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"divine right"

"Divine right" was a theory which was advocated principally by Bishop Jacques-Benigne Bossuet. This means that God appointed the King to the throne. Therefore, the King would own his authority to no person. Divine right was not favored by Thomas Hobbes, although many different kings throughout European history claimed it, such as Louis XIV of France, James I of England, and Charles I of England.

divine right

Isabella d'Este (1474-1539)

"First Lady" of the Renaissance ▪ Set an example for women to break away from their traditional roles as mere ornaments to their husbands ▪ Ruled Mantua after her husband died; extremely well educated ▪ Big patron of the arts ▪ Founded a school for young women ▪ Wrote over 2000 letters that provide a window into politics & courtly life

God, glory, and gold"

"God, glory, and gold" were the primary motives of the causes of exploration in the Age of Exploration and Conquest.

39. "balance of power"

"Herculaneum and Pompeii are two ancient Roman cities. In the eighteenth century, they became popular tourist attractions in Italy because there were many ancient ruins in them.

35. "new racial order"

"New radical order" was when the Nazis exploited Europe for their economic value. The Dutch, Norwegian, and Dane peoples received preferential treatment as they were racially related to Germans. The French were heavily taxed by Hitler because they were seen as inferior Latin people. Slavic people in Eastern Europe were seen as inhumane. Slavic men and women were seized for slave labor to work in German factories. Hitler planned for Polish, Ukrainian, and Russian people would be enslaved and forced to die out, while Germanic peasants resettled the abandoned lands. Polish workers and Soviet prisoners of war were transported to Germany where they did most of the heavy labor and were worked to death.

"Old Imperialism"

"Old Imperialism" in Africa and Asia was characterized as the creation of forts and posts located on coastal areas. However, this does not include penetrating inland for the purpose of conquering land. This was highly contrastable to Spanish Imperialism in the New World and also to the 19th and 20th centuries' "New Imperialism." In "New Imperialism," whole countries were invaded and overtaken for the sole purpose of benefiting the European colonial powers.

In 1917 the Bolsheviks sought to rally support from the Russian people with which of the following slogans?

"Peace, land, bread"

"Survival of the fittest"

"Survival of the fittest" was a part of the theory of evolution in On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin. The "Survival of the fittest" meant that the offspring that were naturally selected for survival survived and the unfit did not and became extinct. This also states that the fit who survived passed on their favorable traits to their offspring until a new superior species evolved.

Realpolitik

"The politics of reality"; used to describe the tough, practical politics in which idealism and romanticism play no part. Otto von Bismarck and Camillo Benso di Cavour were the leading practitioners of realpolitik.

In The City of Ladies, Christine de Pizan argued that

"the perfection of conduct and virtues" is more important than gender, however, men and women still have distinctly different roles in society.

Mary Tudor (Bloody Mary)

-Daughter of Henry VIII and Catharine of Aragon -Married Philip II, future heir to the Spanish throne -Rescinded reformation legislation of Henry's and Edward's reign -300 people executed including bishops and Archbishop Cranmer; her opponents called her "Bloody Mary"

Henry VIII (2nd of Tudor Kings)

-Initially was a strong ally of Pope: Defender of the Faith -Sought a divorce from his wife, Catherine of Aragon, because they could not conceive a son -Pope refused to have the marriage annulled -Henry then broke away from the Catholic church and gained his annulment which was granted by Thomas Cranmer Henry excommunicated by Pope Paul III

Edward VI (1547-1553)

-Son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymore (Henry's 3rd wife) -England moved towards Calvinism during his short reign -Clergy could marry -Iconic images removed from the Anglican Church -Communion by the laity expanded -Salvation by faith alone -Denial of transubstantiation -Only two sacraments: baptism and communion

Battle of Lepanto (1571)

1. A combined Spanish-Venetian fleet defeated the Turkish navy at Lepanto off the coast of Greece. 2. The victory enhanced Philip's prestige as a champion of Catholicism.

