapid success. As a result of the war, almost all remaining European territories of the Ottoman Empire were captured and partitioned among the allies. Ensuing events also led to the creation of an independent Albanian state. Despite its success, Bulgaria was dissatisfied over the division of the spoils in Macedonia, which provoked the start of another war.

Condotierri

leaders of bands of mercenary soldiers in Renaissance Italy who sold their services to the highest bidder

Machiavelli, Niccolo

notorious author of The Prince and The Discourses; Florentine statesman and political philosopher

Night of the Long Knives

occurred June 30, 1934 a purge that took place in Nazi Germany between June 30 and July 2, 1934, when the Nazi regime carried out a series of political murders. Leading figures of the left-wing Strasserist faction of the Nazi Party, along with its figurehead, Gregor Strasser, were murdered, as were prominent conservative anti-Nazis (such as former Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher and Gustav Ritter von Kahr, who had suppressed Hitler's Beer Hall Putsch in 1923). Many of those killed were leaders of the Sturmabteilung (SA), the paramilitary brownshirts.

Great Fear

occurred between 17 July - 3 August 1789, in France at the start of the French Revolution. A series of peasant rebellions helped cause a subsequent general panic known as _________. Rural unrest had been present in France since the worsening grain shortage of the spring, and fueled by the rumors of an aristocrat "famine plot" to starve or burn out the population, peasant and town people mobilized in many regions. In response to rumors, fearful peasants armed themselves in self-defense and, in some areas, attacked manor houses. The content of the rumors differed from region to region -- in some areas it was believed that a foreign force were burning the crops in the fields while in other areas it was believed that bandits were burning buildings. Fear of the peasant revolt was a deciding factor in the decision to abolish feudalism.

Berlin Blockade

one of the first major international crises of the Cold War. During the multinational occupation of post-World War II Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of ______ under allied control. Their aim was to force the western powers to allow the Soviet zone to start supplying ____ with food, fuel, and aid, thereby giving the Soviets practical control over the entire city. In response, the Western Allies organized the _____ airlift.

Trade Unions

organizations of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals such as protecting the integrity of its trade, achieving higher pay, increasing the number of employees an employer hires, and better working conditions.

Locarno Pact

pretty much stated that Germany, France, and Belgium would never fight again (?) (not effective)

Augsburg Confession

primary confession of faith of the Lutheran Church and one of the most important documents of the Lutheran Reformation. It was written in both German and Latin and was presented by a number of German rulers and free-cities at the Diet of _______ on June 25, 1530.

Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars)

proposed by U.S. President Ronald Reagan on March 23, 1983, to use ground-based and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles. The initiative focused on strategic defense rather than the prior strategic offense doctrine of Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD). The Strategic Defense Initiative Organization (SDIO) was set up in 1984 within the United States Department of Defense to oversee the Strategic Defense Initiative. people derided it by likening it to George Lucas' films

Social Democrats

refers to SPD?

Baltic Republics

refers to some of the republics that USSR would gain through Nazi-Soviet Pact (?)

Roundheads

refers to the (at least partially) Puritan rebels in the English Civil War

Peter the Great

ruled the Tsardom of Russia and later the Russian Empire from 7 May [O.S. 27 April] 1682 until his death, jointly ruling before 1696 with his half-brother. In numerous successful wars he expanded the Tsardom into a huge empire that became a major European power. According to historian James Cracraft, he led a cultural revolution that replaced the traditionalist and medieval social and political system with a modern, scientific, Europe-oriented, and rationalist system. famous for beard tax; Westernization; oppressed serfs; divided Russia into provinces; Table of Ranks

Charles V

ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and, as Charles I, of the Spanish Empire from 1516 until his voluntary retirement and abdication in favor of his younger brother Ferdinand I as Holy Roman Emperor and his son Philip II as King of Spain in 1556. He became heir to Hapsburg, Burgundian, and Spanish thrones after a series of events. He tried to quell some of the Reformation, but he eventually encountered too much resistance

July Revolution

saw the overthrow of King Charles X, the French Bourbon monarch, and the ascent of his cousin Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orléans, who himself, after 18 precarious years on the throne, would in turn be overthrown. It marked the shift from one constitutional monarchy, the Bourbon Restoration, to another, the July Monarchy; the transition of power from the House of Bourbon to its cadet branch, the House of Orléans; and the substitution of the principle of popular sovereignty for hereditary right. Supporters of the Bourbon would be called Legitimists, and supporters of Louis Philippe Orléanists. one of the Revolutions of 1830

Revolution of 1848 (France)

sometimes known as the February Revolution (révolution de Février); ended the Orleans monarchy (1830-48) and led to the creation of the French Second Republic. Overthrew Louis Philippe

South Sea Bubble

speculative bubble by namesake English trading company; led to market crash and bad stuff

Factory Act 1819

stated that no children under 9 were to be employed and that children aged 9-16 years were limited to 12 hours' work per day.

Iron Curtain

symbolized the ideological conflict and physical boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II in 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1991. The term symbolized efforts by the Soviet Union to block itself and its satellite states from open contact with the west and non-Soviet-controlled areas. On the east side were the countries that were connected to or influenced by the Soviet Union. On either side, states developed their own international economic and military alliances

Patronage system

system in which people in power give other positions of power to their friends and supporters (some people attacked the church for doing this)

Sublunary Realm

the "imperfect" realm of the universe according to Aristotle; contained 4 elements: earth, air, fire, and water

Pope John Paul II

the 264th Pope of the Catholic Church from 16 October 1978 to his death in 2005. He was the second longest-serving pope in modern history and, as a Pole, the first non-Italian since Pope Adrian VI, who died in 1523. recognised as helping to end Communist rule in his native Poland and eventually all of Europe. He significantly improved the Catholic Church's relations with Judaism, Islam, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion. He upheld the Church's teachings against artificial contraception and the ordination of women, supported the Church's Second Vatican Council and its reform, and in general held firm, orthodox, Catholic stances. He was one of the most travelled world leaders in history, visiting 129 countries during his pontificate. As part of his special emphasis on the universal call to holiness, he beatified 1,340 people and canonised 483 saints, more than the combined tally of his predecessors during the preceding five centuries. By the time of his death, he had named most of the College of Cardinals, consecrated or co-consecrated a large number of the world's bishops, and ordained many priests. A key goal of his papacy was to transform and reposition the Catholic Church. His wish was "to place his Church at the heart of a new religious alliance that would bring together Jews, Muslims and Christians in a great [religious] armada."

Woodrow Wilson

the 28th President of the United States, in office from 1913 to 1921. A leader of the Progressive Movement, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913. With the Republican Party split in 1912, he led his Democratic Party to control both the White House and Congress for the first time in nearly two decades. 14 Points Treaty of Versailles US Diplomat Tries to get everyone to join League of Nations, but US doesn't ratify it

Paris Peace Conference

the Allied victors, following the end of World War I to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers following the armistices of 1918. It took place in the namesake city during 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities. The "Big Four" were the President of the United States, Woodrow Wilson; the Prime Minister of Great Britain, David Lloyd George; the Prime Minister of France, Georges Clemenceau; and the Prime Minister of Italy, Vittorio Orlando. They met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which in turn were ratified by the others.

Marshall Plan

the American initiative to aid Europe, in which the United States gave economic support to help rebuild European economies after the end of World War II in order to prevent the spread of Soviet Communism. The plan was in operation for four years beginning in April 1948. The goals of the United States were to rebuild war-devastated regions, remove trade barriers, modernize industry, and make Europe prosperous again.

Rump Parliament

the English Parliament after Colonel Pride purged the Long Parliament on 6 December 1648 of those members hostile to the Grandees' intention to try King Charles I for high treason. (I think this is just the Parliament that ruled during the Commonwealth until disbanded by Cromwell)

Code Napoleon

the French civil code established under Napoléon I in 1804. It forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and specified that government jobs should go to the most qualified. first modern legal code to be adopted with a pan-European scope, and it strongly influenced the law of many of the countries formed during and after the Napoleonic Wars.

Sudetenland

the German name (used in English in the first half of the 20th century) to refer to those northern, southwest, and western areas of Czechoslovakia which were inhabited mostly by German speakers, specifically the border districts of Bohemia, Moravia, and those parts of Silesia located within Czechoslovakia. annexed by Germany before WWII in Munich Agreement (?)

Ivan IV (the Terrible)

the Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547 and Tsar of All the Russias from 1547 until his death. His long reign saw the conquest of the Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia, transforming Russia into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state spanning almost one billion acres, approximately 4,046,856 km2 (1,562,500 sq mi). He managed countless changes in the progression from a medieval state to an empire and emerging regional power, and became the first ruler to be crowned as Tsar of All the Russias. described as intelligent and devout, yet given to rages and prone to episodic outbreaks of mental illness. On one such outburst he killed his groomed and chosen heir Ivan Ivanovich. This left the Tsardom to be passed to his younger son, the weak and intellectually disabled Feodor Ivanovich. Harshly treated nobility

Quintuple Alliance

the Quadruple Alliance after it adds France...

Spanish Armada

the Spanish fleet that sailed against England under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia in 1588, with the intention of overthrowing Elizabeth I of England and putting an end to her involvement in the Spanish Netherlands and in privateering in the Atlantic and Pacific. failed miserably

Yalta Conference

the World War II meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union, represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Premier Joseph Stalin, respectively, for the purpose of discussing Europe's post-war reorganization.

Concert of Europe

the balance of power that existed in Europe from the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) to the outbreak of World War I (1914). founded by the powers of Austria, Prussia, the Russian Empire and the United Kingdom, who were the members of the Quadruple Alliance that defeated Napoleon and his First French Empire. In time, France was established as a fifth member of the concert. At first, the leading personalities of the system were British foreign secretary Lord Castlereagh, Austrian chancellor Klemens von Metternich and Russian czar Alexander I. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord of France was largely responsible for quickly returning that country to its place alongside the other major powers in international diplomacy. (Age of Metternich)

Epistemology

the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge and is also referred to as "theory of knowledge". It questions what knowledge is and how it can be acquired, and the extent to which knowledge pertinent to any given subject or entity can be acquired. Much of the debate in this field has focused on the philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge and how it relates to connected notions such as truth, belief, and justification.

Simony

the buying and selling of church offices

Barbarossa

the code name for Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II. Over the course of the operation, about four million soldiers of the Axis powers invaded the USSR along a 2,900 km (1,800 mi) front, the largest invasion in the history of warfare. In addition to troops, it used 600,000 motor vehicles and 750,000 horses. The ambitious operation was driven by Adolf Hitler's persistent desire to conquer the Soviet territories as embodied in Generalplan Ost. It marked the beginning of the pivotal phase in deciding the victors of the war. The German invasion of the Soviet Union caused a high rate of fatalities: 95% of all German Army casualties that occurred from 1941 to 1944, and 65% of all Allied military casualties from the entire war.

Euro

the currency of the EU

Detente

the easing of strained relations, especially in a political situation. The term is often used in reference to the general easing of the geo-political tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States which began in 1969, as a foreign policy of U.S. presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford called _______; a 'thawing out' or 'un-freezing' at a period roughly in the middle of the Cold War.

Battle of Culloden

the final confrontation of the 1745 Jacobite Rising. On 16 April 1746, the Jacobite forces of Charles Edward Stuart ("Bonnie Prince Charlie") fought loyalist troops commanded by William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland near Inverness in the Scottish Highlands. This Hanoverian victory decisively halted the Jacobite intent to overthrow the House of Hanover and restore the House of Stuart to the British throne; Charles Stuart never mounted any further attempts to challenge Hanoverian power in Great Britain. The conflict was the last pitched battle fought on British soil.

Sputnik

the first artificial Earth satellite. It was a 58 cm (23 in) diameter polished metal sphere, with four external radio antennas to broadcast radio pulses. The Soviet Union launched it into an elliptical low Earth orbit on 4 October 1957. It was visible all around the Earth and its radio pulses were detectable. The surprise success precipitated the American _____ crisis and triggered the Space Race, a part of the larger Cold War. The launch ushered in new political, military, technological, and scientific developments.

Newcomen's atmospheric engine

the first practical device to harness the power of steam to produce mechanical work. These were used throughout Britain and Europe, principally to pump water out of mines, starting in the early 18th century. James Watt's later Watt steam engine was an improved version of this. As a result, Watt is today better known than the namesake figure in relation to the origin of the steam engine.

Three Estates

the first was the clergy; the second was the nobility; the third was everyone else

Constitution of 1791

the first written constitution in France, created after the collapse of the Absolute Monarchy of the Ancien Régime. One of the basic precepts of the revolution was adopting constitutionality and establishing popular sovereignty, following the steps of the United States of America.

Naturalism

the idea or belief that only natural (as opposed to supernatural or spiritual) laws and forces operate in the world; (occas.) the idea or belief that nothing exists beyond the natural world. Santayana

Holocaust

the mass murder or genocide of approximately six million Jews during World War II, a programme of systematic state-sponsored murder by Nazi Germany, led by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party, throughout the German Reich and German-occupied territories.

Red Shirts

the name given to the volunteers who followed Giuseppe Garibaldi in southern Italy during his Mille expedition to southern Italy, but sometimes extended to other campaigns of his. The name derived from the colour of their shirts (complete uniforms were beyond the finances of the Italian patriots).

Petrograd

the name of St. Petersburg during WWI until it was changed to Leningrad and back to St. Petersburg later Revolution of 1905 and the Revolutions of 1917 took place here

Anschluss

the occupation and annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany in 1938.This was in contrast with the movement of the same name (Austria and Germany united as one country), which had been attempted since as early as 1918 when the Republic of German-Austria attempted union with Germany but was forbidden by the Treaty of Saint Germain and Treaty of Versailles peace treaties.

Tuileries

the palace where Louis XVI and his family lived after they were removed from Versailles as a result of the Women's March a royal and imperial palace in Paris which stood on the right bank of the River Seine. It was the usual Parisian residence of most French monarchs, from Henry IV to Napoleon III, until it was destroyed in the upheaval of the Paris Commune in 1871.

Sejm

the parliament of Poland for four centuries from the 15th until the late 18th century. It had evolved from the earlier institution of wiec. It was one of the primary elements of the democratic governance in the Kingdom of Poland and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was a powerful political institution, and from early 16th century, the Polish king could not pass laws without the approval of that body. (I think it also made things inefficient?)

German Reunification

the process in 1990 in which the German Democratic Republic (GDR/East Germany) joined the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG/West Germany) to form the reunited nation of Germany, and when Berlin reunited into a single city, as provided by its then Grundgesetz constitution Article 23. The end of the unification process is officially referred to as German unity (German: Deutsche Einheit), celebrated on 3 October (German Unity Day).

Post-Impressionism

the term coined by the British artist and art critic Roger Fry in 1910 to describe the development of French art since Manet. Fry used the term when he organized the 1910 exhibition Manet and other adherents of this movement. Followers of this movement extended Impressionism while rejecting its limitations: they continued using vivid colours, often thick application of paint, and real-life subject matter, but they were more inclined to emphasize geometric forms, to distort form for expressive effect, and to use unnatural or arbitrary colour.

Iron and Blood

the title of a speech by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck given in 1862 about the unification of the German territories. It is also a transposed phrase that Bismarck uttered near the end of the speech that has become one of his most widely known quotations. refers to how problems between countries will be solved

taille

was a direct land tax on the French peasantry and non-nobles in Ancien Régime France. The tax was imposed on each household and based on how much land it held. some (such as Tocqueville) say it led to the French Revolution

Gunpowder Plot

was a failed assassination attempt against King James I of England and VI of Scotland by a group of provincial English Catholics. Tried to blow up Parliament as well.

Women's Social and Political Union

was the leading militant organization campaigning for Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom. founded by Pankhurst

John Locke

wrote Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding and Two Treatises on government Believed in tabula rasa mind theory mind is a blank slate at birth we learn all through experience believed people were naturally good; had natural laws and unalienable rights

John Calvin

wrote Institutes of Christian Religion; created namesake branch of Protestant Christianity; had a much wider influence than Luther; religion focused on God and predestination; believed in angry God; also wrote Ecclesiastical Ordinances; believed in limited atonement and that everyone deserves Hell; God has already decided who will be saved

Montagnards

"the Mountain"; extremists who wanted to kill the king; want to run France directly from Paris a political group during the French Revolution whose members, called ______________, sat on the highest benches in the Assembly. The term, which was first used during the session of the Legislative Assembly, did not come into general use until 1793.

Leopold II of Austria

He was also Holy Roman Emperor Holy Roman Emperor and King of Hungary and Bohemia from 1790 to 1792, Archduke of Austria and Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1765 to 1790. He was a son of Emperor Francis I and his wife, Empress Maria Theresa, thus the brother of Marie Antoinette. He was a moderate proponent of enlightened absolutism. allied with Prussia to try to help Louis XVI during French Revolution (?)

Pope Leo XIII

Pope from 20 February 1878 to his death in 1903. He was the oldest pope (reigning until the age of 93), and had the third longest pontificate, behind that of Pope Pius IX (his immediate predecessor) and Pope John Paul II. He is well known for intellectualism, the development of social teachings with his famous papal encyclical Rerum Novarum and his attempts to define the position of the Catholic Church with regard to modern thinking. He influenced Roman Catholic Mariology and promoted both the rosary and the scapular. He issued a record eleven encyclicals on the rosary earning the moniker the "Rosary Pope", approved two new Marian scapulars and was the first pope to fully embrace the concept of Mary as mediatrix. He was the first Pope to never have held any control over the Papal States, after they were dissolved by 1870.

Channel Tunnel ("Chunnel")

a 50.5-kilometre rail tunnel linking Folkestone, Kent, in the United Kingdom, with Coquelles, Pas-de-Calais, near Calais in northern France, beneath the English Channel at the Strait of Dover. carries high-speed Eurostar passenger trains, the Eurotunnel Shuttle for automobiles and other road vehicles—the largest such transport in the world—and international rail freight trains. The tunnel connects end-to-end with the LGV Nord and High Speed 1 high-speed railway lines.

Castile

a place where Queen Isabella ruled

95 Theses

a set of arguments that Martin Luther nailed to the door of a church in Wittenberg on October 31, 1517; starts Reformation

Thomas More

friend and advisor to Henry VIII; wrote Utopia; later executed because he didn't want to recognize Henry VIII as leader of English Church

National Guard

led by Lafayette at one point French National Army

Aryans

the so-called "Master race" espoused by Nazi doctrine

Poland/Lithuania

two places that were united for a while during this time (?)

Laying-over

what one does when he or she takes a break in travel during a Grand Tour (?)(I honestly have no clue here)

Arminius

wrote many books and treatises on theology, and his views became the basis of namesake branch of Calvinism and the Dutch Remonstrant movement.

Civic Humanism

A variant of republicanism indicating active, participatory, patriotic citizenship as well as the ethos and educational ideal that goes with it. This term was first used by the historian Hans Baron to describe an upsurge of patriotic republicanism as a response to foreign aggression and despotism, informed by the revival of classical models in Renaissance Florence.

Modena

I actually don't know what's important about this place. Sorry.

Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni

Renaissance Humanist; author of Oration on the Dignity of Man; later becomes a follower of Savonarola and abandons previous humanist practices (?)

Hus, Jan

a Czech priest, philosopher, reformer, and master at Charles University in Prague. After John Wycliffe, the theorist of ecclesiastical Reformation, this person is considered the first Church reformer, as he lived before Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. He urged the elimination of worldliness and corruption of clergy; attacked power of papacy

Ivan III

a Grand Prince of Moscow and "Grand Prince of all Rus" (Великий князь всея Руси). Sometimes referred to as the "gatherer of the Russian lands," he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde over the Rus, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. He was one of the longest-reigning Russian rulers in history. Created "the Third Rome" in Moscow and Russia; married Byzantine princess; brought Orthodox faith to Russia

Potosi

a city and the capital of the department of a namesake place in Bolivia. It is one of the highest cities in the world by elevation at a nominal 4,090 metres (13,420 ft) and it was the location of the Spanish colonial mint. It lies at the foot of the Cerro de _______—sometimes referred to as the Cerro Rico ("rich mountain")—a mountain popularly conceived of as being "made of" silver ore, which has always dominated the city. The Cerro Rico is the reason for this place's historical importance, since it was the major supply of silver for Spain during the period of the New World Spanish Empire.

Siena

a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the province of the same name. the republic was defeated by the rival Duchy of Florence in alliance with the Spanish crown. After 18 months of resistance, it surrendered to Spain on 17 April 1555, marking the end of the republic. The new Spanish King Philip, owing huge sums to the Medici, ceded it (apart a series of coastal fortress annexed to the State of Presidi) to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, to which it belonged until the unification of Italy in the 19th century.

Corvinus, King Matthias

was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1458, at the age of 14 until his death. After conducting several military campaigns he became also King of Bohemia (1469-1490), and Duke of Austria (1486-1490). With his patronage Hungary became the first European country which adopted the Renaissance from Italy. As a Renaissance ruler, he established education institutions, patronized art and science, and introduced a new legal system in the Kingdom of Hungary. In the era of his kingship, he strongly endeavored to follow the model and ideas of the philosopher-king as described in Plato's Republic.

Rome

was the city where the pope was located during the Renaissance; home to some Renaissance art as well

Irrationalism

19th- and early 20th-century philosophical movement that claimed to enrich the apprehension of human life by expanding it beyond the rational to its fuller dimensions. Rooted either in metaphysics or in an awareness of the uniqueness of human experience, it stressed the dimensions of instinct, feeling, and will as over and against reason. Bergson, Schopenauer, Nietzche

Black Shirts

AKA Squadristi fascist paramilitary armed squads in Italy during the period immediately following World War I and until the end of World War II.

Dissenters

Christians who were non conformists and didn't belong to the established church of England. They suffered sanctions and and discrimination until a national religious census showed that more non conformists worshipped at churches that Anglicans and subsequently changes were made to the law allowing non conformists the same rights as Anglicans. They were important because in Victorian Britain religion and politics were inextricably linked and they held views that often didn't meet with the approval of the establishment. went into industry and built stuff

Robert Baden-Powell

Founder of Boy Scouts a lieutenant-general in the British Army, writer, founder of the Scout Movement and first Chief Scout of The Boy Scouts Association. After having been educated at Charterhouse School, he served in the British Army from 1876 until 1910 in India and Africa. In 1899, during the Second Boer War in South Africa, he successfully defended the town in the Siege of Mafeking. Several of his military books, written for military reconnaissance and scout training in his African years, were also read by boys. Based on those earlier books, he wrote Scouting for Boys, published in 1908 by Sir Arthur Pearson, for youth readership. In 1907, he held the first Brownsea Island Scout camp, which is now seen as the beginning of Scouting.

Raphael

High Renaissance artist; School of Athens; several versions of Madonna and Child

Piedmont-Sardinia

Italian kingdom responsible for unifying Italy

Soviet(s)

a name used for several Russian political organizations.

Battle of Austerlitz

also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, was one of Napoleon's greatest victories, where the French Empire effectively crushed the Third Coalition. On 2 December 1805 (20 November Old Style, 11 Frimaire An XIV, in the French Republican Calendar), a French army, commanded by Emperor Napoleon I, decisively defeated a Russo-Austrian army, commanded by Tsar Alexander I and Holy Roman Emperor Francis II, after nearly nine hours of difficult fighting.

Rococo Style

also referred to as "Late Baroque", is an 18th-century artistic movement and style, which affected several aspects of the arts including painting, sculpture, architecture, interior design, decoration, literature, music and theatre.

Denazification

an Allied initiative to rid German and Austrian society, culture, press, economy, judiciary, and politics of any remnants of the National Socialist (Nazi) ideology. It was carried out specifically by removing those involved from positions of influence and by disbanding or rendering impotent the organizations associated with it.

Franz Joseph Haydn

an Austrian composer, one of the most prolific and prominent of the Classical period. He is often called the "Father of the Symphony" and "Father of the String Quartet" because of his important contributions to these forms. He was also instrumental in the development of the piano trio and in the evolution of sonata form. Clock Symphony, Military Symphony, Surprise Symphony

Edward von Taafe

an Austrian statesman, who served for two terms as Minister-President of Cisleithania, leading cabinets from 1868 to 1870 and 1879 to 1893. He was a scion of the Irish ____ noble dynasty, who held hereditary titles from two different countries: Imperial Counts (Reichsgrafen) of the Holy Roman Empire and viscounts in the Peerage of Ireland (in the United Kingdom). ineffective in reconciling national differences in Austria

Sigmund Freud

an Austrian-born neurologist who became known as the founding father of psychoanalysis. developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association (in which patients report their thoughts without reservation and in whichever order they spontaneously occur) and discovered transference (the process in which patients displace onto their analysts feelings derived from their childhood attachments), establishing its central role in the analytic process. Oedipus complex, superego, id, ego, etc

Council of Trent

an Ecumenical Council of the Catholic Church. It is considered to be one of the Church's most important councils. It issued condemnations on what it defined as Protestant heresies at the time of the Reformation and defined Church teachings in the areas of Scripture and Tradition, Original Sin, Justification, Sacraments, the Eucharist in Holy Mass and the veneration of saints. It issued numerous reform decrees. By specifying Catholic doctrine on salvation, the sacraments, and the Biblical canon, it was answering Protestant disputes. It entrusted to the Pope the implementation of its work; as a result, Pope Pius IV issued the Tridentine Creed in 1565; and Pope Pius V issued in 1566 the Roman Catechism, in 1568 a revised Roman Breviary, and in 1570 a revised Roman Missal. Through these the Tridentine Mass was standardised (named after the city's Latin name Tridentum). In 1592, Pope Clement VIII issued a revised edition of the Vulgate Bible. __________, delayed and interrupted several times because of political or religious disagreements, was a major reform council; it was an embodiment of the ideals of the Counter-Reformation.

Lloyds

an English bank that came around during the Industrial Revolution (?) a British retail bank with branches across England and Wales. It has traditionally been considered one of the "Big Four" clearing banks. Originally founded in Birmingham in 1765, the bank expanded during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and took over a number of smaller banking companies. (I think it also refers to a family involved in both banking and iron works?)

Thomas Malthus

an English cleric and scholar, influential in the fields of political economy and demography. An Essay on the Principle of Population observed that sooner or later population will be checked by famine and disease, leading to what is known as his namesake catastrophe.

Star Chamber

an English court of law that sat at the royal Palace of Westminster from the late 15th century until 1641. It was made up of Privy Councillors, as well as common-law judges and supplemented the activities of the common-law and equity courts in both civil and criminal matters. The court was set up to ensure the fair enforcement of laws against prominent people, those so powerful that ordinary courts would never convict them of their crimes. Court sessions were held in secret, with no indictments, and no witnesses. Evidence was presented in writing. Over time it evolved into a political weapon, a symbol of the misuse and abuse of power by the English monarchy and courts.

Edmund Cartwright

an English inventor. He graduated from Oxford University very early and went on to invent the power loom. Married to local Elizabeth McMac at 19, he was the brother of Major John Cartwright, a political reformer and radical, and George Cartwright, explorer of Labrador.

Thomas Cromwell

an English lawyer and statesman who served as chief minister to King Henry VIII of England from 1532 to 1540. He was one of the strongest advocates of the English Reformation. He helped to engineer an annulment of the king's marriage to the Spanish princess Catherine of Aragon, in order to allow Henry to marry his mistress Anne Boleyn. After failure to obtain approval from the Pope, in 1534 parliament endorsed the king's claim to be head of a breakaway Church of England, and he supervised the new church from the unique posts of vicegerent in spirituals and vicar general.

Oliver Cromwell

an English military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was Puritan, so he allied with them after the execution of Charles I. Ironically ruled in much the same way Charles I did.

Charles Darwin

an English naturalist and geologist, best known for his contributions to evolutionary theory. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors, and in a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding.

Herbert Spencer

an English philosopher, biologist, anthropologist, sociologist, and prominent classical liberal political theorist of the Victorian era. He developed an all-embracing conception of evolution as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human culture and societies. He was "an enthusiastic exponent of evolution" and even "wrote about evolution before Darwin did." As a polymath, he contributed to a wide range of subjects, including ethics, religion, anthropology, economics, political theory, philosophy, literature, biology, sociology, and psychology. During his lifetime he achieved tremendous authority, mainly in English-speaking academia. "The only other English philosopher to have achieved anything like such widespread popularity was Bertrand Russell, and that was in the 20th century." He was "the single most famous European intellectual in the closing decades of the nineteenth century" but his influence declined sharply after 1900 best known for coining the expression "survival of the fittest", which he did in Principles of Biology (1864), after reading Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species.

William Harvey

an English physician. He was the first to describe completely and in detail the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped to the brain and body by the heart, though earlier writers had provided precursors of the theory. Disproved some of the theories set by Galen.

William Blake

an English poet, painter and printmaker. Largely unrecognised during his lifetime, He is now considered a seminal figure in the history of the poetry and visual arts of the Romantic Age. His prophetic poetry has been said to form "what is in proportion to its merits the least read body of poetry in the English language". Songs of Innocence and Experience The Tiger

W.B. Yeats

an Irish poet and one of the foremost figures of 20th century literature. A pillar of both the Irish and British literary establishments, in his later years he served as an Irish Senator for two terms. Yeats was a driving force behind the Irish Literary Revival and, along with Lady Gregory, Edward Martyn, and others, founded the Abbey Theatre, where he served as its chief during its early years. In 1923 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature as the first Irishman so honoured for what the Nobel Committee described as "inspired poetry, which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation." He is generally considered one of the few writers who completed their greatest works after being awarded the Nobel Prize; such works include The Tower (1928) and The Winding Stair and Other Poems (1929). Yeats was a very good friend of American expatriate poet and Bollingen Prize laureate Ezra Pound. Yeats wrote the introduction for Rabindranath Tagore's Gitanjali, which was published by the India Society. The Second Coming ("Things fall apart, the center cannot hold")

Tiepolo

an Italian painter and printmaker from the Republic of Venice. He was prolific, and worked not only in Italy, but also in Germany and Spain. (hasn't really done stuff I recognize)

Reichstag Fire

an arson attack on the _______ building in Berlin on 27 February 1933. Marinus van der Lubbe, a young Dutch council communist and unemployed bricklayer who had recently arrived in Germany to fulfill his dream and to engage in political activities, was caught at the scene and after admitting starting the fire was sentenced to death. The fire was used as evidence by the Nazis that the Communists were plotting against the German government and the event is seen as pivotal in the establishment of Nazi Germany.

Pop Art

an art movement that emerged in the mid-1950s in Britain and in the late 1950s in the United States. It presented a challenge to traditions of fine art by including imagery from popular culture such as advertising, news, etc. In this form of art, material is sometimes visually removed from its known context, isolated, and/or combined with unrelated material. The concept of this kind of art refers not as much to the art itself as to the attitudes that led to it.

linear perspective

an art technique explored by Brunelleschi; allowed artists to depict things realistically in space as one would see them a depth cue that is related to both relative size and the next depth cue, texture gradient.

Suez Canal

an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows ship transport between Europe and eastern Asia without navigation around Africa. The northern terminus is Port Said and the southern terminus is Port Tawfiq at the city of Suez. Ismailia lies on its west bank, 3 km (1.9 mi) from the half-way point. formerly controlled by Britain, France, and Egypt; envisioned by de Lesseps

Pragmatic Sanction

an edict issued by Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI to ensure that the hereditary possessions of the Habsburgs could be inherited by a daughter. The Head of the House of Habsburg bore the title of Archduke of Austria and ruled the Archduchy of Austria, the Kingdom of Hungary, the Kingdom of Bohemia, Italian territories and the Austrian Netherlands. This measure does not concern the dignity of Roman Emperor, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, which remained elective, although the Archduke of Austria was also Holy Roman Emperor for centuries. Since their marriage in 1708, Charles and his wife Elizabeth Christine had not had children, and since 1711 Charles had been the sole male member of the House of Habsburg alive. Charles' elder brother Holy Roman Emperor Joseph I had died without male issue, making accession of a female a very plausible contingency. Because the Salic law precluded female inheritance, Charles VI needed to take extraordinary measures to avoid a succession dispute. These precautions proved wise as Charles VI was ultimately succeeded by his elder daughter Maria Theresa (born 1717). Nevertheless, her accession was promptly met with the outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession.

Edict of Fontainbleau

an edict issued by Louis XIV of France, also known as the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The Edict of Nantes of 1598, had granted the Huguenots the right to practice their religion without persecution from the state. Though Protestants had lost their independence in places of refuge under Richelieu, they continued to live in comparative security and political contentment. From the outset, religious toleration in France had been a royal, rather than a popular policy. The lack of universal adherence to his religion did not sit well with Louis XIV's vision of perfected autocracy: "Bending all else to his will, Louis XIV resented the presence of heretics among his subjects."

Dunkirk

an important battle in the Second World War between the Allies and Germany. As part of the Battle of France on the Western Front, it was the defence and evacuation of British and allied forces in Europe from 26 May-4 June 1940.

Lebensraum

an important component of Nazi ideology in Germany. The Nazis supported territorial expansionism to gain this as being a law of nature for all healthy and vigorous peoples of superior races to displace people of inferior races; especially if the people of a superior race were facing overpopulation in their given territories. The German Nazi Party claimed that Germany inevitably needed to territorially expand because it was facing an overpopulation crisis within its Treaty of Versailles-designed boundaries that Adolf Hitler described: "We are overpopulated and cannot feed ourselves from our own resources". Thus expansion was justified as an inevitable necessity for Germany to pursue in order to end the country's overpopulation within existing confined territory, and provide resources necessary to its people's well-being. The idea of a Germanic people without sufficient space dates back to long before Adolf Hitler brought it to prominence.

Prince Henry the Navigator

an important figure in the early days of the Portuguese Empire and the Age of Discoveries in total. He was responsible for the early development of European exploration and maritime trade with other continents. encouraged his father to conquer Ceuta (1415), the Muslim port on the North African coast across the Straits of Gibraltar from the Iberian peninsula. He learnt of the opportunities from the Saharan trade routes that terminated there, and became fascinated with Africa in general; he was most intrigued by the Christian legend of Prester John and the expansion of Portuguese trade. He is regarded as the patron of Portuguese exploration.

NATO

an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. (rivaled Warsaw Pact)(pretty much formed Western Bloc)

European Space Agency

an intergovernmental organisation dedicated to the exploration of space, with 20 member states. Established in 1975 and headquartered in Paris, France, it has a staff of more than 2,000 with an annual budget of about €4.28 billion / US$5.51 billion (2013).

Marie Curie

(her husband Pierre helped out as well) a Polish and naturalized-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the only woman to win in two fields, and the only person to win in multiple sciences. She was also the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris, and in 1995 became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthéon in Paris.

Battle of Leipzig

AKA Battle of the Nations fought by the coalition armies of Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Sweden against the French army of Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, at the namesake place in Saxony. Napoleon's army also contained Polish and Italian troops as well as Germans from the Confederation of the Rhine. The battle marked the culmination of the autumn campaign of 1813 during the German campaign and involved over 600,000 soldiers, making it the largest battle in Europe prior to World War I. Being decisively defeated for the first time in battle, Napoleon was compelled to return to France while the Allies hurried to keep their momentum, invading France early the next year. Napoleon was forced to abdicate and was exiled to Elba in May 1814.

Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes

Both battles were decisive victories for Germany's Eighth Army and left the Russians off balance until Spring 1915. By the end of the battles, Russia lost over 250000 men and was pushed fully out of German soil. By the end September, the Russians were no longer a threat to Germany. The German Eighth Army had won one of the most astounding battles in history.

Henry VIII

Broke England away from Catholicism; had many wives...

Bismarckian System

The alliance system crafted and employed by Otto von Bismarck in the late nineteenth century was based upon a "policy of peace", and was designed to keep the newly unified German Empire in favor with the whole of Europe while gaining power. The major powers of Europe would likely intervene if the threat of a powerful Prussia became imminent, so Bismarck ingeniously played the "honest broker" of peace alliances in order to pacify these fears.

William Pitt, the Elder

a British Whig statesman who led Britain during the Seven Years' War (known as the French and Indian War in North America). He again led the country (holding the official title of Lord Privy Seal) between 1766 and 1768. Much of his power came from his brilliant oratory. He was out of power for most of his career, and became famous for his attacks on the government, such as Walpole's corruption in the 1730s, Hanoverian subsidies in the 1740s, peace with France in the 1760s, and the uncompromising policy toward the American colonies in the 1770s.

Andrei Sakharov

a Russian nuclear physicist, Soviet dissident and human rights activist. He became renowned as the designer of the Soviet Union's Third Idea, a codename for Soviet development of thermonuclear weapons. He was an advocate of civil liberties and civil reforms in the Soviet Union. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1975.

Yuri Andropov

a Soviet politician and the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 12 November 1982 until his death fifteen months later. in between Brezhnev and Chernyenko was head of KGB and crushed Prague Spring insisted on invasion of Afghanistan and promoted Gorbachev

Carl Jung

a Swiss psychiatrist and psychotherapist who founded analytical psychology. He proposed and developed the concepts of extraversion and introversion; archetypes, and the collective unconscious. His work has been influential in psychiatry and in the study of religion, philosophy, archeology, anthropology, literature, and related fields. He was a prolific writer, many of whose works were not published until after his death.

Scientific Method

a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. Put forth by Bacon.

Confederation of the Rhine

a confederation of client states of the First French Empire. It was formed initially from 16 German states by Napoleon after he defeated Austria and Russia in the Battle of Austerlitz. The Treaty of Pressburg, in effect, led to the creation of this. It lasted from 1806 to 1813.

Congress of Vienna

a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815. The objective was to provide a long-term peace for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The leaders were conservatives who sought to achieve long-term peace in Europe by a balance of power, and to restore traditional rulers to Napoleon's puppet states.

Rothschilds

a family descending from Mayer Amschel _________, a court Jew to the Landgraves of Hesse-Kassel, in the Free City of Frankfurt, who established his banking business in the 1760s. Unlike most previous court Jews, he managed to bequeath his wealth, and established an international banking dynasty through his five sons, that came even to surpass the most powerful families of the era such as the Barings and the Berenbergs. ("Medici of 19th Century") finance wars, industry (railroads), and art

Sergei Witte

a highly influential policy-maker who presided over extensive industrialization within the Russian Empire. He served under the last two emperors of Russia. He was also the author of the October Manifesto of 1905, a precursor to Russia's first constitution, and Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister) of the Russian Empire.

Bohemia

a historical country, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech lands. It is located in the contemporary Czech Republic with its capital in Prague. Matthias Corvinus was a king of this place (and other places as well)

James Boswell

a lawyer, diarist, and author born in Edinburgh, Scotland. He is best known for the biography he wrote of one of his contemporaries, the English literary figure Samuel Johnson, which the modern Johnsonian critic Harold Bloom has claimed is the greatest biography written in the English language.

Mercantilism

a national economic policy that says that a nation benefits by accumulating monetary reserves through a positive balance of trade, especially of finished goods. caused frequent wars; encouraged colonization

Mercantilism

a national economic policy that says that a nation benefits by accumulating monetary reserves through a positive balance of trade, especially of finished goods; dominated Western European economic policy and discourse from the 16th to late-18th centuries. reason for frequent wars (e.g. American Revolution)

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

a peace treaty on March 3, 1918, between the new Bolshevik government of Russia (the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic) and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey), which ended Russia's participation in World War I. The treaty was signed at ________ after two months of negotiations. The treaty was forced on the Soviet government by the threat of further advances by German and Austrian forces. By the treaty, Soviet Russia defaulted on Imperial Russia's commitments to the Triple Entente alliance.

Dutch Golden Age

a period in Dutch history, roughly spanning the 17th century, in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were among the most acclaimed in the world. The first half is characterized by the Eighty Years' War till 1648.

Baroque

a period of artistic style that used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, architecture, literature, dance, and music. The style began around 1600 in Rome, Italy and spread to most of Europe.

Second Industrial Revolution

a phase of the larger Industrial Revolution corresponding to the latter half of the 19th century until World War I. It is considered to have begun around the time of the introduction of Bessemer steel in the 1860s and culminated in early factory electrification, mass production and the production line. also use of gasoline and creation of automobiles

Entente Cordiale

a series of agreements signed on 8 April 1904 between the United Kingdom and France, marking the start of the alliance against Germany that fought the First World War. Beyond the immediate concerns of colonial expansion addressed by the agreement, the signing of this marked the end of almost a thousand years of intermittent conflict between the two nations and their predecessor states, and the formalisation of the peaceful co-existence that had existed since the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. This, along with the Anglo-Russian Entente and the Franco-Russian Alliance, later became part of the Triple Entente among Britain, France, and Russia. settled many long-standing issues. France recognized British control over Egypt, while Britain reciprocated regarding France in Morocco. In a minor key France gave up its exclusive fishery rights on the French Shore of Newfoundland and in return received an indemnity and territory in The Gambia (Senegal) and Nigeria. Britain dropped complaints regarding the French customs régime in Madagascar. The respective spheres of influence were defined in Siam (Thailand).

Hapsburg-Valois (Italian) Wars

a series of conflicts from 1494 to 1559 that involved, at various times, most of the city-states of Italy, the Papal States, most of the major states of Western Europe (France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, England, and Scotland) as well as the Ottoman Empire. Originally arising from dynastic disputes over the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples, the wars rapidly became a general struggle for power and territory among their various participants, and were marked with an increasing number of alliances, counter-alliances, and betrayals. In France, Henry II was fatally wounded in a joust held during the celebrations of the peace. His death led to the accession of his 15-year-old son Francis II, who in turn soon died. The French monarchy was thrown into turmoil, which increased further with the outbreak of the French Wars of Religion in 1562. The states of Italy were reduced to second-rate powers and Milan and Naples were annexed directly to Spain. They had a number of consequences for the work and workplace of Leonardo da Vinci; his plans for a "Gran Cavallo" big horse statue in 1495 were dropped when the seventy tons of bronze intended for the statue were instead cast into weapons to save Milan. Later, following a chance encounter with Francis I after the Battle of Marignano, Leonardo agreed to move to France, where he spent his final years.

War(s) of the Roses

a series of dynastic wars fought between supporters of two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: the houses of Lancaster and York (whose heraldic symbols were the red and the white rose, respectively) for the throne of England. They were fought in several sporadic episodes between 1455 and 1485, although there was related fighting both before and after this period. They resulted from the social and financial troubles following the Hundred Years' War. The final victory went to a relatively remote Lancastrian claimant, Henry Tudor, who defeated the last Yorkist king Richard III and married Edward IV's daughter Elizabeth of York to unite the two houses. The House of Tudor subsequently ruled England and Wales until 1603.

French Revolutionary Wars

a series of major conflicts fought between the French Republic government and several European Monarchies from 1792 to 1802. Marked by French revolutionary fervour and military innovations, the campaigns saw the French Revolutionary Armies defeat a number of opposing coalitions. They resulted in expanded French control to the Low Countries, Italy, and the Rhineland. The wars depended on extremely high numbers of soldiers, recruited by modern mass conscription.

Great Depression

a severe worldwide economic depression in the decade preceding World War II. The timing of it varied across nations, but in most countries it started in 1930 and lasted until the late 1930s or middle 1940s. It was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century.

Flight to Varennes

a significant episode in the French Revolution during which King Louis XVI of France, his wife Marie Antoinette, and their immediate family attempted unsuccessfully to escape from Paris in order to initiate a counter-revolution. They desired to hide in Austria due to Marie's heritage, and hoped they would find safety in their newly found French Austrian agreement. Their escape only led them as far as the namesake small town, where they were recognized and immediately arrested.

Piedmont-Sardinia

a state in Europe from the early 14th century until the mid-19th. It was the predecessor state of today's Italy. A small state with weak institutions when it was acquired by the House of Savoy in 1720, the Savoyards united their insular and continental domains and built it into one of the great powers by the time of the Crimean War (1853-56).

Fourteen Points

a statement given on the 8th of January, 1918 by United States President Woodrow Wilson declaring that World War I was being fought for a moral cause and calling for postwar peace in Europe. Europeans generally welcomed Wilson's intervention, but his main Allied colleagues (Georges Clemenceau of France, David Lloyd George of Great Britain, and Vittorio Emanuele Orlando of Italy) were skeptical of the applicability of Wilsonian idealism.

Unitarianism

a theological movement, named for its understanding of God as one person, in direct contrast to Trinitarianism, which defines God as three persons coexisting consubstantially as one being.

Domino Theory

a theory prominent from the 1950s to the 1980s, that speculated that if one state in a region came under the influence of communism, then the surrounding countries would follow. This theory was used by successive United States administrations during the Cold War to justify the need for American intervention around the world. Eisenhower credited with coming up with it.

Aristotelian thought

a tradition of philosophy that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle...

ABM Treaty

a treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union on the limitation of the anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems used in defending areas against missile-delivered nuclear weapons. Under the terms of the treaty, each party was limited to two ABM complexes, each of which were to be limited to 100 anti-ballistic missiles. Signed in 1972, it was in force for the next 30 years. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, in 1997 the United States and four former Soviet republics agreed to succeed to the treaty. In June 2002 the United States withdrew from the treaty, leading to its termination.

Zeppelin

a type of rigid airship named after the German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin who pioneered rigid airship development at the beginning of the 20th century.

Boxer Rebellion

a violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian movement which took place in China towards the end of the Qing dynasty between 1898 and 1900. It was initiated by the Militia United in Righteousness (Yihetuan), known in English as the namesake people, and was motivated by proto-nationalist sentiments and opposition to foreign imperialism and Christianity. The Great Powers intervened and defeated Chinese forces.

pogrom

a violent riot aimed at massacre or persecution of an ethnic or religious group, particularly one aimed at Jews. happened a lot in Russia (?)

Revolution of 1848 (Germany)

also called the March Revolution (Märzrevolution), they/it broke out in many countries of Europe and a series of loosely coordinated protests and rebellions in the states of the German Confederation, including the Austrian Empire; stressed pan-Germanism, emphasised popular discontent with the traditional, largely autocratic political structure of the thirty-nine independent states of the Confederation that inherited the German territory of the former Holy Roman Empire. Furthermore, they demonstrated the popular desire for increased political freedom, liberal state policies, democracy, nationalism, and freedom from censorship. The middle class elements were committed to liberal principles while the working class sought radical improvements to their working and living conditions. However, the middle class and working class components of the Revolution split, and in the end the conservative aristocracy defeated it, forcing many liberals into exile, where they became known as Forty-Eighters.

Women's March to Versailles

also known as The October March, it was one of the earliest and most significant events of the French Revolution. It began among women in the marketplaces of Paris who, on the morning of 5 October 1789, were near rioting over the high price and scarcity of bread. Their demonstrations quickly became intertwined with the activities of revolutionaries who were seeking liberal political reforms and a constitutional monarchy for France. The market women and their various allies grew into a mob of thousands and, encouraged by revolutionary agitators, they ransacked the city armory for weapons and marched to the Palace of Versailles. The crowd besieged the palace and in a dramatic and violent confrontation they successfully pressed their demands upon King Louis XVI. The next day, the crowd compelled the king, his family, and most of the French Assembly to return with them to Paris. These events effectively ended the independent authority of the king.