Philip's Goals

1. Advance Spanish power in Europe 2. Champion Catholicism in Europe 3. Defeat Ottoman turks in eastern Mediterranean

Consequences of Philip's Defeats

1. Although still a formidable military power, Spain began a long period of pol and economic decline 2. Now independent, Dutch began a golden age of commercial prosperity and artistic creativity 3. As Spain's influence declined, England's power increased. English free to develop their overseas trade and colonize N america

Luther's response to the German Peasants' War

1. Believed that Christians ought to obey their rulers, even unjust rulers, and that rebellion against the state was wrong and should be crushed 2. Horrified at the prospect of a bloody revolution, he urged the German nobility to crush the rebels

Peace of Augsburg 1555

1. Between 1546 and 1555, a religious civil war between Catholics led by Charles V and Protestants led by German princes tore Germany apart. 2. Ended the civil war. The settlement gave each German prince the right to determine the religion of his state, either Roman Catholic of Lutheran. This treaty did not provide for the recognition of Calvinists and other religious minorities

Activities of the Jesuits

1. Catholic Education 2. Missionary work 3. Combating Protestantism

Renaissance Popes

1. Concentrated their energies on commissioning art, building a new St. Peter's, and enhancing the power of their own families. 2. A new generation began with Paul III when they committed themselves to appointing reform minded officials, enforcing strict moral standards, and creating new religious orders.

Henry VII (r. 1485-1509)

1. Created a special court known as the Star Chamber as a political weapon to try prominent nobles. Court sessions were held in secret with no right of appeal, no juries, and no witnesses 2. Used justices of the peace to extend royal authority to the local shires 3. Encouraged wool industry and expanded the English merchant marine

Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547)

1. Declared king supreme head of Church of England which severed England's ties with the Catholic Church 2. Dissolved monasteries and confiscated land and wealth

Henry VIII

1. Devout Catholic who detested Luther 2. Wrote a pamphlet calling Luther a "great limb of the Devil." The pope gave him the title, "Defender of the Faith." 3. His political needs proved more important than his loyalty to the pope 4. Because he was only the second king of the Tudor dynasty, he was determined to have a male heir. When his wife, Catherine of Aragon, failed to give birth to a son, he asked Pope Clement VII to annul the marriage. 5. The pope would normally have granted his request, however, Catherine of Aragon was the aunt of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. At the time of his request, Charles' armies controlled Rome. Caught between the plea of a distant English king and the immediate presence of a powerful Holy Roman emperor, the pope delayed and finally refused to annul Henry's marriage.

Calvinism

1. Doctrines are clearly explained in The Institutes of the Christian Religion 2. Asserted that while God is just, perfect, and omnipotent, humans are corrupt, weak, and insignificant 3. Humans are sinful by nature, so they cannot actively work to achieve salvation. Because God is all knowing, he has "determined, both whom he would admit to salvation and whom he would condemn to destruction." This terrible decree constitutes the theological principle called predestination. 4. Few people will be saved from sin. These people are called the elect 5. Taught elect have a duty to glorify God. This showed that an ideal government would be a theocracy in which Church leaders dominate civil authorities 6. Elect have a duty to Christianize the state

Characteristics of Baroque Art

1. Dramatic use of light called tenebrism 2. Subject matter focused on dramatic moments 3. Portrayal of everyday ppl who are not idealized 4. Baroque buildings featuring grandiose scale and ornate decoration

Phillips Empire

1. Emperor Charles V abdicated his many thrones in 1556. He left his territories in Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary to his brother Ferdinand. 2. Charles left his son Philip a vast empire that included Spain, Milan, Naples, the Netherlands, and the overseas empire in the Americas.

Francis I

1. First French king to be called "Your Majesty" 2. Reached an agreement with Pope Leo X known as the Concordat of Bologna that authorized the king to appoint bishops, abbots, and other high officials of the Catholic Church in France and gave the French monarch administrative control over the church

Louis XI

1. Further enlarged the royal army 2. Encouraged economic growth by promoting new industries such as silk weaving

Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre

1. Growing strength of the Huguenots alarmed the French king Charles IX and his powerful mother Catherine de Medici 2. With Catherine's support, Catholics killed thousands of Huguenots gathered in Paris to celebrate the wedding of Margaret of Valois to the Huguenot leader Henry of Navarre. The violence quickly spread to the provinces, where as many as 20,000 Huguenots were killed. 3. This ignited a bloody civil war between Catholics and Huguenots that continued for 15 years.

Edict of Nantes (1598)

1. Henry IV was the leader of the House of Bourbon and a Huguenot. 2. Many Catholics, including the people of Paris, still opposed Henry. Knowing that a majority of the French were Catholics, Henry chose to become Catholic saying, "Paris is worth a mass." 3. In 1598, Henry issued this edict proclaiming the toleration of Calvinism and recognizing the rights of French Protestants. 4. Henry's decision to convert and issue this edict saved France and prepared the way for the resurgence of royal power in the seventeenth century.

Society of Jesus

1. In 1540, Pope Paul III formally authorized this organization. Those who joined were called Jesuits. 2. Led by Ignatius Loyola, this group of people was a spiritual army that emphasized iron discipline and absolute obedience. 3. Ignatius wrote The Spiritual Exercises, detailing a system of disciplined meditation, prayer, and study.

Elizabeth I

1. Inherited a difficult religious problem. Since Henry VIII's break with Rome in 1534, royal religious policy had changed direction several times. 2. She was a politique who placed political necessities above her personal beliefs. 3. The Elizabethan Settlement restored the Church of England, or Anglican Church. 4. The Anglican Church instituted dogmas that were broad and ambiguous.

Holy Roman Empire in 1600

1. It included approximately 300 small principalities, duchies, and independent cities. 2. The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 gave each German prince the right to determine the religion of his state, either Roman Catholic or Lutheran. 3. The Peace of Augsburg did not provide for the recognition of Calvinists. Nonetheless, a number of states, including the Palatinate, had adopted Calvinism.

Spread of Lutheranism

1. Lutheranism became the dominant religion in northern and eastern Germany. Southern Germany, Austria, and the Rhineland remained Roman Catholic 2. Lutheranism became the predominant religion in Denmark and Scandinavia

Spread of Calvinism

1. Protestant reformers from France, England, and Scotland hailed Calvin's Geneva as "the most perfect school of Christ since the days of the Apostles." Geneva became the center of Calvin's reformed church and a compelling model for other Protestant leaders 2. In the late 1550s, John Knox brought Calvinism to Scotland. 3. Calvinism soon spread to France where followers were called Huguenots 4. Calvinists also founded Puritan churches in England and later in New England

Council of Trent

1. Reaffirmed Catholic doctrines 2. Reformed church abuses 3. Reasserted traditional practices 4. Resisted limiting papal authority

Characteristics of Medieval Kings

1. Received most of their income from estates and grants from their vassals 2. Marched to war followed by an army of vassals who owed military service in exchange for land 3. Relied on nobles for advice and counsel 4. Powerful nobles waged war, taxed their peasants, and administered the law 5. Shared power with the Church and were subordinate to the pope

Martin Luther

1. Religious revolutionary and political conservative 2. Founded Lutheranism 3. Wrote Ninety Five Theses

Characteristics of the New Monarchs

1. Retained feudal income and taxed towns, merchants, and peasants 2. Created professional armies that were paid from the royal treasury 3. Created a more centralized administrative bureaucracy that relied upon educated and loyal middle class officials 4. Negotiated a new relationship with the Catholic Church

Lutheranism

1. Salvation is achieved by faith alone 2. The Bible is the only valid authority for Christian life 3. The church consists of a priesthood of all believers 4. All vocations have equal merit

Consequences of the German Peasants' War

1. Strengthened the authority of the German nobility 2. Lutheranism became closely allied with the established political order controlled by the German nobility

Charles VII (r. 1422-1461)

1. Successfully concluded the Hundred Years' War by expelling the English from France 2. Strengthened royal finances through taxes (taille on land) which were the main source of royal income for the next three centuries 3. Created the first permanent royal army

Purpose of Baroque Art

1. The Protestant Reformation represented the greatest challenge to the Catholic Church since the Roman persecutions of the third century. Led by a series of reform popes, the Church launched a Catholic Counter-Reformation to halt the spread of Protestantism and inspire the faithful. 2. The Council of Trent reaffirmed that works of art should be employed to stimulate piety. Painters, sculptors, and architects tried to speak to the faithful by creating dramatic works of art that involved worshippers.