Bosnian Crisis, 1908

also known as the Annexation crisis, or the First Balkan Crisis, erupted into public view when on 6 October 1908, Austria-Hungary announced the annexation of the namesake place and Herzegovina. Russia, the Ottoman Empire, Britain, Italy, Serbia, Montenegro, Germany and France took an interest in these events. In April 1909 the Treaty of Berlin was amended to accept the new status quo bringing the crisis to an end. The crisis permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary on the one hand and Russia and the Kingdom of Serbia on the other. The annexation and reactions to the annexation were contributing causes of World War I. Serbia and Russia protested to Austria-Hungary taking over that place, but backed down when Germany said it supported Austria-Hungary. Neither Russia or Serbia were prepared to go to war with Germany. Austria-Hungary became over confident with Germany's help and escalated the crisis. Russia was determined not to back down again and hastened its arms build up.

Truman Doctrine

an international relations policy set forth by the U.S. President Harry Truman in a speech on March 12, 1947, which stated that the U.S. would support Greece and Turkey with economic and military aid to prevent them from joining the Soviet sphere. Historians often consider it as the start of the Cold War, and the start of the containment policy to stop Soviet expansion. Truman pledged the US to contain in Europe and elsewhere and impelled the US to support any nation with both military and economic aid if its stability was threatened by communism or the Soviet Union.

Second International

an organization of socialist and labour parties formed in Paris on July 14, 1889. At the Paris meeting delegations from 20 countries participated. It continued the work of the dissolved First International, though excluding the still-powerful anarcho-syndicalist movement and unions, and was in existence until 1916.

Anabaptists

ancestors of Amish and Mennonites; believed in Separation of Church and State, non-participation in secular government, and adult baptism; caused Munster revolt of 1534 - 1535; John of Leiden was a leader before he was killed

Immanuel Kant

author of Critique of Pure Reason knowledge has constraints because mind limits empiricism dichotomy between Locke and Descartes; rationalism and empiricism certain innate things exist; all knowledge gained through experience encounter world through mind; experiences come through senses but filtered through mind a German philosopher who is widely considered to be a central figure of modern philosophy. He argued that human concepts and categories structure our view of the world and its laws, and that reason is the source of morality. His thought continues to hold a major influence in contemporary thought, especially in fields such as metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political philosophy, and aesthetics.

Edward Gibbon

author of Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire an English historian and Member of Parliament. His most important work, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, was published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788. The Decline and Fall is known for the quality and irony of its prose, its use of primary sources, and its open criticism of organised religion.

Samuel Richardson

author of Pamela an 18th-century English writer and printer. He is best known for his three epistolary novels: Pamela: Or, Virtue Rewarded (1740), Clarissa: Or the History of a Young Lady (1748) and The History of Sir Charles Grandison (1753). He was an established printer and publisher for most of his life and printed almost 500 different works, with journals and magazines.

National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP)

commonly known in English as the Nazi Party (/ˈnɑːtsi/), was a political party in Germany active between 1920 and 1945. Its predecessor, the German Workers' Party (DAP), existed from 1919 to 1920. party emerged from the German nationalist, racist and populist Freikorps paramilitary culture, which fought against the communist uprisings in post-World War I Germany. Advocacy of a form of socialism by right-wing figures and movements in Germany became common during and after World War I. "Third Reich" sought to exterminate or impose exclusionary segregation upon "degenerate" and "asocial" groups that included: Jews, homosexuals, Romani, blacks, the physically and mentally handicapped, Jehovah's Witnesses and political opponents. Holocaust Hitler

Collectivization

enforced under Stalin between 1928 and 1940. The goal of this policy was to consolidate individual land and labour into collective farms: mainly kolkhozy and sovkhozy. The Soviet leadership was confident that the replacement of individual peasant farms by collective ones would immediately increase the food supply for urban population, the supply of raw materials for processing industry, and agricultural exports. It was thus regarded as the solution to the crisis of agricultural distribution (mainly in grain deliveries) that had developed since 1927. This problem became more acute as the Soviet Union pressed ahead with its ambitious industrialization program. In the early 1930s over 91% of agricultural land was "collectivized" as rural households entered collective farms with their land, livestock, and other assets. This often involved tremendous human and social costs.

Long Parliament

established on 3 November 1640[a] to pass financial bills, following the Bishops' Wars. It received its name from the fact that through an Act of Parliament, it could be dissolved only with the agreement of the members, and those members did not agree to its dissolution until after the English Civil War and close to the end of Interregnum on 16 March 1660. It sat from 1640 until 1648, when it was purged, by the New Model Army. In the chaos following the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1658, General George Monck allowed the members barred in 1648 to retake their seats so that they could pass the necessary legislation to allow the Restoration and dissolve this.

Grand Armee

first entered the annals of history when, in 1805, Napoleon I renamed the army that he had assembled on the French coast of the English Channel for the proposed invasion of Britain. It never achieved its primary goal, as Napoleon had to re-deploy it east in order to eliminate the threat of Austria and Russia, which were part of the Third Coalition assembled against France. Thereafter, the name was used for the principal French army deployed in the Campaigns of 1805 and 1807, where it got its prestige, 1809, 1812, and 1813-14. In practice, however, this term is used in English to refer to all of the multinational forces gathered by Napoleon I in his campaigns of the early 19th century.

IRA

fought a guerrilla war against British rule in Ireland in the Irish War of Independence 1919-1921. Following the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty on 6 December 1921, it split between supporters and opponents of the Treaty. The anti-Treatyites, sometimes referred to by Free State forces as irregulars, continued to use this name or in Irish Óglaigh na hÉireann, as did the organisation in the Northern Ireland which supported the pro-Treaty side. Óglaigh na hÉireann was also adopted as the name of the pro-Treaty National Army and remains the official legal title of the Irish Defence Forces. fought the Irish Civil War and was defeated by the Irish Free State forces and with its successors up to 1969

Sturmabteilung (SA)

functioned as the original paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party. It played a key role in Adolf Hitler's rise to power in the 1920s and 1930s. Their main assignments were providing protection for Nazi rallies and assemblies, disrupting the meetings of the opposing parties, fighting against the paramilitary units of the opposing parties (especially the Rotfrontkämpferbund) and intimidating Slavic and Romani citizens, unionists and Jews (e.g. the Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses). was the first Nazi paramilitary group to develop pseudo-military titles for bestowal upon its members. Ranks were adopted by several other Nazi Party groups, chief amongst them the Schutzstaffel (SS), itself originally a branch of this. Men were often called "brownshirts" for the colour of their uniforms (similar to Benito Mussolini's blackshirts). Brown-coloured shirts were chosen as the __ uniform because a large batch of them were cheaply available after World War I, having originally been ordered during the war for colonial troops posted to Germany's former African colonies. They became disempowered after Adolf Hitler ordered the "Blood purge" of 1934. This event became known as the Night of the Long Knives. This was effectively superseded by the SS, although it was not formally dissolved and banned until after the Third Reich's final capitulation to the Allied powers in 1945.

Episcopacy

government of a church by bishops...

Edict of Nantes

granted the Calvinist Protestants of France (also known as Huguenots) substantial rights in a nation still considered essentially Catholic. In this, Henry aimed primarily to promote civil unity; separated civil from religious unity, treated some Protestants for the first time as more than mere schismatics and heretics, and opened a path for secularism and tolerance. In offering general freedom of conscience to individuals, it offered many specific concessions to the Protestants, such as amnesty and the reinstatement of their civil rights, including the right to work in any field or for the State and to bring grievances directly to the king. It marked the end of the religious wars that had afflicted France during the second half of the 16th century.

Stamp Act

imposed a direct tax by the British Parliament specifically on the colonies of British America, and it required that many printed materials in the colonies be produced on stamped paper produced in London, carrying an embossed revenue stamp. These printed materials were legal documents, magazines, newspapers and many other types of paper used throughout the colonies.

War of Austrian Succession

involved most of the powers of Europe over the question of Maria Theresa's succession to the realms of the House of Habsburg. The war included King George's War in North America, the War of Jenkins' Ear (which formally began on 23 October 1739), the First Carnatic War in India, and the First and Second Silesian Wars. major powers: (Prussia, Bavaria, France, Spain) vs. (Austria, Russia, Great Britain, Hanover)

Philip III

king of Spain and Portugal; reliance on his corrupt chief minister, the Duke of Lerma, drew much criticism at the time and afterwards. For many, the decline of Spain can be dated to the economic difficulties that set in during the early years of his reign. Nonetheless, as the ruler of the Spanish Empire at its height and as the king who achieved a temporary peace with the Dutch (1609-21) and brought Spain into the Thirty Years' War (1618-48) through an (initially) extremely successful campaign, his reign remains a critical period in Spanish history.

Treaty of Algeciras 1906

lasted from 16 January to 7 April. The purpose of the conference was to find a solution to the First Moroccan Crisis of 1905 between France and the German Empire, which arose as Germany attempted to prevent France from establishing a protectorate over Morocco in what was known as the Tangier Crisis. Took place in namesake Spanish town

Heinrich Himmler

led the SS Reichsführer of the Schutzstaffel (SS), a military commander, and a leading member of the Nazi Party (NSDAP) of Nazi Germany. Nazi leader Adolf Hitler later appointed him Commander of the Replacement (Home) Army and General Plenipotentiary for the administration of the entire Third Reich (Generalbevollmächtigter für die Verwaltung). Himmler was one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany and one of the persons most directly responsible for the Holocaust. developed the SS from a mere 290-man battalion into a powerful group with its own military, and, following Hitler's orders, set up and controlled the Nazi concentration camps. He was known to have good organisational skills and for selecting highly competent subordinates, such as Reinhard Heydrich in 1931. From 1943 forward, he was both Chief of German Police and Minister of the Interior, overseeing all internal and external police and security forces, including the Gestapo (Secret State Police).

Realism

may be generally defined as the attempt to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality and avoiding artistic conventions, implausible, exotic and supernatural elements. The term originated in the 19th century, and was used to describe the work of Gustave Courbet and a group of painters who rejected idealization, focusing instead on everyday life.

Boyars

nobility class (especially in Russia); crushed under Ivan IV and Peter the Great

Benjamin Franklin

one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. A noted polymath, he was a leading author, printer, political theorist, politician, postmaster, scientist, musician, inventor, satirist, civic activist, statesman, and diplomat. As a scientist, he was a major figure in the American Enlightenment and the history of physics for his discoveries and theories regarding electricity. He invented the lightning rod, bifocals, a namesake stove, a carriage odometer, and the glass 'armonica'. He facilitated many civic organizations, including a fire department and a university.

Conditions of the Working Class in England

one of the best-known works of Friedrich Engels. It was also Engels' first book, written during his stay in Manchester from 1842 to 1844. Manchester was then at the very heart of the Industrial Revolution, and Engels compiled his study from his own observations and detailed contemporary reports. Engels argues that the Industrial Revolution made workers worse off. Engels' interpretation proved to be extremely influential with British historians of the industrial revolution. He focused on both the workers' wages and their living conditions. He argued that the industrial workers had lower incomes than their pre-industrial peers and they lived in more unhealthy and unpleasant environments. This proved to be a very wide-ranging critique of industrialisation and one that was echoed by many of the Marxist historians who studied the industrial revolution in the twentieth century. Originally addressed to a German audience, the book is considered by many to be a classic account of the universal condition of the industrial working class during its time. The eldest son of a successful German textile industrialist, Engels became involved in radical journalism in his youth. Sent to England, what he saw there made him even more radical. About this time he formed his lifelong intellectual partnership with Karl Marx.

Politburo

refers to a communist party (?)

Blank Check

refers to the statement of Wilhelm II that Germany would back up Austria in any action against Russia and Serbia (I think)

Reichstag

the Parliament of the German Empire from 1871 to 1918. Legislation was shared between this and the Bundesrat, which was the Imperial Council of the reigning princes of the German States.

Fifth Republic

the current republican constitution of France, introduced on 4 October 1958. It emerged from the collapse of the French Fourth Republic, replacing the prior parliamentary government with a semi-presidential system. It is France's third-longest-enduring political regime, after the pre-revolutionary Ancien Régime and the Third Republic.

Joseph-Napoleon Bonaparte

the elder brother of Napoleon Bonaparte, who made him King of Naples and Sicily (1806-1808), and later King of Spain.

Frankfurt Assembly

the first freely elected parliament for all of Germany. Session was held from 18 May 1848 to 31 May 1849 in the Paulskirche at Frankfurt am Main. Its existence was both part of and the result of the "March Revolution" in the states of the German Confederation.

(Second) Spanish Republic

the government of Spain from 14 April 1931 until its dissolution in 1939 by a military rebellion led by General Francisco Franco and Emilio Mola. proclaimed when King Alfonso XIII left the country following municipal elections in which anti-monarchist candidates won the majority of votes, and the Spanish population celebrated the beginning of the Republic and social pressure made the political regime change. Its government went into exile on 1 April 1939, when the last of the loyalist Republican forces surrendered to rebel forces (calling themselves nacionales) led by Generalísimo Franco among others at the end of the Spanish Civil War.

Albert, Prince Consort

the husband of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. He was born in the Saxon duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld to a family connected to many of Europe's ruling monarchs. At the age of 20 he married his first cousin, Queen Victoria, with whom he would ultimately have nine children. At first, he felt constrained by his position as consort, which did not confer any power or duties upon him. Over time he adopted many public causes, such as educational reform and a worldwide abolition of slavery, and took on the responsibilities of running the Queen's household, estates and office. He was heavily involved with the organisation of the Great Exhibition of 1851. He aided in the development of Britain's constitutional monarchy by persuading his wife to show less partisanship in her dealings with Parliament—although he actively disagreed with the interventionist foreign policy pursued during Lord Palmerston's tenure as Foreign Secretary.

Invasion of Normandy

the invasion and establishment of Western Allied forces in the namesake place, during Operation Overlord in 1944 during World War II, the largest amphibious invasion to ever take place.

Poussin

the leading painter of the classical French Baroque style, although he spent most of his working life in Rome. His work is characterized by clarity, logic, and order, and favors line over color. Until the 20th century he remained a major inspiration for such classically oriented artists as Jacques-Louis David, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres and Paul Cézanne. Et in Arcadia Ego; Rape of the Sabine Women

Triple Alliance

the military alliance among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, (as opposing the Triple Entente which consisted of an alliance between Britain, France and Russia), that lasted from 1882 until World War I in 1914. Each member promised mutual support in the event of an attack by any other great power, or for Germany and Italy, an attack by France alone. In a supplementary declaration, Italy specified that its undertakings could not be regarded as being directed against Great Britain. Shortly after renewing the Alliance in June 1902, Italy secretly extended a similar guarantee to France. By a particular agreement, neither Austria-Hungary nor Italy would change the status quo in the Balkans without previous consultation.

London Blitz

the period of sustained strategic bombing of the United Kingdom by Nazi Germany during the Second World War. (not part of Battle of Britain)

Henry VII

the person who killed Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field; established Tudor line; was of the House of Lancaster in the Wars of the Roses

House of Windsor

the royal house of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms. It was founded by King George V by royal proclamation on 17 July 1917, when he changed the name of the British Royal Family from the German Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (a branch of the House of Wettin) to the English Windsor, due to the anti-German sentiment in the British Empire during World War I.

Zyklon B

the trade name of a cyanide-based pesticide invented in the early 1920s. The product was infamous for its use by Nazi Germany to murder an estimated 1.2 million people, including approximately 960,000 Jews, in gas chambers of extermination camps during the Holocaust. This number represents a portion of the estimated 11 million people killed by the Nazi regime.

Corn Law of 1815

trade law designed to protect cereal producers in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland against competition from less expensive foreign imports between 1815 and 1846. To ensure that British landowners reaped all the financial profits from farming, the law imposed steep import duties, making it too expensive for anyone to import grain from other countries, even when the people of Great Britain and Ireland needed the food (as in times of famine).

Metaphysics

traditional branch of philosophy concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world that encompasses it, although the term is not easily defined. (rationalism and empiricism are included?)

Ferdinand VII

twice King of Spain: in 1808 and from 1813 to 1833 - the latter period in dispute with Joseph Bonaparte. pretty much was king until Joseph Bonaparte was put on the throne for a brief period of time

Great Patriotic War

used in Russia and some other former republics of the Soviet Union to describe the period from 22 June 1941 to 9 May 1945 in the many fronts of the eastern campaign of World War II between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany with its allies.

Alexander III

was Emperor of Russia, King of Poland and Grand Prince of Finland from 13 March [O.S. 1 March] 1881 until his death on 20 October [O.S. 8 October] 1894. He was highly conservative and reversed some of the liberal measures of his father, Alexander II. During his reign Russia fought no major wars, for which he was styled "The Peacemaker" (Russian: "Миротворец")

Alfonso XII

was King of Spain, reigning from 1874 to 1885, after a coup d'état restored the monarchy and ended the ephemeral First Spanish Republic. Having been forced into exile after the Glorious Revolution deposed his mother Isabella II from the throne in 1868, he studied in Austria and France. His mother abdicated in his favour in 1870, and he returned to Spain as king in 1874 following a military coup. He died aged 27 in 1885, and was succeeded by his unborn son, who became Alfonso XIII on his birth the following year

Georges Danton

was a leading figure in the early stages of the French Revolution and the first President of the Committee of Public Safety. His role in the onset of the Revolution has been disputed; many historians describe him as "the chief force in the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the First French Republic". A moderating influence on the Jacobins, he was guillotined by the advocates of revolutionary terror after accusations of venality and leniency to the enemies of the Revolution.

Czechoslovakia

was a sovereign state in Central Europe that existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until its peaceful dissolution into Czechia and Slovakia on 1 January 1993. From 1939 to 1945, following its forced division and partial incorporation into Nazi Germany, the state did not de facto exist but its government-in-exile continued to operate. On 29 June 1945, a treaty was signed between this place and the Soviet Union, ceding Carpatho-Ukraine to the USSR. From 1948 to 1990 it had a command or planned economy, which was disintegrated on 1 January 1991, removing price controls after a period of preparation.

League of Nations

was an intergovernmental organisation founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament, and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration. Other issues in this and related treaties included labour conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe. At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. (not very effective)

First Republic

was founded on 22 September 1792, by the newly established National Convention. It lasted until the declaration of the First French Empire in 1804 under Napoleon I. This period was characterized by the fall of the monarchy, the establishment of the National Convention and the infamous Reign of Terror, the founding of the Directory and the Thermidorian Reaction, and finally, the creation of the Consulate and Napoleon's rise to power.

Francois Mitterrand

was the 21st President of France and ex officio Co-Prince of Andorra, serving from 1981 until 1995. He is the longest-serving President of France and, as leader of the Socialist Party, the first figure from the left elected President under the Fifth Republic. Reflecting family influences, he started political life on the Catholic nationalist right. He served under the Vichy Regime in its earlier years. Subsequently, however, he joined the Resistance, moved to the left, and held ministerial office repeatedly under the Fourth Republic. He opposed de Gaulle's establishment of the Fifth Republic. Although at times a politically isolated figure, Mitterrand outmanoeuvred rivals to become the left's standard bearer in every presidential election from 1965 to 1988, except 1969. Elected President in the May 1981 presidential election, he was re-elected in 1988 and held office until 1995. invited the Communist Party into his first government, a controversial move at the time. Beyond making the French left electable, he presided over the rise of the Socialist Party to dominance of the left, and the decline of the once-mighty Communist Party.

Catherine II (the Great)

was the most renowned and the longest-ruling female leader of Russia, reigning from 9 July 1762 until her death on 17 November 1796 at the age of sixty-seven. Her reign was called Russia's golden age. She was born in Stettin, Pomerania, Prussia as Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg, and came to power following a coup d'état and the assassination of her husband, Peter III, at the end of the Seven Years' War. Russia was revitalized under her reign, growing larger and stronger than ever and becoming recognized as one of the great powers of Europe. Enlightened Despot

Tank

a very large army artillery vehicle came into use during this war

Sturm und Drang

"storm and stress" a proto-Romantic movement in German literature and music taking place from the late 1760s to the early 1780s, in which individual subjectivity and, in particular, extremes of emotion were given free expression in reaction to the perceived constraints of rationalism imposed by the Enlightenment and associated aesthetic movements.

Holy Alliance

(also called the Grand Alliance) was a coalition created by the monarchist great powers of Russia, Austria and Prussia. It was created after the ultimate defeat of Napoleon at the behest of Czar Alexander I of Russia and signed in Paris on 26 September 1815.

Leonardo da Vinci

A "Renaissance man"; painted things such as the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper and Madonna on the Rocks; also created blueprints for many machines

Erasmus

Author of In Praise of Folly; satirist; wanted Catholic Reform but didn't want to break with church outright

Olympe de Gouges

Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791) challenged the practice of male authority and the notion of male-female inequality. She was executed by guillotine during the Reign of Terror for attacking the regime of the Revolutionary government and for her close relation with the Girondists.

James II

King of England, Ireland, and Scotland from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. He was the last Roman Catholic monarch to reign over the Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland.

Giovanni Battista Tiepolo

an Italian painter and printmaker from the Republic of Venice. He was prolific, and worked not only in Italy, but also in Germany and Spain. (don't really know what he did)

Louis Philippe

King of the French from 1830 to 1848 in what was known as the July Monarchy. His father was a duke who supported the Revolution of 1789 but was nevertheless guillotined during the Reign of Terror. He fled France as a young man and spent 21 years in exile. He was proclaimed king in 1830 after Charles X was forced to abdicate. He himself was forced to abdicate in 1848 and lived out his life in exile in the United Kingdom. He was the last king to rule France, although Napoleon III would serve as its last monarch.

Hans Holbein (the Younger)

Northern Renaissance artist; credited with creating portraits of Thomas More and painting The Ambassadors and some people of the court of Henry VIII (including Henry VIII and some of his wives)

Alexander VI

One of the Renaissance popes and a member of the Borgia family; he was the father of Cesare Borgia; "known for his debauchery and sensuality"; gave positions to relatives

Puddling

Refers to Cort process (?)

Michaelangelo

Renaissance painter and sculptor; giant marble statue of David; Moses; Pieta; Sistine Chapel Ceiling (Last Judgement and Creation of Adam)

Five-Year Plan of 1946

Stalin's 4th Five-Year plan; rebuilt devastated USSR from WWII(?)

Rene Magritte

a Belgian surrealist artist. He became well known for a number of witty and thought-provoking images that fall under the umbrella of surrealism. His work is known for challenging observers' preconditioned perceptions of reality. The Great War (The Human Condition) This Is Not a Pipe

Barclays

a British multinational banking and financial services company headquartered in London. It is a universal bank with operations in retail, wholesale and investment banking, as well as wealth management, mortgage lending and credit cards. It has operations in over 50 countries and territories and has around 48 million customers. (one of the banking firms that profited off the Industrial Revolution?)

George Frederick Handel

a German-born British Baroque composer famous for his operas, oratorios, anthems and organ concertos. Born in a family indifferent to music, he received critical training in Halle, Hamburg and Italy before settling in London (1712) as a naturalized British subject in 1727. By then he was strongly influenced by the great composers of the Italian Baroque and the middle-German polyphonic choral tradition. Messiah, Sarabande, Water Music

Red Terror

a campaign of mass killings, torture, and systematic oppression conducted by the Bolsheviks after seizing power in Petrograd and Moscow. In Soviet historiography, it is described as having been officially announced on 2 September 1918 by Yakov Sverdlov and ended about October 1918. However, many historians, beginning with Sergei Melgunov, apply this term to political repression during the whole period of the Russian Civil War, 1918-1922. The mass repressions were conducted by the Cheka (the Bolshevik secret police), together with elements of the Bolshevik military intelligence agency (the GRU).

Purges of 1936-8

a campaign of political repression in the Soviet Union orchestrated by Joseph Stalin from 1934 to 1939. It involved a large-scale purge of the Communist Party and government officials, repression of peasants and the Red Army leadership, and widespread police surveillance, suspicion of "saboteurs", imprisonment, and arbitrary executions. In Russian historiography, the period of the most intense purge, 1937-1938, is called Yezhovshchina (Russian: Eжовщина; literally, the Yezhov regime), after Nikolai Yezhov, the head of the Soviet secret police, NKVD.

Gothic Literature

a genre or mode of literature that combines fiction, horror and Romanticism. Its origin is attributed to English author Horace Walpole, with his 1764 novel The Castle of Otranto, subtitled (in its second edition) "A Gothic Story." The effect of it feeds on a pleasing sort of terror, an extension of Romantic literary pleasures that were relatively new at the time of Walpole's novel. (Frankenstein and Dracula also count)(no pun intended)

FDP

a liberal and classical liberal political party in Germany. The FDP is led by Christian Lindner and, until the 2013 federal election, served as the junior coalition partner to the Union (Christian Democratic Union and Christian Social Union) in the German federal government.

Louis XIII

a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France from 1610 to 1643 and King of Navarre from 1610 to 1620, when the crown of Navarre was merged to the French crown. succeeded his father Henry IV as king of France and Navarre a few months before his ninth birthday. His mother, Marie de' Medici, acted as regent during his minority. Mismanagement of the kingdom and ceaseless political intrigues by Marie de' Medici and her Italian favourites led the young king to take power in 1617 by exiling his mother and executing her followers, including Concino Concini, the most influential Italian at the French court. relied heavily on Cardinal Richelieu's support built up monarchical power involved in 30 Years War

Slovenia

a nation state in southern Central Europe at the crossroads of main European cultural and trade routes. It borders Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Croatia to the south and southeast, and Hungary to the northeast. It covers 20,273 square kilometers (7,827 sq mi) and has a population of 2.05 million. It is a parliamentary republic and a member of the European Union and NATO. Its capital and largest city is Ljubljana.

Berthe Morisot

a painter and a member of the circle of painters in Paris who became known as the Impressionists. She was described by Gustave Geffroy in 1894 as one of "les trois grandes dames" of Impressionism alongside Marie Bracquemond and Mary Cassatt. sister-in-law of Manet

Guernica

a painting by Pablo Picasso. It was created in response to the bombing of the namesake town, a Basque Country village in northern Spain, by German and Italian warplanes at the behest of the Spanish Nationalist forces on 26 April 1937 during the Spanish Civil War.

Interregnum

a period between the reign of two monarchs; happened in England and Russia

Perestroika

a political movement for reformation within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union during the 1980s (1986), widely associated with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and his glasnost (meaning "openness") policy reform. The literal meaning of __________ is "restructuring", referring to the restructuring of the Soviet political and economic system.

Kosovo

a region in southeastern Europe. In antiquity, the Dardanian Kingdom, and later Roman province of Dardania was located in the region. It was part of Serbia in the Middle Ages, during which time many important Serbian Orthodox Christian monasteries, some of which are now UNESCO World Heritage sites, were built.

Denunciation of Stalin

a report by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev made to the Twentieth Party Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union on 25 February 1956. Khrushchev's speech was sharply critical of the reign of deceased General Secretary and Premier Joseph Stalin, particularly with respect to the brutal purges of the Soviet military and Communist Party cadres which had particularly marked the last years of the 1930s. Khrushchev charged Stalin with having fostered a leadership personality cult despite ostensibly maintaining support for the ideals of communism.

Black Hand

a secret military society formed on 6 September 1901 by members of the Serbian Army in the Kingdom of Serbia. It was formed with the aim of uniting all of the territories with majority South Slavic population not ruled by the Kingdom of Serbia or Kingdom of Montenegro in the manner of earlier national unification processes, primarily Italian in 1870 and German in 1871. Through its connections to the June 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, which was committed by the members of youth movement Young Bosnia, it is often viewed as the organization that may have contributed to the start of World War I, fueling the July Crisis of 1914 and giving Austria-Hungary a pretext to its invasion of independent Serbia.

Burschenshaften

a special type of Studentenverbindungen (student fraternities). They were founded in the 19th century as associations of university students inspired by liberal and nationalistic ideas. called for unified Germany repressed in Germanic Confederation banned by Metternich in Carlsbad Decrees

Russo-Turkish Wars

a set of wars fought in Asia between the two namesake groups of people (some of them were fought by Catherine II)

Duke of Buckingham

ally of James I and Charles I; tried to negotiate marriage of Charles I to someone from Spain; did not go over well with Parliament; killed by a soldier fighting in the Anglo-Spanish War

Thomas Masaryk

an Czech politician, sociologist and philosopher, who as an eager advocate of Czechoslovak independence during World War I became the founder and first President of Czechoslovakia. He originally wished to reform the Austro-Hungarian monarchy into a democratic federal state, but during the First World War he began to favour the abolition of the monarchy and, with the help of the Allied Powers, eventually succeeded.

Margaret Cavendish

an English aristocrat, a prolific writer, and a scientist. She became an attendant of Queen Henrietta Maria and travelled with her into exile in France, living for a time at the court of the young King Louis XIV a poet, philosopher, writer of prose romances, essayist, and playwright who published under her own name at a time when most women writers published anonymously. Her writing addressed a number of topics, including gender, power, manners, scientific method, and philosophy. Her utopian romance, The Blazing World, is one of the earliest examples of science fiction. She is singular in having published extensively in natural philosophy and early modern science. She published over a dozen original works; inclusion of her revised works brings her total number of publications to twenty one. championed and criticized as a unique and groundbreaking woman writer. She rejected the Aristotelianism and mechanical philosophy of the seventeenth century, preferring a vitalist model instead. She criticized and engaged with the members of the Royal Society of London and the philosophers Thomas Hobbes, René Descartes, and Robert Boyle. She has been claimed as an advocate for animals and as an early opponent of animal testing.

Houston Stewart Chamberlain

an English author of books on political philosophy, natural science and son-in-law of the German composer Richard Wagner; he is described in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography as a "racialist writer". He later became a German citizen. In December 1908, twenty-five years after Wagner's death, he married Wagner's daughter, Eva von Bülow. His two-volume book, Die Grundlagen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century), published in 1899, became one of the many references for the pan-Germanic movement of the early 20th century, and, later, of the völkisch antisemitism of Nazi racial policy.

John Stuart Mill

an English philosopher, political economist and civil servant. He was an influential contributor to social theory, political theory and political economy. He has been called "the most influential English-speaking philosopher of the nineteenth century". His conception of liberty justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state control. He was a proponent of utilitarianism, an ethical theory developed by Jeremy Bentham. Hoping to remedy the problems found in an inductive approach to science, such as confirmation bias, he clearly set forth the premises of falsifiability as the key component in the scientific method. Wrote On Liberty

Maria Montessori

an Italian physician and educator best known for the philosophy of education that bears her name, and her writing on scientific pedagogy. Her educational method is in use today in public and private schools throughout the world.

Lyncean Academie

an Italian science academy, located at the Palazzo Corsini on the Via della Lungara in Rome, Italy. Founded in 1603 by Federico Cesi, it was the first academy of sciences to exist in Italy and a locus for the incipient scientific revolution. The academy was named after the lynx, an animal whose sharp vision symbolizes the observational prowess that science requires. Galileo was the most famous member; lived monastically

Monmouth's Rebellion

an attempt to overthrow James II, who had become King of England, Scotland and Ireland upon the death of his elder brother Charles II on 6 February 1685. James II was a Roman Catholic, and some Protestants under his rule opposed his kingship. James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, an illegitimate son of Charles II, claimed to be rightful heir to the throne and attempted to displace James II.

Jacques Louis David

an influential French painter in the Neoclassical style, considered to be the preeminent painter of the era. In the 1780s his cerebral brand of history painting marked a change in taste away from Rococo frivolity toward a classical austerity and severity, heightened feeling chiming with the moral climate of the final years of the Ancien Régime. Oath of the Horatii Death of Socrates The Tennis Court Oath Death of Marat Coronation of Napoleon Napoleon at Saint-Bernard Pass

Joshua Reynolds

an influential eighteenth-century English painter, specialising in portraits and promoting the "Grand Style" in painting which depended on idealization of the imperfect. He was one of the founders and first president of the Royal Academy, and was knighted by George III in 1769. Lord Heathfield Sarah Siddons as the Tragic Muse

Great Exhibition of 1851

an international exhibition that took place in Hyde Park, London, from 1 May to 11 October 1851. It was the first in a series of World's Fair exhibitions of culture and industry that were to become a popular 19th-century feature. It was organized by Henry Cole and Prince Albert, husband of the reigning monarch, Queen Victoria. It was attended by numerous notable figures of the time, including Charles Darwin, Samuel Colt, members of the Orléanist Royal Family and the writers Charlotte Brontë, Charles Dickens, Lewis Carroll, George Eliot and Alfred Tennyson.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

author of The Social Contract and Emile loved the "general will" "man is born free and everywhere he is in chains" a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of the 18th-century. His political philosophy influenced the French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological, and educational thought. He argued that private property was the start of civilization, inequality, murders and wars. his novel Émile, or On Education is a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. His sentimental novel Julie, or the New Heloise was of importance to the development of pre-romanticism and romanticism in fiction. His autobiographical writings—his Confessions, which initiated the modern autobiography, and his Reveries of a Solitary Walker—exemplified the late 18th-century movement known as the Age of Sensibility, and featured an increased focus on subjectivity and introspection that later characterized modern writing. His Discourse on the Origin of Inequality and his On the Social Contract are cornerstones in modern political and social thought.

Laurence Sterne

author of Tristram Shandy an Anglo-Irish novelist and an Anglican clergyman. He is best known for his novels The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman, and A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy; but he also published many sermons, wrote memoirs, and was involved in local politics.

Giuseppe Mazzini

nicknamed The Beating Heart of Italy, was an Italian politician, journalist and activist for the unification of Italy. His efforts helped bring about the independent and unified Italy in place of the several separate states, many dominated by foreign powers that existed until the 19th century. He also helped define the modern European movement for popular democracy in a republican state. (Young Italy mvt)

Sepoy Rebellion

began as a mutiny of the namesake people of the East India Company's army on 10 May 1857, in the cantonment of the town of Meerut, and soon escalated into other mutinies and civilian rebellions largely in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, with the major hostilities confined to present-day Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, northern Madhya Pradesh, and the Delhi region. The rebellion posed a considerable threat to Company power in that region, and was contained only with the fall of Gwalior on 20 June 1858. The Mutiny was a result of various grievances. However the flashpoint was reached when the soldiers were asked to bite off the paper cartridges for their rifles which were greased with animal fat, namely beef and pork. This was, and is, against the religious beliefs of Hindus and Muslims, respectively.

Invasion of Russia, 1812

began on 24 June 1812 when Napoleon's Grande Armée crossed the Neman River in an attempt to engage and defeat the Russian army. Napoleon hoped to compel Tsar Alexander I of Russia to cease trading with British merchants through proxies in an effort to pressure the United Kingdom to sue for peace. The official political aim of the campaign was to liberate Poland from the threat of Russia. Napoleon named the campaign the Second Polish War to curry favor with the Poles and provide a political pretense for his actions. This was ultimately a failed effort for Napoleon

John Wesley

began the Methodist movement an Anglican cleric and Christian theologian. He is largely credited, along with his brother Charles, as founding the Methodist movement which began when he took to open-air preaching in a similar manner to George Whitefield. In contrast to Whitefield's Calvinism, he embraced the Arminian doctrines that were dominant in the 18th-century Church of England. Methodism in both forms became a highly successful evangelical movement in Britain and later in the United States. His work also helped lead to the development of the Holiness movement and Pentecostalism.

Education Act of 1870

commonly known as Forster's Education Act, set the framework for schooling of all children between the ages of 5 and 13 in England and Wales. It was drafted by William Forster, a Liberal MP, and it was introduced on 17 February 1870 after campaigning by the National Education League, although not entirely to their requirements.

Invasion of Ethiopia

refers to Mussolini's invasion of the titular country

Ems Telegram

caused France to declare the Franco-Prussian War in July 1870. The actual dispatch was an internal message from the Prussian King's vacationing site to Otto von Bismarck in Berlin, reporting demands made by the French ambassador; it was Bismarck's released statement to the press that became known as the namesake "Dispatch."

Invasion of Balkans

began with the Italian invasion of Greece on 28 October 1940. In the early months of 1941, Italy's offensive had been stalled and a Greek counter-offensive pushed into Albania. Germany sought, by deploying troops to Romania and Bulgaria, to aid Italy by attacking Greece from the east; while the British landed troops and aircraft to shore up Greek defences. A coup d'état in Yugoslavia on 27 March caused Hitler to order the conquest of that country. The invasion of Yugoslavia by Germany and Italy began on 6 April, simultaneously with the new Battle of Greece. On 11 April, Hungary joined the invasion. By 17 April the Yugoslavs had signed an armistice and by 30 April all of mainland Greece was under German or Italian control. On 20 May Germany invaded Crete by air and by 1 June all remaining Greek and British forces on the island had surrendered. Although it had not participated in the attacks in April, Bulgaria occupied parts of both Yugoslavia and Greece shortly thereafter for the remainder of the war in the Balkans.

Louis XI

called the Universal Spider (because of his love of scheming), was a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1461 to 1483. He succeeded his father Charles VII. Once rebelled against father and was forgiven, but later actions exiled him to Burgundy; eventually came back after his father died (helped end Hundred Years War?)

Versailles

castle built by Louis XIV I guess came to symbolize extravagance of ancien regime (?)(I don't really know)

Pisa

city-state famous for a leaning tower

Naples

city-state that was strangely enough ruled by Spanish king Ferdinand at one point

Capitalism

market system where everyone benefits (as opposed to mercantilism); free market an economic system in which trade, industry and the means of production are controlled by private owners with the goal of making profits in a market economy.

Great Terror

occurred at the end of the Reign of Terror; increased repression during June and July 1794; caused the coup of 9 Thermidor Year II (27 July 1794), leading to the Thermidorian Reaction, in which several instigators of the Reign of Terror were executed, including Saint-Just and Robespierre.

Pope Innocent VIII

one of the bad popes; openly recognized children (?)

Salons

places where hostesses hosted philosophes (?)

House of Orange

played a central role in the politics and government of the Netherlands — and at times in Europe; pretty much the family the Dutch turned to whenever they needed a monarch

Julius II

pope famous for actually going into battle; commissioned Michaelangelo to paint Sistine Chapel ceiling (pretty sure he made Raphael paint some stuff as well)

High Renaissance (art)

refers to when the "rebirth" was at its fullest height; dominated by artists such as da Vinci, Michaelangelo, Raphael, Bellini, Titian, and Giorgione

Corsica

small island that is Napoleon's birthplace

Papal States

territory that belonged to the pope...

Enver Hoxha

the Communist leader of Albania from 1944 until his death in 1985, as the First Secretary of the Party of Labour of Albania. He was chairman of the Democratic Front of Albania and commander-in-chief of the armed forces from 1944 until his death. He served as Prime Minister of Albania from 1944 to 1954 and at various times served as foreign minister and defence minister as well.

Srebrenica (massacre)

the July 1995 killing of more than 8,000 Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims), mainly men and boys, in and around the town of ______ during the Bosnian War. The killing was perpetrated by units of the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) under the command of General Ratko Mladić. The Secretary-General of the United Nations described the mass murder as the worst crime on European soil since the Second World War. A paramilitary unit from Serbia known as the Scorpions, officially part of the Serbian Interior Ministry until 1991, participated in the massacre, along with several hundred Russian and Greek volunteers.

Innocent VIII

the head of the Catholic Church from 29 August 1484 to his death in 1492. Worked against witchcraft, gave Tomas de Torquemada permission to perform Spanish Inquisition, possibly facilitated one of the Italian Wars (not sure about this), and allowed slavery

Dutch East India and West India Companies

two joint stock companies created for the sole purpose of trade with the "East and West Indies" respectively...

William of Orange (The Silent)

the main leader of the Dutch revolt against the Spanish that set off the Eighty Years' War and resulted in the formal independence of the United Provinces in 1648. He was born in the House of Nassau as Count of Nassau-Dillenburg. He became Prince of Orange in 1544 and is thereby the founder of the branch House of Orange-Nassau and the ancestor of the monarchy of the Netherlands.

Arkwright's Water Frame

the name given to a water-powered spinning frame developed by Richard Arkwright, who patented the technology in 1769. The design was partly based on a spinning machine built for Thomas High by clock maker John Kay, who was hired by Arkwright.

Dayton Accords

the peace agreement reached at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base near the namesake town in Ohio, United States, in November 1995, and formally signed in Paris on 14 December 1995. These accords put an end to the three and a half-year long Bosnian War, one of the armed conflicts in the former Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia.

Mary Wollstonecraft

wrote Vindication of the Rights of Woman an eighteenth-century English writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights. During her brief career, she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book. She is best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason.

Textile industry

refers to industry regarding cloth and stuff... (boomed during Industrial Revolution)

Luddites

19th-century English textile artisans who protested against newly developed labour-saving machinery from 1811 to 1817. The stocking frames, spinning frames and power looms introduced during the Industrial Revolution threatened to replace the artisans with less-skilled, low-wage labourers, leaving them without work.

Mary I

AKA Bloody; tried to turn English back Catholic; married Catholic husband; executed tons of people and stuff

COMECON

AKA Council for Mutual Economic Assistance an economic organization under the leadership of the Soviet Union that comprised the countries of the Eastern Bloc along with a number of socialist states elsewhere in the world. It was the Eastern Bloc's reply to the formation of the Organization for European Economic Co-Operation in Western Europe. The descriptive term was often applied to all multilateral activities involving members of the organization, rather than being restricted to the direct functions of this entity and its organs. This usage was sometimes extended as well to bilateral relations among members, because in the system of socialist international economic relations, multilateral accords — typically of a general nature — tended to be implemented through a set of more detailed, bilateral agreements. (possibly in response to Marshall Plan)

German Democratic Republic

AKA East Germany refers to USSR-aligned part of Germany (vanished after reunification)

Public Health Act of 1875

An Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Its purpose is to combat filthy urban living conditions, which caused various public health threats, including the spread of many diseases such as cholera and typhus. Reformers wanted to resolve sanitary problems, because sewage was flowing down the street daily, including the presence of sewage in living quarters. The Act required all new residential construction to include running water and an internal drainage system. This Act also led to the government prohibiting the construction of shoddy housing by building contractors. The Act also meant that every public health authority had to have a medical officer and a sanitary inspector, to ensure the laws on food, housing, water and hygiene were carried out.

Menno Simons

Anabaptist that created a group named after him

William Laud

Archbishop of Canterbury from 1633 to 1645. One of the High Church Caroline divines, he opposed radical forms of Puritanism. This, and his support for King Charles I, resulted in his beheading in the midst of the English Civil War.

Einsatzgruppen

Schutzstaffel (SS) paramilitary death squads of Nazi Germany that were responsible for mass killings, primarily by shooting, during World War II. They had a leading role in the implementation of the Final Solution of the Jewish question (Die Endlösung der Judenfrage) in territories conquered by Nazi Germany. Almost all of the people they killed were civilians, beginning with the Polish intelligentsia and swiftly progressing to Soviet political commissars, Jews, and Gypsies throughout Eastern Europe.

Charles X (Sweden)

Swedish king who began the First Northern War; enlarged Swedish empire by doing so

Guise Family

a French ducal family, partly responsible for the French Wars of Religion. They were Catholic; attacked Huguenots

Hohenzollerns

a noble family and royal dynasty of electors, kings, and emperors of Brandenburg, Prussia, Germany, and Romania. It originated in the area around the town of Hechingen in Swabia during the 11th century. ruled Prussia and eventually Germany

Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy

came about as a result of Ausgleich a constitutional monarchic union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary in Central Europe, which operated from 1867 to October 1918, shortly before the end of World War I.

Quakers

central doctrine is the priesthood of all believers part of the Dissenters

Treaty of Paris, 1783

ended the American Revolutionary War between Great Britain on one side and the United States of America and its allies on the other. The other combatant nations, France, Spain and the Dutch Republic had separate agreements. Its territorial provisions were "exceedingly generous" to the United States in terms of enlarged boundaries.

Leipzig Debate

famous debate where Luther debated with Johann Eck over Reformation matters; too close to call back then but people say Luther won

Siege of Verdun

fought from 21 February - 18 December 1916 during the First World War on the Western Front between the German and French armies, on hills north of Verdun-sur-Meuse in north-eastern France. French victory but costly on both sides (?)

Battle of Navarino

fought on 20 October 1827, during the Greek War of Independence (1821-32), in Navarino Bay (modern-day Pylos), on the west coast of the Peloponnese peninsula, in the Ionian Sea. Huge European victory Ottoman Empire was "slow to move feet" for peace treaty this battle was result (Britain, France, and Russia fought)

Free French

individuals or military units who joined the resistance organisation founded by Charles de Gaulle in 1940 in London to continue the struggle against the Axis powers.

Oprichniki

members of an organization established by Tsar Ivan the Terrible to govern the division of Russia known as the Oprichnina (1565-1572). in charge of the suppression of internal enemies of the Tsar. Guided by Ivan, they laid waste to civilian populations. They dressed in black garb, similar to a monastic habit, and bore the insignia of a severed dog's head (to sniff out treason and the enemies of the Tsar) and a broom (to sweep them away). The dog's head was also symbolic of "nipping at the heels of the Tsar's enemies." They were sometimes called the "Tsar's Dogs" on account of their loyalty to him. They also rode black horses in order to inspire greater terror.

Neopotism

putting friends in power...

Mass media/communication

refers to the prevalence of forms of communication and media after the first world war

Restoration

refers to the process in which Charles II was put on the English throne

Second Empire

the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France.

Frederick William IV

the eldest son and successor of Frederick William III of Prussia, reigned as King of Prussia from 1840 to 1861. Also referred to as the "romanticist on the throne", he is best remembered for numerous buildings he had erected in Berlin and Potsdam, as well as for sponsoring the completion of the gothic Cologne cathedral. In politics he was conservative and he crucially rejected the title of German Emperor offered to him by the Frankfurt parliament in 1849.

Decolonization

the undoing of colonialism, where a nation establishes and maintains dependent territory (courial governments). happened a lot after WWII

Federal Republic of Germany

AKA West Germany the name for non-USSR Germany in the period between its creation in May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990.

Gregor Strasser

a German politician and prominent figure in the Nazi Party. He became a rival to Adolf Hitler, resigned from his political offices in late 1932, and was murdered in 1934, during the "Night of the Long Knives".

Robert Walpole

a British statesman who is generally regarded as the first Prime Minister of Great Britain. Although the position of "Prime Minister" had no recognition in law or official use at the time, he is nevertheless acknowledged as having held the office de facto because of his influence within the Cabinet. Served during reigns of George I and George II

sweating

referred to the subcontracting of piecework usually, but not exclusively, in the tailoring trades; it was don at home since it required few skills or equipment (women did this sometimes)

Cartels

a formal "agreement" among competing firms. It is a formal organization of producers and manufacturers that agree to fix prices, marketing, and production. (aka syndicates?)