The Politiques

1. The civil war devastated French agriculture and commerce. 2. A small group of moderate Catholics and Huguenots realized that the disorder and destruction had to be stopped or France would collapse. They supported a strong monarchy and official recognition of the Huguenots. 3. The death of Catherine de' Medici followed by the assassinations of the powerful Catholic Duke of Guise and King Henry III paved the way for the accession of Henry of Navarre, who became Henry IV in 1589 and was a leader of this group.

The Role of Christian Women

1. The elimination of monasteries and convents was a key factor in changing the role of sixteenth century women 2. Luther believed that Christian women should be models of obedience and Christian charity

Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile

1. Their marriage created a dynastic union of the Iberian Peninsula's two most powerful royal houses 2. Reduced the number of nobles on the royal council 3. Completed the Reconquista by conquering Granada and incorporating it into the Spanish kingdom 4. She decreed that in a Christian state, there could by only one king, one law, and one faith. She and her husband issued an edict which expelled all practicing Jews from Spain and ten years later demanded that all Muslims accept Christianity or flee Spain.

Causes of the German Peasants' War 1525

1. They originally supported Luther and heard his message as one that promised freedom from oppression by the landlords and the clergy 2. Complaints that nobles seized village common lands and imposed exorbitant rents soon escalated to open attacks on monasteries, castles, and prosperous farms

Ignatius Loyola

1. Was an unknown Spanish soldier who suffered a severe injury while fighting the French 2. Experienced a religious conversion. He resolved to become a soldier of Christ and dedicate his life to fighting for the pope and the Catholic Church

Renaissance Italy

1300-1527

Ferdinand of Aragon (1478-1516) & Isabella of Castile (1474-1504)

1492: unified Spain ▪ Reconquista—removed last of Moors ▪ Expulsion of Jews (between 30,000 and 60,000)

Waldseemuller's world map

1507

Mercator's map

1575

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

95 Theses (1517): Criticized the Church's sale of indulgences

Solidarity

A Polish labor union founded in 1980 by Lech Walesa and Anna Walentynowicz. Solidarity contested Communist Party programs and eventually ousted the party from the Polish government.

Christian Humanism

A branch of humanism associated with northern Europe. Like their Italian counterparts, the Christian humanists closely studied classical texts. However, they also sought to give humanism a specifically Christian content. Christian humanists like Desiderius Erasmus were committed to religious piety and institutional reform.

Joint-Stock Company

A business arrangement in which many investors raise money for a venture too large for any of them to undertake alone. They share the profits in proportion to the amount they invest. English entrepreneurs used joint-stock companies to finance the establishment of New World colonies.

Indulgence

A certificate granted by the pope in return for the payment of a fee to the church. The certificate stated that the soul of the dead relative or friend of the purchaser would have his time in purgatory reduced by many years or cancelled altogether.

Which of the following statements best reflects the ideas of Karl Marx?

A classless society will emerge at the end of the dialectical process

General Will

A concept in political philosophy referring to the desire or interest of a people as a whole. As used by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who championed the concept, the general will is identical to the rule of law.

Taille

A direct tax on the French peasantry. This was one of the most important sources of income for French monarchs until the French Revolution.

The New Economic Policy (NEP) in Soviet Russia for which of the following?

A free market in grain and limited private enterprise

Zollverein

A free-trade union established among the major German states in 1834.

Autocracy

A government in which the ruler has unlimited power and uses it in an arbitrary manner. The Romanov dynasty in Russia is the best example of an autocracy.

Girondins

A moderate republican faction active in the French Revolution from 1791 to 1793. The Girondin Party favored a policy of extending the French Revolution beyond France's borders.

Querelles des Femmes ("The Problem of Women")

A new debate emerged over the proper role of women in society (starting with Christine de Pisan in the 14th century); the debate continued for six hundred years

Bolsheviks

A party of revolutionary Marxists, led by Vladimir Lenin, who seized power in Russia in 1917.