Marburg Colloquy

a meeting that attempted to solve a dispute between Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli over the Real Presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper. I think this was arranged by Bucer

Avignon

a place in France where the pope lived for some time

First World

refers countries that were aligned with the United States during the Cold War. These countries were largely capitalistic and generally self-proclaimed democracies.

Bertha von Suttner

an Austrian novelist, radical (organizational) pacifist, and the first woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize and the second to be awarded the Nobel Prize. Published "Lay Down Your Arms" and did pacifism stuff

Edwin Chadwick

an English social reformer, noted for his work to reform the Poor Laws and improve sanitary conditions and public health.

Spinoza

a Jewish-Dutch philosopher. By laying the groundwork for the 18th century Enlightenment and modern biblical criticism, including modern conceptions of the self and, arguably, the universe, he came to be considered one of the great rationalists of 17th-century philosophy. His magnum opus, the posthumous Ethics, in which he opposed Descartes's mind-body dualism, has earned him recognition as one of Western philosophy's most important thinkers.

Russian nihilism

a Russian movement in the 1860s which rejected all authorities. After the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881, they were known throughout Europe as proponents of the use of violence in order to bring about political change.

Machine gun

refers to a rapid-fire weapon (came into being during WWI?) (still not very mobile?)

Kulturkampf

refers to German policies in relation to secularity and reducing the role and power of the Roman Catholic Church in Prussia, enacted from 1871 to 1878 by the Prime Minister of Prussia, Otto von Bismarck.

Grand Alliance

an alliance made during World War II, which joined together the United States (led by Franklin Roosevelt), the Soviet Union (led by Joseph Stalin) and Great Britain (led by Winston Churchill). often called the "Strange Alliance" because it united the world's greatest capitalist state, the greatest communist state and the greatest colonial power.

Indemnity

refers to a bill passed by the German Reichstag that legitimated Bismarck's unconstitutional collection of taxes to modernize the army in 1863. (?)

Anti-Comintern Pact

an anti-communist pact concluded between Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan (later to be joined by other, mainly fascistic, governments) on November 25, 1936 and was directed against the Third (Communist) International.

Russo-Japanese War

"the first great war of the 20th century." It grew out of rival imperial ambitions of the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan over Manchuria and Korea. The major theatres of operations were Southern Manchuria, specifically the area around the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden; and the seas around Korea, Japan, and the Yellow Sea. Russia sought a warm water port on the Pacific Ocean, for their navy as well as for maritime trade. Vladivostok was only operational during the summer season, but Port Arthur would be operational all year. From the end of the First Sino-Japanese War and 1903, negotiations between Russia and Japan had proved impractical. Japan offered to recognize Russian dominance in Manchuria in exchange for recognition of Korea as a Japanese sphere of influence. Russia refused this, so Japan chose war to counter what it described as Russian aggression in Asia. After discussions broke down in 1904, the Japanese Navy attacked the Russian eastern fleet at Port Arthur, a naval base in the Liaotung province leased to Russia by China, which led to war. The Japanese defeated the Russians in a series of battles on land and at sea. The resulting campaigns, in which the Japanese military attained victory over the Russian forces arrayed against them, were unexpected by world observers. Over time, the consequences of these battles would transform the balance of power in East Asia, resulting in a reassessment of Japan's recent entry onto the world stage.

Alexander Dumas (pere)

a French writer, best known for his historical novels of high adventure. Translated into nearly 100 languages, these have made him one of the most widely read French authors in history. Many of his novels, including The Count of Monte Cristo, The Three Musketeers, Twenty Years After, and The Vicomte de Bragelonne: Ten Years Later were originally published as serials. His novels have been adapted since the early twentieth century for nearly 200 films. (also: the Man in the Iron Mask; The Corsican Brothers)

Balkan War of 1876-8

(I think it's this, but I'm not entirely sure) fought between the Principality of Serbia and the Ottoman Empire from the Serbian declaration of war on 30 June 1876 until the Treaty of San Stefano of 3 March 1878. In 1876 Serbia couldn′t lead offensive war with aim to destroy Ottoman Empire, but could lead a war with limited aims. Serbia deployed larger number of units at the beginning of the war. Serbia commanding fragmented those forces, without distinctive attacking point which allowed Ottomans to at first stop Serbian offensive and then in counteroffensive to beat fragmented Serbian forces with their concentrated attacks. Concentration forces on left side bank of South Morava gave Ottomans double supremacy on the battlefield and during autumn they have continued their successful offensive which was crowned with victory on Đunis height. During final truce signing, situation of Serbian forces was not as bad as it looked because Ottomans were not capable to continue their offensive because of very bad operative position and general strategic situation, so they needed peace as much as Serbs did. The war merged with the Bulgarian uprising, the Montenegrin War and the Russo-Turkish War (1877-78). Ottoman victory in the first stage (1876-1877); Serbian victory and independence in the second stage (1877-1878)

Austro-Prussian War

(or Seven Weeks' War) was a war fought in 1866 between the German Confederation under the leadership of the Austrian Empire and its German allies on one side and the Kingdom of Prussia with its German allies and Italy on the other, that resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states. In the Italian unification process, this is called the Third Independence War. The major result of the war was a shift in power among the German states away from Austrian and towards Prussian hegemony, and impetus towards the unification of all of the northern German states in a Kleindeutschland that excluded Austria. It saw the abolition of the German Confederation and its partial replacement by a North German Confederation that excluded Austria and the South German states. The war also resulted in the Italian annexation of the Austrian province of Venetia.

Legislative Corps

(think it's referring to this, but not sure) a part of the French legislature during the French Revolution and beyond. When Napoleon III gained power, he re-constituted this as France's lower chamber through the Constitution of 1852, with members elected by direct universal suffrage for terms of 6 years. The elections occurred in February 1852, June 1857, 31 May 1863 and May 1869. Faced with an omnipotent executive - ministers appointed by Napoleon III were only dependent on him - this body of the Second Empire shared its reduced legislative powers with the executive Conseil d'État, made up of functionaries, and the Sénat, whose members were named for life.

Public Health Movement

refers to a movement to improve public health and sanitation (?)

Ulrich Zwingli

a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. Born during a time of emerging Swiss patriotism and increasing criticism of the Swiss mercenary system, he attended the University of Vienna and the University of Basel, a scholarly centre of humanism. He continued his studies while he served as a pastor in Glarus and later in Einsiedeln, where he was influenced by the writings of Erasmus. Influenced by Luther but strongly disagreed with him regarding transubstatiation and stuff

Victor Emmanuel II

king of Sardinia from 1849 until, on 17 March 1861, he assumed the title King of Italy to become the first king of a united Italy since the 6th century, a title he held until his death in 1878. The Italians gave him the epithet Father of the Homeland (Italian: Padre della Patria). Caovur was his prime minister (who unified Italy)

First Balkan War 1912

AKA First Balkan Crisis (?) lasted from October 1912 to May 1913, pitted the Balkan League (Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria) against the Ottoman Empire. The combined armies of the Balkan states overcame the numerically inferior and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies and achieved rapid success. As a result of the war, almost all remaining European territories of the Ottoman Empire were captured and partitioned among the allies. Ensuing events also led to the creation of an independent Albanian state. Despite its success, Bulgaria was dissatisfied over the division of the spoils in Macedonia, which provoked the start of another war.

Welfenfond

AKA Guelph Funds taken by Bismarck to fund wars and such

Society of Friends

AKA Quakers central doctrine is the priesthood of all believers

Pan-German Movement

refers to a movement where people of German origins wanted to unite and form one German state (Austria really wanted to do this after Hungary left)(forbidden by Treaty of Versailles but it kind of happened anyways)

League of the Three Emperors

AKA Dreikaiserbund an alliance between Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary, from 1873 to 1887. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck took full charge of German foreign policy from 1870 to his dismissal in 1890. His goal was a peaceful Europe, based on the balance of power. Bismarck feared that a hostile combination of Austria, France and Russia would crush Germany. If two of them were allied, then the third would ally with Germany only if Germany conceded excessive demands. The solution was to ally with two of the three. In 1873 he formed this league, an alliance of the kaiser of Germany, the Tsar of Russia, and the emperor of Austria-Hungary. Together they would control Eastern Europe, making sure that restive ethnic groups such as the Poles were kept in control. The Balkans posed a more serious issue, and Bismarck's solution was to give Austria predominance in the western areas, and Russia in the eastern areas.

Friedrich List

a leading 19th-century German-American economist who developed the "National System" or what some would call today the National System of Innovation. He was a forefather of the German historical school of economics, and considered the original European unity theorist whose ideas were the basis for the European Economic Community. Advocated for industrialization and use of tariffs.

Danish War

AKA Schleswig-Holstein War the second military conflict as a result of the Schleswig-Holstein Question. It began on 1 February 1864, when Prussian forces crossed the border into Schleswig. Denmark fought Prussia and Austria. Like the First Schleswig War (1848-51), it was fought for control of the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg due to the succession disputes concerning them when the Danish king died without an heir acceptable to the German Confederation. Decisive controversy arose due to the passing of the November Constitution, which integrated the Duchy of Schleswig into the Danish kingdom in violation of the London Protocol. Reasons for the war were the ethnic controversy in Schleswig and the co-existence of conflicting political systems within the Danish unitary state. The war ended on 30 October 1864, when the Treaty of Vienna caused Denmark's cession of the Duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Saxe-Lauenburg to Prussia and Austria. Bismarck is able to alienate Austria from German Confederation after this

Second Balkan War 1913

AKA Second Balkan Crisis (?) a conflict which broke out when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its share of the spoils of the First Balkan War, attacked its former allies, Serbia and Greece, on 16 (O.S.)/29 June 1913. Serbian and Greek armies repulsed the Bulgarian offensive and counter-attacked, entering Bulgaria. With Bulgaria also having previously engaged in territorial disputes with Romania, this war provoked Romanian intervention against Bulgaria. The Ottoman Empire also took advantage of the situation to regain some lost territories from the previous war. When Romanian troops approached the capital Sofia, Bulgaria asked for an armistice, resulting in the Treaty of Bucharest, in which Bulgaria had to cede portions of its First Balkan War gains to Serbia, Greece and Romania. In the Treaty of Constantinople it lost Edirne to the Ottomans.

Vatican II

AKA Second Vatican Council addressed relations between the Roman Catholic Church and the modern world. It was the twenty-first ecumenical council of the Catholic Church and the second to be held at Saint Peter's Basilica in the Vatican. The council, through the Holy See, formally opened under the pontificate of Pope John XXIII on 11 October 1962 and closed under Pope Paul VI on the Feast of the Immaculate Conception in 1965. Unlike previous councils, it was unique as it did not issue any new dogmas, declare any anathemas, nor settled any grave heresies prevailing that time. Instead, the council became ideally known for its renewal of Catholic doctrine in a modern timeline and perspective. Several institutional changes resulted from the council, such as the renewal of consecrated life with a revised charism, and ecumenical efforts towards dialogue with other religions, the notion of the Catholic Church alone brings through ultimate salvation to mankind, and the expressive participation of laity in various religious activities. The most palpable changes which followed the council include the widespread use of vernacular language in Holy Mass instead of the Latin language, the displacement of the Church tabernacle from the central aisle, the revision of Eucharistic prayers, along with various indirect changes such as the celebration Versus Populum instead of Ad Orientem, the abbreviation of the liturgical calendar, as well as modern aesthetic changes encompassing contemporary Catholic liturgical music and artwork, mostly all which remain divisive and polemic among the Catholic faithful until the present day.

Kristallnacht

AKA The Night of Broken Glass a pogrom (a series of coordinated attacks) against Jews throughout Nazi Germany and parts of Austria on 9-10 November 1938, carried out by SA paramilitary forces and non-Jewish civilians. German authorities looked on without intervening. At least 91 Jews were killed in the attacks, and 30,000 were arrested and incarcerated in concentration camps. Jewish homes, hospitals, and schools were ransacked, as the attackers demolished buildings with sledgehammers. Over 1,000 synagogues were burned (95 in Vienna alone) and over 7,000 Jewish businesses destroyed or damaged. Martin Gilbert writes that no event in the history of German Jews between 1933 and 1945 was so widely reported as it was happening, and the accounts from the foreign journalists working in Germany sent shock waves around the world. The Times wrote at the time: "No foreign propagandist bent upon blackening Germany before the world could outdo the tale of burnings and beatings, of blackguardly assaults on defenseless and innocent people, which disgraced that country yesterday." The pretext for the attacks was the assassination of the German diplomat Ernst vom Rath by Herschel Grynszpan, a German-born Polish Jew resident in Paris. It was followed by additional economic and political persecution of Jews, and is viewed by historians as part of Nazi Germany's broader racial policy, and the beginning of the Final Solution and The Holocaust.

Reform Act of 1884 (British)

AKA Third Reform Act a law which further extended the suffrage in Britain after the Disraeli Government's Reform Act 1867. It extended the same voting qualifications as existed in the towns to the countryside, and essentially established the modern one member constituency as the normal pattern for Parliamentary representation. The act extended the 1867 concessions from the boroughs to the countryside. All men paying an annual rental of £10 or all those holding land valued at £10 now had the vote. The British electorate now totaled over 5,500,000. An Act a year later redistributed constituencies, giving more representation to urban areas (especially London). It did not establish universal suffrage: although the size of the electorate was widened considerably, all women and 40% of adult males were still without the vote at the time.

Women's Bureau of the Communist Party

AKA Zhenotdel the department of the Russian Communist party devoted to womens affairs in the 1920s.

Foundling Homes

AKA orphanages (?)(I guess they became popular during the 1700s)

Lord Palmerston

a British statesman who served twice as Prime Minister in the mid-19th century. Popularly nicknamed "Pam", he was in government office almost continuously from 1807 until his death in 1865, beginning his parliamentary career as a Tory and concluding it as a Liberal. He is best remembered for his direction of British foreign policy through a period when Britain was at the height of its power, serving terms as both Foreign Secretary and Prime Minister. Some of his aggressive actions, now sometimes termed liberal interventionist, were greatly controversial at the time, and remain so today. He was the most recent British Prime Minister to die in office.

Joseph Lister

a British surgeon and a pioneer of antiseptic surgery. By applying Louis Pasteur's advances in microbiology, he promoted the idea of sterile surgery while working at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary. He successfully introduced carbolic acid (now known as phenol) to sterilise surgical instruments and to clean wounds, which led to a reduction in post-operative infections and made surgery safer for patients.

Royal Society of London

a learned society for science, and is possibly the oldest such society still in existence. Founded in November 1660, it was granted a Royal Charter by King Charles II.

Johann Tetzel

a Catholic German Dominican preacher known for selling indulgences, which allow a remission of temporal punishment due to sin, the guilt of which has been forgiven, by the payment of money to the church. Greatly angered Luther

Kurt Schuschnigg

Chancellor of the First Austrian Republic, following the assassination of his predecessor, Dr. Engelbert Dollfuss, in July 1934, until Nazi Germany's annexing of Austria, (Anschluss), in March 1938. He was opposed to Hitler's ambitions to absorb Austria into the Third Reich. After his efforts to keep Austria independent had failed, he resigned his office. After the invasion he was arrested by the Germans, kept in solitary confinement and eventually interned in various concentration camps. He was liberated in 1945 by the advancing United States Army and spent most of the rest of his life in academia in the United States.

Rome-Berlin Axis

Coalition formed in 1936 between Italy and Germany. An agreement formulated by Italy's foreign minister Galeazzo Ciano informally linking the two fascist countries was reached on October 25, 1936. It was formalized by the Pact of Steel in 1939.

Liberalism

refers to a philosophy that favors weak government and reduced restrictions (?)

Oswald Spengler

Decline of the West a German historian and philosopher of history whose interests included mathematics, science, and art. He is best known for his book The Decline of the West (Der Untergang des Abendlandes), published in 1918 and 1922, covering all of world history. He proposed a new theory, according to which the lifespan of civilizations is limited and ultimately they decay. He wrote extensively throughout World War I and the interwar period, and supported German hegemony in Europe. His other writings made little impact outside Germany. In 1920 Spengler produced Prussiandom and Socialism (Preußentum und Sozialismus), which argued for an organic, nationalist version of socialism and authoritarianism. Some Nazis (such as Goebbels) held him as an intellectual precursor but he was ostracised by the Nazis after 1933 for his pessimism about Germany's and Europe's future, his refusal to support Nazi ideas of racial superiority, and his critical work The Hour of Decision.

Early Renaissance (art)

Describes the beginning of the "rebirth"; dominated by artists such as Brunelleschi, Donatello, Ghiberti, Masaccio, and Uccello

CDU

a Christian democratic and liberal-conservative political party in Germany. It is the major catch-all party of the centre-right in German politics. Along with its Bavarian sister party the Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CSU), it forms the CDU/CSU grouping, also known as the Union, in the Bundestag.

Emile Zola

a French writer, the most important exemplar of the literary school of naturalism and an important contributor to the development of theatrical naturalism. He was a major figure in the political liberalization of France and in the exoneration of the falsely accused and convicted army officer Alfred Dreyfus, which is encapsulated in the renowned newspaper headline J'accuse. He was nominated for the first and second Nobel Prize in Literature in 1901 and 1902. L'Assommoir Les Rougon-Macquart Therese Raquin Germinal

Elector Frederick III / King Frederick I

Elector of Brandenburg (1688-1713) and Duke of Prussia in personal union (Brandenburg-Prussia). The latter function he upgraded to royalty, becoming the first King in Prussia (1701-1713). From 1707 he was in personal union the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel (German: Fürstentum Neuenburg). He was also the paternal grandfather of Frederick the Great.

Frederick William I, the Great Elector

Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia - and thus ruler of Brandenburg-Prussia - from 1640 until his death. A member of the House of Hohenzollern, he is popularly known as "The Great Elector" (German: Der Große Kurfürst) because of his military and political prowess. He was a staunch pillar of the Calvinist faith, associated with the rising commercial class. He saw the importance of trade and promoted it vigorously. His shrewd domestic reforms gave Prussia a strong position in the post-Westphalia political order of north-central Europe, setting Prussia up for elevation from duchy to kingdom, achieved under his son and successor.

Emperor Franz Joseph I

Emperor of Austria and Apostolic King of Hungary from 1848 until his death in 1916. From 1 May 1850 until 24 August 1866 he was President of the German Confederation. troubled by nationalism during his entire reign. He concluded the Ausgleich of 1867, which granted greater autonomy to Hungary, hence transforming the Austrian Empire into the Austro-Hungarian Empire under his dual monarchy. His domains were then ruled peacefully for the next 45 years, although Franz Joseph personally suffered the tragedies of the suicide of his son, Crown Prince Rudolf in 1889, and the assassination of his wife, Empress Elisabeth in 1898. After the Austro-Prussian War, Austria-Hungary turned its attention to the Balkans, which was a hotspot of international tension due to conflicting interests with the Russian Empire. The Bosnian crisis was a result of his annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, which had been occupied by his troops since the Congress of Berlin (1878). On 28 June 1914, the assassination of the heir-presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne, his nephew Archduke Franz Ferdinand, at the hands of Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist, resulted in Austria-Hungary's declaration of war against the Kingdom of Serbia, which was Russia's ally. This activated a system of alliances which resulted in World War I. He died on 21 November 1916, after ruling his domains for almost 68 years.

Alexandra, Empress of Russia

Empress consort of Russia as spouse of Nicholas II, the last Emperor of the Russian Empire. Born a granddaughter of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, she was given the name Alexandra Feodorovna upon being received into the Russian Orthodox Church, which canonized her as Saint _______ the Passion Bearer in 2000. She is best remembered as the last Tsaritsa of Russia, as one of the most famous royal carriers of the haemophilia disease, and for her support of autocratic control over the country. Her friendship with the Russian mystic and holy man, Grigori Rasputin, was also an important factor in her life.

Academie Royale

a learned society, founded in 1666 by Louis XIV at the suggestion of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, to encourage and protect the spirit of French scientific research. It was at the forefront of scientific developments in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, and is one of the earliest Academies of Sciences.

Third Republic

France's government from 1870, when the Second French Empire collapsed, to 1940, when France's defeat by Nazi Germany led to the Vichy France government. Vichy was replaced by the French Fourth Republic.

Shift work

refers to work being done in several blocks of time (?) (I guess this arose around the Industrial Revolution?)

Joseph II of Austria

Holy Roman Emperor from 1765 to 1790 and ruler of the Habsburg lands from 1780 to 1790. He was the eldest son of Empress Maria Theresa and her husband, Francis I, and was the brother of Marie Antoinette. He was thus the first ruler in the Austrian dominions of the House of Lorraine, styled Habsburg-Lorraine (von Habsburg-Lothringen in German). He was a proponent of enlightened absolutism; however, his commitment to modernizing reforms subsequently engendered significant opposition, which eventually culminated in an ultimate failure to fully implement his programmes. He has been ranked, with Catherine II of Russia and Frederick II of Prussia, as one of the three great Enlightenment monarchs.

Putting-out System

a means of subcontracting work. Historically it was also known as the workshop system and the domestic system. In putting-out, work is contracted by a central agent to subcontractors who complete the work in off-site facilities, either in their own homes or in workshops with multiple craftsmen.

German Social Democrat Party (SDP)

In charge in Germany after the Emperor and his High Command of the Army bowed out. Marxist but revisionist (toned-down, pre-Leninist). Led by union officials and party managers. In 1912, SDs been largest group in the Reichstag. By 1918 they were prudent, cautious, conservative. Bolshevik Revolution had effect of making SDs seem moderate. Awkward spot to be in during hard times. They were between the pro-Bolshevik movt in Germany on their "left" and the junkers on their "right." Basically, more afraid of the left than the right since the latter largely discredited because of outcome of the war. The SDs formed a coalition with the Center Party(Catholic & conservative) and the Liberal Democrats in the new Constituent Assembly.

SPD

In charge in Germany after the Emperor and his High Command of the Army bowed out. Marxist but revisionist (toned-down, pre-Leninist). Led by union officials and party managers. In 1912, SDs been largest group in the Reichstag. By 1918 they were prudent, cautious, conservative. Bolshevik Revolution had effect of making SDs seem moderate. Awkward spot to be in during hard times. They were between the pro-Bolshevik movt in Germany on their "left" and the junkers on their "right." Basically, more afraid of the left than the right since the latter largely discredited because of outcome of the war. The SDs formed a coalition with the Center Party(Catholic & conservative) and the Liberal Democrats in the new Constituent Assembly. oldest extant German political party (?)

Brunelleschi, Filippo

Italian Renaissance artist; created the dome for Florence Cathedral and credited with rediscovering single-point (or linear) perspective (since I think the Greeks did it first)

Botticelli

Italian Renaissance artist; created works such as The Birth of Venus and Primavera (curvy figures in both works)

Savonarola

Italian monk; ordered Bonfire of Vanities; thought Medici had gone too far with humanism and thought things had become corrupt; throws Medici out at first but then is later executed and the Medici return

Catherine de Medici

Italian noblewoman who was Queen consort of France from 1547 until 1559, as the wife of King Henry II of France. When husband died in 1560, she became regent on behalf of her ten-year-old son King Charles IX and was granted sweeping powers. After Charles died in 1574, she played a key role in the reign of her third son, Henry III. He dispensed with her advice only in the last months of her life. sons reigned in an age of almost constant civil and religious war in France. At first, she compromised and made concessions to the rebelling Protestants, or Huguenots, as they became known. She failed, however, to grasp the theological issues that drove their movement. Later, she resorted in frustration and anger to hard-line policies against them. In return, she came to be blamed for the excessive persecutions carried out under her sons' rule, in particular for the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of 1572, in which thousands of Huguenots were killed in Paris and throughout France.

Jan Mazaryk

a Czech diplomat and politician and Foreign Minister of Czechoslovakia from 1940 to 1948. American journalist John Gunther described him as "a brave, honest, turbulent, and impulsive man". On March 10, 1948 he was found dead, dressed only in his pajamas, in the courtyard of the Foreign Ministry (the Černín Palace in Prague) below his bathroom window. The initial investigation by the Ministry of the Interior stated that he had committed suicide by jumping out of the window, although for a long time it has been believed by some that he was murdered by the nascent Communist government. (termed the "Third Defenestration of Prague", the first one happening during the 1400s and the second one giving way to the 30 Years War)

Louis XVI

King of France and Navarre from 1774 until 1791, after which he was subsequently King of the French from 1791 to 1792, before his deposition and execution during the French Revolution. reign at first marked by attempts to reform France in accordance with Enlightenment ideals. These included efforts to abolish serfdom, remove the taille, and increase tolerance toward non-Catholics. The French nobility reacted to the proposed reforms with hostility, and successfully opposed their implementation; increased discontent among the common people ensued. From 1776 he actively supported the North American colonists, who were seeking their independence from Great Britain, which was realized in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. The ensuing debt and financial crisis contributed to the unpopularity of the ancien régime which culminated at the Estates-General of 1789. Discontent among the members of France's middle and lower classes resulted in strengthened opposition to the French aristocracy and to the absolute monarchy, of which he and his queen Marie Antoinette were viewed as representative. In 1789, the Bastille was stormed during riots in Paris, and the French Revolution began. His indecisiveness and conservatism led some elements of the people of France eventually to view him as a symbol of the perceived tyranny of the ancien régime, and his popularity deteriorated progressively.

Louis XVI

King of France and Navarre from 1774 until 1791, after which he was subsequently King of the French from 1791 to 1792, before his deposition and execution during the French Revolution. His father, Louis, Dauphin of France, was the son and heir apparent of Louis XV of France. Due to the Dauphin's death in 1765, Louis succeeded his grandfather in 1774. The first part of his reign was marked by attempts to reform France in accordance with Enlightenment ideals. These included efforts to abolish serfdom, remove the taille, and increase tolerance toward non-Catholics. The French nobility reacted to the proposed reforms with hostility, and successfully opposed their implementation; increased discontent among the common people ensued. From 1776 he actively supported the North American colonists, who were seeking their independence from Great Britain, which was realized in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. The ensuing debt and financial crisis contributed to the unpopularity of the ancien régime which culminated at the Estates-General of 1789. Discontent among the members of France's middle and lower classes resulted in strengthened opposition to the French aristocracy and to the absolute monarchy, of which he and his queen Marie Antoinette were viewed as representative. In 1789, the Bastille was stormed during riots in Paris, and the French Revolution began.

George I

King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1 August 1714 until his death, and ruler of the Duchy and Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg (Hanover) in the Holy Roman Empire from 1698. born in Hanover, in what is now Germany, and inherited the titles and lands of the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg from his father and uncles. A succession of European wars expanded his German domains during his lifetime, and in 1708 he was ratified as prince-elector of Hanover. At the age of 54, after the death of Queen Anne of Great Britain, he ascended the British throne as the first monarch of the House of Hanover. Towards the end of his reign, actual power was held by Sir Robert Walpole, now recognised as Britain's first de facto prime minister.

George II

King of Great Britain and Ireland, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (Hanover) and Archtreasurer and Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire from 11 June 1727 (O.S.) until his death. last British monarch born outside Great Britain: he was born and brought up in northern Germany. exercised little control over British domestic policy, which was largely controlled by the Parliament of Great Britain. As elector, he spent 12 summers in Hanover, where he had more direct control over government policy. He had a difficult relationship with his eldest son, Frederick, who supported the parliamentary opposition. During the War of the Austrian Succession, he participated at the Battle of Dettingen in 1743, and thus became the last British monarch to lead an army in battle. In 1745, supporters of the Catholic claimant to the British throne, James Francis Edward Stuart ("The Old Pretender"), led by James's son Charles Edward Stuart ("The Young Pretender" or "Bonnie Prince Charlie"), attempted and failed to depose him in the last of the Jacobite rebellions. After Prince Frederick died unexpectedly in 1751, his grandson became heir apparent and ultimately king.

Vaclav Havel

a Czech playwright, essayist, poet, dissident and politician. Havel was the ninth and last president of Czechoslovakia (1989-1992) and the first president of the Czech Republic (1993-2003). He wrote more than 20 plays and numerous non-fiction works, translated internationally.

Christopher Wren

one of the most highly acclaimed English architects in history. He was accorded responsibility for rebuilding 52 churches in the City of London after the Great Fire in 1666, including his masterpiece, St. Paul's Cathedral, on Ludgate Hill, completed in 1710.

George III of Britain

King of Great Britain and King of Ireland from 25 October 1760 until the union of these two countries on 1 January 1801, after which he was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death. He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg ("Hanover") in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, but unlike his two Hanoverian predecessors he was born in Britain, spoke English as his first language, and never visited Hanover. His life and reign, which were longer than those of any previous British monarch, were marked by a series of military conflicts involving his kingdoms, much of the rest of Europe, and places farther afield in Africa, the Americas and Asia. Early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years' War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of its American colonies were soon lost in the American Revolutionary War. Further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. known for insanity

George III

King of Great Britain and King of Ireland from 25 October 1760 until the union of these two countries on 1 January 1801, after which he was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death. He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg ("Hanover") in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, but unlike his two Hanoverian predecessors he was born in Britain, spoke English as his first language, and never visited Hanover. known for being insane lost the colonies in North America

John Zapolyai

King of Hungary (as John I) from 1526 to 1540. His rule was disputed by Archduke Ferdinand I, who also claimed the title King of Hungary. He was Voivode of Transylvania before his coronation. (involved in some Ottoman War stuff I think)

Louis II Jagiellon

King of Hungary, Croatia and King of Bohemia from 1516 to 1526. He was killed during the Battle of Mohács fighting the Ottomans. (don't know much else about him)

Victor Emmanuel III

King of Italy (29 July 1900 - 9 May 1946). In addition, he claimed the thrones of Ethiopia and Albania as Emperor of Ethiopia (1936-41) and King of the Albanians (1939-43), which were unrecognised by the great powers. During his long reign (46 years), which began after the assassination of his father Umberto I, the Kingdom of Italy became involved in two World Wars. His reign also encompassed the birth, rise, and fall of Italian Fascism. abdicated his throne in 1946 to his son Umberto II, hoping to strengthen the support for the monarchy against an ultimately successful referendum to abolish it. He then went in exile to Alexandria, Egypt, where he died and was buried the following year. He was nicknamed by the Italians as "Re soldato" (Soldier King) and "Re vittorioso" (Victorious King) after Italy was victorious in the First World War. He was also nicknamed "Sciaboletta" ("little sabre") due to his height of 1.53 metres (5 ft 0 in).

Frederick William II of Prussia

King of Prussia, from 1786 until his death. He was in personal union the Prince-Elector of Brandenburg and the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel. Pleasure-loving and indolent, he is seen as the antithesis to his predecessor, Frederick II. Under his reign, Prussia was weakened internally and externally, and he failed to deal adequately with the challenges to the existing order posed by the French Revolution. His religious policies were directed against the Enlightenment and aimed at restoring a traditional Protestantism. However, he was a patron of the arts and responsible for the construction of some notable buildings, among them the Brandenburger Tor in Berlin. (supported Louis XVI during Revolution?)

Philip IV

King of Spain and Portugal; ascended the thrones in 1621 and reigned in Spain until his death and in Portugal until 1640. Philip is remembered for his patronage of the arts, including such artists as Diego Velázquez, and his rule over Spain during the challenging period of the Thirty Years' War. On the eve of his death in 1665, the Spanish Empire had reached 12.2 million square kilometres (4.7×106 sq mi) in area but in other respects was in decline, a process to which his inability to achieve successful domestic and military reform is felt to have contributed. apparently tried to acquire power to create an absolute monarchy but ultimately failed

Alfonso XIII

King of Spain from 1886 until 1931. monarch from birth, as his father Alfonso XII had died the previous year. Until his 16th birthday in 1902, his mother, Maria Christina of Austria, served as his regent, in a period which saw Spain lose its Caribbean and Pacific colonies during the Spanish-American War. Due to family ties to both sides, he kept his kingdom neutral in World War I (1914-1918). From 1923 to 1930, he supported the dictator Miguel Primo de Rivera. In 1931, in the face of overwhelming popular rejection, he fled the country as the Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed. In exile, he retained his claim to the throne until 1941, when he abdicated in favor of his son Juan. He died six weeks later.

Charles XIV of Sweden (Bernadotte)

King of Sweden (as Charles XIV John) and King of Norway (as Charles III John) from 1818 until his death. Before he became king, he was also the Sovereign Prince of Pontecorvo, in Southern Italy, between 1806 and 1810. served a long career in the French Army. He was appointed as a Marshal of France by Napoleon I, though the two had a turbulent relationship. His service to France ended in 1810, when he was elected the heir-presumptive to the Swedish throne because the Swedish royal family was dying out with King Charles XIII. Baron Carl Otto Mörner (22 May 1781 - 17 August 1868), who was a Swedish courtier, and obscure member of the Riksdag of the Estates, advocated for the succession.

Indulgences

remissions of temporal punishment due to sin, the guilt of which has been forgiven; paid with money; used by Leo X a lot; angered Luther

George V (Britain)

King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 until his death. He was a grandson of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and the first cousin of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia and Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany. From 1877 to 1891, he served in the Royal Navy. On the death of Victoria in 1901, his father became King Edward VII, and he was made Prince of Wales. On his father's death in 1910, he succeeded as King-Emperor of the British Empire. He was the only Emperor of India to be present at his own Delhi Durbar. As a result of the First World War (1914-18), most other European empires fell while the British Empire expanded to its greatest effective extent. In 1917, he became the first monarch of the House of Windsor, which he renamed from the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha as a result of anti-German public sentiment. His reign saw the rise of socialism, communism, fascism, Irish republicanism, and the Indian independence movement, all of which radically changed the political landscape. The Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the elected British House of Commons over the unelected House of Lords. In 1924 he appointed the first Labour ministry and in 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognised the dominions of the Empire as separate, independent states within the Commonwealth of Nations. He was plagued by illness throughout much of his later reign and at his death was succeeded by his eldest son, Edward VIII.

Final Solution

Nazi Germany's plan during World War II to systematically exterminate the Jewish people in Nazi-occupied Europe, which resulted in the most deadly phase of the Holocaust, the destruction of Jewish communities in continental Europe.

Pope Pius IX

Pope from 16 June 1846 to his death in 1878. He was the longest-reigning elected pope in the history of the Catholic Church — totalling nearly 32 years. During his pontificate, he convened the First Vatican Council (1869-1870), which decreed papal infallibility, but the council was cut short. He defined the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary, meaning that Mary was conceived without original sin. He also granted the Marian title of Our Mother of Perpetual Help, a famous Byzantine icon from Crete entrusted to the Redemptorist priests. In addition to this, he was also the last pope to rule as the Sovereign of the Papal States, which fell completely to Italian nationalist armies in 1870 and were incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy. After this, he was referred to as the "Prisoner of the Vatican".

Philip V of Spain

Spanish monarch that fought alongside Louis XIV of France during War of Spanish Succession King of Spain from 1 November 1700 to 15 January 1724, when he abdicated in favor of his son Louis, and from 6 September 1724, when he assumed the throne again upon his son's death, to his death. Before his reign, he occupied an exalted place in the royal family of France as a grandson of King Louis XIV. His father, Louis, the Grand Dauphin, had the strongest genealogical claim to the throne of Spain when it became vacant in 1700. However, since the Grand Dauphin and Philip's older brother, Louis, Duke of Burgundy, could not be displaced from their place in the succession to the French throne, King Charles II of Spain named him as his heir in his will. It was well known that the union of France and Spain under one monarch would upset the balance of power in Europe, such that other European powers would take steps to prevent it.

Big Bertha

the name of a type of super-heavy howitzer developed by the armaments manufacturer Krupp in Germany on the eve of WWI. Its official designation was the L/12, i.e., the barrel was 12 calibre in length, 42-cm (16.5 inch) Type M-Gerät 14 (M-Equipment 1914) Kurze Marine-Kanone ("short naval gun", a name intended to camouflage the weapon's real purpose).

slop work

The manufacture of inexpensive, low-quality, ready-to-wear clothes. the poorest-paid jobs for the cheapest goods

David Lloyd George

a British Liberal politician and statesman. As Chancellor of the Exchequer (1908-1915), he was a key figure in the introduction of many reforms which laid the foundations of the modern welfare state. His most important role came as the highly energetic Prime Minister of the Wartime Coalition Government (1916-22), during and immediately after the First World War. He was a major player at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 that reordered Europe after the defeat of Germany in the Great War. He arguably made a greater impact on British public life than arguably any other 20th-century leader, thanks to his pre-war introduction of Britain's social welfare system, his leadership in winning the war, his post-war role in reshaping Europe and his partitioning Ireland (between the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland which remained part of the UK). He was the last Liberal to serve as Prime Minister. Parliamentary support for the coalition premiership was mostly from Conservatives rather his own Liberals. The Liberal split led to the permanent decline of that party as a serious political force. Although he became leader of the Liberal Party in the late 1920s, he was unable to regain power, and by the 1930s he was a marginalised and widely mistrusted figure. In the Second World War he was known for defeatism.

Test Act of 1673

This act enforced upon all persons filling any office, civil or military, the obligation of taking the oaths of supremacy and allegiance and subscribing to a declaration against transubstantiation and also of receiving the sacrament within three months after admittance to office. Passed in response to Declaration of Indulgence

Kellog-Briand Pact

a 1928 international agreement in which signatory states promised not to use war to resolve "disputes or conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever origin they may be, which may arise among them". Parties failing to abide by this promise "should be denied of the benefits furnished by this treaty". It was signed by Germany, France and the United States on August 27, 1928, and by most other nations soon after. Sponsored by France and the U.S., the Pact renounced the use of war and called for the peaceful settlement of disputes. Similar provisions were incorporated into the UN Charter and other treaties and it became a stepping stone to a more activist American policy. (not very successful)

Montesquieu

Wrote The Spirit of the Laws a French social commentator and political thinker who lived during the Age of Enlightenment. He is famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, which is implemented in many constitutions throughout the world. He did more than any other author to secure the place of the word despotism in the political lexicon, and may have been partly responsible for the popularization of the terms feudalism and Byzantine Empire.

Duke of Wellington

a British soldier and statesman, a native of Ireland from the Anglo-Irish Ascendancy, and one of the leading military and political figures of the 19th century. rose to prominence as a general during the Peninsular campaign of the Napoleonic Wars, and was promoted to the rank of field marshal after leading the allied forces to victory against the French at the Battle of Vitoria in 1813. Following Napoleon's exile in 1814, he served as the ambassador to France and was granted a dukedom. During the Hundred Days in 1815, he commanded the allied army which, together with a Prussian army under Blücher, defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo.

Triumph of the Will

a 1935 film made by Leni Riefenstahl. It chronicles the 1934 Nazi Party Congress in Nuremberg, which was attended by more than 700,000 Nazi supporters. The film contains excerpts from speeches given by Nazi leaders at the Congress, including portions of speeches by Adolf Hitler, Rudolf Hess, and Julius Streicher, interspersed with footage of massed Sturmabteilung and Schutzstaffel troops, and public reaction. Hitler commissioned the film and served as an unofficial executive producer; his name appears in the opening titles. The film's overriding theme is the return of Germany as a great power, with Hitler as the leader who will bring glory to the nation. Because the film was made after the 1934 Night of the Long Knives, many prominent SA members are absent, having been murdered in that purge. It was released in 1935 and became a prominent example of propaganda in film history. Riefenstahl's techniques—such as moving cameras, aerial photography, the use of long focus lenses to create a distorted perspective, and the revolutionary approach to the use of music and cinematography—have earned Triumph of the Will recognition as one of the greatest films in history. Riefenstahl won several awards, not only in Germany but also in the United States, France, Sweden, and other countries. The film was popular in the Third Reich, and has continued to influence movies, documentaries, and commercials to this day. However, it is banned from showing in Germany owing to its support for Nazism and its numerous portrayals of the swastika.

Impressionism

a 19th-century art movement that originated with a group of Paris-based artists. Their independent exhibitions brought them to prominence during the 1870s and 1880s, in spite of harsh opposition from the conventional art community in France. The name of the style derives from the title of a Claude Monet work, Impression, soleil levant (Impression, Sunrise), which provoked the critic Louis Leroy to coin the term in a satirical review published in the Parisian newspaper Le Charivari. characteristics include relatively small, thin, yet visible brush strokes, open composition, emphasis on accurate depiction of light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage of time), ordinary subject matter, inclusion of movement as a crucial element of human perception and experience, and unusual visual angles.

Rainer Maria Rilke

a Bohemian-Austrian poet and novelist, "widely recognized as one of the most lyrically intense German-language poets", writing in both verse and highly lyrical prose. Several critics have described his work as inherently "mystical". His writings include one novel, several collections of poetry, and several volumes of correspondence in which he invokes haunting images that focus on the difficulty of communion with the ineffable in an age of disbelief, solitude, and profound anxiety. These deeply existential themes tend to position him as a transitional figure between the traditional and the modernist writers.

Gavrilo Princip

a Bosnian Serb who assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, on the northern end of the Latin Bridge in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. He and his accomplices were arrested and implicated by a number of members of the Serbian military, leading Austria-Hungary to issue a démarche to Serbia known as the July Ultimatum. This was used as pretext for Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, which then led to World War I. He was a Yugoslav nationalist associated with the movement Mlada Bosna (Young Bosnia) which predominantly consisted of Serbs, but also Bosniaks and Croats. During his trial he stated "I am a Yugoslav nationalist, aiming for the unification of all Yugoslavs, and I do not care what form of state, but it must be freed from Austria."

John Major

a British Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party from 1990 to 1997. He previously held the posts of Chancellor of the Exchequer and Foreign Secretary in the Thatcher Government, and was the Member of Parliament for Huntingdon from 1979 to 2001. Although according to Malcolm Rifkind Major proved "a great disappointment to Thatcher", he was her preferred choice as successor as she expected to "continue in control of the country as a backseat driver". Within weeks of becoming Prime Minister, he presided over British participation in the Gulf War in March 1991, and claimed to have negotiated "Game, Set and Match for Britain" at negotiations over the Maastricht Treaty in December 1991. Despite the British economy being in recession, he went on to lead the Conservatives to a fourth consecutive election victory, winning the most votes in British electoral history - over 14 million - in the 1992 general election albeit with a much reduced majority in the House of Commons. He remains to date the last Conservative Leader to win an outright majority at a general election.

Neville Chamberlain

a British Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from May 1937 to May 1940. He is best known for his appeasement foreign policy, and in particular for his signing of the Munich Agreement in 1938, conceding the German-populated Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia to Germany. However when Adolf Hitler continued his aggression by invading Poland, Britain declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939, and he led Britain through the first eight months of World War II.

Stanley Baldwin

a British Conservative politician, who dominated the government in his country between the two world wars. Three times Prime Minister, he is the only one to serve under three monarchs (George V, Edward VIII and George VI). first entered the House of Commons in 1908 as the Member of Parliament for Bewdley, and held government office in the coalition ministry of David Lloyd George. In 1922, he was one of the prime movers in the withdrawal of Conservative support from Lloyd George and became Chancellor of the Exchequer in Bonar Law's Conservative ministry. Upon Law's resignation due to health reasons in May 1923, he became Prime Minister and Conservative Party leader. He called an election on the issue of tariffs and lost the Conservatives' majority, after which Ramsay MacDonald formed a minority Labour government. then won again; replaced by Chamberlain

Sir Robert Peel

a British Conservative statesman, who served as prime minister of the United Kingdom from 10 December 1834 to 8 April 1835, and also from 30 August 1841 to 29 June 1846. While home secretary, he helped create the modern concept of the police force, leading to a new type of officer known as "bobbies" (in England) and "peelers" (in Northern Ireland), his personal namesakes. As prime minister, he issued the Tamworth Manifesto (1834) during his brief first period in office, leading to the formation of the Conservative Party out of the shattered Tory Party; in his second administration he repealed the Corn Laws.

Axis Powers

the nations that fought in the Second World War against the Allied forces. Germany, Italy, and Japan were the major ones

William Gladstone

a British Liberal politician. In a career lasting over sixty years, he served as Prime Minister four separate times (1868-74, 1880-85, February-July 1886 and 1892-94), more than any other person. government also passed the Third Reform Act. Back in office in early 1886, he proposed Irish home rule but this was defeated in the House of Commons in July. The resulting split in the Liberal Party helped keep them out of office, with one short break, for twenty years. In 1892 he formed his last government at the age of 82. The Second Irish Home Rule Bill passed the Commons but was defeated in the Lords in 1893. He resigned in March 1894, in opposition to increased naval expenditure. He left Parliament in 1895 and died three years later aged 88. famous for his oratory, his religiosity, his liberalism, his rivalry with the Conservative Leader Benjamin Disraeli, and for his poor relations with Queen Victoria, who once complained, "He always addresses me as if I were a public meeting."

Cecil Rhodes

a British businessman, mining magnate, and politician in South Africa. He was named the chairman of De Beers at the company's founding in 1888. De Beers, established with funding from NM Rothschild & Sons Limited in 1887, today markets 40% of the world's rough diamonds, and at one time marketed 90%. An ardent believer in British colonialism, he was the founder of the southern African namesake territory, which was named after him in 1895. South Africa's ________ University is also named after him. He set up the provisions of his namesake scholarship, which is funded by his estate.

John Maynard Keynes

a British economist whose ideas have fundamentally affected the theory and practice of modern macroeconomics, and informed the economic policies of governments. He built on and greatly refined earlier work on the causes of business cycles, and is widely considered to be one of the founders of modern macroeconomics and the most influential economist of the 20th century. encouraged deficit spending in times of depression to stimulate economy

Lord Admiral Horatio Nelson

a British flag officer famous for his service in the Royal Navy, particularly during the Napoleonic Wars. He was noted for his inspirational leadership and superb grasp of strategy and unconventional tactics, which resulted in a number of decisive naval victories. He was wounded several times in combat, losing one arm in the unsuccessful attempt to conquer Santa Cruz de Tenerife and the sight in one eye in Corsica. Of his several victories, the best known and most notable was the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, during which he was shot and killed.

Emmeline Pankhurst

a British political activist and leader of the British suffragette movement who helped women win the right to vote. In 1999 Time named her as one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century, stating: "she shaped an idea of women for our time; she shook society into a new pattern from which there could be no going back." She was widely criticised for her militant tactics, and historians disagree about their effectiveness, but her work is recognised as a crucial element in achieving women's suffrage in Britain.

William Pitt, the Younger

a British politician of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. He became the youngest Prime Minister in 1783 at the age of 24. He left office in 1801, but was Prime Minister again from 1804 until his death in 1806. He was also the Chancellor of the Exchequer throughout his premiership. best known for leading Britain in the great wars against France and Napoleon.