Appeasement

A policy of making concessions to an aggressor in the hopes of avoiding war. Associated with Neville Chamberlain's policy of making concessions to Adolf Hitler.

Totalitarianism

A political system in which the government has total control over the lives of individual citizens.

Fascism

A political system that combines an authoritarian government with a corporate economy. Fascist governments glorify their leaders, appeal to nationalism, control the media, and repress individual liberties.

Putting-Out System

A preindustrial manufacturing system in which an entrepreneur would bring materials to rural people who worked on them in their own homes. For example, watch manufacturers in Swiss towns employed villagers to make parts for their products. The system enabled entrepreneurs to avoid restrictive guild regulations.

New Economic Policy

A program initiated by Vladimir Lenin to stimulate the economic recovery of the Soviet Union in the early 1920s. The New Economic Policy utilized a limited revival of capitalism in light industry and agriculture.

Chartism

A program of political reforms sponsored by British workers in the late 1830s. Chartist demands included universal manhood suffrage, secret ballots, equal electoral districts, and salaries for members of the House of Commons.

Syndicalism

A radical political movement that advocated bringing industry and government under the control of federations of labor unions. Syndicalists endorsed direct actions such as strikes and sabotage.

Jacobins

A radical republican party during the French Revolution. Led by Maximilien Robespierre, the Jacobins unleashed the Reign of Terror. Other key leaders included Jean-Paul Marat, Georges-Jacques Danton, and the Comte de Mirabeau. The Marquis de Lafayette was not a Jacobin.

Sphere of Influence

A region dominated by, but not directly ruled by, a foreign nation.

Relativity

A scientific theory associated with Albert Einstein. Relativity holds that time and space do not exist separately. Instead, they are a combined continuum whose measurement depends as much on the observer as on the entities being measured.

Carbonari

A secret revolutionary society working to unify Italy in the 1820s.

serfdom

A serf is a peasant who is bound to the land and is obliged to provide labor services and pay various rents and fees to the lord; considered unfree but not a slave because serfs could not be bought and sold. In Prussia under the rule of Frederick William I, serfs would be born on the estate of the lord and remain there and work for most of their lives. If a peasant was not a serf, then he served in the military. These Prussian serfs had few to no rights and needed the permission of their Junkers to be married. In Russia under the rule of Catherine II the Great, the peasantry had restrictions imposed upon them which then led to a rebellion. In this rebellion, led by Emelyan Pugachev, the serfs spread to southern Russia, the Volga River, and the Urals. After this violent revolt, the peasants were freed from military services and oppressive taxes. After this, however, Catherine repressed the peasantry again even more harshly by ending rural reform and spreading serfdom into new parts of the Russian empire.

Fronde

A series of rebellions against royal authority in France between 1649 and 1652. This played a key role in Louis XIV's decision to leave Paris and build the Versailles Palace.

Luddites

A social movement of British textile artisans in the early nineteenth century who protested against the changes produced by the Industrial Revolution. The Luddites believed that the new industrial machinery would eliminate their jobs. The Luddites responded by attempting to destroy the mechanized looms and other new machines.

Welfare State

A social system in which the state assumes primary responsibility for the welfare of its citizens in matters of health care, education, employment, and social security. Germany was the first European country to develop a state social welfare system.

Balance of Power

A strategy to maintain an equilibrium, in which weak countries join together to match or exceed the power of a stronger country. It was one of the guiding principles of the Congress of Vienna.

Absolutism

A system of government in which the ruler claims sole and uncontestable power. Absolute monarchs were not limited by constitutional restraints.

Enlightened Despotism

A system of government supported by leading philosophes in which an absolute ruler uses his or her power for the good of the people. Enlightened monarchs supported religious tolerance, increased economic productivity, administrative reform, and scientific academies. Joseph II, Frederick the Great, and Catherine the Great were the best-known Enlightened monarchs.

Utilitarianism

A theory associated with Jeremy Bentham that is based upon the principle of "the greatest happiness for the greatest number." Bentham argued that this principle should be applied to each nation's government, economy, and judicial system.

Most historians would agree with which of the following descriptions of the Treaty of Versailles of 1919?

A treaty that the defeated thought too harsh and the victors thought too lenient

Second Industrial Revolution

A wave of late-nineteenth-century industrialization that was characterized by an increased use of steel, chemical processes, electric power, and railroads. This period also witnessed the spread of industrialization from Great Britain to western Europe and the United States. Both the United States and Germany soon rivaled Great Britain.

Which situation contributed most to the beginning of the Renaissance?

A wealthy class that supported the arts emerged.

Abbe Sieyes

Abbe Sieyes was the author of What Is the Third Estate? and a member of the clergy. In his book, he claimed that the 3rd estate should have power in France and that the nobility should be abolished. I. his opinion, the 3rd class represented the vast majority of French society. He brought the ideas of Rousseau's Social Contract to the table.

Which of the following was common theme among nineteenth century Utopian socialists?

Advocacy of social and economic planning

Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498)

After Medici were removed from power, he established a theocracy in Florence between 1494-98, with the help of France. Earlier had predicted French invasions due to paganism and moral decay of Italian city-states Burned at the stake in 1498 after the French were removed from Italy

France's Third Republic

After the downfall of the Second Republic, French republicans set up a provisional government. Otto von Bismarck soon forced the French to choose a government by universal male suffrage. The French people rejected the republicans. These radical republicans set up an independent republican government in Paris known as Commune. The national assembly refused to give up its power. They decided to crash the revolutionary Commune. A vicious fighting broke out and many working-class people, both sexes, fought to defend the Commune. The women who participated in the war efforts were punished severely. This discouraged any working-class efforts to improve their conditions. The majority of monarchist peoples in the National Assembly wanted to restore France to its monarchical state. They were unable to agree on a king. They then made a constitution. This stated that there would be a binomial nomenclature, 2 houses. These 2 houses would be the upper class, the Senate elected indirectly, and the lower, the Chamber of Deputies chosen by universal male suffrage. There would also be a president, selected by legislature. This constitution solidified the Third Republic of France.

Albrecht Durer

Albrecht Durer was a northern artist who lived from 1471 to 1528 and visited Italy and educated himself on everything he could about their art, including techniques, perspectives, and proportions. He used these newfound skills in his own artwork, especially in his Adoration of the Magi. Like other artists during the Renaissance era, Durer strived to portray the ideal of human beauty and details of the human body in his paintings.

Alexander II and the Serfs

Alexander II was the successor of Russian Tsar Nicholas I during the Crimean War. He abolished serfdom with the emancipation edict on March 3rd, 1861 which also allowed the peasantry to marry as they chose, bring suits in the law courts, and own property. However, because the government bought land from the landowners for the peasantry, the landowners chose to keep the better land for themselves rather than selling it to the government for the peasants. This resulted in the lower class of Russia having insufficient land that was also not arable. The peasantry was also not entirely free because they had to pay the state government back in long term payments to repay for their land purchased from the landowners. The village commune, or mir, was responsible for collecting these land payments from the peasantry for the government.

39. Alexander III and Nicholas II

Alexander III was convinced that reform eliminated the possibility of mass politics. He instituted "exceptional measures". The secret police's power was increased and advocates of constitutional monarchy, social reform, and revolutionary groups were persecuted. Districts of Russia were put under material law if the government thought the inhabitants were participating in treason. The power of zemstvos were curtailed. Nicholas II was the weak son of Alexander III. He thought the absolute power of tsars should be preserved. This approach was not realistic, though.

37. Alexander Kerensky

Alexander Kerensky became the leader of the Provisional Government and also remained a member of the Soviet. He was a socialist. With his participation in the new coalition government gave the Provisional Government more legitimacy. He implemented a liberal program and rejected outright social revolution.