Clement Attlee

a British politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951, and as the Leader of the Labour Party from 1935 to 1955. He was the first person ever to hold the office of Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, serving under Winston Churchill in the wartime coalition government, before going on to lead the Labour Party to a landslide election victory in 1945 and a narrow victory in 1950. He became the first Labour Prime Minister ever to serve a full five year term, as well as the first to command a Labour majority in Parliament, and remains to date the longest ever serving Leader of the Labour party. The government he led built the post-war consensus, based upon the assumption that full employment would be maintained by Keynesian policies and that a greatly enlarged system of social services would be created - aspirations that had been outlined in the wartime Beveridge Report. Within this context, his government undertook the nationalisation of public utilities and major industries, as well as the creation of the National Health Service. After initial Conservative opposition to Keynesian fiscal policy, this settlement was broadly accepted by all parties for over three decades until Margaret Thatcher became Prime Minister in 1979. His government also presided over the decolonisation of a large part of the British Empire, granting British India, Burma, and Ceylon independence, as well as ending the British Mandate of Palestine and the British Mandate of Jordan. When the budget crisis forced Britain out of Greece in 1947 he encouraged the United States to counter the Soviets with the Truman Doctrine. He avidly supported the Marshall Plan to rebuild Western Europe with American money, and the NATO military alliance against the Soviet bloc. After leading Labour to a narrow victory in 1950, he was narrowly defeated by Churchill in 1951; he retired from politics in 1955.

Winston Churchill

a British politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. Widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the 20th century, he was also an officer in the British Army, a historian, a writer, and an artist. He is the only British Prime Minister to have won the Nobel Prize in Literature, and was the first person to be made an honorary citizen of the United States.

Winston Churchill

a British politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. Widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the 20th century, he was also an officer in the British Army, a historian, a writer, and an artist. He is the only British Prime Minister to have won the Nobel Prize in Literature, and was the first person to be made an honorary citizen of the United States. coined phrase "The Iron Curtain"

Fabian Socialists

a British socialist organisation whose purpose is to advance the principles of socialism via gradualist and reformist means. The society laid many of the foundations of the Labour Party and subsequently affected the policies of states emerging from the decolonisation of the British Empire, most notably India and Singapore. Originally, it was committed to the establishment of a socialist economy, alongside a commitment to British imperialism as a progressive and modernizing force. Today its viewpoints are more social democratic.

Tycho Brahe

a Danish nobleman known for his accurate and comprehensive astronomical and planetary observations. He was born in Scania, then part of Denmark, now part of modern-day Sweden. In his De nova stella (On the new star) of 1573, he refuted the Aristotelian belief in an unchanging celestial realm. His precise measurements indicated that "new stars," (stellae novae, now known as supernovae) in particular that of 1572, lacked the parallax expected in sub-lunar phenomena, and were therefore not "atmospheric" tailless comets as previously believed, but were above the atmosphere and moon. Using similar measurements he showed that comets were also not atmospheric phenomena, as previously thought, and must pass through the supposedly "immutable" celestial spheres assisted by Kepler, who later used his data

Camille Pissaro

a Danish-French Impressionist and Neo-Impressionist painter born on the island of St Thomas (now in the US Virgin Islands, but then in the Danish West Indies). His importance resides in his contributions to both Impressionism and Post-Impressionism. He studied from great forerunners, including Gustave Courbet and Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot. He later studied and worked alongside Georges Seurat and Paul Signac when he took on the Neo-Impressionist style at the age of 54.

Rembrandt

a Dutch painter and etcher. He is generally considered one of the greatest painters and printmakers in European art and the most important in Dutch history. His contributions to art came in a period of great wealth and cultural achievement that historians call the Dutch Golden Age when Dutch Golden Age painting, although in many ways antithetical to the Baroque style that dominated Europe, was extremely prolific and innovative. Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp; Return of the Prodigal Son; Nightwatch; The Jewish Bride

Vermeer

a Dutch painter who specialized in domestic interior scenes of middle-class life. Vermeer was a moderately successful provincial genre painter in his lifetime. He seems never to have been particularly wealthy, leaving his wife and children in debt at his death, perhaps because he produced relatively few paintings. The Milkmaid; The Astronomer; Girl with a Pearl Earring; The Allegory of Painting

Jan Oldenbarnvelt

a Dutch statesman who played an important role in the Dutch struggle for independence from Spain. supported a Republic rule of government; at odds with Maurice of Orange over this and religious toleration; led to decapitation

Leeuwenhoek

a Dutch tradesman and scientist. He is commonly known as "the Father of Microbiology", and considered to be the first microbiologist. He is best known for his work on the improvement of the microscope and for his contributions towards the establishment of microbiology. Raised in Delft, Netherlands, he worked as a draper in his youth, and founded his own shop in 1654. He made a name for himself in municipal politics, and eventually developed an interest in lensmaking. Using his handcrafted microscopes, he was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms, which he originally referred to as animalcules, and which are now referred to as microorganisms. He was also the first to record microscopic observations of muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa, and blood flow in capillaries (small blood vessels).

1st Battle of the Marne

a First World War battle fought from 5-12 September 1914. It resulted in an Allied victory against the German Army under Chief of Staff Helmuth von Moltke the Younger. The battle was the culmination of the German advance into France and pursuit of the Allied armies which followed the Battle of the Frontiers in August, which had reached the outskirts of Paris. The counterattack of six French field armies and the British Expeditionary Force ("BEF") along the namesake river forced the German Imperial Army to abandon its push on Paris and retreat north-east, leading to the "Race to the Sea" and setting the stage for four years of trench warfare on the Western Front. This was an immense strategic victory for the Allies, wrecking Germany's bid for a swift victory over France and forcing it into a drawn-out two-front war.

Rubens

a Flemish Baroque painter, and a proponent of an extravagant Baroque style that emphasised movement, colour, and sensuality. He is well known for his Counter-Reformation altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects. Arrival of Marie de' Medici at Marseilles; Elevation of the Cross; Judgment of Paris

Peter Paul Rubens

a Flemish Baroque painter, and a proponent of an extravagant Baroque style that emphasised movement, colour, and sensuality. He is well known for his Counter-Reformation altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects. Marie de Medici Cycle Judgment of Paris Elevation of the Cross

Albert Camus

a French Nobel Prize winning author, journalist, and philosopher. His views contributed to the rise of the philosophy known as absurdism. He wrote in his essay "The Rebel" that his whole life was devoted to opposing the philosophy of nihilism while still delving deeply into individual and sexual freedom. He did not consider himself to be an existentialist despite usually being classified as one (even during his own lifetime). In an interview in 1945, Camus rejected any ideological associations: "No, I am not an existentialist. Sartre and I are always surprised to see our names linked..." got Nobel Prize in Literature The Stranger The Plague

Eugene Delacroix

a French Romantic artist regarded from the outset of his career as the leader of the French Romantic school. His use of expressive brushstrokes and his study of the optical effects of colour profoundly shaped the work of the Impressionists, while his passion for the exotic inspired the artists of the Symbolist movement. A fine lithographer, he illustrated various works of William Shakespeare, the Scottish writer Walter Scott and the German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. (Lion Hunt; Liberty Leading the People; Death of Sardanapalus)

Hector Berlioz

a French Romantic composer, best known for his compositions Symphonie fantastique and Grande messe des morts (Requiem). He made significant contributions to the modern orchestra with his Treatise on Instrumentation. He specified huge orchestral forces for some of his works, and conducted several concerts with more than 1,000 musicians. He also composed around 50 songs. His influence was critical for the further development of Romanticism, especially in composers like Richard Wagner, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Franz Liszt, Richard Strauss, Gustav Mahler and many others.

Marquis de Lafayette

a French aristocrat and military officer born in Chavaniac, in the province of Auvergne in south central France. He was a general in the American Revolutionary War and a leader of the Garde nationale during the French Revolution. During the French Revolution, he attempted to maintain order—to the point of ordering the Garde nationale to fire on demonstrators at the Champ de Mars in July 1791—an action for which he ultimately was persecuted by the Jacobins. In August 1792, as the radical factions in the Revolution grew in power, he tried to flee to the United States through the Dutch Republic. He was captured by Austrians and spent more than five years in prison.

Bernard de Fontenelle

a French author. Isaiah Berlin said ___________ "was the most civilized man of his time, and indeed of most times." (wrote Plurality of Worlds, which explained scientific theories in common language (French))

Jacques Bossuet

a French bishop and theologian, renowned for his sermons and other addresses. He has been considered by many to be one of the most brilliant orators of all time and a masterly French stylist. Court preacher to Louis XIV of France ,he was a strong advocate of political absolutism and the divine right of kings. He argued that government was divine and that kings received their power from God. He was also an important courtier and politician.

Louis Pasteur

a French chemist and microbiologist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization. He is remembered for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and preventions of diseases, and his discoveries have saved countless lives ever since. He reduced mortality from puerperal fever, and created the first vaccines for rabies and anthrax. His medical discoveries provided direct support for the germ theory of disease and its application in clinical medicine. He is best known to the general public for his invention of the technique of treating milk and wine to stop bacterial contamination, a process now called pasteurization. He is regarded as one of the three main founders of bacteriology, together with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch, and is popularly known as the "father of microbiology".

Claude Debussy

a French composer. Along with Maurice Ravel, he was one of the most prominent figures associated with Impressionist music, though he himself intensely disliked the term when applied to his compositions. In France, he was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1903. He was among the most influential composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and his use of non-traditional scales and chromaticism influenced many composers who followed. (Symbolism, the literary movement, occurred when he was writing his music)

Jean-Baptiste Racine

a French dramatist, one of the three great playwrights of 17th-century France (along with Molière and Corneille), and an important literary figure in the Western tradition. He was primarily a tragedian, producing such "examples of neoclassical perfection" as Phèdre, Andromaque, and Athalie, although he did write one comedy, Les Plaideurs, and a muted tragedy, Esther, for the young.

Henri de Saint-Simon

a French early socialist theorist whose thought influenced the foundations of various 19th century philosophies; perhaps most notably Marxism, positivism and the discipline of sociology. He was born an aristocrat. In opposition to the feudal and military system, he advocated a form of state-technocratic socialism, an arrangement where industrialists would lead society and found a national community based on cooperation and technological progress, which would be capable of eliminating poverty of the lower classes. In place of the church, he felt the direction of society should fall to the men of science. Men who are fitted to organize society for productive labour are entitled to rule it.

Francois Quesnay

a French economist of the Physiocratic school. He is known for publishing the "Tableau économique" (Economic Table) in 1758, which provided the foundations of the ideas of the Physiocrats. This was perhaps the first work to attempt to describe the workings of the economy in an analytical way, and as such can be viewed as one of the first important contributions to economic thought. His Le Despotisme de la Chine, written in 1767, describes Chinese politics and society, and his own political support for constitutional Oriental despotism. Wealth of society determined by production, not by gold or sliver Production always traced back to agriculture Productivity at its highest when govt doesn't interfere

Ernest Renan

a French expert of Middle East ancient languages and civilizations, philosopher and writer, devoted to his native province of Brittany. He is best known for his influential historical works on early Christianity and his political theories, especially concerning nationalism and national identity. (said Jesus was important because of his teachings; didn't think he was divine?)

Georges Boulanger

a French general and politician who seemed at the apogee of his popularity in January 1889 to pose the threat of a coup d'état and the establishment of a dictatorship. With his base of support in working districts of Paris and other cities, he promoted an aggressive nationalism aimed against Germany

Marshal Henri Philippe Petain

a French general who reached the distinction of Marshal of France, and was later Chief of State of Vichy France (Chef de l'État Français), from 1940 to 1944. Because of his outstanding military leadership in World War I, particularly during the Battle of Verdun, he was viewed as a national hero in France. With the imminent fall of France in June 1940, Pétain was appointed Premier of France by President Lebrun at Bordeaux, and the Cabinet resolved to make peace with Germany. The entire government subsequently moved briefly to Clermont-Ferrand, then to the spa town of Vichy in central France. His government voted to transform the discredited French Third Republic into the French State, an authoritarian regime. pretty much allied with Hitler

Napoleon Bonaparte

a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the latter stages of the French Revolution and its associated wars in Europe. he was Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1814. He undertook many reforms across Europe, ending feudalism for example. In 1799, he took power in a coup d'état on November 9, 1799 ("the 18th Brumaire" according to the revolutionary calendar) and installed himself as First Consul. In 1804 he made himself emperor of the French people. He fought a series of wars —the Napoleonic Wars—that involved complex coalitions for and against him, but Britain was always his great enemy.

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

a French naturalist. He was a soldier, biologist, academic, and an early proponent of the idea that evolution occurred and proceeded in accordance with natural laws. He gave the term biology a broader meaning by coining the term for special sciences, chemistry, meteorology, geology, and botany-zoology. widely remembered for a theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics, called soft inheritance or use/disuse theory. However, his idea of soft inheritance was, perhaps, a reflection of the wisdom of the time accepted by many natural historians. His contribution to evolutionary theory consisted of the first truly cohesive theory of evolution, in which an alchemical complexifying force drove organisms up a ladder of complexity, and a second environmental force adapted them to local environments through use and disuse of characteristics, differentiating them from other organisms.

Jean-Francois Millet

a French painter and one of the founders of the Barbizon school in rural France. He is noted for his scenes of peasant farmers; he can be categorized as part of the movements of Realism and Naturalism. The Gleaners The Sower

Gustave Courbet

a French painter who led the Realist movement in 19th-century French painting. The Stonebreakers Burial at Ornans The Artist's Studio

Charles Fourier

a French philosopher. An influential thinker, some of his social and moral views, held to be radical in his lifetime, have become mainstream thinking in modern society. He is, for instance, credited with having originated the word feminism in 1837. His views inspired the founding of the community of Utopia, Ohio; La Reunion near present-day Dallas, Texas; the North American Phalanx in Red Bank, New Jersey; Brook Farm in West Roxbury, Massachusetts (where Nathaniel Hawthorne was one of the founders); the Community Place and Sodus Bay Phalanx in New York State, and several other communities in the United States. (namesake "phalanxes")

Jean-Baptiste Moliere

a French playwright and actor who is considered to be one of the greatest masters of comedy in Western literature. Among his best-known works are Le Misanthrope (The Misanthrope), L'École des Femmes (The School for Wives), Tartuffe ou L'Imposteur (Tartuffe or the Hypocrite), L'Avare (The Miser), Le Malade Imaginaire (The Imaginary Invalid), and Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (The Bourgeois Gentleman).

Jacques Chirac

a French politician who served as President of France from 1995 to 2007. He previously served as Prime Minister of France from 1974 to 1976 and from 1986 to 1988 (making him the only person to hold the position of Prime Minister twice under the Fifth Republic), and as Mayor of Paris from 1977 to 1995. internal policies included lower tax rates, the removal of price controls, strong punishment for crime and terrorism, and business privatisation. He also argued for more socially responsible economic policies, and was elected in 1995 after campaigning on a platform of healing the "social rift" (fracture sociale). After less statist policy when he was Prime Minister (1986-1988), he changed his method. Then, his economic policies, based on dirigisme, state-directed ideals, stood in opposition to the laissez-faire policies of the United Kingdom, which he famously described as "Anglo-Saxon ultraliberalism". He is the second-longest serving President of France (two full terms, the first of seven years and the second of five years), after François Mitterrand. As President, he also served as an ex officio Co-Prince of Andorra and Grand Master of the French Légion d'honneur.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

a French politician who served as the Minister of Finances of France from 1665 to 1683 under the rule of King Louis XIV. His relentless hard work and thrift made him an esteemed minister. He achieved a reputation for his work of improving the state of French manufacturing and bringing the economy back from the brink of bankruptcy. Historians note that, despite his efforts, France actually became increasingly impoverished because of the King's excessive spending on wars. He worked to create a favourable balance of trade and increase France's colonial holdings. tapestries and glass and stuff

Leon Blum

a French politician, usually identified with the moderate left, and three times Prime Minister of France. elected as Deputy for Narbonne in 1929, and was re-elected in 1932 and 1936. In 1933, he expelled Marcel Déat, Pierre Renaudel, and other neosocialists from the SFIO. Political circumstances changed in 1934, when the rise of German dictator Adolf Hitler and fascist riots in Paris caused Stalin and the French Communists to change their policy. In 1935 all the parties of left and centre formed the Popular Front, which at the elections of June 1936 won a sweeping victory. On 13 February 1936, shortly before becoming Prime Minister, he was dragged from a car and almost beaten to death by the Camelots du Roi, a group of anti-Semites and royalists. The right-wing Action Française league was dissolved by the government following this incident, not long before the elections that brought him to power. became the first socialist and the first Jew to serve as Prime Minister of France. As such he was an object of particular hatred to the Catholic and anti-Semitic right.

Jacques Necker

a French statesman of Swiss birth and finance minister of Louis XVI, a post he held in the lead-up to the French Revolution in 1789. summoned and dismissed multiple times under Louis XVI dismissal of this guy made Third Estate think that King was wary of Estates General first to publish financial figures forgets to include war debt recommended that taxes should be fairer; wanted nobility to pay share (dismissed after that; summoned later)

Georges Clemenceau

a French statesman who led the nation in the First World War. A leader of the Radical Party, he played a central role in politics during the Third Republic. He served as the Prime Minister of France from 1906 to 1909, and again from 1917 to 1920. He was one of the principal architects of the Treaty of Versailles at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. Nicknamed "Père la Victoire" (Father Victory) or "Le Tigre" (The Tiger), he took a harsh position against defeated Germany, though quite not as much as President Poincaré, and won agreement on Germany's payment of large sums for reparations.

Georges Clemenceau

a French statesman who led the nation in the First World War. A leader of the Radical Party, he played a central role in politics during the Third Republic. He served as the Prime Minister of France from 1906 to 1909, and again from 1917 to 1920. He was one of the principal architects of the Treaty of Versailles at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. Nicknamed "Père la Victoire" (Father Victory) or "Le Tigre" (The Tiger), he took a harsh position against defeated Germany, though quite not as much as President Poincaré, and won agreement on Germany's payment of large sums for reparations. (at this point, he was interested in the Dreyfus affair and wanted to defend Dreyfus)

Marcel Duchamp

a French-American painter, sculptor, chess player, and writer whose work is associated with Dadaism and conceptual art, although not directly associated with Dada groups. He is commonly regarded, along with Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse, as one of the three artists who helped to define the revolutionary developments in the plastic arts in the opening decades of the twentieth century, responsible for significant developments in painting and sculpture.He has had an immense impact on twentieth-century and twenty first-century art. By World War I, he had rejected the work of many of his fellow artists (like Henri Matisse) as "retinal" art, intended only to please the eye. Instead, he wanted to put art back in the service of the mind. Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 2) Mona Lisa with a Mustache (L.H.O.O.Q.) Fountain (and other ready-mades)

Adolf Eichmann

a German Nazi SS-Obersturmbannführer (lieutenant colonel) and one of the major organisers of the Holocaust. He was charged by SS-Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich with facilitating and managing the logistics of mass deportation of Jews to ghettos and extermination camps in German-occupied Eastern Europe during World War II. In 1960 he was captured in Argentina by the Mossad, Israel's intelligence service. Following a widely publicised trial in Israel, he was found guilty of war crimes and hanged in 1962.

Thomas a Kempis

a German canon regular of the late medieval period and the most probable author of The Imitation of Christ, which is one of the best known Christian books on devotion. (I guess he created the concept of modern devotion?)

Erich Honecker

a German communist politician who, as the General Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party, led East Germany from 1971 until the weeks preceding the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. From 1976 onward he was also the country's official Head of State as Chairman of the State Council following Willi Stoph's relinquishment of the post. (gave order to fire at those trying to cross into West Germany?) As Cold War tensions eased in the late 1980s under the liberalising reforms of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, he refused all but cosmetic changes to the East German political system and was consequently forced to resign by his party in October 1989 as the Communist regime sought to retain its power.

Ludwig van Beethoven

a German composer and pianist. A crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western art music, he remains one of the most famous and influential of all composers. His best known compositions include 9 symphonies, 5 concertos for piano, 32 piano sonatas, and 16 string quartets. He also composed other chamber music, choral works (including the celebrated Missa Solemnis), and songs. Born in Bonn, then the capital of the Electorate of Cologne and part of the Holy Roman Empire, he displayed his musical talents at an early age and was taught by his father Johann van Beethoven and Christian Gottlob Neefe. During his first 22 years in Bonn, Beethoven intended to study with Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and befriended Joseph Haydn. Beethoven moved to Vienna in 1792 and began studying with Haydn, quickly gaining a reputation as a virtuoso pianist. He lived in Vienna until his death. In about 1800 his hearing began to deteriorate, and by the last decade of his life he was almost totally deaf. He gave up conducting and performing in public but continued to compose; many of his most admired works come from this period. (Famous for Symphonies 5 and 9; also 3; Moonlight Sonata; Appasionata)

Kurt Weill

a German composer, active from the 1920s, and in his later years in the United States. He was a leading composer for the stage who was best known for his fruitful collaborations with Bertolt Brecht. With Brecht, he developed productions such as his best-known work The Threepenny Opera, which included the ballad "Mack the Knife". Weill held the ideal of writing music that served a socially useful purpose. He also wrote a number of works for the concert hall, as well as several Judaism-themed pieces.

Johann Sebastian Bach

a German composer, organist, harpsichordist, violist, and violinist of the Baroque period. He enriched established German styles through his skill in counterpoint, harmonic and motivic organisation, and the adaptation of rhythms, forms, and textures from abroad, particularly from Italy and France. His compositions include the Brandenburg Concertos, the Mass in B minor, the The Well-Tempered Clavier, more than 200 cantatas, two Passions, and keyboard works. His music is revered for its intellectual depth, technical command, and artistic beauty.

Richard Wagner

a German composer, theatre director, polemicist, and conductor who is primarily known for his operas (or, as some of his later works were later known, "music dramas"). four-opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelung). Tristan und Isolde Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg Flying Dutchman Ride of the Valkyries (he was also anti-semitic, apparently)

Helmut Kohl

a German conservative politician and statesman. He served as Chancellor of Germany from 1982 to 1998 (of West Germany 1982-90 and of the reunited Germany 1990-98) and as the chairman of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) from 1973 to 1998. His 16-year tenure was the longest of any German chancellor since Otto von Bismarck, and oversaw the end of the Cold War. He is widely regarded as the main architect of the German reunification, and together with French president François Mitterrand, he is also considered the architect of the Maastricht Treaty, which established the European Union.

Fuggers

a German family that was a historically prominent group of European bankers, members of the fifteenth and sixteenth-century mercantile patriciate of Augsburg, international mercantile bankers, and venture capitalists. Alongside the Welser family, the family controlled much of the European economy in the 16th century and accumulated enormous wealth. This banking family replaced the de' Medici family, who influenced all of Europe during the Renaissance. Supported Charles V

Hermann Goehring

a German politician, military leader, and leading member of the Nazi Party (NSDAP). A veteran of World War I as an ace fighter pilot, he was a recipient of the coveted Pour le Mérite, also known as the "Blue Max". He was the last commander of Jagdgeschwader 1, the fighter wing once led by Manfred von Richthofen, the "Red Baron". appointed commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe (air force) in 1935, a position he held until the final days of World War II. By 1940 he was at the peak of his power and influence; as minister in charge of the Four Year Plan, he was responsible for much of the functioning of the German economy in the build-up to World War II. Adolf Hitler promoted him to the rank of Reichsmarschall, a rank senior to all other Wehrmacht commanders, and in 1941 Hitler designated him as his successor and deputy in all his offices. (eventually fell out of favor with Hitler; committed suicide after being convicted of war crimes)

Erich von Ludendorff

a German general, victor of Liège and of the Battle of Tannenberg. From August 1916 his appointment as Quartermaster general made him joint head (with Paul von Hindenburg), and chief engineer behind the management of Germany's effort in World War I until his resignation in October 1918. After the war, he became a prominent nationalist leader, and a promoter of the stab-in-the-back legend, convinced that the German Army had been betrayed by Marxists and Republicans in the Versailles Treaty. He took part in the unsuccessful coups d'état of Wolfgang Kapp in 1920 and the Beer Hall Putsch of Adolf Hitler in 1923, and in 1925 he ran for president against his former colleague, Paul von Hindenburg, who he claimed had taken credit for his victories against Russia. From 1924 to 1928 he represented the German Völkisch Freedom Party in the German Parliament. Consistently pursuing a purely military line of thought, he developed, after the war, the theory of "Total War," which he published as Der Totale Krieg (The Total War) in 1935, in which he argued that the entire physical and moral forces of the nation should be mobilized, because, according to him, peace was merely an interval between wars.

Leibniz

a German mathematician and philosopher. He occupies a prominent place in the history of mathematics and the history of philosophy. developed the infinitesimal calculus independently of Isaac Newton, and his mathematical notation has been widely used ever since it was published. It was only in the 20th century that his Law of Continuity and Transcendental Law of Homogeneity found mathematical implementation (by means of non-standard analysis). He became one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators. While working on adding automatic multiplication and division to Pascal's calculator, he was the first to describe a pinwheel calculator in 1685 and invented a namesake "wheel", used in the arithmometer, the first mass-produced mechanical calculator. He also refined the binary number system, which is at the foundation of virtually all digital computers. most noted for his optimism, e.g., his conclusion that our Universe is, in a restricted sense, the best possible one that God could have created; along with René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, was one of the three great 17th century advocates of rationalism. (parodied by Voltaire in the form of Pangloss in Candide)

Kepler

a German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer. A key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution, he is best known for his eponymous laws of planetary motion, codified by later astronomers, based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astronomy. These works also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation. Was the assistant of Brahe.

Balthasar Neumann

a German military artillery engineer and architect who developed a refined brand of Baroque architecture, fusing Austrian, Bohemian, Italian, and French elements to design some of the most impressive buildings of the period, including the Würzburg Residence and the Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers, called Vierzehnheiligen in German.

Franz von Papen

a German nobleman, General Staff officer and politician. He served as Chancellor of Germany in 1932 and as Vice-Chancellor under Adolf Hitler in 1933-1934. He belonged to the group of close advisers to president Paul von Hindenburg in the late Weimar Republic. It was largely Papen, believing that Hitler could be controlled once he was in the government, who persuaded Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor in a cabinet not under Nazi Party domination. However, Papen and his allies were quickly marginalized by Hitler and he left the government after the Night of the Long Knives (see below), during which some of his confidantes were killed by the Nazis.

Ernst Rohm

a German officer in the Bavarian Army and later an early Nazi leader. He was a co-founder of the Sturmabteilung ("Storm Battalion"; SA), the Nazi Party militia, and later was its commander. In 1934, as part of the Night of the Long Knives, he was executed on Heinrich Himmler's orders as a potential rival.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

a German philosopher, and a major figure in German Idealism. His historicist and idealist account of reality revolutionized European philosophy and was an important precursor to Continental philosophy and Marxism. developed a comprehensive philosophical framework, or "system", of absolute idealism to account in an integrated and developmental way for the relation of mind and nature, the subject and object of knowledge, psychology, the state, history, art, religion, and philosophy. In particular, he developed the concept that mind or spirit manifested itself in a set of contradictions and oppositions that it ultimately integrated and united, without eliminating either pole or reducing one to the other. Examples of such contradictions include those between nature and freedom, and between immanence and transcendence.

Karl Marx

a German philosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. His work in economics laid the basis for the current understanding of labour and its relation to capital, and has influenced much of subsequent economic thought. He published numerous books during his lifetime, the most notable being The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (1867-1894).

Josef Goebbels

a German politician and Reich Minister of Propaganda in Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. As one of Adolf Hitler's closest associates and most devoted followers, he was known for his zealous orations and deep and virulent antisemitism, which led him strongly to support the extermination of the Jews when the Nazi leadership developed their "Final Solution". came to power in 1933 after Hitler was appointed chancellor; within six weeks Hitler arranged his appointment as Propaganda Minister. One of Goebbels' first acts was to organize the burning of "decadent" books. Under Goebbels' leadership, the Propaganda Ministry quickly gained and exerted controlling supervision over the news media, arts and information in Germany. commissioned a series of antisemitic films including The Eternal Jew and Jud Süß (both 1940).

Otto Strasser

a German politician and member of the Nazi Party. He was a leading member of the party's left-wing faction, and broke from the party due to disputes with the 'Hitlerite' faction. He formed the Black Front, a group intended to split the Nazi Party and take it from the grasp of Hitler. This group also functioned during his exile and World War II as a secret opposition group.

Bela Kun

a Hungarian revolutionary who led the Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919. Following the fall of the Hungarian revolution, he emigrated to the Soviet Union, where he worked as a functionary in the Communist International bureaucracy. During the Great Terror of the late 1930s, he was arrested, interrogated, tried, and executed in quick succession. He was posthumously rehabilitated in 1956, following the death of Joseph Stalin and the critical reassessment of Stalinism.

Philipp Melanchthon

a German reformer, collaborator with Martin Luther, the first systematic theologian of the Protestant Reformation, intellectual leader of the Lutheran Reformation, and an influential designer of educational systems. He stands next to Luther and Calvin as a reformer, theologian, and molder of Protestantism. Along with Luther, he is the primary founder of Lutheranism. They both denounced what they believed was the exaggerated cult of the saints, asserted justification by faith, and denounced the coercion of the conscience in the sacrament of penance by the Catholic Church, that they believed could not offer certainty of salvation. Helped write Augsburg Confession

Eduard Bernstein

a German social democratic political theorist and politician, a member of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), and the founder of evolutionary socialism and revisionism. He had held close association to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, but he saw flaws in Marxist thinking and began to criticize views held by Marxism when he investigated and challenged the Marxist materialist theory of history. He rejected significant parts of Marxist theory that were based upon Hegelian metaphysics; he rejected the Hegelian dialectical perspective. He distinguished between early Marxism as being its immature form: as exemplified by The Communist Manifesto written by Marx and Engels in their youth, that he opposed for what he regarded as its violent Blanquist tendencies; and later Marxism as being its mature form that he supported. This mature form of Marxism refers to Marx in his later life acknowledging that socialism could be achieved through peaceful means through legislative reform in democratic societies. Without the need for a revolution, he stated that ethics could be restored to socialism in a capitalist system, with the state as a pivotal asset to the workers.

Friedrich Engels

a German social scientist, author, political theorist, philosopher, and father of Marxist theory, alongside Karl Marx. In 1845 he published The Condition of the Working Class in England, based on personal observations and research. In 1848 he co-authored The Communist Manifesto with Karl Marx, and later he supported Marx financially to do research and write Das Kapital. After Marx's death, he edited the second and third volumes. Additionally, he organized Marx's notes on the "Theories of Surplus Value" and this was later published as the "fourth volume" of Capital. He also made important contributions to family economics.

Willy Brandt

a German statesman and politician, leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands, or SPD) from 1964 to 1987 and chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany from 1969 to 1974. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1971 for his efforts to achieve reconciliation between West Germany and the countries of the Soviet bloc. He was the first Social Democrat chancellor since 1930. Though controversial in West Germany, his policy of Ostpolitik can be considered his most significant legacy and it aimed at improving relations with East Germany, Poland, and the Soviet Union. Of similar importance, the _______ Report became a recognised measure for describing the general North-South divide in world economics and politics between an affluent North and a poor South. He resigned as Chancellor in 1974, after Günter Guillaume, one of his closest aides, was exposed as an agent of the Stasi, the East German secret service.

Konrad Adenauer

a German statesman. As the first post-war Chancellor of Germany (West Germany) from 1949 to 1963, he led his country from the ruins of World War II to a productive and prosperous nation that forged close relations with old enemies France, the United Kingdom and the United States. During his years in power Germany achieved democracy, stability, international respect and economic prosperity ("Wirtschaftswunder", German for "economic miracle"). He was the first leader of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), a Christian Democratic party that under his leadership became, and has since usually been one of the most powerful parties in the country.

Max Planck

a German theoretical physicist who originated quantum theory, which won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918. He made many contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame rests primarily on his role as originator of the quantum theory. This theory revolutionized human understanding of atomic and subatomic processes, just as Albert Einstein's theory of relativity revolutionized the understanding of space and time. Together they constitute the fundamental theories of 20th-century physics.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

a German writer and polymath. His body of work includes epic and lyric poetry written in a variety of metres and styles; prose and verse dramas; memoirs; an autobiography; literary and aesthetic criticism; treatises on botany, anatomy, and colour; and four novels. In addition, numerous literary and scientific fragments, more than 10,000 letters, and nearly 3,000 drawings by him are extant. A literary celebrity by the age of 25, he was ennobled by the Duke of Saxe-Weimar, Carl August in 1782 after first taking up residence there in November of 1775 following the success of his first novel, The Sorrows of Young Werther. He was an early participant in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. During his first ten years in Weimar, he served as a member of the Duke's privy council, sat on the war and highway commissions, oversaw the reopening of silver mines in nearby Ilmenau, and implemented a series of administrative reforms at the University of Jena. He also contributed to the planning of Weimar's botanical park and the rebuilding of its Ducal Palace, which in 1998 were together designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. (Sorrows of Young Werther; Faust)

Janos Kadar

a Hungarian communist leader and the General Secretary of the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party, presiding over the country from 1956 until his retirement in 1988. His thirty-two year term as General Secretary covered most of the period the People's Republic of Hungary existed. (tried to push through reforms but eventually pressured to become puppet of Soviets after Hungarian revolution was crushed?)

Imre Nagy

a Hungarian communist politician who was appointed Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the People's Republic of Hungary on two occasions. His second term ended when his non-Soviet-backed government was brought down by Soviet invasion in the failed Hungarian Revolution of 1956, resulting in Nagy's execution on charges of treason two years later.

Louis Kossuth

a Hungarian lawyer, journalist, politician and Regent-President of the Kingdom of Hungary during the revolution of 1848-49. He was widely honored during his lifetime, including in the United Kingdom and the United States, as a freedom fighter and bellwether of democracy in Europe.

St. Peter's Basilica

a Late Renaissance church located within Vatican City. Designed principally by Donato Bramante, Michelangelo, Carlo Maderno and Gian Lorenzo Bernini, it is the most renowned work of Renaissance architecture and remains one of the largest churches in the world. While it is neither the mother church of the Roman Catholic Church nor the cathedral of the Bishop of Rome, it is regarded as one of the holiest Catholic sites. It has been described as "holding a unique position in the Christian world" and as "the greatest of all churches of Christendom". Required the sale of indulgences to build, though

Rosa Luxemburg

a Marxist theorist, philosopher, economist and revolutionary socialist of Polish Jewish descent who became a naturalized German citizen. She was successively a member of the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (SDKPiL), the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), the Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD), and the Communist Party of Germany (KPD). In 1915, after the SPD supported German involvement in World War I, she and Karl Liebknecht co-founded the anti-war Spartakusbund ("Spartacus League") which eventually became the Communist Party of Germany (KPD). During the German Revolution she founded the Die Rote Fahne ("The Red Flag"), the central organ of the Spartacist movement. She considered the 1919 Spartacist uprising a blunder, but supported it after Liebknecht ordered it without her knowledge. When the revolt was crushed by the social democratic government and the Freikorps (World War I veterans who banded together into right-wing paramilitary groups), she, Liebknecht and some of their supporters were captured and murdered. She was shot and her body thrown in the Landwehr Canal in Berlin. Due to her pointed criticism of both the Marxist-Leninist and more moderate social democrat schools of socialism, she has had a somewhat ambiguous reception among scholars and theorists of the political left. Nonetheless, some Marxists came to regard her and Liebknecht as martyrs: According to the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution, commemoration of her and Karl Liebknecht continues to play an important role among the German political left.

Pan Am Flight 103

a Pan Am transatlantic flight from Frankfurt to Detroit via London and New York City that was destroyed by a terrorist bomb on Wednesday, 21 December 1988, killing all 243 passengers and 16 crew on board. Large sections of the aircraft crashed into Lockerbie, Scotland, killing 11 more people on the ground. Following a three-year joint investigation by Dumfries and Galloway Constabulary and the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation, arrest warrants were issued for two Libyan nationals in November 1991. In 1999, Libyan leader Colonel Muammar Gaddafi handed over the two men for trial at Camp Zeist, Netherlands after protracted negotiations and UN sanctions. In 2001, Libyan intelligence officer Abdelbaset al-Megrahi was jailed for the bombing. In August 2009, he was released by the Scottish government on compassionate grounds after being diagnosed with prostate cancer. He died in May 2012, remaining the only person to be convicted for the attack. In 2003, Gaddafi accepted responsibility for the Lockerbie bombing and paid compensation to the families of the victims, although he maintained never having given the order for the attack.

Short Parliament

a Parliament of England that sat from 13 April to 5 May 1640 during the reign of King Charles I of England, so called because it lasted only three weeks. Charles called it together so that he could raise money, but because the members expressed concerns about ship money and wanted to vote on his obtaining of finances for a war with Scotland (which they would have probably refused), he called it off.

Lech Walesa

a Polish politician, trade-union organizer, philanthropist and human-rights activist. A charismatic leader, he co-founded Solidarity (Solidarność), the Soviet bloc's first independent trade union, won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1983, and served as President of Poland from 1990 to 1995.

Grand Duchy of Warsaw

a Polish state established by Napoleon I in 1807 from the Polish lands ceded by the Kingdom of Prussia under the terms of the Treaties of Tilsit. It was held in personal union by one of Napoleon's allies, King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony. Following Napoleon's failed invasion of Russia, the duchy was occupied by Prussian and Russian troops until 1815, when it was formally partitioned between the two countries at the Congress of Vienna.

Solidarity

a Polish trade union federation that emerged on 31 August 1980 at the Gdańsk Shipyard under the leadership of Lech Wałęsa. It was the first non-Communist Party-controlled trade union in a Warsaw Pact country. It reached 9.5 million members before its September 1981 Congress (up to 10 million) that constituted one third of the total working age population of Poland. In its clandestine years, the United States provided significant financial support for this, estimated to be as much as 50 million US dollars. In the 1980s, it was a broad anti-bureaucratic social movement, using the methods of civil resistance to advance the causes of workers' rights and social change. The government attempted to destroy the union during the period of martial law in the early 1980s and several years of political repression, but in the end it was forced to negotiate with the union.

Antonio Salazar

a Portuguese professor and politician who served as Prime Minister of Portugal from 1932 to 1968. His Council of Ministers briefly served as acting President of the Republic in 1951; he was never President of the Republic, but was the virtual dictator of the country in the manner of Franco and Mussolini. He founded and led the Estado Novo (New State), the authoritarian, right-wing government that presided over and controlled Portugal from 1932 to 1974. In 1940, Life called him "the greatest Portuguese since Prince Henry the Navigator". Opposed to communism, socialism, anarchism and liberalism his rule was corporatist, conservative, and nationalistic in nature. Its policy envisaged the perpetuation of Portugal as a pluricontinental nation under the doctrine of lusotropicalism, with Angola, Mozambique, and other Portuguese territories as extensions of Portugal itself, with Portugal being a source of civilization and stability to the overseas societies in the African and Asian possessions.

Field Marshall von Blucher

a Prussian Generalfeldmarschall (field marshal) who led his army against Napoleon I at the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig in 1813 and at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 with the Duke of Wellington. The honorary citizen of Berlin, Hamburg and Rostock bore the nickname "Marschall Vorwärts" ("Marshal Forwards") because of his approach to warfare.

Otto von Bismarck

a Prussian statesman who dominated German and European affairs with his conservative policies from the 1860s until Emperor Wilhelm II forced his resignation in 1890. In 1871, after a series of short victorious wars, he unified most of the German states (excluding Austria) into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. He then created a balance of power that preserved peace in Europe from 1871 until 1914.

Paul von Hindenburg

a Prussian-German field marshal, statesman, and politician, and served as the second President of Germany from 1925 to 1934. He enjoyed a long career in the Prussian Army, retiring in 1911. He was recalled at the outbreak of World War I, and first came to national attention, at the age of 66, as the victor of the decisive Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914. As Germany's Chief of the General Staff from 1916 (having replaced Erich von Falkenhayn on August 29), he and his deputy, Erich Ludendorff, rose in the German public's esteem until he gradually gained more influence in Germany than the Kaiser himself.[citation needed]. Together with Ludendorff they pushed forward the idea of Lebensraum which after the war would be adopted by Hitler's Nazi party. He retired again in 1919, but returned to public life in 1925 to be elected as the second President of Germany. (eventually puts Hitler in power; Hitler takes over after his death)

Nicolae Ceausescu

a Romanian communist politician. He was General Secretary of the Romanian Communist Party from 1965 to 1989, and as such was the country's second and last Communist leader. He was also the country's head of state from 1967 to 1989. A member of the Romanian Communist youth movement, he rose up through the ranks of Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej's Socialist government and, upon the death of Gheorghiu-Dej in 1965, he succeeded to the leadership of Romania's Communist Party as General Secretary. After a brief period of relatively moderate rule, his regime became increasingly brutal and repressive. By some accounts, his rule was the most rigidly Stalinist in the Soviet bloc. He maintained controls over speech and the media that were very strict even by Soviet-bloc standards, and internal dissent was not tolerated. His secret police, the Securitate, was one of the most ubiquitous and brutal secret police forces in the world. In 1982, with the goal of paying off Romania's large foreign debt, he ordered the export of much of the country's agricultural and industrial production. The resulting extreme shortages of food, fuel, energy, medicines, and other basic necessities drastically lowered living standards and intensified unrest. His regime was also marked by an extensive and ubiquitous cult of personality, nationalism, a continuing deterioration in foreign relations even with the Soviet Union, and nepotism. His regime collapsed after he ordered his security forces to fire on antigovernment demonstrators in the city of Timișoara on 17 December 1989. The demonstrations spread to Bucharest and became known as the Romanian Revolution, which was the only violent removal of a Communist government during the revolutions of 1989.

Frederic Chopin

a Romantic-era Polish composer. A child prodigy, he was born in what was then the Duchy of Warsaw. He grew up in Warsaw, which after 1815 became part of Congress Poland, and there completed his musical education and composed many of his works before leaving Poland, aged 20, less than a month before the outbreak of the November 1830 Uprising. At the age of 21 he settled in Paris (obtaining French nationality in 1835). During the remaining 18 years of his life, he gave only some 30 public performances, preferring the more intimate atmosphere of the salon; he supported himself by selling his compositions and as a sought-after piano teacher, and gained renown as a leading virtuoso of his generation. He formed a friendship with Franz Liszt and was admired by many of his musical contemporaries, including Robert Schumann. After a failed engagement with a Polish girl, from 1837 to 1847 he maintained an often troubled relationship with the French writer George Sand. A brief and unhappy visit with Sand to Majorca in 1838-39 was one of his most productive periods of composition. In his last years, he was financially supported by his admirer Jane Stirling, who also arranged for him to visit Scotland in 1848. Through most of his life, he suffered from poor health; he died in Paris in 1849, probably of tuberculosis. Revolutionary Etude; Fantasie Impromptu; Minute Waltz; Op. 64 no 2 in C# minor; countless Polonaises and Mazurkas and Nocturnes and Preludes

Leon Trostky

a Russian Marxist revolutionary and theorist, Soviet politician, and the founder and first leader of the Red Army. He was initially a supporter of the Menshevik Internationalists faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. He joined the Bolsheviks immediately prior to the 1917 October Revolution, and eventually became a leader within the Party. During the early days of the Soviet Union, he served first as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and later as the founder and commander of the Red Army as People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs. He was a major figure in the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War (1918-23). He was also among the first members of the Politburo. After leading a failed struggle of the Left Opposition against the policies and rise of Joseph Stalin in the 1920s and the increasing role of bureaucracy in the Soviet Union, he was successively removed from power in 1927, expelled from the Communist Party, and finally deported from the Soviet Union in 1929. As the head of the Fourth International, he continued in exile in Mexico to oppose the Stalinist bureaucracy in the Soviet Union. An early advocate of Red Army intervention against European fascism, in the late 1930s, he opposed Stalin's non-aggression pact with Adolf Hitler. He was assassinated on Stalin's orders in Mexico, by Ramón Mercader, a Spanish-born Soviet agent in August 1940. Most of his family members were also killed in separate attacks.

Leon Trotsky

a Russian Marxist revolutionary and theorist, Soviet politician, and the founder and first leader of the Red Army. He was initially a supporter of the Menshevik Internationalists faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. He joined the Bolsheviks immediately prior to the 1917 October Revolution, and eventually became a leader within the Party. During the early days of the Soviet Union, he served first as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and later as the founder and commander of the Red Army as People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs. He was a major figure in the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War (1918-23). He was also among the first members of the Politburo. After leading a failed struggle of the Left Opposition against the policies and rise of Joseph Stalin in the 1920s and the increasing role of bureaucracy in the Soviet Union, he was successively removed from power in 1927, expelled from the Communist Party, and finally deported from the Soviet Union in 1929. As the head of the Fourth International, he continued in exile in Mexico to oppose the Stalinist bureaucracy in the Soviet Union. An early advocate of Red Army intervention against European fascism, in the late 1930s, he opposed Stalin's non-aggression pact with Adolf Hitler. He was assassinated on Stalin's orders in Mexico, by Ramón Mercader, a Spanish-born Soviet agent in August 1940. Most of his family members were also killed in separate attacks.

Grigory Potemkin

a Russian military leader, statesman, nobleman and favorite of Catherine the Great. He died during negotiations over the Treaty of Jassy, which ended a war with the Ottoman Empire that he had overseen. associated with namesake fake villages

Fyodor Dostoyevsky

a Russian novelist, short story writer, essayist and philosopher. His literary works explore human psychology in the context of the troubled political, social, and spiritual atmosphere of 19th-century Russia. He began writing in his 20s, and his first novel, Poor Folk, was published in 1846 when he was 25. His major works include Crime and Punishment (1866), The Idiot (1869), and The Brothers Karamazov (1880). His output consists of eleven novels, three novellas, seventeen short novels and numerous other works. Many literary critics rate him as one of the greatest and most prominent psychologists in world literature.

Boris Yeltsin

a Russian politician and the first President of the Russian Federation, serving from 1991 to 1999. Originally a supporter of Mikhail Gorbachev, he emerged under the perestroika reforms as one of Gorbachev's most powerful political opponents. On 29 May 1990 he was elected the chairman of the Russian Supreme Soviet. On 12 June 1991 he was elected by popular vote to the newly created post of President of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (SFSR), at that time one of the 15 constituent republics of the Soviet Union. Upon the resignation of Mikhail Gorbachev and the final dissolution of the Soviet Union on 25 December 1991, he remained in office as the President of the Russian Federation, the USSR's successor state. He was reelected in the 1996 election; in the second round he defeated Gennady Zyuganov from the revived Communist Party by a margin of 13%. However, he never recovered his early popularity after a series of economic and political crises in Russia in the 1990s.

Mikhail Bakunin

a Russian revolutionary anarchist, and founder of collectivist anarchism. He is considered among the most influential figures of anarchism, and one of the principle founders of the "social anarchist" tradition

Leo Tolstoy

a Russian writer who primarily wrote novels and short stories. He was a master of realistic fiction and is widely considered one of the world's greatest novelists. He is best known for two long novels, War and Peace (1869) and Anna Karenina (1877). He first achieved literary acclaim in his 20s with his semi-autobiographical trilogy of novels, Childhood, Boyhood, and Youth (1852-1856) and Sevastopol Sketches (1855), based on his experiences in the Crimean War. His fiction output also includes two additional novels, dozens of short stories, and several famous novellas, including The Death of Ivan Ilych, Family Happiness, and Hadji Murad. Later in life, he also wrote plays and essays. He is equally known for his complicated and paradoxical persona and for his extreme moralistic and ascetic views, which he adopted after a moral crisis and spiritual awakening in the 1870s, after which he also became noted as a moral thinker and social reformer.