The French monarchy in the seventeenth century sought to expand France's borders to its 'natural frontiers' by gaining control of

Alsace

Creoles:

American-born Spaniards

Amsterdam

Amsterdam established the Bank of Amsterdam in 1609, which was one of the most important and powerful banking and commercial center of Europe in the seventeenth century. The Bank of Amsterdam replaced the trading of goods with the exchange of stocks. This bank was also known as the Amsterdam Exchange and became the center of the European trading world.

amsterdam

Act of Supremacy (1534)

An act passed by parliament that declared the English king to be the "Protector and Only Supreme Head of the Church and Clergy of England." Although Henry VIII rejected papal supremacy, he remained a devout Catholic. In 1539, Parliament approved the Six Articles defining the doctrine of the English Church. With the sole exception of papal supremacy, the Six Articles reaffirmed Catholic teachings while rejecting Protestant beliefs.

Perestroika

An economic policy initiated by Soviet premier Mikhail Gorbachev in the mid-1980s. Meaning "restructuring," perestroika called for less government regulation and greater efficiency in manufacturing and agriculture.

Keynesian Economics

An economic theory based on the ideas of twentieth century British economist John Maynard Keynes. According to Keynesian economics, governments can spend their economies out of a depression by using deficit-spending to encourage employment and stimulate economic growth.

21. Michael Bakunin and anarchism

Anarchism was a movement that was very prominent in less industrialized and domestic countries. In the beginning, this was not a violent movement. It was believed that people were born good and will be corrupted by the state and society. By abolishing the state and all existing social institutions, true freedom could be reached. In the second half of the 19th century, anarchists in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Russia began to advocate using radical means. Michael Bakunin was a Russian who believed that small groups of well trained, fanatical revolutionaries could use so much violence and disintegrate the state and all of its institutions.

antoine watteau

Antoine Watteau was a French painter who lived from 1684 to 1721. His most famous painting, Return from Cythera, was created in the 18th century, shows a group of different luxuriously dressed lovers about to leave the island of Cythera, where they have just visited Venus, the goddess of love, and depicts aristocratic life. Return from Cythera shows the pleasure, elegance, refinement, and wealth of the nobility and upper class. However, Watteau also shows the transitory nature and fragility of love, pleasure, and life.

4. Gavrilo Princip and Archduke Assassination

Archduke Francis Ferdinand was an Austro-Hungarian archduke. Ferdinand was assassinated by the Black Hand in Sarajevo. The Black Hand was a Serbian nationalist group. The man that murdered Archduke Francis Ferdinand was Gavrilo Princip.

The Scientific Revolution overturned the accepted ideas of which of the following?

Aristotle

34. Richard Arkwright's "water-frame"

Arkwright's "water-frame" turned wheels much faster than cottage spinning wheels and was powered by a horse or water. With the abundance of yarn, came the invention of the mechanical loom. The machines were invented in the 1780's but weren't adopted until the 1900's. People thought this machine would threaten their traditional livelihood. So, they seeked the machine's demise.

44. Arnold Schoenberg and atonal music

Arnold Schoenberg was a famous musician who lived from 1874 to 1951 and developed atonality. This type of music was, in a way, related to Wassily Kandinsky's non-figural painting in abstract expressionist technique.

Brezhnev Doctrine

Assertion that the Soviet Union and its allies had the right to intervene in any socialist country whenever they saw the need. The Brezhnev Doctrine justified the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968.

astrology

Astrology was patronized by many political leaders including Queen Elizabeth of England, Edward VI of England, the Austrian Habsburgs, and the House of Medici. These leaders would hire astrologers such as Gerolamo Cardano, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilei to provide them with horoscopes that would predict their future. However, the Enlightenment in the 18th century later caused a decline in astrology.

12. Ataturk and Mohandas Gandhi

Ataturk led Turkish forces in the creation of a new republic of Turkey in the year 1923. Ataturk also westernized Turkish culture by breaking the power and strength of the Islamic religion. This break in power in Islam represented equal rights for women with men regarding equal education and job opportunities for all people. Mohandas Gandhi established a nonviolent resistance movement. This movement's purpose was to force Great Britain to help the peasantry and also to grant India independence. Gandhi asked for peaceful policy of civil disobedience and disagreed with Western materialism. Gandhi was known as the "great soul" of India.