Peter Kropotkin

a Russian zoologist, evolutionary theorist, philosopher, scientist, revolutionary, philologist, economist, activist, geographer, writer, and prominent anarcho-communist. He advocated a communist society free from central government and based on voluntary associations between workers. He wrote many books, pamphlets and articles, the most prominent being The Conquest of Bread and Fields, Factories and Workshops, and his principal scientific offering, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution. He also contributed the article on anarchism to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition.

Igor Stravinsky

a Russian, and later French and American, composer, pianist and conductor. He is widely considered one of the most important and influential composers of the 20th century. His compositional career was notable for its stylistic diversity. He first achieved international fame with three ballets commissioned by the impresario Sergei Diaghilev and first performed in Paris by Diaghilev's Ballets Russes: The Firebird (1910), Petrushka (1911) and The Rite of Spring (1913). The last of these transformed the way in which subsequent composers thought about rhythmic structure and was largely responsible for his enduring reputation as a musical revolutionary who pushed the boundaries of musical design.

Sir Walter Scott

a Scottish historical novelist, playwright, and poet, popular throughout much of the world in the 19th century. He was the first English-language author to have a truly international career in his lifetime, with many contemporary readers in Europe, Australia, and North America. His novels and poetry are still read, and many of his works remain classics of both English-language literature and of Scottish literature. Famous titles include Ivanhoe, Rob Roy, The Lady of the Lake, Waverley, The Heart of Midlothian and The Bride of Lammermoor.

James Watt

a Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer whose improvements to the Newcomen steam engine were fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both his native Great Britain and the rest of the world.

James Clerk Maxwell

a Scottish mathematical physicist. His most prominent achievement was to formulate a set of equations that describe electricity, magnetism, and optics as manifestations of the same phenomenon, namely the electromagnetic field. His achievements concerning electromagnetism have been called the "second great unification in physics", after the first one realised by Isaac Newton. equations helped create electric generators (?)

Adam Smith

a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economy. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, he is best known for two classic works: The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. He is cited as the "father of modern economics" and is still among the most influential thinkers in the field of economics today.

Konstantin Chernenko

a Soviet politician and the fifth General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. He led the Soviet Union from 13 February 1984 until his death thirteen months later, on 10 March 1985. USSR boycotted 1984 Summer Olympics in LA due to US boycott of 1980 Olympics in Moscow (called for renewed detente)

Berlin Wall

a barrier constructed by the German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany) starting on 13 August 1961, that completely cut off (by land) West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and from East Berlin. The barrier included guard towers placed along large concrete walls, which circumscribed a wide area (later known as the "death strip") that contained anti-vehicle trenches, "fakir beds" and other defenses. The Eastern Bloc claimed that it was erected to protect its population from fascist elements conspiring to prevent the "will of the people" in building a socialist state in East Germany. In practice, it served to prevent the massive emigration and defection that marked East Germany and the communist Eastern Bloc during the post-World War II period.

Duke of Alva

a Spanish noble, soldier, and diplomat. He was titled the 3rd Duke of Alba de Tormes and 1st Duke of Huéscar, 4th Marquis of Coria, 3rd Count of Salvatierra de Tormes, 2nd Count of Piedrahita, 8th Lord of Valdecorneja, Grandee of Spain, and an Illustrious Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece. Alba was a trusted adviser and servant of Charles I of Spain (Holy Roman Emperor Charles V) and his successor Philip II, both chief steward and member of their Councils of State and War. He was charged with the government of the Duchy of Milan (1555-1556), the Kingdom of Naples (1556-1558), the Netherlands (1567-1573) and the Kingdom of Portugal (1580-1582). He represented Philip II at Philip's betrothal to Elizabeth of Valois, daughter of Henry II of France, and to Anne of Austria, daughter of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II. Considered by historians as the greatest general of his time and one of the best in history, he distinguished himself in La Jornada de Túnez, and in many campaigns during the Religious Wars, including the Mühlberg, Jemmingen and Alcántara. He is most remembered in Western European history for his sometimes brutal attempts to pacify, and eradicate sedition in, the Netherlands, where he suppressed and punished a Dutch uprising. He capped his career as an old man with the succession crisis in Portugal in 1580, conquering that kingdom for Philip II. Because of his military genius Spain achieved the unification of all the kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula and the consequent expansion of the overseas territories.

Pablo Picasso

a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist, stage designer, poet and playwright who spent most of his adult life in France. As one of the greatest and most influential artists of the 20th century, he is known for co-founding the Cubist movement, the invention of constructed sculpture, the co-invention of collage, and for the wide variety of styles that he helped develop and explore. Among his most famous works are the proto-Cubist Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907), and Guernica (1937), a portrayal of the German bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War. The Weeping Woman The Old Guitarist The Three Musicians

Containment

a United States policy to prevent the spread of communism abroad. A component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to enlarge communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, Africa, and Vietnam. It represented a middle-ground position between appeasement and rollback. The basis of the doctrine was articulated in a 1946 cable by U.S. diplomat George F. Kennan. As a description of U.S. foreign policy, the word originated in a report Kennan submitted to U.S. Defense Secretary James Forrestal in 1947, a report that was later used in a magazine article. It is a translation of the French cordon sanitaire, used to describe Western policy toward the Soviet Union in the 1920s. policy most strongly associated with actions of Truman

Robert Owen

a Welsh social reformer and one of the founders of utopian socialism and the cooperative movement. New Harmony, Indiana

Gallipoli

a World War I campaign that took place on the namesake peninsula in the Ottoman Empire between 25 April 1915 and 9 January 1916. The peninsula forms the northern bank of the Dardanelles, a strait that provides a sea route to what was then the Russian Empire, one of the Allied powers during the war. Intending to secure it, Russia's allies Britain and France launched a naval attack followed by an amphibious landing on the peninsula with the eventual aim of capturing the Ottoman capital of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul). The naval attack was repelled and, after eight months' fighting, with many casualties on both sides, the land campaign also failed and the invasion force was withdrawn to Egypt. The campaign was one of the greatest Ottoman victories during the war and is considered a major Allied failure. In Turkey, it is regarded as a defining moment in the nation's history: a final surge in the defence of the motherland as the Ottoman Empire crumbled. The struggle formed the basis for the Turkish War of Independence and the founding of the Republic of Turkey eight years later under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who first rose to prominence as a commander at the namesake place. The campaign is often considered as marking the birth of national consciousness in Australia and New Zealand and the date of the landing, 25 April, is known as "Anzac Day". It remains the most significant commemoration of military casualties and veterans in those two countries, surpassing Remembrance Day (Armistice Day).

Battle of Kursk

a World War II engagement between German and Soviet forces on the Eastern Front near Kursk (450 kilometres or 280 miles southwest of Moscow) in the Soviet Union in July and August 1943. The German offensive was code-named Operation Citadel (German: Unternehmen Zitadelle) and led to one of the largest armoured clashes in history, the Battle of Prokhorovka. The German offensive was countered by two Soviet counteroffensives, Operation Polkovodets Rumyantsev (Russian: Полководец Румянцев) and Operation Kutuzov (Russian: Кутузов). For the Germans, the battle represented the final strategic offensive they were able to mount in the east. For the Soviets, the decisive victory gave the Red Army the strategic initiative for the rest of the war.

Marshall Josip Broz Tito

a Yugoslav revolutionary and statesman, serving in various roles from 1943 until his death in 1980. During World War II he was the leader of the Partisans, often regarded as the most effective resistance movement in occupied Europe. While his presidency has been criticized as authoritarian, he was "seen by most as a benevolent dictator" due to his successful economic and diplomatic policies and was a popular public figure both in Yugoslavia and abroad. Viewed as a unifying symbol, his internal policies successfully maintained the peaceful coexistence of the nations of the Yugoslav federation. He gained international attention as the chief leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, working with Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt and Sukarno of Indonesia.

The Rite of Spring

a ballet and orchestral concert work by the Russian composer Igor Stravinsky. It was written for the 1913 Paris season of Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes company; the original choreography was by Vaslav Nijinsky, with stage designs and costumes by Nicholas Roerich. When first performed, at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées on 29 May 1913, the avant-garde nature of the music and choreography caused a sensation and a near-riot in the audience. Although designed as a work for the stage, with specific passages accompanying characters and action, the music achieved equal if not greater recognition as a concert piece, and is widely considered to be one of the most influential musical works of the 20th century.

Battle of the Somme

a battle of the First World War fought by the armies of the British and French empires against the German Empire. It took place between 1 July and 18 November 1916 on either side of the namesake river in France. The battle was one of the largest of World War I, in which more than 1,000,000 men were wounded or killed, making it one of humanity's bloodiest battles. A Franco-British commitment to an offensive had been made during Allied discussions at Chantilly, Oise in December 1915. The Allies agreed upon a strategy of combined offensives against the Central Powers in 1916, by the French, Russian, British and Italian armies, with the Somme offensive as the Franco-British contribution. The main part of the offensive was to be made by the French Army, supported on the northern flank by the Fourth Army of the British Expeditionary Force ("BEF"). The battle is notable for the importance of air power and the first use of the tank. At the end of the battle, British and French forces had penetrated 6 miles (9.7 km) into German-occupied territory, taking more ground than any offensive since the Battle of the Marne in 1914. The Anglo-French armies had failed to capture Péronne and were still 3 miles (4.8 km) from Bapaume, where the German armies maintained their positions over the winter. British attacks in the Ancre valley resumed in January 1917 and forced the Germans into local withdrawals to reserve lines in February, before the scheduled retirement to the Siegfriedstellung (Hindenburg Line) began in March.

Siege of Vienna 1683

a battle that took place after Vienna had been besieged by the Ottoman Empire for two months. It was a battle of the Holy Roman Empire in league with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Holy League) versus the Ottoman Empire and chiefdoms of the Ottoman Empire, and took place at the Kahlenberg mountain near Vienna. The battle marked the beginning of the political hegemony of the Habsburg dynasty in the Holy Roman Empire and Central Europe. Holy League Victory

Deism

a belief system in which God sets the universe in motion and does not affect what happens afterward; runs like a clock

Nationalism

a belief, creed or political ideology that involves an individual identifying with, or becoming attached to, one's nation. (increased after Napoleon and during Age of Romanticism)

Directory

a body of five directors that held executive power in France following the National Convention and preceding the Consulate. The period of this regime (2 November 1795 until 10 November 1799), commonly known as the namesake era, constitutes the second to last stage of the French Revolution. 1795 - 1799

Kulaks

a category of relatively affluent farmers in the later Russian Empire, Soviet Russia, and early Soviet Union. Meant any peasant who resisted handing over their grain to detachments from Moscow. During 1929-1933, Stalin's leadership of the total campaign to collectivize the peasantry meant that "peasants with a couple of cows or five or six acres more than their neighbors" were being labeled (this). According to the political theory of Marxism-Leninism of the early 20th century, they were class enemies of the poorer peasants.

Florence Nightingale

a celebrated British social reformer and statistician, and the founder of modern nursing. She came to prominence while serving as a nurse during the Crimean War, where she tended to wounded soldiers. She was known as "The Lady with the Lamp" after her habit of making rounds at night.

Labour Party

a centre-left political party in the United Kingdom. It has been described as a broad church, containing a diversity of ideological trends from strongly socialist, to more moderately social democratic. Founded in 1900, it overtook the Liberal Party in general elections during the early 1920s and formed minority governments under Ramsay MacDonald in 1924 and 1929-1931. The party was in a wartime coalition from 1940 to 1945, after which it formed a majority government under Clement Attlee.

Labour Party

a centre-left political party in the United Kingdom. It has been described as a broad church, containing a diversity of ideological trends from strongly socialist, to more moderately social democratic. Founded in 1900, it overtook the Liberal Party in general elections during the early 1920s and formed minority governments under Ramsay MacDonald in 1924 and 1929-31. The party was in a wartime coalition from 1940 to 1945, after which it formed a majority government under Clement Attlee. It was also in government from 1964 to 1970 under Harold Wilson and from 1974 to 1979, first under Wilson and then James Callaghan.

Conservative Party

a centre-right political party in the United Kingdom that states that it espouses the philosophies of conservatism and British unionism. As of 2013 it is the largest single party in the House of Commons with 303 MPs, governing in coalition with the Liberal Democrats, with David Cameron, the leader of the Conservative Party, as Prime Minister. It is the largest party in local government with 8,534 councillors.

Charter of the Nobility (1785)

a charter issued by the Russian empress Catherine II. It recognized the corps of nobles in each province as a legal corporate body and stated the rights and privileges bestowed upon its members. The charter was divided into an introduction and four sections: Personal rights and privileges of the gentry. Corporate self-organization of the gentry. Assemblies of Nobility Genealogy books. Documents, establishing nobility. Notable rights given to the Gentry via the charter include being exempt from taxation, controlling the economic gains of their serfs, being exempt from corporal punishment, allowing them the right to assembly, and allowing them to be tried in their own courts.

Mustard gas

a class of related cytotoxic and vesicant chemical warfare agents with the ability to form large blisters on the exposed skin and in the lungs. Pure forms are colorless, viscous liquids at room temperature. When used in impure form, such as warfare agents, they are usually yellow-brown in color and have an odor resembling mustard plants, garlic, or horseradish, hence the name. It was originally assigned the name LOST, after the scientists Wilhelm Lommel and Wilhelm Steinkopf, who developed a method for the large-scale production of it for the Imperial German Army in 1916.

Popish Plot

a fictitious conspiracy concocted by Titus Oates that between 1678 and 1681 gripped the Kingdoms of England and Scotland in anti-Catholic hysteria. Oates alleged that there existed an extensive Catholic conspiracy to assassinate Charles II, accusations that led to the execution of at least 22 men and precipitated the Exclusion Bill Crisis. Eventually Oates' intricate web of accusations fell apart, leading to his arrest and conviction for perjury.

Zemstvo

a form of local government that was instituted during the great liberal reforms performed in Imperial Russia by Alexander II of Russia.

Zollverein

a coalition of German states formed to manage tariffs and economic policies within their territories. Organised by the 1833 (namesake) treaties, it formally came into existence on 1 January 1834. However, its foundations had been in development from 1818 with the creation of a variety of custom unions among the German states. By 1866, it included most of the German states. Its was the first instance in history in which independent states had consummated a full economic union without the simultaneous creation of a political federation or union. Prussia was the prime motivating force behind the creation of the customs union. Austria was excluded from it because of its highly protected industry; this economic exclusion exacerbated the Austro-Prussian rivalry for dominance in Central Europe, particularly in the 1850s and 1860s. With the founding of the North German Confederation in 1867, it included approximately 425,000 square kilometres, and had produced economic agreements with several non-German states, including Sweden-Norway. After the founding of the German Empire in 1871, the Empire assumed the control of the customs union. However, all states within the Empire were not part of it until 1888.

Warsaw Pact

a collective defense treaty among eight communist states of Central and Eastern Europe in existence during the Cold War. It was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CoMEcon), the regional economic organization for the communist States of Central and Eastern Europe. It was in part a Soviet military reaction to the integration of West Germany into NATO in 1955, per the Paris Pacts of 1954 but was primarily motivated by Soviet desires to maintain control over military forces in Central and Eastern Europe which in turn, to maintain peace in Europe, were guided by the objective points and principles of the Charter of the United Nations (1945) after the collapse of the USSR and the end of the Cold War.

Welfare State

a concept of government in which the state plays a key role in the protection and promotion of the economic and social well-being of its citizens. It is based on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for those unable to avail themselves of the minimal provisions for a good life. The general term may cover a variety of forms of economic and social organization. The sociologist T.H. Marshall identified this as a distinctive combination of democracy, welfare, and capitalism. Scholars have paid special attention to the historic paths by which Germany, Britain and other countries developed it.

Spanish-American War

a conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States, the result of American intervention in the Cuban War of Independence. American attacks on Spain's Pacific possessions led to involvement in the Philippine Revolution and ultimately to the Philippine-American War. as a result of winning, US took several Caribbean and Pacific possessions from Spain

Crimean War

a conflict in which Russia lost to an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. While neutral, Austria played a role in stopping the Russians. The immediate issue involved the rights of Christians in the Holy Land, which was controlled by the Ottoman Empire. The French promoted the rights of Catholics, while Russia promoted those of the Orthodox. The longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire, and the unwillingness of Britain and France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at Ottoman expense. Russia lost and the Ottomans won, gaining a twenty-year respite from Russian pressure. The Ottomans granted Christians a degree of official equality and the Orthodox gained control of Christian churches disputed by the Ottomans. Russia gained a new appreciation for its own religious diversity and launched a reform program to that effect that had far-reaching consequences. notorious for logistical, medical and tactical failure on both sides. The naval side saw both a successful Allied campaign which eliminated most of the ships of the Russian Navy in the Black Sea, and a successful blockade by the Royal Navy in the Baltic. It was one of the first "modern" wars because it saw the first use of railways and telegraphs. It is also famous for the work of Florence Nightingale and Mary Seacole, who pioneered contrasting modern medical practices while treating the wounded.

Great Northern War

a conflict in which a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in Northern, Central and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the anti-Swedish alliance were Peter the Great of Russia, Frederick IV of Denmark-Norway and Augustus II the Strong of Saxony-Poland-Lithuania. Frederick IV and Augustus II were forced out of the alliance in 1700 and 1706 respectively, but rejoined it in 1709. George I of Brunswick-Lüneburg (Hanover) joined the coalition in 1714 for Hanover and in 1717 for Britain, and Frederick William I of Brandenburg-Prussia joined it in 1715. Charles XII led the Swedish army. On the Swedish side were Holstein-Gottorp, several Polish and Lithuanian magnates under Stanisław Leszczyński (1704-10) and Cossacks under the Ukrainian Hetman Ivan Mazepa (1708-10). The Ottoman Empire temporarily hosted Charles XII of Sweden and intervened against Peter I. Result: Coalition victory: Tsardom of Russia establishes itself as a new power in Europe. Decline of the Swedish Empire and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Territorial changes: Treaty of Nystad: Russia gains the three dominions Estonia, Livonia and Ingria as well as parts of Kexholm and Viborg. Treaties of Stockholm: Prussia gains parts of Swedish Pomerania. Hanover gains Bremen-Verden. Treaty of Frederiksborg: Holstein-Gottorp loses its part of the Duchy of Schleswig to Denmark.

Navigation Acts

a continuation of laws that restricted the use of foreign shipping for trade between England (after 1707, Great Britain) and its colonies. It is a process which had started in 1651. Their goal was to force colonial development into lines favorable to England, and stop direct colonial trade with the Netherlands, France, and other European countries. The original ordinance of 1651 was renewed at the Restoration by Acts of 1662, 1663, 1670, and 1673 subsequently subject to minor amendment. These Acts also formed the basis for British overseas trade for nearly 200 years. on the whole, these acts were obeyed, except for the Molasses Act of 1733, which led to extensive smuggling because no effective means of enforcement was provided until the 1750s. Irritation because of stricter enforcement under the Sugar Act of 1764 became one source of resentment by merchants in the American colonies against Great Britain. This in turn helped push the colonies to start the American Revolution.

Alexander Kerensky

a lawyer and major political leader before the Russian Revolutions of 1917 belonging to a moderate socialist party, called Trudoviks. After the February Revolution he served as Minister of Justice in the democratic Russian Provisional Government. In May he became Minister of War. In July he became the second Prime Minister until it was overthrown by the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution. He spent the remainder of his life in exile, dying in New York City at the age of 89.

Battle of Mohacs

a decisive event for the history of East-Central Europe for the following centuries. In the battle, forces of the Kingdom of Hungary led by King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia were defeated by forces of the Ottoman Empire led by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. The Ottoman victory led to the partition of Hungary for several centuries between the Ottoman Empire, the Habsburg Monarchy, and the Principality of Transylvania. The death of Louis II as he fled the battle marked the end of the Jagiellon dynasty in Hungary and Bohemia, whose dynastic claims were absorbed by the Habsburgs via the marriage of Louis' sister. Result: Decisive Ottoman victory; End of Ottoman-Hungarian Wars, Start of Ottoman-Habsburg Wars, Collapse of Medieval Hungary

Dual Alliance

a defensive alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary, which was created by treaty on 7 October 1879 as part of Bismarck's system of alliances to prevent/limit war. In it, Germany and Austria-Hungary pledged to aid one another in case of an attack by Russia. Also, each state promised benevolent neutrality to the other if one of them was attacked by another European power (generally taken to be France, even more so after the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894). When Austria-Hungary and Germany formed an alliance in 1879, it was one of the more surprising alliances of its time. Though German was spoken in each realm, sharing the same language and culture more often than not pushed Austria-Hungary and Germany apart. Additionally, the Habsburg rulers of Austria believed that the promotion of nationalism, which was favored by Germany, would destroy their empire. However, their common dislike for Russia brought the two nations together for a common cause. (Italy later joins to make "Triple")

(Miguel) Primo de Rivera

a dictator, aristocrat, and military officer who served as Prime Minister of Spain from 1923 to 1930 during Spain's Restoration era. He deeply believed that it was the politicians who had ruined Spain and that governing without them he could restore the nation. His slogan was "Country, Religion, Monarchy." Historians depict him as an inept dictator who lacked clear ideas and political acumen, and who alienated his potential supporters such as the Army. He did not create a base of support among the voters, and depended instead on elite elements. His actions discredited the king and ruined the monarchy, while heightening social tensions that led in 1936 to a full-scale Spanish Civil War. (had support of Alfonso XIII)

Suez Crisis

a diplomatic and military confrontation in late 1956 between Egypt on one side, and Britain, France and Israel on the other, with the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations playing major roles in forcing Britain, France and Israel to withdraw. The attack followed the President of Egypt Gamal Abdel Nasser's decision of 26 July 1956 to nationalize the Suez Canal, after the withdrawal of an offer by Britain and the United States to fund the building of the Aswan Dam, which was in response to Egypt's new ties with the Soviet Union and recognizing the People's Republic of China during the height of tensions between China and Taiwan. The aims of the attack were primarily to regain Western control of the canal and to remove Nasser from power, and the crisis highlighted the danger that Arab nationalism posed to Western access to Middle East oil. Less than a day after Israel invaded Egypt, Britain and France issued a joint ultimatum to Egypt and Israel, and then began to bomb Cairo. Despite the denials of the Israeli, British, and French governments, allegations began to emerge that the invasion of Egypt had been planned beforehand by the three powers. Anglo-French forces withdrew before the end of the year, but Israeli forces remained until March 1957, prolonging the crisis. In April, the canal was fully reopened to shipping, but other repercussions followed. The three allies, especially Israel, were mainly successful in attaining their immediate military objectives, but pressure from the United States and the USSR at the United Nations and elsewhere forced them to withdraw. As a result of the outside pressure Britain and France failed in their political and strategic aims of controlling the canal and removing Nasser from power. Israel fulfilled some of its objectives, such as attaining freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran. As a result of the conflict, the UNEF would police the Egyptian-Israeli border to prevent both sides from recommencing hostilities.

Appeasement

a diplomatic policy of making political or material concessions to an enemy power in order to avoid conflict. The term is most often applied to the foreign policy of the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain towards Nazi Germany between 1937 and 1939. His policies of avoiding war with Germany have been the subject of intense debate for seventy years among academics, politicians and diplomats. The historians' assessments have ranged from condemnation for allowing Adolf Hitler's Germany to grow too strong, to the judgment that he had no alternative and acted in Britain's best interests. At the time, these concessions were widely seen as positive, and the Munich Pact concluded on 30 September 1938 among Germany, Britain, France, and Italy prompted Chamberlain to announce that he had secured "peace for our time."

Bolsheviks

a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split apart from the Menshevik faction[4] at the Second Party Congress in 1903. They were the majority faction in a crucial vote, hence their name. They ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. They came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic which would later become the chief constituent of the Soviet Union in 1922. They, founded by Vladimir Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov, were by 1905 a major organization consisting primarily of workers under a democratic internal hierarchy governed by the principle of democratic centralism, who considered themselves the leaders of the revolutionary working class of Russia.

Mensheviks

a faction of the Russian socialist movement that emerged in 1904 after a dispute in the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party between Vladimir Lenin and Julius Martov, leading to the party splitting into two factions, one being this party and the other being the Bolsheviks. subscribed to an Orthodox Marxist view of social and economic development, believing that socialism could not be achieved in Russia due to its backwards economic conditions, and that Russia would first have to experience a bourgeoisie revolution and go through a capitalist stage of development before socialism was technically possible and before the working class was able to develop the necessary consciousness for a socialist revolution. They were thus opposed to the Bolshevik idea of a Vanguard party and pursuit of socialist revolution in Russia.

Beer Hall Putsch

a failed attempt by the Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler with Generalquartiermeister Erich Ludendorff and other Kampfbund leaders to seize power in Munich, Bavaria, during 8-9 November 1923. Around two-thousand men marched to the centre of Munich and, in the ensuing confrontation with police forces, sixteen Nazis and four policemen were killed. Hitler was arrested two days later and was charged with treason. The failure of this brought Hitler his first national publicity. He was arrested and, after a 24-day trial, sentenced to five years in Landsberg fortress. On 20 December 1924, having served only nine months, Hitler was released. The lasting outcome of this was the development and furthering of Nazi propaganda.

Fascism

a form of radical authoritarian nationalism that came to prominence in early 20th-century Europe. adherents sought to unify their nation through a totalitarian state that promoted the mass mobilization of the national community and were characterized by having a vanguard party that initiated a revolutionary political movement aiming to reorganize the nation along principles according to fascist ideology. These movements shared certain common features, including the veneration of the state, a devotion to a strong leader, and an emphasis on ultranationalism and militarism. views political violence, war, and imperialism as a means to achieve national rejuvenation, and it asserts that stronger nations have the right to expand their territory by displacing weaker nations. primacy of state was stressed (Mussolini's Italy and Nazi Germany)

Green Party

a formally organised political party based on the principles of Green politics, such as social justice, grassroots democracy, nonviolence, and environmentalism.

Mikahil Gorbachev

a former Soviet statesman. He was the seventh and last undisputed leader of the Soviet Union, having served as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1985 until 1991, and as the country's head of state from 1988 until its dissolution in 1991 (titled as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet from 1988 to 1990 and President of the Soviet Union from 1990 to 1991). He was the only general secretary in the history of the Soviet Union to have been born after the October Revolution. Glasnost and Perestroika

Claude Monet

a founder of French Impressionist painting, and the most consistent and prolific practitioner of the movement's philosophy of expressing one's perceptions before nature, especially as applied to plein-air landscape painting. The term "Impressionism" is derived from the title of his painting Impression, soleil levant (Impression, Sunrise), which was exhibited in 1874 in the first of the independent exhibitions mounted by him and his associates as an alternative to the Salon de Paris. Famous for living at Giverny Impression, Sunrise Waterlillies Haystacks Poplars Rouen Cathedral Series London Parliament Series

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

a fundamental document of the French Revolution and in the history of human rights, defining the individual and collective rights of all the estates of the realm as universal. Influenced by the doctrine of "natural right", the rights of man are held to be universal: valid at all times and in every place, pertaining to human nature itself. (one written in 1789; another in 1793)

Complementarity

a fundamental principle of quantum mechanics, closely associated with the Copenhagen interpretation. It holds that objects governed by quantum mechanics, when measured, give results that depend inherently upon the type of measuring device used, and must necessarily be described in classical mechanical terms. Further, a full description of a particular type of phenomenon can only be achieved through measurements made in each of the various possible bases — which are thus complementary. This principle was formulated by Niels Bohr, the developer of the Bohr model of the atom, and a leading founder of quantum mechanics.

G7

a group consisting of the finance ministers and central bank governors of seven advanced economies : Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States meeting to discuss primarily economic issues. The European Union is also represented within this group.

Humanism

a group of philosophies and ethical perspectives which emphasize the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively, and generally prefers individual thought and evidence (rationalism, empiricism) over established doctrine or faith (fideism).

Cossacks

a group of predominantly East Slavic people who became known as members of democratic, semi-military and semi-naval communities, predominantly located in Ukraine and in Southern Russia. They inhabited sparsely populated areas and islands in the lower Dnieper, Don, Terek, and Ural river basins and played an important role in the historical and cultural development of both Russia and Ukraine. Because of their military tradition, their forces played an important role in Russia's wars of the 18th-20th centuries such as the Great Northern War, the Seven Years' War, the Crimean War, Napoleonic Wars, Caucasus War, numerous Russo-Turkish Wars, and the First World War. (I think it's these people, but I'm not entirely sure)

Reinhard Heydrich

a high-ranking German Nazi official during World War II, and one of the main architects of the Holocaust. He was SS-Obergruppenführer (General) and General der Polizei, chief of the Reich Main Security Office (including the Gestapo, Kripo, and SD) and Stellvertretender Reichsprotektor (Deputy/Acting Reich-Protector) of Bohemia and Moravia (in what is now the Czech Republic). Heydrich served as President of Interpol (the international law enforcement agency) and chaired the January 1942 Wannsee Conference, which formalised plans for the final solution to the Jewish Question—the deportation and extermination of all Jews in German-occupied territory. Historians regard him as the darkest figure within the Nazi elite; Adolf Hitler described him as "the man with the iron heart". He was the founding head of the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), an intelligence organisation charged with seeking out and neutralising resistance to the Nazi Party via arrests, deportations, and killings. He helped organise Kristallnacht, a series of co-ordinated attacks against Jews throughout Nazi Germany and parts of Austria on 9-10 November 1938. The attacks, carried out by SA stormtroopers and civilians, presaged the Holocaust. Upon his arrival in Prague, he sought to eliminate opposition to the Nazi occupation by suppressing Czech culture and deporting and executing members of the Czech resistance. He was directly responsible for the Einsatzgruppen, the special task forces that travelled in the wake of the German armies to round up and kill Jews and others deemed undesirable by the regime.

Hugo Grotius

a jurist in the Dutch Republic. With Francisco de Vitoria and Alberico Gentili he laid the foundations for international law, based on natural law. He was also a philosopher, theologian, Christian apologist, playwright, historiographer and poet. supported religious toleration and republic form of government; exiled by Maurice of Orange for this

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

a law passed on 12 July 1790 during the French Revolution, that subordinated the Roman Catholic Church in France to the French government. completed the destruction of the monastic orders, legislating out of existence "all regular and secular chapters for either sex, abbacies and priorships, both regular and in commendam, for either sex", etc. It also sought to settle the chaos caused by the earlier confiscation of Church lands and the abolition of the tithe.

Prester John

a legendary figure; a Christian patriarch and king said to rule over a Christian nation lost amidst the Muslims and pagans in the Orient. kingdom contained legendary stuff his kingdom was thus the object of a quest, firing the imaginations of generations of adventurers, but remaining out of reach. He was a symbol to European Christians of the Church's universality, transcending culture and geography to encompass all humanity, in a time when ethnic and inter-religious tension made such a vision seem distant.

Maginot Line

a line of concrete fortifications, obstacles, and weapons installations that France constructed along its borders with Germany during the 1930s. The line was a response to France's experience in World War I and was constructed during the run-up to World War II. A similar line of defenses, called the Alpine Line, faced Italy. Germans ran through Ardennes Forest and Belgium; outflanked this

Germanic Confederation

a loose association of 39 German states in Central Europe, created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to coordinate the economies of separate German-speaking countries and to replace the former Holy Roman Empire. It acted as a buffer between the powerful states of Austria and Prussia. Most historians have judged this to be weak and ineffective, as well as an obstacle to German nationalist aspirations. It collapsed due to the rivalry between Prussia and Austria, known as German dualism, warfare, the 1848 revolution, and the inability of the multiple members to compromise. It dissolved with Prussian victory in the Seven Weeks War and the establishment of the North German Confederation in 1866.

White Army

a loose confederation of Anti-Communist forces that fought the Bolsheviks in the Russian Civil War (1917-1922/3) and, to a lesser extent, continued operating as militarized associations both outside and within Russian borders until roughly the Second World War.

Crompton's mule

a machine used to spin cotton and other fibres in the mills of Lancashire and elsewhere. They were used extensively from the late eighteenth to the early twentieth century. They were worked in pairs by a minder, with the help of two boys: the little piecer and the big or side piecer. The carriage carried up to 1320 spindles and could be 150 feet (46 m) long, and would move forward and back a distance of 5 feet (1.5 m) four times a minute. It was invented between 1775 and 1779 by the namesake guy.

William Wordsworth

a major English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with the 1798 joint publication Lyrical Ballads. His magnum opus is generally considered to be The Prelude, a semiautobiographical poem of his early years which he revised and expanded a number of times. It was posthumously titled and published, prior to which it was generally known as "the poem to Coleridge". He was Britain's Poet Laureate from 1843 until his death in 1850. Lyrical Ballads The Excursion The Tables Turned Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey London, 1802 I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud

Henri Bergson

a major French philosopher, influential especially in the first half of the 20th century. He convinced many thinkers that immediate experience and intuition are more significant than rationalism and science for understanding reality. He was awarded the 1927 Nobel Prize in Literature "in recognition of his rich and vitalizing ideas and the brilliant skill with which they have been presented". experience of time's passage is core of existence embraced irrational free will

Battle of the Bulge

a major German offensive campaign launched through the densely forested Ardennes region of Wallonia in Belgium, France and Luxembourg on the Western Front toward the end of World War II in Europe. The surprise attack caught the Allied forces completely off guard and became the costliest battle in terms of casualties for the United States, whose forces bore the brunt of the attack. It also severely depleted Germany's war-making resources. Allied victory (Germany starts to decline?)

Battle of Stalingrad

a major battle of World War II in which Nazi Germany and its allies fought the Soviet Union for control of this city in the south-western Soviet Union. Marked by constant close quarters combat and disregard for military and civilian casualties, it is amongst the bloodiest battles in the history of warfare. The heavy losses inflicted on the Wehrmacht make it arguably the most strategically decisive battle of the whole war. It was a turning point in the European theatre of World War II-the German forces never regained the initiative in the East and withdrew a vast military force from the West to reinforce their losses.

Battle of the Nile

a major naval battle fought between the British Royal Navy and the Navy of the French Republic at Aboukir Bay on the Mediterranean coast off Egypt from 1 to 3 August 1798. The battle was the climax of a naval campaign that had ranged across the Mediterranean during the previous three months, as a large French convoy sailed from Toulon to Alexandria carrying an expeditionary force under then General Napoleon Bonaparte. In the battle, the British forces, led by Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson (later Lord Nelson), defeated the French.

Good Friday Accords

a major political development in the Northern Ireland peace process of the 1990s. Northern Ireland's present devolved system of government is based on the Agreement. The Agreement also created a number of institutions between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland and between the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom. a multi-party agreement by most of Northern Ireland's political parties; an international agreement between the British and Irish governments (the British-Irish Agreement). The status and system of government of Northern Ireland within the United Kingdom. (Strand 1) The relationship between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. (Strand 2) The relationship between the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom. (Strand 3)

War of the League of Augsburg

a major war of the late 17th century fought between King Louis XIV of France, and a European-wide coalition, the Grand Alliance, led by the Anglo-Dutch Stadtholder-King William III, Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, King Charles II of Spain, Victor Amadeus II of Savoy, and the major and minor princes of the Holy Roman Empire; was fought primarily on mainland Europe and its surrounding waters, but it also encompassed a theatre in Ireland and in Scotland, where William III and James II struggled for control of the British Isles, and a campaign (King William's War) between French and English settlers and their respective Indian allies in colonial North America. The War was the second of Louis XIV's three major wars. (France vs the world pretty much)

March on Rome 1922

a march by which Italian dictator Benito Mussolini's National Fascist Party (Partito Nazionale Fascista, or PNF) came to power in the Kingdom of Italy (Regno d'Italia).

Wannsee Conference

a meeting of senior officials of Nazi Germany, held in the Berlin suburb of ______ on 20 January 1942. The purpose of the conference, called by director of the SS-Reichssicherheitshauptamt (Reich Main Security Office; RSHA) SS-Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich, was to ensure the cooperation of administrative leaders of various government departments in the implementation of the final solution to the Jewish question, whereby most of the Jews of German-occupied Europe would be deported to Poland and exterminated. Conference attendees included representatives from several government ministries, including state secretaries from the Foreign Office, the justice, interior, and state ministries, and representatives from the Schutzstaffel (SS). In the course of the meeting, Heydrich outlined how European Jews would be rounded up from west to east and sent to extermination camps in the General Government (the occupied part of Poland), where they would be killed.

Congress of Berlin (1878)

a meeting of the leading statesmen of the European Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire, in the namesake town in 1878. In the wake of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, the meeting's aim was to reorganize the countries of the Balkans.

Estates-General

a meeting of the three estates; not called in a very long time; conditions of the meeting caused problems; started to set up French Revolution a general assembly representing the French estates of the realm: the clergy (First Estate), the nobles (Second Estate), and the common people (Third Estate). summoned in 1789 by King Louis XVI to propose solutions to his government's financial problems, it sat for several weeks in May and June 1789 but came to an impasse as the three estates clashed over their respective powers. It was brought to an end when many members of the Third Estate formed themselves into a National Assembly, signaling the outbreak of the French Revolution.

Peninsular War

a military conflict between France and the allied powers of Spain, the United Kingdom and Portugal for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war started when French and Spanish armies occupied Portugal in 1807, and escalated in 1808 when France turned on Spain, its ally until then. It lasted until the Sixth Coalition defeated Napoleon in 1814, and is regarded as one of the first wars of national liberation, significant for the emergence of large-scale guerrilla warfare.

Sack of Rome

a military event carried out by the mutinous troops of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor in Rome, then part of the Papal States. It marked a crucial imperial victory in the conflict between Charles and the League of Cognac (1526-1529) — the alliance of France, Milan, Venice, Florence and the Papacy. ties pope to HRE

Ptolemaic model of the universe

a model of the universe that states that the Earth is at the center and all heavenly bodies revolve around it (the heavenly bodies are also crystal spheres?)

Social Darwinism

a modern name given to various theories of society that emerged in England and the United States in the 1870s, and which allegedly sought to apply biological concepts of natural selection and survival of the fittest to sociology and politics. Adherents generally argue that the strong should see their wealth and power increase while the weak should see their wealth and power decrease.

Louis XV

a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1 September 1715 until his death. He succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV at the age of five. Until he reached maturity in 1723, his kingdom was ruled by Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, his first cousin twice removed, as Regent of France. Cardinal Fleury was his chief minister from 1726 until the Cardinal's death in 1743, at which time the young king took over sole control of the kingdom. During his reign, his government returned the Austrian Netherlands, won at the Battle of Fontenoy of 1745, but given back to Austria by the terms of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle of 1748, and ceded most of New France to Great Britain at the conclusion of the Seven Years' War in 1763. His reign also saw the incorporation of the territories of Lorraine and Corsica into the kingdom of France. Most scholars believe his decisions damaged the power of France, weakened the treasury, discredited the absolute monarchy. and made more vulnerable to distrust and destruction, as happened in the French Revolution, which broke out 15 years after his death. "Apres moi, le deluge" Madame Pompadour was his mistress

Louis XIV

a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of monarchs of major countries in European history. built Versailles; "Sun King"; "I am the State"; Edict of Fontainbleau; also got involved in several wars

Louis XVIII

a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1814 to 1824 except for a period in 1815 known as the Hundred Days. He spent twenty-three years in exile, from 1791 to 1814, during the French Revolution and the First French Empire, and again in 1815, during the period of the Hundred Days, upon the return of Napoleon I from Elba.

Louis XVIII

a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1814 to 1824 except for a period in 1815 known as the Hundred Days. He spent twenty-three years in exile, from 1791 to 1814, during the French Revolution and the First French Empire, and again in 1815, during the period of the Hundred Days, upon the return of Napoleon I from Elba. (constitutional monarchy)(last French monarch to die while reigning?)

Charles VIII

a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1483 to his death in 1498. He succeeded his father Louis XI at the age of 13. His elder sister Anne of France acted as regent until 1491 jointly with her husband Peter II, Duke of Bourbon. During Anne's regency, the great feudal lords rebelled against royal centralisation efforts in a conflict known as the Mad War (1485-1488), which resulted in a victory for the royal government. married Anne of Brittany in 1491 after she had already been married by proxy to the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I in a ceremony of questionable validity. Occupied elsewhere, Maximilian failed to press his claim. Upon his marriage, he became Duke of Brittany and created a Union of Brittany and France that enabled France to avoid total encirclement by Habsburg territories. Got France involved in Italian Wars.

Henry II of France

a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 31 March 1547 until his death in 1559. The second son of Francis I, he became Dauphin of France upon the death of his elder brother Francis III, Duke of Brittany, in 1536. persevered in the Italian Wars against the House of Habsburg and tried to suppress the Protestant Reformation even as the Huguenots became an increasingly large minority in France during his reign. Died in jousting tourney; wife was Catherine de Medici

Pietism

a movement within Lutheranism that began in the late 17th century, reached its zenith in the mid-18th century, and declined through the 19th century, and had almost vanished in America by the end of the 20th century. While declining as an identifiable Lutheran group, some of its theological tenets influenced Protestantism and Anabaptism generally, inspiring Anglican priest John Wesley to begin the Methodist movement and Alexander Mack to begin the Brethren movement; combined the Lutheranism of the time with the Reformed emphasis on individual piety and living a vigorous Christian life.

Holy Roman Empire

a multi-ethnic and complex union of territories in Central Europe existing from 962 to 1806. grew out of East Francia, a primary division of the Frankish Empire, and explicitly proclaimed itself the continuation of the Western Roman Empire under the doctrine of translatio imperii ("transfer of rule" via a succession of singular rulers vested with supreme power). Frankish king Charlemagne was crowned as emperor by Pope Leo III in 800, restoring the title in the West after more than three centuries. The title was passed in a desultory manner during the decline and fragmentation of the Carolingian dynasty, eventually falling into abeyance. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, beginning an unbroken line of emperors running for over eight centuries. Although Charlemagne was the first to bear the title and the agglomeration grew out of his empire, Otto I is generally regarded as the founder and the date of his coronation as the beginning of this empire.

Anglo-German Naval Pact 1935

a naval agreement between Britain and Germany regulating the size of the Kriegsmarine in relation to the Royal Navy. The Anglo-German Naval Agreement fixed a ratio whereby the total tonnage of the Kriegsmarine was to be 35% of the total tonnage of the Royal Navy on a permanent basis. It was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on July 12, 1935. The agreement was renounced by Adolf Hitler on April 28, 1939. an ambitious attempt on the part of both London and Berlin to reach better relations, but it ultimately foundered because of conflicting expectations between the two states. For the Germans, it was intended to mark the beginning of an Anglo-German alliance against France and the Soviet Union, whereas for the British, it was to be the beginning of a series of arms limitation agreements that were made to limit German expansionism. It was highly controversial, both at the time and since, because the 35:100 tonnage ratio allowed Germany the right to build a Navy beyond the limits set by the Treaty of Versailles, and the British had made the agreement without consulting France or Italy first.

Battle of Trafalgar

a naval engagement fought by the Royal Navy against the combined fleets of the French and Spanish Navies, during the War of the Third Coalition (August-December 1805) of the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815). The battle was the most decisive naval victory of the war. Twenty-seven British ships of the line led by Admiral Lord Nelson aboard HMS Victory defeated thirty-three French and Spanish ships of the line under French Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve off the southwest coast of Spain, just west of the namesake cape. The Franco-Spanish fleet lost twenty-two ships, without a single British vessel being lost.

Auschwitz

a network of concentration and extermination camps built and operated by the Third Reich in Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany during World War II. At least 1.1 million prisoners died here, around 90 percent of them Jewish; approximately 1 in 6 Jews killed in the Holocaust died at the camp. Others deported to this place included 150,000 Poles, 23,000 Romani and Sinti, 15,000 Soviet prisoners of war, 400 Jehovah's Witnesses, homosexuals, and tens of thousands of people of diverse nationalities. Living conditions were brutal, and many of those not killed in the gas chambers died of starvation, forced labor, infectious diseases, individual executions, and medical experiments.

Trans-Siberian Rail Line

a network of railways connecting Moscow with the Russian Far East and the Sea of Japan. It is the longest railway line in the world. There are connecting branch lines into Mongolia, China and North Korea. It has been connecting Moscow with Vladivostok since 1916 and is still being expanded. (I guess construction started around this time)

Kingdom of Westphalia

a new country of 2.6 million Germans that existed from 1807-1813. It included territory in Hesse and other parts of present-day Germany. While formally independent, it was a vassal state of the First French Empire and was ruled by Napoleon's brother Jérôme Bonaparte.

Bartholomeu Diaz

a nobleman of the Portuguese royal household, was a Portuguese explorer. He sailed around the southernmost tip of Africa in 1488, the first European known to have done so.

Nazi-Soviet Pact

a non-aggression pact signed in Moscow in the late hours of 23 August 1939. The pact's publicly stated intentions were a guarantee of non-belligerence by either party towards the other, and a commitment that neither party would ally with or aid an enemy of the other party. This latter provision ensured that Germany would not support Japan in its undeclared war against the Soviet Union along the Manchurian-Mongolian border, ensuring that the Soviets won the Battles of Khalkhin Gol. included a secret protocol that divided territories of Romania, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland into Nazi and Soviet "spheres of influence", anticipating potential "territorial and political rearrangements" of these countries. Thereafter, Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939. After the Soviet-Japanese ceasefire agreement took effect on 16 September, Stalin ordered his own invasion of Poland on 17 September. Part of southeastern (Karelia) and Salla region in Finland were annexed by the Soviet Union after the Winter War. This was followed by Soviet annexations of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina and the Hertza region. The pact remained in force until the German government broke it by invading the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941.

Vasily Kandinsky

an influential Russian painter and art theorist. He is credited with painting the first purely abstract works. Born in Moscow, he spent his childhood in Odessa. He enrolled at the University of Moscow, studying law and economics. Successful in his profession—he was offered a professorship (chair of Roman Law) at the University of Dorpat—he began painting studies (life-drawing, sketching and anatomy) at the age of 30. Der Blaue Reiter Improvisation #x (x=1,2,3...n)

White Rose Movement

a non-violent, intellectual resistance group in Nazi Germany, consisting of students from the University of Munich and their philosophy professor. The group became known for an anonymous leaflet and graffiti campaign, lasting from June 1942 until February 1943, that called for active opposition to dictator Adolf Hitler's regime. The six most recognized members of the German resistance group were arrested by the Gestapo, tried for treason and beheaded in 1943. The text of their sixth leaflet was smuggled by Helmuth James Graf von Moltke out of Germany through Scandinavia to the United Kingdom, and in July, 1943, copies of it were dropped over Germany by Allied planes, retitled "The Manifesto of the Students of Munich." Another member, Hans Conrad Leipelt, who helped distribute Leaflet 6 in Hamburg, was executed on January 29, 1945, for his participation. Today, the members of this are honoured in Germany amongst its greatest heroes, since they opposed the Third Reich in the face of almost certain death.

Pocket Borough

a parliamentary borough or constituency in England, Great Britain, and the United Kingdom which had a very small electorate and could be used by a patron to gain undue and unrepresentative influence within the Unreformed House of Commons.

Peace of Lodi (1454)

a peace agreement between Milan, Naples, and Florence signed on April 9, 1454 at namesake place in Lombardy, on the banks of the Adda. It put an end to the long struggles between expansive Milan, under Filippo Maria Visconti, and Venice in the terraferma, which had produced a single decisive Venetian victory, at the battle of Maclodio in 1427, in which the Venetian ally was Florence, but had resulted in no lasting peace established permanent boundaries between Milanese and Venetian territories in Northern Italy, along the river Adda. Francesco Sforza was confirmed as the rightful duke of Milan. A principle of a balance of power in Northern Italy was established, one that excluded ambitions of smaller states: the republic of Genoa, the house of Savoy, the Gonzaga and the Este.

Baroque Style

a period of artistic style that used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, architecture, literature, dance, and music. The style began around 1600 in Rome, Italy and spread to most of Europe.

Second Wave Feminism

a period of feminist activity that first began in the early 1960s in the United States, and eventually spread throughout the Western world. In the United States the movement lasted through the early 1980s. It later became a worldwide movement that was strong in Europe and parts of Asia, such as Turkey and Israel, where it began in the 1980s, and it began at other times in other countries. broadened the debate to a wide range of issues: sexuality, family, the workplace, reproductive rights, de facto inequalities, and official legal inequalities.

Reign of Terror

a period of violence that occurred after the onset of the French Revolution, incited by conflict between rival political factions, the Girondins and the Jacobins, and marked by mass executions of "enemies of the revolution". The death toll ranged in the tens of thousands, with 16,594 executed by guillotine (2,639 in Paris), and another 25,000 in summary executions across France.

Dialectical Materialism

a philosophy of science and nature, based on the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, and developed largely in Russia and the Soviet Union. The main idea of this lies in the concept of the evolution of the natural world and the emergence of new qualities of being at new stages of evolution. As Z. A. Jordan notes, "Engels made constant use of the metaphysical insight that the higher level of existence emerges from and has its roots in the lower; that the higher level constitutes a new order of being with its irreducible laws; and that this process of evolutionary advance is governed by laws of development which reflect basic properties of 'matter in motion as a whole'."

Woman question

a phrase usually used in connection with a social change in the latter half of the nineteenth century which questioned the fundamental roles of women in countries such as the United Kingdom, the United States of America, Canada, and Russia. Issues of women's suffrage, reproductive rights, bodily autonomy, property rights, legal rights, and medical rights, and marriage, dominated cultural discussions in newspapers and intellectual circles. While many women were supportive of these changing roles, they did not agree unanimously. Often issues of marriage and sexual freedom were most divisive.

Jean-Paul Marat

a physician, political theorist and scientist best known for his career in France as a radical journalist and politician during the French Revolution. His journalism became renowned for its fierce tone, uncompromising stance toward the new leaders and institutions of the revolution, and advocacy of basic human rights for the poorest members of society. He was one of the most radical voices of the French Revolution. He became a vigorous defender of the sans-culottes, publishing his views in pamphlets, placards and newspapers, notably his "L'Ami du peuple", which helped make him their unofficial link with the radical, republican Jacobin group that came to power after June 1793. He was assassinated by Charlotte Corday, a Girondist sympathizer, while in his specialized bowel room. In his death he became an icon to the Jacobins, a sort of revolutionary martyr, as portrayed in David's famous painting of his death.

Reform Act of 1867

a piece of British legislation that enfranchised part of the urban male working class in England and Wales for the first time. Before the Act, only one million of the seven million adult males in England and Wales could vote; the Act immediately doubled that number. Moreover, by the end of 1868 all male heads of household were enfranchised as a result of the end of compounding of rents. However, the Act introduced only a negligible redistribution of seats. The overall intent was to help the Conservative Party, yet it resulted in their loss of the 1868 general election.

Enabling Act

a piece of legislation by which a legislative body grants an entity which depends on it for authorization or legitimacy of power to take certain actions. (specific one in 1933) a 1933 amendment to the Weimar Constitution that gave the German Cabinet - in effect, Chancellor Adolf Hitler - the power to enact laws without the involvement of the Reichstag. It passed in both the Reichstag and Reichsrat on 23 March 1933, and was signed by President Paul von Hindenburg later that day. The act stated that it was to last four years unless renewed by the Reichstag, which occurred twice. It gave Hitler plenary powers. It followed on the heels of the Reichstag Fire Decree, which abolished most civil liberties and transferred state powers to the Reich government.

Tennis Court Oath

a pivotal event during the first days of the French Revolution. It was a pledge signed by 576 of the 577 members from the Third Estate who were locked out of a meeting of the Estates-General on 20 June 1789. The only person who did not sign was Joseph Martin-Dauch, a politician who would not execute decisions not sanctioned by the king. They made a makeshift conference room inside a tennis court located in the Saint-Louis district of the city of Versailles, near the Palace of Versailles. pledged "not to separate, and to reassemble wherever circumstances require, until the constitution of the kingdom is established".

Atlantic Charter

a pivotal policy statement issued in August 14, 1941 that, early in World War II, defined the Allied goals for the post-war world. It was drafted by the leaders of Britain and the United States, and later agreed to by all the Allies. The Charter stated the ideal goals of the war: no territorial aggrandizement; no territorial changes made against the wishes of the people; restoration of self-government to those deprived of it; reduction of trade restrictions; global cooperation to secure better economic and social conditions for all; freedom from fear and want; freedom of the seas; and abandonment of the use of force, as well as disarmament of aggressor nations. In the "Declaration by United Nations" of 1 January 1942, the Allies of World War II pledged adherence to this charter's principles.

Monroe Doctrine

a policy of the United States introduced on December 2, 1823. It stated that further efforts by European nations to colonize land or interfere with states in North or South America would be viewed as acts of aggression, requiring U.S. intervention. At the same time, the doctrine noted that the United States would neither interfere with existing European colonies nor meddle in the internal concerns of European countries. inspired by the Napoleonic Wars

Monroe Doctrine

a policy of the United States introduced on December 2, 1823. It stated that further efforts by European nations to colonize land or interfere with states in North or South America would be viewed as acts of aggression, requiring U.S. intervention. At the same time, the doctrine noted that the United States would neither interfere with existing European colonies nor meddle in the internal concerns of European countries. some say that it was inspired by the Napoleonic Wars

Glasnost

a policy that called for increased openness and transparency in government institutions and activities in the Soviet Union.

Girondins

a political faction in France within the Legislative Assembly and the National Convention during the French Revolution. They campaigned for the end of the monarchy but then resisted the spiraling momentum of the Revolution. They came into conflict with The Mountain (Montagnards, a more radical faction within the Jacobin Club). This conflict eventually led to the fall of them and their mass execution, the beginning of the Reign of Terror. Prominent ones included Jacques Pierre Brissot, Jean Marie Roland and his wife Madame Roland. They had an ally in American Founding Father Thomas Paine. Brissot and Madame Roland were executed with the guillotine and Jean Roland (who had gone into hiding) committed suicide when he learned what had transpired. Paine was arrested and imprisoned but narrowly escaped execution.

Pan-German League

a political interest organization which was officially founded in 1891, a year after the Zanzibar Treaty was signed. It was concerned with a host of issues, concentrating on imperialism, anti-semitism, the Polish Question, and support for German minorities in other countries. The purpose of the league was to nurture and protect the ideology of German nationality as a unifying force. By 1922, the League had grown to over 40,000 paying members. Berlin housed the central seat of the league, including its president and its executive, which was capped at a maximum of 300. Full gatherings of the league happened at the Pan-German Congress. Although numerically small, the League enjoyed a disproportionate influence on the German state through connections to the middle class, the political establishment and the media, as well as links to the 300,000 strong Agrarian League.

Siege of the Duma, 1993

a political stand-off between the Russian president and the Russian parliament that was resolved by using military force. The relations between the president and the parliament had been deteriorating for some time. The constitutional crisis reached a tipping point on September 21, 1993, when President Boris Yeltsin aimed to dissolve the country's legislature (the Congress of People's Deputies and its Supreme Soviet), although the president did not have the power to dissolve the parliament according to the constitution. Yeltsin used the results of the referendum of April 1993 to justify his actions. In response, the parliament declared that the president's decision was null and void, impeached Yeltsin and proclaimed vice president Aleksandr Rutskoy to be acting president.

Metternich

a politician and statesman of Rhenish extraction and one of the most important diplomats of his era, serving as the Foreign Minister of the Austrian Empire from 1809 until the liberal revolutions of 1848 forced his resignation. One of his first tasks was to engineer a détente with France that included the marriage of Napoleon to the Austrian Arch-Duchess Marie Louise. Soon after, however, he engineered Austria's entry into the War of the Sixth Coalition on the Allied side, signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau that sent Napoleon into exile and led the Austrian delegation at the Congress of Vienna which divided post-Napoleonic Europe between the major powers. In recognition of his service to the Austrian Empire he was raised to the title of Prince in October 1813. (known for diplomacy and namesake system)(?)

Metternich (Prince Klemens von)

a politician and statesman of Rhenish extraction and one of the most important diplomats of his era, serving as the Foreign Minister of the Austrian Empire from 1809 until the liberal revolutions of 1848 forced his resignation. One of his first tasks was to engineer a détente with France that included the marriage of Napoleon to the Austrian Arch-Duchess Marie Louise. Soon after, however, he engineered Austria's entry into the War of the Sixth Coalition on the Allied side, signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau that sent Napoleon into exile and led the Austrian delegation at the Congress of Vienna which divided post-Napoleonic Europe between the major powers. In recognition of his service to the Austrian Empire he was raised to the title of Prince in October 1813. Dominated Congress of Vienna Carlsbad Decrees crushed Burschenshaften(?) (known for diplomacy and namesake system)(?)

Nikita Khrushchev

a politician who led the Soviet Union during part of the Cold War. He served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, and as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, or Premier, from 1958 to 1964. He was responsible for the de-Stalinization of the Soviet Union, for backing the progress of the early Soviet space program, and for several relatively liberal reforms in areas of domestic policy. His party colleagues removed him from power in 1964, replacing him with Leonid Brezhnev as First Secretary and Alexei Kosygin as Premier. (U-2 crisis, Bay of Pigs, Cuban Missile Crisis, Sputnik) saw "tensest years" of Cold War

Vincent van Gogh

a post-Impressionist painter of Dutch origin whose work, notable for its rough beauty, emotional honesty and bold color, had a far-reaching influence on 20th-century art. After years of painful anxiety and frequent bouts of mental illness, he died aged 37 from a gunshot wound, generally accepted to be self-inflicted (although no gun was ever found). His work was then known to only a handful of people and appreciated by fewer still. known for cutting off ear The Potato Eaters Portrait of Dr. Gachet Starry Night Sunflowers Bedroom in Arles Sorrow

University of Padua

a premier Italian university. It was founded in 1222 as a school of law and was one of the most prominent universities in early modern Europe. It is among the earliest universities of the world and the second oldest in Italy. developed many scientists

Emelyan Pugachev

a pretender to the Russian throne who led a great Cossack insurrection during the reign of Catherine II. (it was a peasant revolt as well)(affects Catherine's policies)

Principle of Legitimacy

a principle stating that the rulers who were dethroned by Napoleon should get their countries back and reign the same territories that they reigned before Napoleon

Young Plan

a program for settling German reparations debts after World War I written in 1929 and formally adopted in 1930. The Inter-Allied Reparations Commission established the German reparation sum at 132 billion gold marks. After the Dawes Plan was put into operation in 1924, it became apparent that Germany could not meet the annual payments, especially over an indefinite period of time.This reduced further payments to 112 billion Gold Marks, equivalent to US $8 billion in 1929 (US$ 110 billion in 2014) over a period of 59 years, which would end in 1988. In addition, it divided the annual payment, set at two billion Gold Marks, US $473 million, into two components: one unconditional part, equal to one third of the sum, and a postponable part, equal to the remaining two-thirds, which would incur interest and be financed by a consortium of American investment banks coordinated by the Morgan Guaranty Trust Company.

Lend-Lease Program

a program under which the United States supplied Great Britain, the USSR, Free France, the Republic of China, and other Allied nations with materiel between 1941 and August 1945. It was signed into law on March 11, 1941, a year and a half after the outbreak of World War II in Europe in September 1939 and nine months before the U.S. entered the war in December 1941.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

a prolific and influential composer of the Classical era. showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood. Already competent on keyboard and violin, he composed from the age of five and performed before European royalty. At 17, he was engaged as a court musician in Salzburg, but grew restless and travelled in search of a better position, always composing abundantly. While visiting Vienna in 1781, he was dismissed from his Salzburg position. He chose to stay in the capital, where he achieved fame but little financial security. During his final years in Vienna, he composed many of his best-known symphonies, concertos, and operas, and portions of the Requiem, which was largely unfinished at the time of his death. The circumstances of his early death have been much mythologized. He was survived by his wife Constanze and two sons. He composed over 600 works, many acknowledged as pinnacles of symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral music. He is among the most enduringly popular of classical composers, and his influence on subsequent Western art music is profound. Requiem, Eine Kleine Nachtmusik, among tons of other pieces

Siege of Leningrad

a prolonged military operation undertaken by the German Army Group North against ______ in the Eastern Front theatre of World War II. The siege started on 8 September 1941, when the last road to the city was severed. Although the Soviets managed to open a narrow land corridor to the city on 18 January 1943, the siege was finally lifted on 27 January 1944, 872 days after it began. It was one of the longest and most destructive sieges in history and overwhelmingly the most costly in terms of casualties. Soviets eventually won

Krupp

a prominent 400-year-old German dynasty from Essen that became famous for its steel production and for their manufacture of ammunition and armaments.

Galen

a prominent Roman (of Greek ethnicity) physician, surgeon and philosopher. Arguably the most accomplished of all medical researchers of antiquity, he contributed greatly to the understanding of numerous scientific disciplines, including anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, and neurology, as well as philosophy and logic. He was proven wrong in many respects by scientists (like Harvey) during the Scientific Revolution, though

Salvador Dali

a prominent Spanish Catalan surrealist painter born in Figueres, Spain. He was a skilled draftsman, best known for the striking and bizarre images in his surrealist work. His painterly skills are often attributed to the influence of Renaissance masters. His best-known work, The Persistence of Memory, was completed in August 1931. His expansive artistic repertoire included film, sculpture, and photography, in collaboration with a range of artists in a variety of media.

Rudolf Hess

a prominent politician in Nazi Germany. Appointed Deputy Führer to Adolf Hitler in 1933, he served in this position until 1941, when he flew solo to Scotland in an attempt to negotiate peace with the United Kingdom during World War II. He was taken prisoner and eventually was convicted of crimes against peace, serving a life sentence. helped Hitler write his opus, Mein Kampf, which became a foundation of the political platform of the NSDAP. third most-powerful man in Germany, behind only Hitler and Hermann Göring

Sussex Pledge

a promise made in 1916 during World War I by Germany to the United States prior to the latter's entry into the war. Early in 1916, Germany had instituted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, allowing armed merchant ships - but not passenger ships - to be torpedoed without warning. Despite this avowed restriction, a French cross-channel passenger ferry, the ____, was torpedoed without warning on March 24, 1916; the ship was severely damaged and about 50 lives were lost. Although no U.S. citizens were killed in this attack, it prompted President Woodrow Wilson to declare that if Germany were to continue this practice, the United States would break diplomatic relations with Germany. Fearing the entry of the United States into World War I, Germany attempted to appease the United States by issuing, on May 4, 1916, this pledge, which promised a change in Germany's naval warfare policy. The primary elements of this undertaking were: Passenger ships would not be targeted; Merchant ships would not be sunk until the presence of weapons had been established, if necessary by a search of the ship; Merchant ships would not be sunk without provision for the safety of passengers and crew. (later broken with Lusitania; influenced US to join war)

Savoy

a region of France. It comprises roughly the territory of the Western Alps situated between Lake Geneva in the north and Dauphiné in the south. Home to a royal house by the same name.

Hermeticism

a religious and philosophical tradition based primarily upon pseudepigraphical writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus ("Thrice Great"). These writings have greatly influenced the Western esoteric tradition and were considered to be of great importance during both the Renaissance and the Reformation. The tradition claims descent from a prisca theologia, a doctrine which affirms that a single, true theology exists which is present in all religions and was given by God to man in antiquity. connection with the development of science during the time from 1300 to 1600 A.D. The prominence that it gave to the idea of influencing or controlling nature led many scientists to look to magic and its allied arts (e.g., alchemy, astrology) which, it was thought, could put Nature to the test by means of experiments. Consequently it was the practical aspects of such writings that attracted the attention of scientists

Act of Religious Settlement

a response to the religious divisions created in England over the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI and Mary I. This response, described as "The Revolution of 1559", was set out in two Acts of the Parliament of England. The Act of Supremacy of 1558 re-established the Church of England's independence from Rome, with Parliament conferring on Elizabeth the title Supreme Governor of the Church of England, while the Act of Uniformity of 1559 outlined what form the English Church should take, including the re-establishment of the Book of Common Prayer.

General Wojciech Jaruzelski

a retired Polish military officer and communist politician. He was the last communist leader of Poland from 1981 to 1989, Prime Minister from 1981 to 1985 and the country's head of state from 1985 to 1990. He was also the last commander-in-chief of the Polish People's Army (LWP). He resigned from power after the Polish Round Table Agreement in 1989 that led to democratic elections in Poland.

Thermidorean Reaction

a revolt in the French Revolution against the excesses of the Reign of Terror. It was triggered by a vote of the National Convention to execute Maximilien Robespierre, Louis Antoine de Saint-Just, and several other leading members of the Terror. This ended the most radical phase of the French Revolution.

Paris Commune

a revolutionary and socialistic government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March until 28 May 1871. Though elected as the city council it eventually proclaimed its own authority to govern all of France. The killing of two French army generals by soldiers of the its National Guard and the refusal of the Commune to accept the authority of the French government led to its harsh suppression by the regular French Army in "La Semaine sanglante" ("The Bloody Week") beginning on 21 May 1871.

Withdrawing Room

a room where visitors may be entertained; a room to which the owner of the house, his wife, or a distinguished guest who was occupying one of the main apartments in the house could "withdraw" for more privacy. It was often off the great chamber (or the great chamber's descendant, the state room or salon) and usually led to a formal, or "state" bedroom.

Versailles

a royal château in Versailles in the Île-de-France region of France. was the center of political power in France from 1682, when Louis XIV moved from Paris, until the royal family was forced to return to the capital in October 1789 after the beginning of the French Revolution.

Jagiellon Dynasty

a royal dynasty originating from the Lithuanian House of Gediminas that reigned in Central European countries (present day Lithuania, Belarus, Poland, Ukraine, Latvia, parts of Estonia, Russia, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Croatia) between the 14th and 16th centuries. Members of the dynasty were Grand Dukes of Lithuania (1377-1392 and 1440-1572), Kings of Poland (1386-1572), Kings of Hungary (1440-1444 and 1490-1526), and Kings of Bohemia (1471-1526). They reigned over Poland during the Renaissance.

Jagiellon Dynasty

a royal dynasty originating from the Lithuanian House of Gediminas that reigned in Central European countries (present day Lithuania, Belarus, Poland, Ukraine, Latvia, parts of Estonia, Russia, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Croatia) between the 14th and 16th centuries. Members of the dynasty were Grand Dukes of Lithuania (1377-1392 and 1440-1572), Kings of Poland (1386-1572), Kings of Hungary (1440-1444 and 1490-1526), and Kings of Bohemia (1471-1526). stay until 1572

Munich Conference

a settlement permitting Nazi Germany's annexation of portions of Czechoslovakia along the country's borders mainly inhabited by German speakers, for which a new territorial designation "Sudetenland" was coined. The agreement was negotiated at a conference held in the namesake place in Germany among the major powers of Europe, without the presence of Czechoslovakia. Today, it is widely regarded as a failed act of appeasement toward Germany. The agreement was signed in the early hours of 30 September 1938 (but dated 29 September). The purpose of the conference was to discuss the future of the Sudetenland in the face of ethnic demands made by Adolf Hitler. The agreement was signed by Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and Italy. Sudetenland was of immense strategic importance to Czechoslovakia, as most of its border defenses were situated there, and many of its banks and heavy industries were located there as well.

October Revolution

a seizure of state power instrumental in the larger Russian Revolution of 1917. It took place with an armed insurrection in Petrograd traditionally dated to 25 October 1917 (by the Julian or Old Style calendar, which corresponds to 7 November 1917 in the Gregorian or New Style calendar). It followed and capitalized on the February Revolution of the same year, which overthrew the Tsarist autocracy and established a provisional government composed predominantly of former nobles and aristocrats. During this time, urban workers began to organize into councils (Russian: Soviet) wherein revolutionaries criticized the provisional government and its actions. This revolution in Petrograd overthrew the provisional government and gave the power to the local soviets dominated by the majority (Russian: Bolshevik) faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. This immediately initiated the establishment of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the world's first self-proclaimed socialist state. As the revolution was not universally recognized outside of Petrograd there followed the struggles of the Russian Civil War (1917-1922) and the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922. The revolution was led by the Bolsheviks, who used their influence in the Petrograd Soviet to organize the armed forces. Bolshevik Red Guards forces under the Military Revolutionary Committee began the takeover of government buildings on 24 October 1917 (O.S.). The following day, the Winter Palace (the seat of the Provisional government located in Petrograd, then capital of Russia), was captured.

Danzig (Gdansk)

a semi-autonomous city-state that existed between 1920 and 1939, consisting of the Baltic Sea port of Danzig (today Gdańsk) and nearly 200 towns in the surrounding areas. It was created on 15 November 1920 in accordance with the terms of Article 100 (Section XI of Part III) of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. government was taken over by the local Nazi Party, which suppressed democratic opposition. Due to anti-Semitic persecution and oppression, many Jews fled. After the German invasion of Poland in 1939, the Nazis abolished it and incorporated the area into the newly formed Reichsgau of Danzig-West Prussia. The Germans classified the Poles and Jews as subhumans, subjecting them to discrimination, forced labor, and extermination. Many were sent to death at concentration camps, including nearby Stutthof (now Sztutowo, Poland).

April Theses

a series of directives issued by the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin upon his return to Petrograd (Saint Petersburg), Russia from his exile in Switzerland. They were mostly aimed at fellow Bolsheviks in Russia and returning to Russia from exile. He called for soviets (workers' councils) to take power (as seen in the slogan "all power to the soviets"), denounced liberals and social democrats in the Provisional Government, called for Bolsheviks not to cooperate with the government, and called for new communist policies. They influenced the July Days and October Revolution in the next months and are identified with Leninism.

Nuremburg Trials

a series of military tribunals, held by the Allied forces after World War II, most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, and economic leadership of Nazi Germany. The trials were held in the city of ________. The first, and best known of these trials, described as "the greatest trial in history" by Norman Birkett, one of the British judges who presided over it, was the trial of the major war criminals before the International Military Tribunal (IMT). Held between 20 November 1945 and 1 October 1946, the Tribunal was given the task of trying 23 of the most important political and military leaders of the Third Reich, though one of the defendants, Martin Bormann, was tried in absentia, while another, Robert Ley, committed suicide within a week of the trial's commencement. Not included were Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler, and Joseph Goebbels, all of whom had committed suicide several months before the indictment was signed. The second set of trials of lesser war criminals was conducted under Control Council Law No. 10 at the US Nuremberg Military Tribunals (NMT); among them included the Doctors' Trial and the Judges' Trial.

Five-Year Plans

a series of nation-wide centralized economic plans in the Soviet Union. The plans were developed by a state planning committee based on the Theory of Productive Forces that was part of the general guidelines of the Communist Party for economic development. Fulfilling the plan became the watchword of Soviet bureaucracy (see Overview of the Soviet economic planning process). The same method of planning was also adopted by most other communist states, including the People's Republic of China. In addition, several capitalist states have emulated the concept of central planning, though in the context of a market economy, by setting integrated economic goals for a finite period of time. Nazi Germany emulated the practice in its Four Year Plan designed to bring Germany to war-readiness. the initial ones were used to rapidly industrialize the USSR (under Stalin)

Thirty Years War

a series of wars principally fought in Central Europe, involving most of the countries of Europe. It was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, and one of the longest continuous wars in modern history. Initially, religion was a motivation for war as Protestant and Catholic states battled it out even though they all were inside the Holy Roman Empire. Changing the relative balance of power within the Empire was at issue. Gradually, it developed into a more general conflict involving most of the great powers of Europe. In this general phase the war became less specifically religious and more a continuation of the Bourbon-Habsburg rivalry for European political pre-eminence, leading in turn to further warfare between France and the Habsburg powers.

Psychoanalysis

a set of psychological and psychotherapeutic theories and associated techniques, originally popularized by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and stemming partly from the clinical work of Josef Breuer and others. Since then, psychoanalysis has expanded and been revised, reformed and developed in different directions. This was initially by Freud's colleagues and students, such as Alfred Adler and Carl Gustav Jung who went on to develop their own ideas independently from Freud. Later neo-Freudians included Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, Harry Stack Sullivan and Jacques Lacan.

James Joyce

an Irish novelist and poet, considered to be one of the most influential writers in the modernist avant-garde of the early 20th century. Joyce is best known for Ulysses (1922), a landmark work in which the episodes of Homer's Odyssey are paralleled in an array of contrasting literary styles, perhaps most prominent among these the stream of consciousness technique he perfected. Other major works are the short-story collection Dubliners (1914), and the novels A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) and Finnegans Wake (1939). His complete oeuvre also includes three books of poetry, a play, occasional journalism, and his published letters.

Franco-Prussian War

a significant conflict pitting the Second French Empire against the Kingdom of Prussia and its allies in the North German Confederation, as well as the South German states of Baden, Württemberg, Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt. German states won; they proclaimed their union as the German Empire under the Prussian king, Wilhelm I, uniting Germany as a nation-state. The final Treaty of Frankfurt of 10 May 1871 gave Germany most of Alsace and some parts of Lorraine which became the Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. Following defeat, a left-wing revolt broke out in Paris against the new French republic. Known as the Paris Commune, it was a landmark event in the revolutionary seizure of power by the masses, but it was harshly crushed by Adolphe Thiers. The unification of Germany into an empire in its own right, with the new industrialization of the nation, shifted the European balance of power and Otto von Bismarck maintained great authority in international affairs for two decades. France's determination to regain Alsace-Lorraine would subsequently be a major factor in France's involvement in World War I.

William III of Orange (and England)

a sovereign Prince of Orange of the House of Orange-Nassau by birth. From 1672 he governed as Stadtholder over Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland, and Overijssel of the Dutch Republic. From 1689 he reigned over England and Ireland (and other places). In what became known as the "Glorious Revolution", on 5 November 1688 he invaded England in an action that ultimately deposed King James II & VII and won him the crowns of England, Scotland and Ireland.

Teheran Conference

a strategy meeting held between Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill from 28 November to 1 December 1943. It was held in the Soviet Embassy in Tehran, Iran and was the first of the World War II conferences held between all of the "Big Three" Allied leaders (the Soviet Union, the United States, and the United Kingdom). It closely followed the Cairo Conference which had taken place between 22 and 26 November 1943, and preceded the 1945 Yalta and Potsdam Conferences. Although all three of the leaders present arrived with differing objectives, the main outcome of the Tehran Conference was the commitment to the opening of a second front against Nazi Germany by the Western Allies. The conference also addressed relations between the Allies and Turkey and Iran, operations in Yugoslavia and against Japan as well as the envisaged post-war settlement. A separate protocol signed at the conference pledged the Big Three's recognition of Iran's independence.

Cold War

a sustained state of political and military tension between powers in the Western Bloc (the United States with NATO and others) and powers in the Eastern Bloc (the Soviet Union and its allies in Warsaw Pact). Historians have not fully agreed on the dates, but 1947-1991 is common. It was "cold" because there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars in Korea and Vietnam. The Cold War split the temporary wartime alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the USSR and the US as two superpowers with profound economic and political differences over capitalism and democracy. A deliberately neutral grouping arose with the Non-Aligned Movement founded by Egypt, India, and Yugoslavia; this faction rejected association with either the US-led West or the Soviet-led East.

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

a targeted group of assassinations, followed by a wave of Roman Catholic mob violence, both directed against the Huguenots (French Calvinist Protestants), during the French Wars of Religion. Traditionally believed to have been instigated by Catherine de' Medici, the mother of King Charles IX, the massacre took place four days after the wedding of the king's sister Margaret to the Protestant Henry III of Navarre (the future Henry IV of France). This marriage was an occasion for which many of the most wealthy and prominent Huguenots had gathered in largely Catholic Paris.

Falklands War

a ten-week war between Argentina and the United Kingdom over two British overseas territories in the South Atlantic: the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. It began on Friday 2 April 1982 when Argentina invaded and occupied the Falkland Islands (and, the following day, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands) in an attempt to establish the sovereignty it has long claimed over them. On 5 April, the British government dispatched a naval task force to engage the Argentine Navy and Air Force before making an amphibious assault on the islands. The conflict lasted 74 days and ended with the Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982, returning the islands to British control. 649 Argentine military personnel, 255 British military personnel and 3 Falkland Islanders died during the hostilities.

Existentialism

a term applied to the work of certain late 19th- and 20th-century philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences, shared the belief that philosophical thinking begins with the human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual. each individual—not society or religion—is solely responsible for giving meaning to life and living it passionately and sincerely ("authentically").

Open Door Policy

a term in foreign affairs initially used to refer to the United States policy in the late 19th century and early 20th century outlined in Secretary of State John Hay's Open Door Note, dispatched in 1899 to his European counterparts. The policy proposed to keep China open to trade with all countries on an equal basis; thus, no international power would have total control of the country. The policy called upon foreign powers, within their spheres of influence, to refrain from interfering with any treaty port or any vested interest, to permit Chinese authorities to collect tariffs on an equal basis, and to show no favors to their own nationals in the matter of harbor dues or railroad charges. This policy was rooted in desire of American businesses to exploit Chinese markets, though it also tapped the deep-seated sympathies of those who opposed imperialism, especially as the policy pledged to protect China's territorial integrity.

National Assembly

a transitional body between the Estates-General and the Legislative Assembly 1789 - 1791

Malleus Maleficarum

a treatise on the prosecution of witches, written in 1486 by Heinrich Kramer, a German Catholic clergyman. The book was first published in Speyer, Germany, in 1487. main purpose was to attempt to systematically refute arguments claiming that witchcraft does not exist, to discredit those who expressed skepticism about its reality, to claim that witches were more often women than men, and to educate magistrates on the procedures that could find them out and convict them.

Treaty of San Stefano

a treaty between Russia and the Ottoman Empire signed at the end of the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78. It was signed on 3 March 1878 at San Stefano (now Yeşilköy), a village west of Istanbul, by Count Nicholas Pavlovich Ignatiev and Alexander Nelidov on behalf of the Russian Empire and Foreign Minister Safvet Pasha and Ambassador to Germany Sadullah Bey on behalf of the Ottoman Empire. Although according to the official Russian position, by signing the treaty, Russia had never intended anything more than a temporary rough draft, so to enable a final settlement with the other Great Powers, this preliminary treaty almost immediately became the central point of Bulgarian foreign policy, lasting until 1944 and leading to the Second Balkan War and Bulgaria's participation in World War I. The treaty provided for the creation of an autonomous Principality of Bulgaria after almost 500 years of Ottoman domination.

Treaty of Washington 1871

a treaty signed and ratified by the United Kingdom and the United States in 1871 that settled various disputes between the countries, in particular the Alabama Claims.

Charcoal blast furnace

a type of metallurgical furnace used for smelting to produce industrial metals, generally iron, but also others such as lead or copper. (came about during Industrial Revolution) (used mainly on continent; not as good as coke blast ones?)

Cartesian dualism

a view about the relationship between mind and matter which claims that mind and matter are two ontologically separate categories; claims that neither the mind nor matter can be reduced to each other in any way. there are two fundamental kinds of substance: mental and material. the mental does not have extension in space, and the material cannot think

Mir

a village commune of freed serfs in Imperial Russia

French Protests of 1968

a volatile period of civil unrest punctuated by massive general strikes and the occupation of factories and universities across France. It was the largest general strike ever attempted in France, and the first ever nation-wide wildcat general strike. At the height of its fervor, the unrest virtually brought the entire advanced capitalist economy of France to a dramatic halt. The events had a resounding impact on French society that would be felt for decades to come. The events began with a series of student occupation protests, followed by strikes involving 11,000,000 workers, more than 22% of the total population of France at the time, for two continuous weeks, and its impact was such that it almost caused the collapse of French President Charles de Gaulle's government.[citation needed] The movement was characterized by its spontaneous and de-centralized wildcat disposition; this created contrast and sometimes even conflict between itself and the establishment trade unions and workers' parties.

Algerian War

a war between France and the Algerian independence movements from 1954 to 1962, which led to Algeria gaining its independence from France. An important decolonization war, it was a complex conflict characterized by guerrilla warfare, maquis fighting, terrorism, the use of torture by both sides, and counter-terrorism operations. The conflict was also a civil war between loyalist Algerians believing in a French Algeria and their insurrectionist Algerian Muslim counterparts. Effectively started by members of the National Liberation Front (FLN) on November 1, 1954, during the Toussaint Rouge ("Red All Saints' Day"), the conflict shook the foundations of the French Fourth Republic (1946-58) and led to its eventual collapse. In 1961, president Charles de Gaulle decided to give up Algeria—which was up to then regarded as an integral part of France—after conducting a referendum showing huge support for Algerian independence. The planned withdrawal led to a state crisis, to various assassination attempts on de Gaulle, and some attempts of military coups. Most of the former were carried out by the Organisation de l'armée secrète (OAS), an underground organization formed mainly from French military personnel supporting a French Algeria, which committed a large number of bombings and murders in both Algeria and the homeland to stop the planned independence.

Dutch War 1672

a war fought by France, Sweden, the Prince-Bishopric of Münster, the Archbishopric of Cologne and England against the Dutch Republic, which was later joined by the Austrian Habsburg lands, Brandenburg and Spain to form a quadruple alliance. The war ended with the Treaty of Nijmegen of 1678, which granted France control of the Franche-Comté and some cities in Flanders and Hainaut, all formerly controlled by Spain. The year 1672 in Dutch is often referred to as Het Rampjaar, meaning the year of disaster. (England joined French in this because Louis XIV gave Charles II money; Parliament forced Charles to support Dutch eventually?)

Seven Years War

a war that took place between 1754 and 1763 with the main conflict being in the seven-year period 1756-1763. It involved most of the great powers of the time and affected Europe, North America, Central America, the West African coast, India, and the Philippines. In the historiography of some countries, the war is alternatively named after combatants in the respective theatres: the French and Indian War (North America, 1754-63); Pomeranian War (with Sweden and Prussia, 1757-62); Third Carnatic War (on the Indian subcontinent, 1757-63); and Third Silesian War (with Prussia and Austria, 1756-63). main powers: (Prussia, Great Britain, Hanover) vs. (Austria, France, Russia, Spain, and Sweden)

Revolution of 1905

a wave of mass political and social unrest that spread through vast areas of the Russian Empire. Some of it was directed against the government, while some was undirected. It included worker strikes, peasant unrest, and military mutinies. It led to the establishment of limited constitutional monarchy, the State Duma of the Russian Empire, the multi-party system, and the Russian Constitution of 1906. (AKA October Revolution)

Communist Manifesto

a work written by Engels and Marx... a short 1848 publication written by the political theorists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It has since been recognized as one of the world's most influential political manuscripts. Commissioned by the Communist League, it laid out the League's purposes and program. It presents an analytical approach to the class struggle (historical and present) and the problems of capitalism, rather than a prediction of communism's potential future forms.

Mantegna, Andrea

an Italian painter, a student of Roman archeology, and son in law of Jacopo Bellini. Like other artists of the time, he experimented with perspective, e.g., by lowering the horizon in order to create a sense of greater monumentality. His flinty, metallic landscapes and somewhat stony figures give evidence of a fundamentally sculptural approach to painting. He also led a workshop that was the leading producer of prints in Venice before 1500.

Chartism

a working-class movement for political reform in Britain between 1838 and 1848 which took its name from the People's Charter of 1838. The term ___________ is the umbrella name for numerous loosely coordinated local groups, often called "Working Men's Association", which peaked in 1839, 1842 and 1848. It began among skilled artisans in small shops, such as shoemakers, printers, and tailors, and handloom workers in Lancashire and the Midlands as a petition movement which tried to mobilise "moral force" but soon attracted men who advocated strikes, general strikes and physical violence, such as Feargus O'Connor, known as "physical force" __________. The People's Charter called for six basic reforms to make the political system more democratic: Every man over 21 who is not a criminal or insane should be allowed to vote. Voting should be done in secret. Candidates should not need to be rich or own property to become a Member of Parliament. All Members of Parliament should be paid for doing their job. All electoral areas should represent the same number of people. Elections should be held annually.

Lateran Accords

agreements made in 1929 between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See, settling the "Roman Question". They are named after the namesake Palace, where they were signed on February 11, 1929. The Italian parliament ratified them on June 7, 1929. Italy was then under a Fascist government, but the succeeding democratic governments have all upheld the treaty. In 1947, they were incorporated into the democratic Constitution of Italy.

Bosnian Crisis 1908-9

also known as the Annexation crisis, or the First Balkan Crisis, erupted into public view when on 6 October 1908, Austria-Hungary announced the annexation of the namesake place and Herzegovina. Russia, the Ottoman Empire, Britain, Italy, Serbia, Montenegro, Germany and France took an interest in these events. In April 1909 the Treaty of Berlin was amended to accept the new status quo bringing the crisis to an end. The crisis permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary on the one hand and Russia and the Kingdom of Serbia on the other. The annexation and reactions to the annexation were contributing causes of World War I. Serbia and Russia protested to Austria-Hungary taking over that place, but backed down when Germany said it supported Austria-Hungary. Neither Russia or Serbia were prepared to go to war with Germany. Austria-Hungary became over confident with Germany's help and escalated the crisis. Russia was determined not to back down again and hastened its arms build up.

Coup Attempt (1991, USSR)

also known as the August Putsch or August Coup (Russian: Августовский путч Avgustovsky Putch), was a coup d'état attempt by a group of members of the Soviet Union's government to take control of the country from Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev. The coup leaders were hard-line members of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) who were opposed to Gorbachev's reform program and the new union treaty that he had negotiated which decentralised much of the central government's power to the republics. They were opposed, mainly in Moscow, by a short but effective campaign of civil resistance. Although the coup collapsed in only two days and Gorbachev returned to government, the event destabilised the Soviet Union and is widely considered to have contributed to both the demise of the CPSU and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. After the capitulation of the State Committee on the State of Emergency—popularly referred to as the "Gang of Eight," the Supreme court of the RSFSR and the President of the USSR Mikhail Gorbachev qualified their actions as a coup attempt.

Emperor Charles I

among other titles, the last ruler of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He was the last Emperor of Austria, the last King of Hungary, and the last monarch of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. He reigned from 1916 until 1918, when he "renounced participation" in state affairs, but did not abdicate. He spent the remaining years of his life attempting to restore the monarchy until his death in 1922.

Rococo

an 18th-century artistic movement and style, which affected several aspects of the arts including painting, sculpture, architecture, interior design, decoration, literature, music and theatre. This style developed in the early part of the 18th century in Paris, France as a reaction against the grandeur, symmetry and strict regulations of the Baroque, especially that of the Palace of Versailles. In such a way, the artists opted for a more jocular, florid and graceful approach to Baroque art and architecture.

Reform Bill of 1832 (Britain)

an Act of Parliament (2 & 3 Will. IV) that introduced wide-ranging changes to the electoral system of England and Wales. According to its preamble, the act was designed to "take effectual Measures for correcting divers Abuses that have long prevailed in the Choice of Members to serve in the Commons House of Parliament". The number of eligible voters in a borough varied from 6,000 to 12,000, with the selection of some MPs controlled by one person (e.g. the Duke of Norfolk controlled eleven). The method of qualifying for the franchise varied greatly, from needing to own land, to living in a house with a hearth sufficient to boil a pot.

English Bill of Rights

an Act of the Parliament of England passed on 16 December 1689. It was a restatement in statutory form of the Declaration of Right presented by the Convention Parliament to William and Mary in March 1689 (or 1688 by Old Style dating), inviting them to become joint sovereigns of England. It lays down limits on the powers of the crown and sets out the rights of Parliament and rules for freedom of speech in Parliament, the requirement for regular elections to Parliament and the right to petition the monarch without fear of retribution. It reestablished the liberty of Protestants to have arms for their defence within the rule of law, and condemned James II of England for "causing several good subjects being Protestants to be disarmed at the same time when papists were both armed and employed contrary to law".

Poor Law of 1834

an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed by the Whig government of Earl Grey that reformed the country's poverty relief system. It curbed the cost of poor relief, which had been spiralling throughout the nineteenth century, and led to the creation of workhouses. It was written after an investigation by the 1832 Royal Commission into the Operation of the Poor Laws which included Edwin Chadwick, George Nicholls, John Bird Sumner and Nassau William Senior. The Act has been described as "the classic example of the fundamental Whig-Benthamite reforming legislation of the period", and was based on Malthus's principle that population increased faster rather than resources unless checked, Ricardo's "iron law of wages" and Bentham's doctrine that people did what was pleasant and would tend to claim relief rather than working.

Public Health Act (Britain)

an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Its purpose is to combat filthy urban living conditions, which caused various public health threats, including the spread of many diseases such as cholera and typhus. Reformers wanted to resolve sanitary problems, because sewage was flowing down the street daily, including the presence of sewage in living quarters. The Act required all new residential construction to include running water and an internal drainage system. This Act also led to the government prohibiting the construction of shoddy housing by building contractors. The Act also meant that every public health authority had to have a medical officer and a sanitary inspector, to ensure the laws on food, housing, water and hygiene were carried out. Many factors delayed reform, however, such as the fact that to perform a clean up, the government would need money, and this would have to come from factory owners, who were not keen to pay, and this further delayed reform. But reformers eventually helped to counteract the government's laissez-faire attitude.

Archduke Franz Ferdinand

an Archduke of Austria-Este, Austro-Hungarian and Royal Prince of Hungary and of Bohemia, and from 1889 until his death, heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne. His assassination in Sarajevo precipitated Austria-Hungary's declaration of war against Serbia. This caused the Central Powers (including Germany and Austria-Hungary) and the Allies of World War I (countries allied with Serbia or Serbia's allies) to declare war on each other, starting World War I.

Engleburt Dollfuss

an Austrian Christian Social and Patriotic Front statesman. Serving previously as Minister for Forests and Agriculture, he ascended to Federal Chancellor in 1932 in the midst of a crisis for the conservative government. In early 1933, he shut down parliament, banned the Austrian Nazi party and assumed dictatorial powers. Suppressing the Socialist movement in February 1934, he cemented the rule of "austrofascism" through the authoritarian First of May Constitution. He was assassinated as part of a failed coup attempt by Nazi agents in 1934. His successor Kurt Schuschnigg maintained his regime until Adolf Hitler's annexing of Austria in 1938.

Karl Lueger

an Austrian politician, mayor of Vienna, and leader and cofounder the Austrian Christian Social Party. He is credited with the transformation of the city of Vienna into a modern city. The populist and anti-Semitic politics of his Christian Social Party are sometimes viewed as a model for Hitler's Nazism.

Mary Shelley

an English novelist, short story writer, dramatist, essayist, biographer, and travel writer, best known for her Gothic novel Frankenstein: or, The Modern Prometheus (1818). She also edited and promoted the works of her husband, the Romantic poet and philosopher Percy Bysshe Shelley. Her father was the political philosopher William Godwin, and her mother was the philosopher and feminist Mary Wollstonecraft.

William Hogarth

an English painter, printmaker, pictorial satirist, social critic, and editorial cartoonist who has been credited with pioneering western sequential art. His work ranged from realistic portraiture to comic strip-like series of pictures called "modern moral subjects". Marriage a la Mode A Harlot's Progress A Rake's Progress

John Wilkes

an English radical, journalist, and politician. He was first elected Member of Parliament in 1757. In the Middlesex election dispute, he fought for the right of his voters—rather than the House of Commons—to determine their representatives. In 1768 angry protests of his supporters were suppressed in the St George's Fields Massacre. In 1771, he was instrumental in obliging the government to concede the right of printers to publish verbatim accounts of parliamentary debates. In 1776, he introduced the first Bill for parliamentary reform in the British Parliament. During the American War of Independence, he was a supporter of the American rebels, adding further to his popularity with American Whigs. In 1780, however, he commanded militia forces which helped put down the Gordon Riots, damaging his popularity with many radicals.

Octavia Hill

an English social reformer, whose main concern was the welfare of the inhabitants of cities, especially London, in the second half of the nineteenth century. Born into a family with a strong commitment to alleviating poverty, she herself grew up in straitened circumstances owing to the financial failure of her father. With no formal schooling, she worked from the age of 14 for the welfare of working people. She was a moving force behind the development of social housing, and her early friendship with John Ruskin enabled her to put her theories into practice with the aid of his initial investment. She believed in self-reliance, and made it a key part of her housing system that she and her assistants knew their tenants personally and encouraged them to better themselves. She was opposed to municipal provision of housing, believing it to be bureaucratic and impersonal.

Charles Dickens

an English writer and social critic. He created some of the world's most memorable fictional characters and is generally regarded as the greatest novelist of the Victorian period. During his life, his works enjoyed unprecedented fame, and by the twentieth century his literary genius was broadly acknowledged by critics and scholars. His novels and short stories continue to be widely popular. A Tale of Two Cities The Old Curiosity Shop Hard Times Oliver Twist A Christmas Carol Pickwick Papers David Copperfield Bleak House Great Expectations

Virginia Woolf

an English writer, and one of the foremost modernists of the twentieth century. During the interwar period, she was a significant figure in London literary society and a central figure in the influential Bloomsbury Group of intellectuals. Her most famous works include the novels Mrs Dalloway (1925), To the Lighthouse (1927) and Orlando (1928), and the book-length essay A Room of One's Own (1929), with its famous dictum, "A woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction." She suffered from severe bouts of mental illness throughout her life, thought to have been the result of what is now termed bipolar disorder, and committed suicide by drowning in 1941 at the age of 59.

Castlereagh

an Irish and British statesman. As British Foreign Secretary, from 1812 he was central to the management of the coalition that defeated Napoleon and was the principal British diplomat at the Congress of Vienna. He was also leader of the British House of Commons in the Liverpool government from 1812 until his death by suicide in August 1822. Early in his career, as Chief Secretary for Ireland, he was involved in putting down the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and was instrumental in securing the passage of the Irish Act of Union of 1800. His foreign policy from 1814 was to work with the leaders represented at the Congress of Vienna to provide a peace in Europe consistent with the conservative mood of the day. Much more than prime minister Lord Liverpool, he was responsible for the repressive domestic measures.

Edmund Burke

an Irish statesman, author, orator, political theorist and philosopher, who, after moving to England, served for many years in the House of Commons of Great Britain as a member of the Whig party. He is mainly remembered for his support of the cause of the American Revolutionaries, and for his later opposition to the French Revolution. The latter led to his becoming the leading figure within the conservative faction of the Whig party, which he dubbed the "Old Whigs", in opposition to the pro-French Revolution "New Whigs", led by Charles James Fox. Reflections on the Revolution in France (?)

Giordano Bruno

an Italian Dominican friar, philosopher, mathematician, astrologer and astronomer. His cosmological theories went beyond the Copernican model: while supporting its heliocentrism, he also correctly proposed that the Sun was just another star moving in space, and claimed as well that the universe contained an infinite number of inhabited worlds populated by other intelligent beings. The Roman Inquisition found him guilty of heresy and he was burned at the stake.

Giuseppe Verdi

an Italian Romantic composer primarily known for his operas. dominated the Italian opera scene after the eras of Bellini, Donizetti and Rossini. His works are frequently performed in opera houses throughout the world and, transcending the boundaries of the genre, some of his themes have long since taken root in popular culture, as "La donna è mobile" from Rigoletto, "Libiamo ne' lieti calici" (The Drinking Song) from La traviata, "Va, pensiero" (The Chorus of the Hebrew Slaves) from Nabucco, the "Coro di zingari" (Anvil Chorus) from Il trovatore and the "Grand March" from Aida. wrote Messa da Requiem remains - alongside Garibaldi and Cavour - an emblematic figure of the reunification process of the Italian peninsula (the Risorgimento). Rigoletto Nabucco Aida La Traviata Il Trovatore Falstaff Otello Macbeth

Caravaggio

an Italian artist active in Rome, Naples, Malta, and Sicily between 1592 (1595?) and 1610. His paintings, which combine a realistic observation of the human state, both physical and emotional, with a dramatic use of lighting, had a formative influence on the Baroque school of painting. Calling of St. Matthew; The Musicians; Entombment of Christ; Conversion of St. Paul

Vittorio Orlando

an Italian diplomat and political figure. He was prime minister of Italy during World War I and was one of the Big Four leaders that built the world order after WWI. He was born in Palermo, Sicily. His father, a landed gentleman, delayed venturing out to register his son's birth for fear of Giuseppe Garibaldi's 1,000 patriots who had just stormed into Sicily on the first leg of their march to build an Italian nation. In 1897 he was elected in the Italian Chamber of Deputies (Italian: Camera dei Deputati) for the district of Partinico for which he was constantly reelected until 1925. He aligned himself with Giovanni Giolitti, who was Prime Minister of Italy five times between 1892 and 1921.

Acerbo Law

an Italian electoral law proposed by Baron Giacomo Acerbo and passed by the Italian Parliament in November 1923. The purpose of it was to give Mussolini's fascist party a majority of deputies. stated that the party gaining the largest share of the votes - provided they had gained at least 25 percent of the votes - gained two-thirds of the seats in parliament. The remaining third was shared amongst the other parties proportionally.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

an Italian general and politician. He is considered, with Camillo Cavour, Victor Emmanuel II and Giuseppe Mazzini, as one of Italy's "fathers of the fatherland". He was a central figure in the Italian Risorgimento, since he personally commanded and fought in many military campaigns that led eventually to the formation of a unified Italy. He was appointed general by the provisional government of Milan in 1848, General of the Roman Republic in 1849 by the Minister of War, and led the Expedition of the Thousand on behalf and with the consent of Victor Emmanuel II. associated with "Red Shirts"

Guglielmo Marconi

an Italian inventor and electrical engineer, known for his pioneering work on long-distance radio transmissio and for his development of his namesake law and a radio telegraph system. He is often credited as the inventor of radio, and he shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Karl Ferdinand Braun "in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy". An entrepreneur, businessman, and founder in Britain in 1897 of The Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company (which became his namesake Company), he succeeded in making a commercial success of radio by innovating and building on the work of previous experimenters and physicists In 1924 the King of Italy ennobled him as a Marchese (marquis).

Cesare Beccaria

an Italian jurist, philosopher and politician best known for his treatise On Crimes and Punishments (1764), which condemned torture and the death penalty, and was a founding work in the field of penology and the Classical School of criminology. He promoted criminal justice.

Toscanelli

an Italian mathematician, astronomer, and cosmographer. noted for his observations of comets. Among these was the comet of 1456; only named Halley's comet when Halley predicted its return in 1759. Created map that misjudged size of world, so Columbus sailed and hit America

Niccolo Tartaglia

an Italian mathematician, engineer (designing fortifications), a surveyor (of topography, seeking the best means of defense or offense) and a bookkeeper from the then-Republic of Venice (now part of Italy). He published many books, including the first Italian translations of Archimedes and Euclid, and an acclaimed compilation of mathematics. He was the first to apply mathematics to the investigation of the paths of cannonballs, known as ballistics, in his Nova Scientia, "A New Science;" his work was later validated by Galileo's studies on falling bodies. He also published a treatise on retrieving sunken ships.

Uccello, Paolo

an Italian painter and a mathematician who was notable for his pioneering work on visual perspective in art. Giorgio Vasari in his book Lives of the Artists wrote that he was obsessed by his interest in perspective and would stay up all night in his study trying to grasp the exact vanishing point. He used perspective in order to create a feeling of depth in his paintings and not, as his contemporaries, to narrate different or succeeding stories. His best known works are the three paintings representing the battle of San Romano (for a long time these were wrongly entitled the "Battle of Sant' Egidio of 1416"). Also did a St. George and the Dragon piece

Romanticism

an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850. Partly a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, it was also a revolt against the aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature. It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education and the natural sciences. Its effect on politics was considerable and complex; while for much of the peak of this period it was associated with liberalism and radicalism, in the long term its effect on the growth of nationalism was probably more significant.

Munich Olympic Massacre, 1972

an attack during the 1972 Summer Olympics in ______, West Germany on 11 members of the Israeli Olympic team, who were taken hostage and eventually killed, along with a German police officer, by the Palestinian group Black September.] Shortly after the crisis began, they demanded the release of 234 prisoners held in Israeli jails, and the release of the founders (Andreas Baader and Ulrike Meinhof) of the German Red Army Faction, who were held in German prisons. Black September called the operation "Iqrit and Biram", after two Palestinian Christian villages whose inhabitants were expelled by the Haganah in 1948. The attackers were apparently given logistical assistance by German neo-Nazis. Five of the eight members of Black September were killed by police officers during a failed rescue attempt. The three surviving attackers were captured, but later released by West Germany following the hijacking of a Lufthansa airliner. Israel responded to the killers' release with Operation "Spring of Youth" and Operation "Wrath of God", during which Israeli intelligence agency Mossad and special forces systematically tracked down and killed Palestinians suspected of involvement in the massacre.

(Fire Storm) Bombing of Dresden

an attack on the namesake city, the capital of the German state of Saxony, that took place in the final months of the Second World War in the European Theatre. In four raids between 13 and 15 February 1945, 722 heavy bombers of the British Royal Air Force (RAF) and 527 of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) dropped more than 3,900 tons of high-explosive bombs and incendiary devices on the city. The bombing and the resulting firestorm destroyed over 1,600 acres (6.5 km2) of the city centre. Between 22,700 and 25,000 people were killed. Three more USAAF air raids followed, two occurring on 2 March and 17 April aimed at the city's Marshalling yard and one small raid on 17 April aimed at industrial areas.

Dawes Plan

an attempt following World War I for the Triple Entente to compromise and collect war reparations debt from Germany. It was an attempt in 1924 to solve the reparations problem, which had bedeviled international politics following World War I and the Treaty of Versailles. The Allied occupation of the Ruhr industrial area contributed to the hyperinflation crisis in Germany, partially because of its disabling effect on the German economy. The plan provided for an end to the Allied occupation, and a staggered payment plan for Germany's payment of war reparations. Because the Plan resolved a serious international crisis, the namesake person shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 1925 for his work. It was an interim measure and proved unworkable. The Young Plan was adopted in 1929 to replace it. (helped set up Great Depression?)

Factory Act 1833

an attempt to establish a regular working day in the textile industry. The act had the following provisions: Children (ages 14-18) must not work more than 12 hours a day with an hour lunch break. Note that this enabled employers to run two 'shifts' of child labour each working day in order to employ their adult male workers for longer. Children (ages 9-13) must not work more than 8 hours with an hour lunch break. Children (ages 9-13) must have two hours of education per day. Outlawed the employment of children under 9 in the textile industry. Children under 18 must not work at night. Provided for routine inspections of factories.

Rocket

an early steam locomotive of 0-2-2 wheel arrangement, built in 1829 at the Forth Street Works of Robert Stephenson and Company in Newcastle Upon Tyne. It was built for, and won, the Rainhill Trials held by the Liverpool & Manchester Railway in 1829 to choose the best design to power the railway. Though it was not the first steam locomotive, it was the first to bring together several innovations to produce the most advanced locomotive of its day. (I'm assuming this is what this term means)

Cubism

an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement pioneered by Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, joined by Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay, Henri Le Fauconnier, Fernand Léger and Juan Gris that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. It has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century. The term is broadly used in association with a wide variety of art produced in Paris (Montmartre, Montparnasse and Puteaux) during the 1910s and extending through the 1920s. Variants such as Futurism and Constructivism developed in other countries. A primary influence that led to it was the representation of three-dimensional form in the late works of Paul Cézanne, which were displayed in a retrospective at the 1907 Salon d'Automne. In this type of artwork, objects are analyzed, broken up and reassembled in an abstracted form—instead of depicting objects from one viewpoint, the artist depicts the subject from a multitude of viewpoints to represent the subject in a greater context.

New Economic Policy (NEP)

an economic policy of Soviet Russia proposed by Vladimir Lenin, who called it "state capitalism". represented a more capitalism-oriented economic policy, deemed necessary after the Russian Civil War of 1917 to 1922, to foster the economy of the country, which was almost ruined. The complete nationalization of industry, established during the period of War Communism, was partially revoked and a system of mixed economy was introduced, which allowed private individuals to own small enterprises, while the state continued to control banks, foreign trade, and large industries. abolished prodrazvyorstka (forced grain requisition) and introduced prodnalog: a tax on farmers, payable in the form of raw agricultural product.

Socialism

an economic system characterised by social ownership of the means of production and co-operative management of the economy. "Social ownership" may refer to cooperative enterprises, common ownership, state ownership, citizen ownership of equity, or any combination of these. There are many varieties of this and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them. They differ in the type of social ownership they advocate, the degree to which they rely on markets or planning, how management is to be organised within productive institutions, and the role of the state in constructing it.

League of Nations

an intergovernmental organisation founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament, and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration. Other issues in this and related treaties included labour conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe. At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. The diplomatic philosophy behind it represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years. It lacked its own armed force and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide an army when needed. However, the Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt members, so they were reluctant to comply with them. When, during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, it accused Italian soldiers of targeting Red Cross medical tents, Benito Mussolini responded that "the League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out." After a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, it ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. Germany withdrew from it, as did Japan, Italy, Spain, and others. The onset of the Second World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to prevent any future world war. It lasted for 27 years; the United Nations (UN) replaced it after the end of the Second World War and inherited a number of agencies and organisations founded by it.

Treaty of Rome

an international agreement that led to the founding of the European Economic Community (EEC) on 1 January 1958. It was signed on 25 March 1957 by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany. The word Economic was deleted from the treaty's name by the Maastricht Treaty in 1993, and the treaty was repackaged as the Treaty on the functioning of the European Union on the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009. proposed the progressive reduction of customs duties and the establishment of a customs union. It proposed to create a common market of goods, workers, services and capital within the EEC's member states. It also proposed the creation of common transport and agriculture policies and a European social fund. It also established the European Commission.

Comintern

an international communist organization initiated in Moscow during March 1919. It intended to fight "by all available means, including armed force, for the overthrow of the international bourgeoisie and for the creation of an international Soviet republic as a transition stage to the complete abolition of the State." It was founded after the 1915 Zimmerwald Conference in which Vladimir Lenin had organized the "Zimmerwald Left" against those who refused to approve any statement explicitly endorsing socialist revolutionary action, and after the 1916 dissolution of the Second International. It had seven World Congresses between 1919 and 1935. It also had thirteen "Enlarged Plenums" of its governing Executive Committee, which had much the same function as the somewhat larger and more grandiose Congresses. It was officially dissolved by Joseph Stalin during 1943.

(First) Moroccan Crisis 1905-6

an international crisis between March 1905 and May 1906 over the status of this place. Germany attempted to use the issue of this place's independence to increase frictions between France and the United Kingdom, as well as to advance German commercial interests in Morocco. They succeeded in their stated goal of assuring this place's independence, but failed to attract diplomatic support for their positions at the resulting international conference. The crisis worsened German relations with both France and the United Kingdom, and helped ensure the success of the new Anglo-French Entente Cordiale. It has been named as one of the Causes of World War I.

European Coal and Steel Community

an international organisation serving to unify European countries after the Second World War. It was formally established by the Treaty of Paris (1951), which was signed by Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. It was the first international organisation to be based on the principles of supranationalism, and would ultimately lead the way to the founding of the European Union.

First International

an international organization which aimed at uniting a variety of different left-wing socialist, communist and anarchist political groups and trade union organizations that were based on the working class and class struggle. It was founded in 1864 in a workmen's meeting held in Saint Martin's Hall, London. Its first congress was held in 1866 in Geneva.

Ballet Russe

an itinerant ballet company based in Paris that performed between 1909 and 1929 throughout Europe and on tours to North and South America. The company never performed in Russia, where the Revolution disrupted society. After its initial Paris season, the company had no formal ties there. Originally conceived by impresario Sergei Diaghilev, it is widely regarded as the most influential ballet company of the 20th century, in part because it promoted ground-breaking artistic collaborations among young choreographers, composers, designers, and dancers, all at the forefront of their several fields. Diaghilev commissioned works from composers such as Igor Stravinsky and Claude Debussy, and artists such as Léon Bakst, Pablo Picasso, and Henri Matisse, and designer Coco Chanel.

trade union

an organization of workers who have united together to achieve common goals such as protecting the integrity of its trade, achieving higher pay, increasing the number of employees an employer hires, and better working conditions.

June Days

an uprising staged by the workers of France from 23 June to 26 June 1848. It was in response to plans to close the National Workshops, created by the Second Republic in order to provide work and a source of income for the unemployed; however, only low pay, dead-end jobs were provided, which barely provided enough money to survive. The National Guard, led by General Louis Eugène Cavaignac, was called out to quell the protests. Things did not go peacefully and over 10,000 people were either killed or injured, while 4,000 insurgents were deported to Algeria. This marked the end of the hopes of a "Democratic and Social Republic" (République démocratique et sociale) and the victory of the liberals over the Radical Republicans.

Ruhr Valley

an urban area in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. The development of the region into an urbanized industrial area started in the late 18th century with the early industrialisation in the nearby Wupper Valley in the Bergisches Land. By around 1820, hundreds of water-powered mills were producing textiles, lumber, shingles and iron in automated processes here. And in even more workshops in the hills, highly skilled workers manufactured knives, tools, weapons and harnesses, using water, coal and charcoal. History has no established name for this phase of the industrial revolution, but one could call it the early waterpowered industrial revolution. As the machines became bigger and moved from water power to steam power, locally mined coal and charcoal became expensive and there was not enough of it. The Bergische industry ordered more and more coal from the new coal mining area along the river (that has the same name). Impressive and expensive railways were constructed through the hilly Wupper region, to bring coal, and later steel, in from this pplace, and for outward transport of finished products. By 1850, there were almost 300 coal mines in operation in the area in and around the central cities of Duisburg, Essen, Bochum and Dortmund.

Ruhr region

an urban area in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. With a population density of 2,800/km² and a population of some eight and a half million, it is the largest urban agglomeration in Germany. It consists of several large, industrial cities bordered by the its namesake river to the south, the Rhine to the west, and the Lippe to the north. In the Southwest it borders the Bergisches Land. center of industrialization in Germany (?)

Nuremberg Laws

antisemitic laws in Nazi Germany introduced at the annual Nuremberg Rally of the Nazi Party. After the takeover of power in 1933 by Hitler, Nazism became an official ideology incorporating anti-Semitism as a form of scientific racism. There was a rapid growth in German legislation directed at Jews and other groups, such as the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service which banned "non-Aryans" and political opponents of the Nazis, from the civil service. The lack of a clear legal method of defining who was Jewish had, however, allowed some Jews to escape some forms of discrimination aimed at them. The enactment of laws identifying who was Jewish made it easier for the Nazis to enforce legislation restricting the basic rights of German Jews. classified people with four German grandparents as "German or kindred blood", while people were classified as Jews if they descended from three or four Jewish grandparents. A person with one or two Jewish grandparents was a Mischling, a crossbreed, of "mixed blood". They classified as "racially acceptable" people with "German or related blood" These laws deprived Jews and other non-Aryans of German citizenship and prohibited racially mixed sexual relations and marriages between Germans and Jews. On the 26 November 1935, the laws were extended to "Gypsies, Negroes or their bastard offspring". They also included a ban on sexual relations and marriages between persons classified as "Aryan" and "non-Aryan". They ultimately prevented Jews from participating in German civic life. These laws were both an attempt to return the Jews of 20th-century Germany to the position that Jews had held before their emancipation in the 19th century; although in the 19th century Jews could have evaded restrictions by converting, this was no longer possible.

Voltaire

author of Candide and other writings a French Enlightenment writer, historian and philosopher famous for his wit, his attacks on the established Catholic Church, and his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and separation of church and state. He was a versatile writer, producing works in almost every literary form, including plays, poems, novels, essays, and historical and scientific works. He wrote more than 20,000 letters and more than 2,000 books and pamphlets. He was an outspoken advocate, despite the risk this placed him in under the strict censorship laws of the time. As a satirical polemicist, he frequently made use of his works to criticize intolerance, religious dogma, and the French institutions of his day.

Descartes

author of Discoure on Method; a French philosopher, mathematician, and writer who spent most of his adult life in the Dutch Republic. He has been dubbed the 'Father of Modern Philosophy', and much subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day. In particular, his Meditations on First Philosophy continues to be a standard text at most university philosophy departments. Created namesake coordinate system. Proponent of rationalism. "I think, therefore I am"

Denis Diderot

author of Encyclopedia (or Encyclopedie) a French philosopher, art critic, and writer. He was a prominent person during the Enlightenment and is best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the Encyclopédie along with Jean le Rond d'Alembert.

Locke

author of Essay Concerning Human Understanding an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social contract theory. His work had a great impact upon the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence. his theory of mind is often cited as the origin of modern conceptions of identity and the self, figuring prominently in the work of later philosophers such as Hume, Rousseau and Kant. He was the first to define the self through a continuity of consciousness. He postulated that the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa. Contrary to pre-existing Cartesian philosophy, he maintained that we are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived from sense perception.

Marin Mersenne

author of Harmonie Universelle; a French theologian, philosopher, mathematician and music theorist, often referred to as the "father of acoustics". studied optics and string oscillations

Thomas Hobbes

author of Leviathan; an English philosopher, best known today for his work on political philosophy. His 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory. Championed absolute sovereign; believed human state of nature was terrible

Ficino, Marsilio

one of the most influential humanist philosophers of the early Italian Renaissance, an astrologer, a reviver of Neoplatonism who was in touch with every major academic thinker and writer of his day, and the first translator of Plato's complete extant works into Latin. His Florentine Academy, an attempt to revive Plato's school, had enormous influence on the direction and tenor of the Italian Renaissance and the development of European philosophy.

Francis Bacon

author of New Atlantis and Novum Organum; English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, orator and author. He served both as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England. After his death, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution. has been called the creator of empiricism. His works established and popularized inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry famously died by contracting pneumonia while studying the effects of freezing on the preservation of meat.

Simone de Beauvoir

author of The Second Sex a French writer, intellectual, existentialist philosopher, political activist, feminist and social theorist. Though she did not consider herself a philosopher, she had a significant influence on both feminist existentialism and feminist theory. She wrote novels, essays, biographies, an autobiography and monographs on philosophy, politics and social issues. She is best known for her novels, including She Came to Stay and The Mandarins, as well as her 1949 treatise The Second Sex, a detailed analysis of women's oppression and a foundational tract of contemporary feminism.

Thomas Kuhn

author of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions: a 1962 book about the history of science. Its publication was a landmark event in the history, philosophy, and sociology of scientific knowledge and triggered an ongoing worldwide assessment and reaction in—and beyond—those scholarly communities; challenged the then prevailing view of progress in "normal science". Normal scientific progress was viewed as "development-by-accumulation" of accepted facts and theories; argued for an episodic model in which periods of such conceptual continuity in normal science were interrupted by periods of revolutionary science. The discovery of "anomalies" during revolutions in science leads to new paradigms. New paradigms then ask new questions of old data, move beyond the mere "puzzle-solving" of the previous paradigm, change the rules of the game and the "map" directing new research.

Adam Smith

author of The Wealth of Nations a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economy. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, he is best known for two classic works: The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. He is cited as the "father of modern economics" and is still among the most influential thinkers in the field of economics today.

David Hume

author of Treatise on Human Nature and Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding posited that if we don't know anything about matter, we also don't know about interaction cause and effect based only on experience; cannot be proven identity based on experience and connections with the natural world; can only be inferred leads to radical skepticism: knowledge is impossible known especially for his philosophical empiricism and skepticism.

John Locke

author of Two Treatises on Government; widely known as the Father of Classical Liberalism, was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social contract theory. His work had a great impact upon the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence. Believed in good human nature; natural rights and stuff

Arminianism

based on the theological ideas of the previously Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Arminius (1560-1609) and his historic supporters known as the Remonstrants. (branch of Calvinism?)

Marie Antoinette

born an Archduchess of Austria, was Dauphine of France from 1770 to 1774 and Queen of France and Navarre from 1774 to 1792. She was the fifteenth and penultimate child of Holy Roman Emperor Francis I and Empress Maria Theresa. In April 1770, upon her marriage to Louis-Auguste, Dauphin of France, she became Dauphine of France. She assumed the title of Queen of France and of Navarre when her husband, Louis XVI of France, ascended the throne upon the death of Louis XV in May 1774. After seven years of marriage, she gave birth to a daughter, Marie-Thérèse Charlotte, the first of four children. Initially charmed by her personality and beauty, the French people generally came to dislike her, accusing "L'Autrichienne" (meaning the Austrian (woman)) of being profligate, promiscuous, and of harboring sympathies for France's enemies, particularly Austria, her country of origin. The Diamond Necklace incident damaged her reputation further, although she was completely innocent in this affair. She later became known as Madame Déficit because of her lavish spendings during famine times. The royal family's flight to Varennes had disastrous effects on French popular opinion: Louis XVI was deposed and the monarchy abolished on 21 September 1792; the royal family was subsequently imprisoned at the Temple Prison. Eight months after her husband's execution, she was herself tried, convicted by the Convention of treason to the principles of the revolution, and executed by guillotine on 16 October 1793.

Belgian Independence

came about as a result of a Revolution of 1830 The people of the south were nearly all Catholics; half were French-speaking. Many outspoken liberals regarded King William I's rule as despotic. There were high levels of unemployment and industrial unrest among the working classes. On 25 August 1830 riots erupted in Brussels and shops were looted. Theatergoers who had just watched a nationalistic opera joined the mob. Uprisings followed elsewhere in the country. Factories were occupied and machinery destroyed. Order was restored briefly after William committed troops to the Southern Provinces but rioting continued and leadership was taken up by radicals, who started talking of secession. Dutch units saw the mass desertion of recruits from the southern provinces, and pulled out. The States-General in Brussels voted in favour of secession and declared independence.

Cardinal Wolsey

cardinal that was very diplomatic and right-hand man of Henry VIII (for a time); people started to turn on him; accused of treason; died on way to trial; he tried his best to annul marriage to Catherine of Aragon though and did do some good diplomacy (Field of the Cloth of Gold)

National Convention

comprised the constitutional and legislative assembly of France and sat from 20 September 1792 to 26 October 1795 (the 4th of Brumaire of the year IV under the French Republican Calendar adopted by the Convention). Robespierre and Danton Committee of Public Safety 1792 - 1795

Battle of Saratoga

conclusively decided the fate of British General John Burgoyne's army in the American War of Independence and are generally regarded as a turning point in the war. News of Burgoyne's surrender was instrumental in formally bringing France into the war as an American ally, although it had previously given supplies, ammunition and guns, notably the de Valliere cannon, which played an important role in Saratoga. Formal participation by France changed the war to a global conflict. This battle also resulted in Spain contributing to the war on the American side.

German Economic Miracle

describes the rapid reconstruction and development of the economies of West Germany and Austria after World War II (adopting an Ordoliberalism based social market economy). The expression was first used by The Times in 1950. Beginning with the replacement of the Reichsmark with the Deutsche Mark as legal tender (the Schilling was similarly established in Austria), a lasting period of low inflation and rapid industrial growth was overseen by the government led by German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer and his Minister of Economics, Ludwig Erhard, who went down in history as the "father of the ___________." In Austria, efficient labor practices led to a similar period of economic growth. The era of economic growth raised Germany and Austria from total wartime devastation to developed nations in modern Europe. At the founding of the European Common Market in 1957 Germany's economic growth stood in contrast to the struggling conditions at the time in the United Kingdom.

Columbus

discovered America in 1492...(also was supported by Ferdinand and Isabella)

First Treaty of Paris (1814)

ended the war between France and the Sixth Coalition, part of the Napoleonic Wars, following an armistice signed on 23 May between Charles, Count of Artois, and the allies. It established peace between France and the United Kingdom, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, who in March had defined their common war aim in Chaumont, and was also signed by Portugal and Sweden. Spain signed later in July. restored Bourbon Monarchy to France set up Congress of Vienna

Ausgleich

established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. It re-established the sovereignty of the Kingdom of Hungary, separate from and no longer subject to the Austrian Empire. Under this, the lands of the House of Habsburg were reorganized as a real union between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary. The Cisleithanian (Austrian) and Transleithanian (Hungarian) regions of the state were governed by separate parliaments and prime ministers. Unity was maintained through rule of a single head of state, the Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, and common monarchy-wide ministries of foreign affairs, defence and finance under his direct authority. The armed forces were combined with the Emperor-King as commander-in-chief.

Frederick William III

king of Prussia from 1797 to 1840. He ruled Prussia during the difficult times of the Napoleonic wars and the end of the old German Empire. Steering a careful course between France and her enemies, after a major military defeat in 1806, he eventually and reluctantly joined the coalition against Napoleon in the Befreiungskriege. Following Napoleon's defeat he was King of Prussia during the Congress of Vienna which assembled to settle the political questions arising from the new, post-Napoleonic order in Europe. (part of Holy Alliance)

First Northern War

fought between Sweden and its adversaries the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1655-60), Russia (1656-58), Brandenburg-Prussia (1657-1660), the Habsburg Monarchy (1657-60) and Denmark-Norway (1657-58 and 1658-60). The Dutch Republic often intervened against Sweden. Result: Treaties of Roskilde (1658) and Copenhagen (1660) (Sweden and Denmark) Treaty of Oliva (1660) (Sweden and Habsburg, Brandenburg, Poland-Lithuania) Treaties of Valiesar (1658) and Cardis (1661) (Sweden and Russia) Territorial changes: Scania, Halland, Blekinge, Bohuslän and Ven become Swedish Duchy of Prussia becomes a sovereign state Sweden's sovereignty in Swedish Livonia accepted Loss of New Sweden to the Netherlands

Battle of Sedan

fought during the Franco-Prussian War on 1 September 1870. It resulted in the capture of Emperor Napoleon III and large numbers of his troops and for all intents and purposes decided the war in favour of Prussia and its allies, though fighting continued under a new French government.

Spanish Civil War

fought from 17 July 1936 to 1 April 1939 between the Republicans, who were loyal to the democratically elected Spanish Republic, and the Nationalists, a rebel group led by General Francisco Franco. The Nationalists prevailed, and Franco ruled Spain for the next 36 years, from 1939 until his death in 1975.

Greek Civil War

fought from 1946-49 between the Greek government army—backed by the United Kingdom and the United States—and the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE), the military branch of the Greek Communist Party (KKE), backed by the USSR, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Albania. It was the result of a highly polarized struggle between leftists and rightists that started in 1943 and targeted the power vacuum that the German-Italian occupation during World War II had created. One of the first conflicts of the Cold War, according to some analysts it represents the first example of postwar North European and North American involvement in the internal politics of a foreign country. (eventually Greek government won out)(?)

Battle of Waterloo

fought on Sunday, 18 June 1815, near namesake place in present-day Belgium, then part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. An Imperial French army under the command of Emperor Napoleon was defeated by the armies of the Seventh Coalition, comprising an Anglo-allied army under the command of the Duke of Wellington combined with a Prussian army under the command of Gebhard von Blücher. It was Napoleon's last battle. This defeat ended his rule as Emperor of the French, marking the end of his Hundred Days return from exile.

Provisional Government

government immediately following the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II (March 15, 1917). The government replaced the institution of the Council of Ministers of Russia, members of which after the February Revolution presided in the Chief Office of Admiralty. The intention of this was the organization of elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly and its convention. The government was initially composed of the Kadet coalition led by Prince Georgy Lvov, which was replaced by the Socialist coalition led by Alexander Kerensky. On September 14, the country's legislature (the Duma) was officially dissolved by the newly created Directorate and the country was officially declared the Russian Republic (Russian: Российская республика, translit. Rossiyskaya respublika), even though the state status as such occurred with the fall of monarchy (Tsar's abdication). It lasted approximately eight months, and ceased to exist when the Bolsheviks took over after the October Revolution (or November 1917, depending on Calendar Dating Styles).

Pope Urban VIII

head of the Catholic Church from 6 August 1623 to his death in 1644. He was the last pope to expand the papal territory by force of arms, and was a prominent patron of the arts and reformer of Church missions. However, the massive debts incurred during his papacy greatly weakened his successors, who were unable to maintain the papacy's longstanding political and military influence in Europe. He was also involved in a controversy with Galileo and his theory on heliocentrism during his reign.

Potsdam Conference

held at Cecilienhof, the home of Crown Prince Wilhelm Hohenzollern, in ______, occupied Germany, from 17 July to 2 August 1945. Participants were the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States. The three powers were represented by Communist Party General Secretary Joseph Stalin, Prime Ministers Winston Churchill, and, later, Clement Attlee, and President Harry S. Truman. Stalin, Churchill, and Truman—as well as Attlee, who participated alongside Churchill while awaiting the outcome of the 1945 general election, and then replaced Churchill as Prime Minister after the Labour Party's defeat of the Conservatives—gathered to decide how to administer punishment to the defeated Nazi Germany, which had agreed to unconditional surrender nine weeks earlier, on 8 May (V-E Day). The goals of the conference also included the establishment of post-war order, peace treaties issues, and countering the effects of the war. (Truman gets call about successful A-Bomb test)

Tories

hold a political philosophy based on the traditionalism and conservatism originating with the Cavalier faction during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. This ideology is prominent in the politics of the United Kingdom, and also appears in parts of The Commonwealth, particularly in Canada. It also had exponents in parts of the former British Empire, such as the Loyalists of British America who opposed American independence during the American Revolutionary War. Their ethos has been summed up with the phrase 'God, King and Country.' They generally advocate monarchism, are usually of a High Church Anglican religious heritage, and are opposed to the radical liberalism of the Whig faction. Under the Corn Laws (1815-1846) a majority of them supported protectionist agrarianism with tariffs being imposed abroad at the time for sustainability, self-sufficiency and enhanced wages in rural employment.

Francis I

king of France; rivals Henry VIII and Charles V a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1515 until his death. He was the son of Charles, Count of Angoulême, and Louise of Savoy. He succeeded his cousin and father-in-law Louis XII, who died without a male heir. persevered in the long and ruinous military conflict between France and the Holy Roman Empire known as the Italian Wars. In his struggle against Imperial hegemony he unsuccessfully sought the support of Henry VIII of England at the Field of the Cloth of Gold. As an alternative, he formed a Franco-Ottoman alliance with Suleiman the Magnificent, a controversial move for a Christian king at the time.

Frederick William III

king of Prussia from 1797 to 1840. He ruled Prussia during the difficult times of the Napoleonic wars and the end of the old German Empire. Steering a careful course between France and her enemies, after a major military defeat in 1806, he eventually and reluctantly joined the coalition against Napoleon in the Befreiungskriege. Following Napoleon's defeat he was King of Prussia during the Congress of Vienna which assembled to settle the political questions arising from the new, post-Napoleonic order in Europe.

Charles XII (Sweden)

king of Sweden; In 1700, a triple alliance of Denmark-Norway, Saxony-Poland-Lithuania and Russia launched a threefold attack on the Swedish protectorate of Swedish Holstein-Gottorp and provinces of Livonia and Ingria, aiming to draw advantage as Sweden was unaligned and ruled by a young and inexperienced king, thus initiating the Great Northern War. Leading the formidable Swedish army against the alliance, Charles had by 1706 forced to submission all of his foes except Russia. Able to fight against Russia for a while but eventually loses and gives up Swedish territory; begins the decline of Sweden to second-rate power

Invasion of Afghanistan (Soviet)

lasted nine years from December 1979 to February 1989. Part of the Cold War, it was fought between Soviet-led Afghan forces against multi-national insurgent groups called the Mujahideen, mostly composed of two alliances - the Peshawar Seven and the Tehran Eight. The Peshawar Seven insurgents received military training in neighboring Pakistan and China, as well as weapons and billions of dollars from the United States, United Kingdom, Saudi Arabia, and other countries. The Shia groups of the Tehran Eight alliance received support from the Islamic Republic of Iran. Early in the rule of the PDPA government, the Maoist Afghanistan Liberation Organization also played a significant role in opposition, but its major force was defeated by late 1979, prior to the Soviet intervention. The decade-long war resulted in millions of Afghans fleeing their country, mostly to Pakistan and Iran. Hundreds of thousands of Afghan civilians were killed in addition to the rebels in the war. The initial Soviet deployment of the 40th Army in Afghanistan began on December 24, 1979, under Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev. The final troop withdrawal started on May 15, 1988, and ended on February 15, 1989, under the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev. Due to the interminable nature of the war, the conflict in Afghanistan has sometimes been referred to as the "Soviet Union's Vietnam War" or the "Bear Trap".

Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800

made trade unionism illegal. The laws, as finally amended, sentenced to three months in jail or to two months' hard labour any workingman who combined with another to gain an increase in wages or a decrease in hours or who solicited anyone else to leave work or objected to working with any other workman. The sentence was to be imposed by two magistrates, and appeal was made extremely difficult. Anyone contributing to the expenses of a person convicted under the act was subject to a fine, and defendants could be forced to bear witness against each other. Other clauses forbade employers' combinations, but these were never in any recorded case put into operation. The repeal of them in 1824 was followed by a number of strikes, and in 1825 an unsuccessful attempt was made to reimpose the acts.

Junkers

members of the landed nobility in Prussia. They owned great estates that were maintained and worked by Slavic peasants with few rights. They were a dominant factor in Prussian and, after 1871, German military, political and diplomatic leadership.

Junkers

members of the landed nobility in Prussia. They owned great estates that were maintained and worked by peasants with few rights. They were a dominant factor in Prussian and, after 1871, German military, political and diplomatic leadership. The most famous one was Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. They were expelled by the Soviets after 1944 and their lands confiscated.

Cort process

method created by namesake guy to refine iron ore coke (made by slowly burning coal) is used to purify pig iron and transform it into wrought iron

Charles II (England)

monarch put on throne of England (and I guess the other places as well) via Restoration; accused of being tolerant towards Catholics because he passed Declaration of Indulgence (improved religious toleration); Parliament was angered with siding with France in Dutch War and forced him to side with Dutch

Benito Mussolini

n Italian politician, journalist, and leader of the National Fascist Party, ruling the country as Prime Minister from 1922 until his ousting in 1943. He ruled constitutionally until 1925, when he dropped all pretense of democracy and set up a legal dictatorship. Known as Il Duce ("the leader"), he was one of the key figures in the creation of fascism. expelled from the PSI due to his opposition to the party's stance on neutrality in World War I. He denounced the PSI, and later founded the fascist movement. Following the March on Rome in October 1922 he became the youngest Prime Minister in Italian history until the appointment of Matteo Renzi on February 2014. After destroying all political opposition through his secret police and outlawing labor strikes, he and his fascist followers consolidated their power through a series of laws that transformed the nation into a one-party dictatorship. Within five years he had established dictatorial authority by both legal and extraordinary means, aspiring to create a totalitarian state. He remained in power until he was deposed by King Victor Emmanuel III in 1943. A few months later, he became the leader of the Italian Social Republic, a German client regime in northern Italy; he held this post until his death in 1945.

Peterloo Massacre

occurred at St Peter's Field, Manchester, England, on 16 August 1819, when cavalry charged into a crowd of 60,000-80,000 that had gathered to demand the reform of parliamentary representation. The end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 had resulted in periods of famine and chronic unemployment, exacerbated by the introduction of the first of the Corn Laws. By the beginning of 1819, the pressure generated by poor economic conditions, coupled with the relative lack of suffrage in Northern England, had enhanced the appeal of political radicalism. In response, the Manchester Patriotic Union, a group agitating for parliamentary reform, organised a demonstration to be addressed by the well-known radical orator Henry Hunt. Shortly after the meeting began local magistrates called on the military authorities to arrest Hunt and several others on the hustings with him, and to disperse the crowd. Cavalry charged into the crowd with sabres drawn, and in the ensuing confusion, 15 people were killed and 400-700 were injured.

Article 231

often known as the War Guilt Clause, was the opening article of Part VIII, the reparations section of the treaty. The article, with the signatory's name changed, was also included in the treaties signed by Germany's allies. The article was one of the most controversial points of the treaty. It required "Germany [to] accept the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage" during the war. Germans viewed this clause as forcing Germany to accept full responsibility for the cause of the war, and a national humiliation. German politicians were vocal in their opposition to the article, in an attempt to generate international sympathy while German historians worked to undermine the article with the objective of subverting the entire treaty. On the other hand, the Allied leaders were surprised at the German reaction. They saw the article as only a legal requirement to yield German compensation. American diplomat John Foster Dulles — one of the two authors of the article — later regretted the wording used, believing it further aggravated the German people. Germany objected to the statement "the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies." The historical consensus is that that responsibility or guilt for the war was not attached to the article, but that the clause was a prerequisite to allow a legal basis to be laid out for the reparation payments that were to be made. Historians have also highlighted the damage done by the clause, which caused anger and resentment amongst the German population.

Popular Front (France and Spain)

often made up of leftists and centrists. Being very broad, they can sometimes include centrist and liberal (or "bourgeois") forces as well as socialist and communist ("working-class") groups. Popular fronts are larger in scope than united fronts, which contain only working-class groups. In addition to the general definition, the term also has a specific meaning in the history of Europe and the United States during the 1930s, and in the history of Communism and the Communist Party. During this time in France, the "front populaire" referred to the alliance of political parties aimed at resisting Fascism.

Flying shuttle

one of the key developments in the industrialization of weaving. It allowed a single weaver to weave much wider fabrics, and it could be mechanized, allowing for automatic machine looms. It was patented by John Kay (1704-c. 1779) in 1733.

House of Hapsburg-Lorraine

one of the longest-reigning royal houses in the history of Europe. Following the failure of both Emperor Joseph I and Emperor Charles VI to produce a son and heir, the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 left the throne to the latter's yet unborn daughter, Maria Theresa. In 1736 Emperor Charles arranged her marriage to Francis of Lorraine who agreed to exchange his hereditary lands for the Grand Duchy of Tuscany (as well as Duchy of Teschen from the Emperor). At Charles's death in 1740 the Habsburg lands passed to Maria Theresa and Francis, who was later elected Holy Roman Emperor as Francis I. This house was then created, and survived, the War of the Austrian Succession.

Revolution of 1848 (Hungary)

one of the many European Revolutions of 1848 and closely linked to other revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas. The revolution in the namesake kingdom grew into a war for independence from the Austrian Empire, ruled by the Habsburg monarchy. Austria wins though

Treaty of Versailles

one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of World War I were dealt with in separate treaties. Although the armistice, signed on 11 November 1918, ended the actual fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. The treaty was registered by the Secretariat of the League of Nations on 21 October 1919, and was printed in The League of Nations Treaty Series. Of the many provisions in the treaty, one of the most important and controversial required "Germany [to] accept the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage" during the war (the other members of the Central Powers signed treaties containing similar articles). This article, Article 231, later became known as the War Guilt clause.

Ulster

one of the provinces of Ireland, located in the north of the island. a central topic role in the treaty in the parliamentary debates that eventually resulted in the Government of Ireland Act 1920. Under the terms of the Act, Ireland was divided into two territories, Southern Ireland and Northern Ireland with the border passing through the province. did not want to be part of Catholic Ireland (?)

Sevastopol

one of two cities with special status in Ukraine (the other being the capital, Kiev), located on the Black Sea coast of the Crimean Peninsula. One of the most notable events involving the city is the Siege of it (1854-55) carried out by the British, French, Sardinian, and Turkish troops during the Crimean War, which lasted for 11 months. Despite its efforts, the Russian army had to leave its stronghold and evacuate over a pontoon bridge to the north shore of the inlet. The Russians had to sink their entire fleet to prevent it from falling into the hands of the enemy and at the same time to block the entrance of the Western ships into the inlet. When the enemy troops entered it, they were faced with the ruins of a formerly glorious city. (Russia defeated here?)

Benjamin Disraeli

opponent was Gladstone a British Conservative politician, writer, aristocrat and dandy who twice served as Prime Minister. He played a central role in the creation of the modern Conservative Party, defining its policies and its broad outreach. he is remembered for his influential voice in world affairs, his political battles with the Liberal spokesman William Ewart Gladstone, and his one-nation conservatism or "Tory democracy". He made the Conservatives the party most identified with the glory and power of the British Empire. He is to date the only British Prime Minister of Jewish birth. second term was dominated by the Eastern Question—the slow decay of the Ottoman Empire and the desire of other countries, such as Russia, to gain at its expense. He arranged for the British to purchase a major interest in the Suez Canal Company (in Ottoman-controlled Egypt). In 1878, faced with Russian victories against the Ottomans, he led the British delegation at the Congress of Berlin and secured a settlement favourable to Britain. This diplomatic victory over Russia established him as one of Europe's leading statesmen. Although he won public acclaim for his actions at Berlin, events thereafter moved against the Conservatives. Controversial wars in Afghanistan and South Africa undermined his public support. He angered British farmers by refusing to reinstitute the Corn Laws in response to poor harvests and cheap American grain. With Gladstone conducting a massive speaking campaign, his Liberals bested his Conservatives in the 1880 election.

William Gladstone

opposed Benjamin Disraeli a British Liberal politician. In a career lasting over sixty years, he served as Prime Minister four separate times (1868-74, 1880-85, February-July 1886 and 1892-94), more than any other person. He was also Britain's oldest Prime Minister, 84 when he resigned for the last time. He had also served as Chancellor of the Exchequer four times. first ministry saw many reforms including Disestablishment of the Church of Ireland and the introduction of secret voting. After his electoral defeat in 1874, he resigned as leader of the Liberal Party, but from 1876 began a comeback based on opposition to Turkey's Bulgarian atrocities. His Midlothian Campaign of 1879-80 was an early example of many modern political campaigning techniques. After the 1880 election, he formed his second ministry, which saw crises in Egypt (culminating in the death of General Gordon in 1885), and in Ireland, where the government passed repressive measures but also improved the legal rights of Irish tenant farmers. The government also passed the Third Reform Act. famous for his oratory, his religiosity, his liberalism, his rivalry with the Conservative Leader Benjamin Disraeli, and for his poor relations with Queen Victoria, who once complained, "He always addresses me as if I were a public meeting." something about Irish home rule

Empiricism

opposed rationalism; a theory of knowledge which states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. in science, emphasizes evidence, especially as discovered in experiments. It is a fundamental part of the scientific method that all hypotheses and theories must be tested against observations of the natural world rather than resting solely on a priori reasoning, intuition, or revelation. asserts that "knowledge is based on experience" and that "knowledge is tentative and probabilistic, subject to continued revision and falsification." (Locke was one of the supporters of this)

Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC)

organization set up by a convention signed in Paris in April 1948 to coordinate efforts to restore Europe's economy under the European Recovery Program (Marshall Plan). Among its many functions, it helped abolish quantitative trade restrictions between its member countries, allocated scarce resources among them, and devised a system for regular consultation on matters of common economic concern. In 1961 it was superseded by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, which included non-European members.

Trade unions

organizations of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals such as protecting the integrity of its trade, achieving higher pay, increasing the number of employees an employer hires, and better working conditions.

Isabella II of Spain

queen regnant of Spain from 1843 until 1868. She came to the throne as an infant, but her succession was disputed by the Carlists, who refused to recognise a female sovereign, leading to the Carlist Wars. After a troubled reign, she was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1868, and formally abdicated in 1870. Her son Alfonso XII became king in 1874.

Silesian Wars

refer to three conflicts between the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy for control of Silesia and the County of Kladsko from 1740 to 1763.

Revolution of 1848 (Italy)

organized revolts in the states of the Italian peninsula and Sicily, led by intellectuals and agitators who desired a liberal government. As Italian nationalists they sought to eliminate reactionary Austrian control. During this time period, Italy was not a unified country, and was divided into many states, which, in Northern Italy, were ruled by the Austrian Empire. A desire to be free from foreign rule, and the conservative leadership of the Austrians, led the Italian people to stage revolution in order to drive out the Austrians. The revolution was led by the state of Piedmont, one of the four states where the Austrian leaders were forced to grant liberal rights. Also, the uprisings in the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, particularly in Milan, forced the Austrian General Radetsky to retreat to the Quadrilatero (Quadrilateral) fortresses. King Charles Albert, who ruled Piedmont-Sardinia from 1831 to 1849, aspired to unite Italy under his leadership. He declared war on Austria and launched a full-out attack on the Quadrilateral. Lacking allies, Charles Albert was no match for the Austrian army. He was defeated at the Battle of Custoza (July 24, 1848), signed a truce, and withdrew his forces from Lombardy. Austria remained dominant in a divided Italy and the Revolution was lost.

marranos

originally Jews living in the Iberian Peninsula who converted or were forced to convert to Christianity, some of whom may have continued to observe rabbinic Judaism in secret. The term came into later use in 1492 with the Castilian Alhambra Decree, reversing protections originally in the Treaty of Granada (1491).

Revolutions of 1989

part of a revolutionary wave that resulted in the fall of communism in the communist states of Central and Eastern Europe. The events began in Poland in 1989, and continued in Hungary, East Germany, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and Romania. One feature common to most of these developments was the extensive use of campaigns of civil resistance demonstrating popular opposition to the continuation of one-party rule and contributing to the pressure for change. Romania was the only Eastern Bloc country whose people overthrew its Communist regime violently; however, in Romania itself and in some other places, there was some violence inflicted by the regime upon the population. The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 failed to stimulate major political changes in China. However, powerful images of courageous defiance during that protest helped to spark a precipitation of events in other parts of the globe. Among the famous anti-Communist revolutions was the fall of the Berlin Wall, which served as the symbolic gateway to German reunification in 1990. led to fall of Soviet Union by 1991 (?)

Defense of the Realm Act (lol DORA)

passed in the United Kingdom on 8 August 1914, four days after it entered World War I. It gave the government wide-ranging powers during the war period, such as the power to requisition buildings or land needed for the war effort, or to make regulations creating criminal offences. also enforced censorship anti-war activists sent to jail The trivial peacetime activities no longer permitted included flying kites, starting bonfires, buying binoculars, feeding wild animals bread, discussing naval and military matters or buying alcohol on public transport. Alcoholic beverages were watered down and pub opening times were restricted to noon-3pm and 6:30pm-9:30pm (the requirement for an afternoon gap in permitted hours lasted in England until the Licensing Act 1988 was brought into force).

Virgin Politics

politics of Elizabeth I?

Pope Paul III

pope that starts Council of Trent and seriously tries to combat Reformation

Uncertainty Principle

postulated by Werner Heisenberg asserts that there is a fundamental limit to the precision with which certain pairs of physical properties of a particle known as complementary variables, such as position x and momentum p, can be known simultaneously.

Bastille

prison famously stormed by angry French citizens on July 14th, 1789; was a fortress in Paris, known formally as the Bastille Saint-Antoine. It played an important role in the internal conflicts of France and for most of its history was used as a state prison by the kings of France. It was stormed by a crowd on 14 July 1789 in the French Revolution, becoming an important symbol for the French Republican movement, and was later demolished

Bishop George Berkeley

published Principles of Human Knowledge and Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous; believed that both secondary and primary qualities of objects were constructs of the mind; to be is to be perceived; cannot rely on senses; continuity when awake; world is divided into 2 things: spirit and ideas; physical world is an image in God's mind; God is prime mover; matter is just God's mind primary achievement was the advancement of a theory he called "immaterialism" (later referred to as "subjective idealism" by others). This theory denies the existence of material substance and instead contends that familiar objects like tables and chairs are only ideas in the minds of perceivers, and as a result cannot exist without being perceived; also known for his critique of abstraction, an important premise in his argument for immaterialism

Mary of Guise

queen of Scotland as the second spouse of King James V. She was the mother of Mary, Queen of Scots, and served as regent of Scotland in her daughter's name from 1554 to 1560. (came from France though) (fights England and Protestants and stuff?)

De-Stalinization

refers to a process of political reform in the Soviet Union that took place after the death of head of state Joseph Stalin in 1953. The reforms consisted of changing or removing key institutions that helped Stalin hold power: the cult of personality that surrounded him, the Stalinist political system and the Gulag labour-camp system, all of which had been created and dominated by him as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, among other titles, from 1922-52.

Alabama Dispute

refers to a squabble between the US and Britain over namesake Confederate ship; Britain had to pay for war damages After international arbitration endorsed the United States position in 1872, Britain settled the matter by paying the United States $15.5 million for damages done by the namesake ship and other warships built in Britain and sold to the Confederacy. They ended the dispute and restored friendly relations through an 1872 treaty with the US. Using international arbitration set a precedent, and the case also aroused interest in codifying public international law.

Zeppelin Attack

refers to attacks from the air conducted by Germany using the namesake vessels

Continental banks

refers to banks in Europe outside of Britain (?) (I honestly have no idea)

assimilation

refers to becoming a part of mainstream society (Jews were starting to do this, and people didn't like it?)

Steel reinforced concrete

refers to concrete that has steel beams to make it stronger

Turkish Wars

refers to conflicts between Russia and other namesake entity; refers to a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and contemporary European powers, then joined into a Holy League, during the last decades of the 17th century. Result: Decisive Holy League victory Treaty of Karlowitz Territorial changes: Austria wins lands in Hungary and the Balkans, Poland wins control over parts of Ukraine, Russia captures Azov, Venice captures the Morea

Creation of Childhood

refers to development of early education (?)(I honestly have no idea)

Diplomatic revolution

refers to diplomacy between Germany and other nations between 1933 - 36?

Potato Famine

refers to famine in Ireland due to lack of namesake crop a period of mass starvation, disease and emigration between 1845 and 1852; one-third of the population in Ireland was then solely reliant on namesake cheap crop for a number of historical reasons.

Propaganda

refers to material and media that influence the recipients to feel a certain way (?) used to influence wartime feelings for the first time (?)

U-Boat

refers to military submarines operated by Germany, particularly in World War I and World War II. Although at times they were efficient fleet weapons against enemy naval warships, they were most effectively used in an economic warfare role (commerce raiding), enforcing a naval blockade against enemy shipping.

Mobilization

refers to moving and sending and preparing an army (Germany thought that Russia was slow at this and wanted to wreck France before Russia could to this?)

Total War

refers to participation of civilians in the war effort; also use of enemy civilian materials and depriving the enemy of resources (?)

Second Reich

refers to the German Empire, which lasted from the unification of Germany in 1871 to its collapse after World War I, during the German Revolution of 1918-1919;

Invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968)

refers to the Warsaw Pact-led invasion of the namesake place to stop Prague Spring reforms. The invasion successfully stopped the liberalisation reforms and strengthened the authority of the Communist Party of ___________. The foreign policy of the Soviet Union during this era was known as the Brezhnev Doctrine.

Second World

refers to the former Socialist, industrial states (formally the Eastern Bloc), mostly the territory and the influence of the Soviet Union. referred to Communist and USSR-aligned countries during Cold War

Emancipation of Serfs

refers to the freeing of the namesake people in Russia under Alexander II and in Austria

Western Front

refers to the part of the war between Germany and France (and Britain)(?) (heavy casualties?) a term used during the First and Second World Wars to describe the contested armed frontier between lands controlled by Germany to the east and the Allies to the west.

Asiento

refers to the permission given by the Spanish government to other countries to sell people as slaves to the Spanish colonies, between the years 1543 and 1834. In British history, it usually refers to the contract between Spain and Great Britain created in 1713 that dealt with the supply of African slaves for the Spanish territories in the Americas. The British government passed its rights to the South Sea Company.

The Eastern Question

refers to the question of who was going to take over the Ottoman Empire

Big Three

refers to the representatives of the 3 Allied Powers (?) (FDR, Churchill, and Stalin)

Schmalkaldic War

refers to the short period of violence from 1546 until 1547 between the forces of Emperor Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire (simultaneously King Charles I of Spain), commanded by Don Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba, and the Lutheran ________ League within the domains of the Holy Roman Empire.

Balance of Power

refers to the stability maintained by the European nations by forming alliances; disrupted by wars only to be reestablished by treaties and new alliances

suppression of Jesuits

refers to the suppression and persecution of a particular group of Christians by Pope Clement XIV; they flee to Russia and Prussia

Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain

refers to the two monarchs who united the Spanish provinces of Aragon and Castile through marriage; also known for completing the Reconquista, ordering conversion or exile of their Muslim and Jewish subjects and for supporting and financing Christopher Columbus' 1492 voyage that led to the opening of the "New World".

Ten Hours Act of 1847

restricted the working hours of women and children in British factories to effectively 10 hours per day. Paul Hargreaves was an active advocate. The Bill was introduced unsuccessfully several times before Parliament finally passed it in 1847. Some key contributors to the Bill's passage were Richard Oastler, John Doherty, John Fielden, and the leader of the Factory Reform Movement in the House of Commons Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury.

Peasants Revolt

revolt by the namesake people during the confusion caused by the Reformation; the people in this revolt were condemned by Luther, who favored the princes

sans-culottes

revolutionaries who dominated the National Convention; known for not wearing breeches the radical left-wing partisans of the lower classes; typically urban labourers, which dominated France. Though ill-clad and ill-equipped, they made up the bulk of the Revolutionary army during the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars.

Tsar Alexander I

served as Emperor of Russia from 23 March 1801 to 1 December 1825 and the first Russian King of Poland from 1815 to 1825. He was also the first Russian Grand Duke of Finland and Lithuania. He succeeded to the throne after his father was murdered, and ruled Russia during the chaotic period of the Napoleonic Wars. In the first half of his reign he tried to introduce liberal reforms, while in the second half his conduct became much more arbitrary, which led to the revocation of many earlier reforms. In foreign policy he gained some successes, mainly by his diplomatic skills and by winning several military campaigns. (lost to Napoleon at first; later beat Napoleon in 1812)

Alexander I

served as Emperor of Russia from 23 March 1801 to 1 December 1825 and the first Russian King of Poland from 1815 to 1825. He was also the first Russian Grand Duke of Finland and Lithuania. He succeeded to the throne after his father was murdered, and ruled Russia during the chaotic period of the Napoleonic Wars. In the first half of his reign he tried to introduce liberal reforms, while in the second half his conduct became much more arbitrary, which led to the revocation of many earlier reforms. In foreign policy he gained some successes, mainly by his diplomatic skills and by winning several military campaigns. (lost to Napoleon at first; later beat Napoleon in 1812) became part of Holy League after Napoleonic Wars

Peter Stolypin

served as Prime Minister and the leader of the third Duma, from 1906 to 1911. His tenure was marked by efforts to counter revolutionary groups and by the implementation of noteworthy agrarian reforms. His reforms aimed to stem peasant unrest by creating a class of market-oriented smallholding landowners. He is considered one of the last major statesmen of Imperial Russia with clearly defined public policies and the determination to undertake major reforms.

Treaty of Paris (1763)

signed on 10 February 1763 by the kingdoms of Great Britain, France and Spain, with Portugal in agreement, after Britain's victory over France and Spain during the Seven Years' War. The signing of the treaty formally ended the Seven Years' War, otherwise known as the French and Indian War in the North American theatre, which marked the beginning of an era of British dominance outside Europe.

Treaty of Saint-Germain

signed on 10 September 1919 by the victorious Allies of World War I on the one hand and by the Republic of German-Austria on the other. Like the Treaty of Trianon with Hungary and the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, it contained the Covenant of the League of Nations and as a result was not ratified by the United States but was followed by the US-Austrian Peace Treaty of 1921.

Second Treaty of Paris (1815)

signed on 20 November 1815 following the defeat and second abdication of Napoleon Bonaparte. In February, Napoleon had escaped from his exile on Elba; he entered Paris on 20 March, beginning the Hundred Days of his restored rule. Four days after France's defeat in the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon was persuaded to abdicate again, on 22 June. King Louis XVIII, who had fled the country when Napoleon arrived in Paris, took the throne for a second time on 8 July.

Treaty of Karlowitz

signed on 26 January 1699 in Sremski Karlovci, in modern-day Serbia, concluding the Austro-Ottoman War of 1683-97 in which the Ottoman side had been defeated at the Battle of Zenta. It marks the end of Ottoman control in much of Central Europe and the beginning of the empire's phase of stagnation, with their first major territorial losses after centuries of expansion, and established the Habsburg Monarchy as the dominant power in central and southeast Europe.

Maastricht Treaty, 1992

signed on 7 February 1992 by the members of the European Community in ______, Netherlands. On 9-10 December 1991, the same city hosted the European Council which drafted the treaty. Upon its entry into force on 1 November 1993 during the Delors Commission, it created the European Union and led to the creation of the single European currency, the euro. It has been amended by the treaties of Amsterdam, Nice and Lisbon.

Chernobyl

site of a terrible nuclear disaster in USSR a catastrophic nuclear accident that occurred on 26 April 1986 at the namesake Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine (then officially the Ukrainian SSR), which was under the direct jurisdiction of the central authorities of the Soviet Union. An explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive particles into the atmosphere, which spread over much of the western USSR and Europe. This disaster is the worst nuclear power plant accident in history in terms of cost and resulting deaths, and is one of only two classified as a level 7 event (the maximum classification) on the International Nuclear Event Scale (the other being the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011). The battle to contain the contamination and avert a greater catastrophe ultimately involved over 500,000 workers and cost an estimated 18 billion rubles. During the accident itself 31 people died, and long-term effects such as cancers and deformities are still being accounted for.

Maximilian I

son of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor and Eleanor of Portugal, was King of the Romans (also known as King of the Germans) from 1486 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1493 until his death, though he was never in fact crowned by the Pope, the journey to Rome always being too risky. He had ruled jointly with his father for the last ten years of his father's reign, from c. 1483. He expanded the influence of the House of Habsburg through war and his marriage in 1477 to Mary of Burgundy, the heiress to the Duchy of Burgundy, but he also lost the Austrian territories in today's Switzerland to the Swiss Confederacy. By marrying his son Philip the Handsome to the future Queen Joanna of Castile in 1498, he established the Habsburg dynasty in Spain and allowed his grandson Charles to hold the throne of both León-Castile and Aragon, thus making him the first de jure King of Spain.

Nicholas I

the Emperor of Russia from 1825 until 1855. He was also the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland. He was the younger brother of his childless predecessor, Alexander I. He inherited his brother's throne despite the failed Decembrist revolt against him, and went on to become the most reactionary of Russian monarchs. In his last years, he led the Russian army in the unsuccessful Crimean War. However, he was also instrumental in helping to create an independent Greek state and defeated the Ottoman empire in the Russo-Turkish war 1828-1829. Thus he was a key player in the ascendency of Russia as a world power and helped hasten the disintegration of the aging Ottoman empire. On the eve of his death, the Russian Empire reached its historical zenith, spanning over 20 million square kilometers (7.7 million square miles).

Alexander II

the Emperor of Russia from 2 March 1855 until his assassination in 1881. He was also the King of Poland and the Grand Prince of Finland. He was the most successful Russian reformer since Peter the Great. His most important achievement was the emancipation of serfs in 1861, for which he became known as Alexander the Liberator (Russian: Алекса́ндр Освободитель, Aleksandr Osvoboditel'). The tsar was responsible for numerous other reforms including reorganizing the judicial system, setting up elected local judges, abolishing capital punishment, promoting local self-government through the zemstvo system, imposing universal military service, ending some of the privileges of the nobility, and promoting the universities. His brutal secret police sent thousands of dissidents into exile in Siberia. In foreign policy, he sold Alaska to the United States in 1867, fearing the remote colony would fall into British hands if there was another war. He sought peace, and moved away from bellicose France when Napoleon III fell in 1871. In 1872 he joined with Germany and Austria in the League of the Three Emperors that stabilized the European situation. He did fight a short war with Turkey in 1877-78. He was disappointed by the results of the Congress of Berlin in 1878, but abided by that agreement. The Russian Empire expanded in Siberia and in the Caucasus, and conquered Turkestan. Faced with an uprising in Poland in 1863, he stripped that land of its separate Constitution and incorporated it directly into Russia. To counter the rise of a revolutionary and anarchistic movements, he was proposing additional parliamentary reforms when he was assassinated.

Schlieffen Plan

the German General Staff's early-20th-century overall strategic plan for victory in a possible future war in which the German Empire might find itself fighting on two fronts: France to the west and Russia to the east. The First World War later became such a war, with both a Western and an Eastern Front. The plan took advantage of Russia's slowness and expected differences in the three countries' speed in preparing for war. In short, it was the German plan to avoid a two-front war by concentrating troops in the West and quickly defeating the French and then, if necessary, rushing those troops by rail to the East to face the Russians before they had time to mobilize fully. (did not work; met heavy resistance in Belgium; Russia was also quicker than they expected?)

Wilhelm I

the King of Prussia (2 January 1861 - 9 March 1888) and the first German Emperor (18 January 1871 - 9 March 1888). Under his leadership and that of his Minister President Otto von Bismarck, Prussia achieved the unification of Germany and the establishment of the German Empire.

German Labor Front

the National Socialist trade union organization which replaced the various trade unions of the Weimar Republic after Adolf Hitler's rise to power.

Margaret Thatcher

the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and the Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990. She was the longest-serving British Prime Minister of the 20th century and is the only woman to have held the office. A Soviet journalist called her the "Iron Lady", a nickname that became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style. As Prime Minister, she implemented policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism. introduced a series of political and economic initiatives intended to reverse high unemployment and Britain's struggles in the wake of the Winter of Discontent and an ongoing recession. Her political philosophy and economic policies emphasised deregulation (particularly of the financial sector), flexible labour markets, the privatisation of state-owned companies, and reducing the power and influence of trade unions. Thatcher's popularity during her first years in office waned amid recession and high unemployment until the 1982 Falklands War brought a resurgence of support, resulting in her re-election in 1983.

Luftwaffe

the aerial warfare branch of the German Wehrmacht during World War II. After the German Empire's World War I-era army air force, the Luftstreitkräfte, and the Kaiserliche Marine naval air units had been disbanded by May 1920 under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, it was reformed on 26 February 1935 and grew to become one of the strongest, most doctrinally advanced, and most battle-experienced air forces in the world when World War II started in Europe in September 1939. After the defeat of the Third Reich, it was disbanded in 1946.

Triple Entente

the alliance linking Russia, France, and the United Kingdom after the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente on August 31, 1907. The alliance of the three powers, supplemented by agreements with Portugal and Japan, constituted a powerful counterweight to the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.

Nuremberg Rally

the annual rally of the Nazi Party in Germany, held from 1923 to 1938. They were large Nazi propaganda events, especially after Hitler's rise to power in 1933. These events were held at the Nazi party rally grounds in ______ from 1933 to 1938 and are usually referred to in English as the "_______ Rallies". Many films were made to commemorate them, the most famous of which is Leni Riefenstahl's Triumph of the Will.

Superego

the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from both parents and society--our sense of right and wrong. It provides guidelines for making judgments. According to Freud, it begins to emerge at around age five.

Evolutionary Socialism

the belief that gradual changes through and within existing institutions can ultimately change a society's fundamental economic system and political structures

(Generalissimo) Francisco Franco

the dictator of Spain from 1939 to his death in 1975. Coming from a military background, he became the youngest general in Europe in the 1920s. A conservative, he was shocked when the monarchy was removed and replaced for a democratic republic in 1931. With the 1936 elections, the conservatives fell and the leftist Popular Front came to power. Looking to overthrow the republic, he and other generals agreed and staged a partially successful coup, which started the Spanish Civil War. With the death of the other generals, he quickly became his faction's only leader. received military support from local fascist, monarchist and right-wing groups, and also from Hitler's Nazi Germany and Mussolini's Fascist Italy. Leaving half a million dead, the war was eventually won by him in 1939. He established an autocratic dictatorship, Francoist Spain, which he defined as a totalitarian state, instaurating himself as head of state and government, with one legal political party; a merger of the monarchist party and the fascist party which had helped him, FET y de las JONS.

War of the Three Henrys

the eighth and final conflict in the series of civil wars in France known as the Wars of Religion. The war was fought between the royalists, led by Henry III of France; the Huguenots, led by the heir-presumptive Henry of Navarre; and the Catholic League, led by Henry I, Duke of Guise and funded and supported by Philip II of Spain. The war was instigated by King Philip to keep Spain's enemy, France, from interfering with the Spanish army in the Netherlands and his planned invasion of England and Russia.

Henry Guise

the eldest son of Francis, Duke of Guise, and Anna d'Este. His maternal grandparents were Ercole d'Este II, Duke of Ferrara, and Renée of France. In 1576 he founded the Catholic League to prevent the heir, King Henry of Navarre, head of the Huguenot movement, from succeeding to the French throne. A powerful opponent of the Queen Mother, Catherine de' Medici, he was assassinated by the bodyguards of her son, King Henry III. Involved in War of the Three _____

Popular culture

the entirety of ideas, perspectives, attitudes, memes, images, and other phenomena that are within the mainstream of a given culture, especially Western culture of the early to mid 20th century and the emerging global mainstream of the late 20th and early 21st century. Heavily influenced by mass media, this collection of ideas permeates the everyday lives of the society. (singspiel, Vauxhall Pleasure gardens, Grand Tour, and Naturalistic Landscape Design in Britain)

Louis Napoleon/Napoleon III

the first President of the French Republic and the ruler of the Second French Empire. He was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I. He was the first President of France to be elected by a direct popular vote. However, in 1852, when he was blocked by the Constitution and Parliament from running for a second term, he organized a coup d'état in 1851, and then took the throne as Napoleon III on 2 December 1852, the forty-eighth anniversary of Napoleon I's coronation. known for reconstruction of Paris under Baron Haussmann harsh censorship and deportation during beginning of his reign some social reforms fought Crimean War with Britain and Ottoman Empire against Russia fought against Prussia and Franco-Prussian War and lost helped unify Italy

Louis Napoleon

the first President of the French Republic and, as Napoleon III, the ruler of the Second French Empire. He was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I. He was the first President of France to be elected by a direct popular vote. However, in 1852, when he was blocked by the Constitution and Parliament from running for a second term, he organized a coup d'état in 1851, and then took the throne as Napoleon III on 2 December 1852, the forty-eighth anniversary of Napoleon I's coronation. known for reconstruction of Paris under Baron Haussmann

Michael Romanov

the first Russian Tsar of the house of Romanov. He was the son of Feodor Nikitich Romanov (later known as Patriarch Filaret) and Xenia (later known as "the great nun" Martha). His reign marked the end of the Time of Troubles. started namesake Russian dynasty

Bessemer Process

the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron prior to the open hearth furnace. The process is named after its inventor, who took out a patent on the process in 1855. The key principle is removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation with air being blown through the molten iron. The oxidation also raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten. Responsible for major ironwork in Prussia (and German states)

Cheka

the first of a succession of Soviet state security organizations. It was created on December 20, 1917, after a decree issued by Vladimir Lenin, and was subsequently led by Felix Dzerzhinsky, an aristocrat turned communist. By late 1918, hundreds of ___ committees had been created in various cities, at multiple levels including: oblast, guberniya ("Gubcheks"), raion, uyezd, and volost ___, with Raion and Volost Extraordinary Commissioners. Many thousands of dissidents, deserters, or other people were arrested, tortured or executed by various ___ groups. led to Red Terror (?)

February Revolution (1917)

the first of two revolutions in Russia in 1917. It was centered on Petrograd, then the capital (now St. Petersburg), on Women's Day in March (late February in the Julian calendar). The revolution, confined to the capital and its vicinity and lasting less than a week, involved mass demonstrations and armed clashes with police and gendarmes, the last loyal forces of the Russian monarchy. In the last days mutinous Russian Army forces sided with the revolutionaries. The immediate result of the revolution was the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II, the end of the Romanov dynasty, and the end of the Russian Empire. The Tsar was replaced by a Russian Provisional Government under Prince Georgy Lvov. The Provisional Government was an alliance between liberals and socialists who wanted political reform. They set up a democratically-elected executive and constituent assembly. At the same time, socialists also formed the Petrograd Soviet, which ruled alongside the Provisional Government, an arrangement termed Dual Power.

Continental System

the foreign policy of Napoleon I of France in his struggle against the Great Britain during the Napoleonic Wars. As a response to the naval blockade of the French coasts enacted by the British government on 16 May 1806, Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree on 21 November 1806, which brought into effect a large-scale embargo against British trade. This embargo ended on April 11, 1814 after Napoleon's first abdication. The Berlin Decree forbade the import of British goods into European countries allied with or dependent upon France, and installed this in Europe.

Natural Selection

the gradual process by which biological traits become either more or less common in a population as a function of the effect of inherited traits on the differential reproductive success of organisms interacting with their environment. It is a key mechanism of evolution. The term was popularized by Charles Darwin who intended it to be compared with artificial selection, which is now called selective breeding. Applied to humans in Social Darwinism

Pope Paul IV

the head of the Catholic Church from 23 May 1555 to his death in 1559. He was instrumental in setting up the Roman Inquisition, and was opposed to any dialogue with the emerging Protestant party in Europe. His anti-Spanish outlook coloured his papacy, and confronted the Papal States with serious military defeat. The appointment of Carlo Carafa as Cardinal Nephew damaged the papacy further when he was forced to remove him from office following a scandal. One of the strictest (most conservative) popes apparently

Congress of People's Deputies

the highest body of state authority of the Soviet Union from 1989 to 1991. created as part of Mikhail Gorbachev's reform agenda, and was enabled by Gorbachev's first constitutional change.

Brandenburg-Prussia

the historiographic denomination for the Early Modern realm of the Brandenburgian Hohenzollerns between 1618 and 1701. rises under Frederick William the Great Elector

Philosophes

the intellectuals of the 18th century Enlightenment; were public intellectuals who applied reason to the study of many areas of learning, including philosophy, history, science, politics, economics and social issues. They had a critical eye and looked for weaknesses and failures that needed improvement. They promoted a "republic of letters" that crossed national boundaries and allowed intellectuals to freely exchange books and ideas.

Battle of Borodino

the largest and bloodiest single-day action of the French invasion of Russia and the Napoleonic Wars, involving more than 250,000 troops and resulting in at least 70,000 casualties. The French Grande Armée under Emperor Napoleon I attacked the Imperial Russian Army of General Mikhail Kutuzov near the namesake village, west of the town of Mozhaysk, and eventually captured the main positions on the battlefield, but failed to destroy the Russian army despite heavy losses. About a third of Napoleon's soldiers were killed or wounded. Russian losses were also heavy, but casualties could be replaced since large forces of militia were already with the Russian Army and replacement depots which were close by had already been gathering and training troops. The battle itself ended with the Russian Army out of position. The state of exhaustion of the French forces and lack of information on the Russian Army's condition led Napoleon to remain on the battlefield with his army instead of the forced pursuit that had marked other campaigns that he had conducted in the past. Napoleon's Imperial Guard was completely intact and available to his disposition. In refusing to commit the Guard he lost his singular chance to destroy the Russian army. This was a pivotal point in the campaign, as it was the last offensive action fought by Napoleon in Russia. By withdrawing, the Russian army preserved its combat strength, eventually allowing it to force Napoleon out of the country.

East German Stasi

the official state security service of the German Democratic Republic or GDR, colloquially known as East Germany. It has been described as one of the most effective and repressive intelligence and secret police agencies to ever have existed.It was headquartered in East Berlin, with an extensive complex in Berlin-Lichtenberg and several smaller facilities throughout the city. Its motto was "Schild und Schwert der Partei" (Shield and Sword of the Party), that is the ruling Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED). One of its main tasks was spying on the population, mainly through a vast network of citizens turned informants, and fighting any opposition by overt and covert measures including hidden psychological destruction of dissidents (Zersetzung, literally meaning decomposition).

Nicholas II

the last Emperor of Russia, Grand Duke of Finland, and titular King of Poland. ruled from 1 November 1894 until his forced abdication on 2 March 1917. His reign saw Imperial Russia go from being one of the foremost great powers of the world to economic and military collapse. Enemies nicknamed him Bloody Nicholas because of the Khodynka Tragedy, the anti-Semitic pogroms, Bloody Sunday, his violent suppression of the 1905 Revolution, his execution of political opponents, and his pursuit of military campaigns on an unprecedented scale. defeated in Russo-Japanese War The Anglo-Russian Entente, designed to counter German attempts to gain influence in the Middle East, ended the Great Game between Russia and the United Kingdom. As head of state, Nicholas approved the Russian mobilisation of August 1914, which marked the beginning of Russia's involvement in the First World War, a war in which 3.3 million Russians were killed. The Imperial Army's severe losses and the High Command's incompetent handling of the war, along with other policies directed by Nicholas during his reign, are often cited as the leading causes of the fall of the Romanov dynasty. Abdicated during February Revolution Killed with his family by Bolsheviks

Tsar Nicholas II

the last Emperor of Russia, Grand Duke of Finland, and titular King of Poland. ruled from 1 November 1894 until his forced abdication on 2 March 1917. His reign saw Imperial Russia go from being one of the foremost great powers of the world to economic and military collapse. Enemies nicknamed him Bloody Nicholas because of the Khodynka Tragedy, the anti-Semitic pogroms, Bloody Sunday, his violent suppression of the 1905 Revolution, his execution of political opponents, and his pursuit of military campaigns on an unprecedented scale. defeated in Russo-Japanese War The Anglo-Russian Entente, designed to counter German attempts to gain influence in the Middle East, ended the Great Game between Russia and the United Kingdom. As head of state, Nicholas approved the Russian mobilisation of August 1914, which marked the beginning of Russia's involvement in the First World War, a war in which 3.3 million Russians were killed. The Imperial Army's severe losses and the High Command's incompetent handling of the war, along with other policies directed by Nicholas during his reign, are often cited as the leading causes of the fall of the Romanov dynasty. Abdicated during February Revolution Killed with his family by Bolsheviks

Kaiser Wilhelm II

the last German Emperor (Kaiser) and King of Prussia, ruling the German Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia from 15 June 1888 to 9 November 1918. He was the eldest grandson of the British Queen Victoria and related to many monarchs and princes of Europe, three notable contemporary relations being his first cousins King George V of the United Kingdom, founder of the House of Windsor, Marie of Romania, Queen consort of Romania and the Czarina Alix of Hesse, consort of his second cousin Tsar Nicholas II of the House of Romanov, the last ruler of the Russian Empire before the Russian Revolution of 1917 which deposed the monarchy. after WWI he abdicated

Charles II (Spain)

the last Habsburg ruler of Spain. His realm included Southern Netherlands and Spain's overseas empire, stretching from the Americas to the Spanish East Indies. Known as "the Bewitched" (Spanish: el Hechizado), he is noted for his extensive physical, intellectual, and emotional disabilities—along with his consequent ineffectual rule. He died in 1700, childless and heirless, with all potential Habsburg successors having predeceased him. In his will, he named as his successor his 16-year old grand-nephew, Philip, Duke of Anjou grandson of Charles' half-sister Maria Theresa of Spain, the first wife of Louis XIV (and thus grandson of the reigning French king Louis XIV). Because the other European powers viewed the prospective dynastic relationship between France and Spain as disturbing the balance of power in Europe, the War of the Spanish Succession ensued.

Josef Stalin

the leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953. Among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who took part in the Russian Revolution of 1917, he was appointed general secretary of the party's Central Committee in 1922. He subsequently managed to consolidate power following the 1924 death of Vladimir Lenin through suppressing Lenin's criticisms (in the postscript of his testament) and expanding the functions of his role, all the while eliminating any opposition. By the late 1920s, he was the unchallenged leader of the Soviet Union. He remained general secretary until the post was abolished in 1952, concurrently serving as the Premier of the Soviet Union from 1941 onward. "Socialism in one country" collectivization Great Purge killed Trostky and stuff

Legislative Assembly

the legislature of France from 1 October 1791 to September 1792 during the years of the French Revolution. It provided the focus of political debate and revolutionary law-making between the periods of the National Constituent Assembly and of the National Convention. It was driven by two opposing groups. The members of the first group were primarily moderate members of the bourgeoisie (Wealthy middle class in 3rd Estate) that favored a constitutional monarchy, represented by the Feuillants, who felt that the revolution had already achieved its goal. The second group was the democratic faction, for whom the king could no longer be trusted, represented by the new members of the Jacobin club. This group claimed that more revolutionary measures were necessary. 1791 - 1792

KGB

the main security agency for the Soviet Union from 1954 until its collapse in 1991. Formed in 1954 as a direct successor of such preceding agencies as Cheka, NKGB, and MGB, the committee was attached to the Council of Ministers. It was the chief government agency of "union-republican jurisdiction", acting as internal security, intelligence, and secret police. Similar agencies were instated in each of the republics of the Soviet Union aside from Russia and consisted of many ministries, state committees, and state commissions.

Constitutional Democrats

the members of a liberal political party in the Russian Empire. base of support were intellectuals and professionals; university professors and lawyers were particularly prominent within the party. the party formed from the merger of several liberal groupings: the Union of Liberation, the Union of Zemstvo Constitutionalists, and the Union of Unions, the organization of bourgeois professionals and intellectuals, including teachers, lawyers, writers, physicians, and engineers.

Neoplatonism

the modern (19th century) term for a school of mystical philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century, based on the teachings of Plato and earlier Platonists, with its earliest contributor believed to be Plotinus, and his teacher Ammonius Saccas. experienced a revival in the Renaissance

Queen Victoria

the monarch of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she used the additional title of Empress of India. the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son of King George III. Both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and she was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne at the age of 18, after her father's three elder brothers had all died, leaving no legitimate, surviving children. The United Kingdom was already an established constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, she attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments. Publicly, she became a national icon, and was identified with strict standards of personal morality. married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together and earning her the nickname "the grandmother of Europe". After Albert's death in 1861, she plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. Her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. reign of 63 years and seven months, which is longer than that of any other British monarch and the longest of any female monarch in history, is known as the (namesake) era. It was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover. Her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father.

Jacobins

the most famous and influential political club in the development of the French Revolution, so-named because of the Dominican convent where they met, which had recently been located in the Rue St. Jacques, Paris. The club originated as the Club Benthorn, formed at Versailles from a group of Breton representatives attending the Estates General of 1789. There were thousands of chapters throughout France, with a membership estimated at 420,000. After the fall of Robespierre the club was closed. The club later became notorious for its implementation of the Reign of Terror.

Weimar Republic

the name given by historians to the federal republic and semipresidential representative democracy established in 1919 in Germany to replace the imperial form of government. It is named after Weimar, the city where the constitutional assembly took place. During this period, and well into the succeeding Nazi era, the official name of the state was German Reich (Deutsches Reich), which continued on from the pre-1918 Imperial period. Following World War I, the republic emerged from the German Revolution in November 1918. In 1919, a national assembly was convened in Weimar, where a new constitution for the German Reich was written, then adopted on 11 August of that same year. In its fourteen years, the Weimar Republic faced numerous problems, including hyperinflation, political extremists (with paramilitaries - both left and right wing) and continuing contentious relationships with the victors of World War I. However, the Weimar Republic successfully reformed the currency, unified tax policies and the railway system and it did eliminate most of the requirements of the Treaty of Versailles, in that Germany never completely met the disarmament requirements, and eventually only paid a small portion of the total reparations required by the treaty, which were reduced twice by restructuring Germany's debt through the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan. overall not very popular Hindenburg (and eventually Hitler) assumed dictatorial powers

Neoclassicism

the name given to Western movements in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that draw inspiration from the "classical" art and culture of Ancient Greece or Ancient Rome.

Battle of Britain

the name given to the Second World War air campaign waged by the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) against the United Kingdom during the summer and autumn of 1940. The name is derived from a famous speech delivered by Prime Minister Winston Churchill in the House of Commons. the first major campaign to be fought entirely by air forces, and was also the largest and most sustained aerial bombing campaign to that date. The German objective was to gain air superiority over the Royal Air Force (RAF), especially Fighter Command. From July 1940, coastal shipping convoys and shipping centres, such as Portsmouth, were the main targets; one month later, the Luftwaffe shifted its attacks to RAF airfields and infrastructure. As the battle progressed, the Luftwaffe also targeted aircraft factories and ground infrastructure. Eventually the Luftwaffe resorted to attacking areas of political significance and using terror bombing strategy. By preventing Germany from gaining air superiority, the battle ended the threat that Hitler would launch Operation Sea Lion, an amphibious and airborne invasion of Britain. The failure of Germany to achieve its objectives of destroying Britain's air defences, or forcing Britain to negotiate an armistice or an outright surrender, is considered its first major defeat and a crucial turning point in the Second World War.

Red Army

the name given to the army and the air force of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and from 1922 the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. It was established in the immediate period after the 1917 October Revolution (Red October or Bolshevik Revolution), when the Bolsheviks constituted an army during the Russian Civil War opposite the military confederations (especially the combined groups summarized under the preamble White Army) of their adversaries. From February 1946, the Red Army, who together with the Soviet Navy, embodied the main component of the Soviet Armed Forces, took the official name "Soviet Army" (Russian Советская Армия (СА) / Sovetskaya Armija), until its dissolution in December 1991.

Plan 17

the name of a "scheme of mobilization and concentration" that was adopted by the French General Staff in 1913, to be put into effect by the French Army in the event of war between France and Germany but was not 'a prescribed narrative for the campaign' or battle plan. (advance against Alsace-Lorraine?)

G8

the name of a forum for the governments of a group of eight leading industrialised countries, that was originally formed by six leading industrialised countries and subsequently extended with two additional members. Russia, which was invited to join as the last member, was excluded from the forum by the other members on March 24, 2014, as a result of its involvement in the 2014 Crimea crisis in Ukraine. Thus the group now comprises seven nations and will continue to meet as the G7 group of nations.

Id

the only component of personality that is present from birth. This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes of the instinctive and primitive behaviors. According to Freud, the it is the source of all psychic energy, making it the primary component of personality. It is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs. If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state anxiety or tension.

Maria Theresa

the only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and the last of the House of Habsburg. She was the sovereign of Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, Mantua, Milan, Lodomeria and Galicia, the Austrian Netherlands and Parma. By marriage, she was Duchess of Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Holy Roman Empress. She started her 40-year reign when her father, Emperor Charles VI, died in October 1740. Charles VI paved the way for her accession with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and spent his entire reign securing it. Upon the death of her father, Saxony, Prussia, Bavaria, and France all repudiated the sanction they had recognised during his lifetime. Prussia proceeded to invade the affluent Habsburg province of Silesia, sparking a nine-year conflict known as the War of the Austrian Succession. She would later unsuccessfully try to reconquer Silesia during the Seven Years' War. She and her husband, Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, had sixteen children, including Queen Marie Antoinette of France, Queen Maria Carolina of Naples, Duchess Maria Amalia of Parma and two Holy Roman Emperors, Joseph II and Leopold II.

Fourth Republic

the republican government of France between 1946 and 1958. It was in many ways a revival of the Third Republic, which was in place before World War II, and suffered many of the same problems. It saw an era of great economic growth in France and the rebuilding of the nation's social institutions and industry after World War II, and played an important part in the development of the process of European integration which changed the continent permanently. The greatest accomplishments of this were in social reform and economic development. In 1946, the government established a comprehensive social security system that assured unemployment insurance, disability and old-age pensions, and health care to all citizens. Some attempts were also made to strengthen the executive branch of government to prevent the unstable situation that had existed before the war, but the instability remained and it saw frequent changes in government - there were twenty-one administrations in its twelve year history. Moreover, the government proved unable to make effective decisions regarding decolonization of the numerous remaining French colonies. After a series of crises, most importantly the Algerian crisis of 1958, it collapsed. Wartime leader Charles de Gaulle returned from retirement to preside over a transitional administration which was empowered to design a new French constitution. It was dissolved by a public referendum on 5 October 1958 which established the modern-day Fifth Republic.

Leopold II

the second King of the Belgians, and is chiefly remembered for the founding and exploitation of the Congo Free State. Born in Brussels the second (but eldest surviving) son of Leopold I and Louise of Orléans, he succeeded his father to the throne on 17 December 1865, reigning for 44 years until his death, the longest of any Belgian monarch. was the founder and sole owner of the Congo Free State, a private project undertaken on his own behalf. He used Henry Morton Stanley to help him lay claim to the Congo, an area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. At the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, the colonial nations of Europe committed the Congo Free State to improving the lives of the native inhabitants. From the beginning, however, he essentially ignored these conditions and ran the Congo using a mercenary force for his personal gain. Some of the money from this exploitation was used for public and private construction projects in Belgium during this period. He extracted a fortune from the Congo, initially by the collection of ivory, and after a rise in the price of rubber in the 1890s, by forcing the population to collect sap from rubber plants. Villages were required to meet quotas on rubber collections, and individuals' hands were cut off if they did not meet the requirements. His regime was responsible for the death of an estimated 2 to 15 million Congolese. This became one of the most infamous international scandals of the early 20th century, and he was ultimately forced to relinquish control of it to the Belgian government.

Suleiman the Magnificent

the tenth and longest-reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1520 to his death in 1566. He became a prominent monarch of 16th-century Europe, presiding over the apex of the Ottoman Empire's military, political and economic power. He personally led Ottoman armies in conquering the Christian strongholds of Belgrade, Rhodes, as well as most of Hungary before his conquests were checked at the Siege of Vienna in 1529. He annexed much of the Middle East in his conflict with the Safavids and large areas of North Africa as far west as Algeria. Under his rule, the Ottoman fleet dominated the seas from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea and through the Persian Gulf. At the helm of an expanding empire, he personally instituted major legislative changes relating to society, education, taxation, and criminal law. His canonical law (or the Kanuns) fixed the form of the empire for centuries after his death.

Decembrist Revolt

took place in Imperial Russia on 26 December [O.S. 14 December] 1825. Russian army officers led about 3,000 soldiers in a protest against Nicholas I's assumption of the throne after his elder brother Constantine removed himself from the line of succession. This uprising, which was suppressed by Nicholas I, took place in the Senate Square in Saint Petersburg. (put down, but still shakes faith in Nicholas I)

Battle of Lepanto

took place on 7 October 1571 when a fleet of the Holy League, a coalition of southern European Catholic maritime states, decisively defeated the main fleet of the Ottoman Empire in five hours of fighting on the northern edge of the Gulf of Corinth, off western Greece. The Ottoman forces sailing westwards from their naval station in Lepanto (Turkish: İnebahtı; Greek: Ναύπακτος or Έπαχτος Naupaktos or Épahtos) met the Holy League forces, which had come from Messina. The victory of the Holy League prevented the Ottoman Empire expanding further along the European side of the Mediterranean.

Boer War(s)

two wars fought during 1880-1881 and 1899-1902 by the British Empire against the settlers of two independent Boer republics, the Orange Free State and the Transvaal Republic. First: fight to keep sovereignty by the South African Republic against British invasion. Second: a lengthy war—involving large numbers of troops from the Empire, which ended with the conversion of the Boer republics into British colonies (with a promise of limited self-governance). These colonies later formed part of the Union of South Africa. The British fought directly against the Transvaal and the Orange Free State, defeating their forces first in open warfare and then in a long and bitter guerrilla campaign. British losses were high due to both sickness and combat. The policies of "scorched earth" and civilian internment in concentration camps were the cause of suffering in the Boer civilian populations in the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. When news of these strategies reached Britain, there was an erosion of support for the war.

Gymnasien

type of secondary school with a strong emphasis on academic learning, comparable with the British grammar school system or with prep schools in the United States. The student attending a gymnasium is called "Gymnasiast" (German plural: "Gymnasiasten"). In 2009/10 there were 3094 gymnasien in Germany, with c. 2,475,000 students (about 28 percent of all precollegiate students during that period), resulting in an average student number of 800 students per school. (Became popular around now?)

Frederick II (the Great)

was King in Prussia (1740-1786) of the Hohenzollern dynasty. He is best known for his military victories, his reorganization of Prussian armies, his innovative drills and tactics, and his final success against great odds in the Seven Years' War. Enlightened Despot a proponent of enlightened absolutism. For years he was a correspondent of Voltaire, with whom the king had an intimate, if turbulent, friendship. While some authors praise him for tolerance, justice and modernization others point out his oppressive measures against Polish population he subjugated and sought to get rid off, he patronised the arts and philosophers, and wrote flute music.

Center Party (German)

was a Catholic political party in Germany during the Kaiserreich and the Weimar Republic. Formed in 1870, it battled the Kulturkampf which the Prussian government launched to reduce the power of the Catholic Church. It soon won a quarter of the seats in the Reichstag (Imperial Parliament), and its middle position on most issues allowed it to play a decisive role in the formation of majorities. When the Nazis came to power the party dissolved itself on 5 July 1933 as a condition of the conclusion of a Concordat between the Holy See and Germany.

Charles de Gaulle

was a French general and statesman who led the Free French Forces during World War II. He later founded the French Fifth Republic in 1958 and served as its first president from 1959 to 1969. secured a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council for France in 1945. After the war ended, he became prime minister in the French Provisional Government, resigning in 1946 because of political conflicts. He founded his own political party, the Rally of the French People—Rassemblement du Peuple Francais, (RPF)—in 1947. When the Algerian war crisis was ripping apart the Fourth Republic, the Assembly brought him back to power as President of the Council of Ministers during the May 1958 crisis. He led the writing of a new constitution founding the Fifth Republic, and was elected President of France. Gaullism, his foreign policy strategy as president, asserted that France is a major power and should not rely on other countries, such as the United States, for its national security and prosperity. Often criticized for his "Politics of Grandeur", he oversaw the development of French atomic weapons and promoted a foreign policy independent of "Anglo Saxon" (American and British) influences. He withdrew France from NATO military command—although remaining a member of the Western alliance—and twice vetoed Britain's entry into the European Community.

Serbia-Montenegro

was a country in Southeast Europe, created from the two remaining republics of Yugoslavia after its breakup in 1991. The republics of ______ and _______ together established a federation in 1992 as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY). In 2003, it was reconstituted as a state union officially known as the State Union of _____ and ________. aspired to be a sole legal successor to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, but those claims were opposed by other former republics. The United Nations also denied its request to automatically continue the membership of the former state. Eventually, after the overthrow of Slobodan Milošević from power as president of the federation in 2000, the country rescinded those aspirations and accepted the opinion of Badinter Arbitration Committee about shared succession, and reapplied for and gained UN membership on 2 November 2000.

Leonid Brezhnev

was the General Secretary of the Central Committee (CC) of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), presiding over the country from 1964 until his death in 1982. His eighteen-year term as General Secretary was second only to that of Joseph Stalin in duration. During his rule, the global influence of the Soviet Union grew dramatically, in part because of the expansion of the Soviet military during this time. However, his tenure as leader has often been criticized for marking the beginning of an era of economic and social stagnation that eventually led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. pushed for détente between the Eastern and Western countries. He presided over the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia to stop the Prague Spring, and his last major decision in power was to send the Soviet military to Afghanistan in an attempt to save the fragile regime, which was fighting a war against the mujahideen.

Whigs

were a faction and then a political party in the parliaments of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Between the 1680s and 1850s, they contested power with their rivals, the Tories. Their origin lay in constitutional monarchism and opposition to absolute rule. They played a central role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and were the standing enemies of the Stuart kings and pretenders, who were Roman Catholic. They took full control of the government in 1715, and remained totally dominant until King George III, coming to the throne in 1760, allowed Tories back in. slowly evolved during the 18th century.

Vesalius

wrote On the Fabric of the Human Body; a Brabantian (in modern-day Belgium) anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human Body). He is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy. He was professor at the University of Padua and later became Imperial physician at the court of Emperor Charles V.

Newton

wrote Principia Mathematica; an English physicist and mathematician who is widely regarded as one of the most influential scientists of all time and as a key figure in the scientific revolution. His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"), first published in 1687, laid the foundations for most of classical mechanics; also made seminal contributions to optics and shares credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the invention of the infinitesimal calculus. Proposed 3 Laws of Motion and Universal Law of Gravitation. Also did work with light and sound.