Auguste Comte and "positive knowledge"

Auguste Comte was a French philosopher who applied scientific methods to the study of society and formed the positivist method. His discipline of society suggested that "each branch of our knowledge passes successively through three different theoretical conditions; the Theological, or will of God; the Metaphysical, or the will of an orderly nature; and the Scientific, or to the rule of unchanging laws." Positive knowledge is based off of a hierarchy of all the scientists. He viewed sociology as the most difficult because humans change so much. For humans, data needed to be collected on a large group with many different traits.

Which of the following resulted from Bismarck's unification of Germany?

Austria was ousted from a position of leadership in Germany.

24. Silesia

Austrian Silesia was invaded by Prussia. Maria Theresa was very weak, which in turn, encouraged France to enter the war against Austria. Theresa made an alliance with Great Britain. The war was not fought solely in Europe, but also in France. Prussia was able to seize Silesia. With the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle all occupied territories were returned to their original owners, expect Silesia. Prussia refused to return Silesia, which guaranteed another war.

Wassily Kandinsky and Abstract Expressionism

Avoiding any and all representation whatsoever, Kandinsky's work sought to speak to the soul, and concentrated on color.

francis bacon

Bacon formalized the empirical method, empiricism, that had been used by Brahe and Galileo. Also, the inductive method began with observation, then a hypothesis, conducting an experiment, and finally organizing data. Bacon's inductive method and Descartes deductive reasoning formed the backbone for the scientific method. The Inductive Method is a method developed by Francis Bacon for scientific experimentation. In this method, there are 4 steps; first, you begin with inductive observation, form a hypothesis, experiment, and organize the data obtained from the experiment. This Inductive Method, along with Descartes' deductive reason, established the backbone of the modern scientific method.

Baron Haussmann and Paris

Baron Haussmann worked with Napoleon III to entirely reconstruct the city of Paris, France by ridding it of its previous medieval architecture with narrow roads and old city walls and replacing it with gaslights, broad boulevards, a new public water supply, spacious buildings, an underground sewage system, circular plazas, and public squares. This new and improved city of Paris served an aesthetic and military purpose because the broad streets made it increasingly difficult for for insurrectionists to throw up barricades and troops could more easily move throughout the city to squash revolts.

montesquieu's the spirit of the laws

Baron de Montesquieu was a French nobility who hated the absolutism of Louis XIV. With his Spirit of the Laws, the separation of powers in government into 3 branches was strongly encouraged. He used the principle of checks and balances to ensure not one branch became over powering. His ideas had a significant impact on the creation of the US Constitution and the French Revolution.

baroque art and architecture

Baroque Art acted as a part of Catholic Reformation and began in these countries to educate people in a solid and emotional way and to glorify the Catholic Church. This art form was patronized by the Popes and the Society of Jesus and became prominent in France, Flanders, Austria, southern Germany, and Poland. Later on, it would spread to major Protestant countries like the Netherlands, northern Germany, and England. This sought to emphasize grandeur, emotion, movement, spaciousness, and unity with a singular theme. In architecture and sculpture, it glorified the monarchs and the Catholic Church. Gianlorenzo Bernini used baroque art in architecture and sculpture and lived from 1598 to 1680. He had 3 famous artworks, including Colonnade, St. Peter's Baldachin, David, and The Ecstasy of St. Teresa.

Baroque

Baroque was an artist who reflected the age of absolutism in his works. This began in Catholic Reformation countries to teach the glory and power of the Catholic Church. Baroque was encouraged by the papacy and Jesuits. This was common in France, Flanders, Austria, southern Germany, and Poland. It later spread to Protestant countries like northern Germany and England. This art form was to overwhelm the viewer. The Versailles Palace was baroque art.

baroque

bartolome de las casas

Bartholome de las Casas was a Spanish priest, author, and former conqueror who lived from 1474 to 1566. His father had followed Christopher Columbus on his 2nd voyage and afterward, in 1542, Casas wrote a book called A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies. This book tells about the cruelty, brutality, and ruthlessness Columbus and his followers used against the Amerindians. This text spread the idea that Spain seemingly used Christianity as justification for murdering numerous Amerindian peoples, also known as the "black legend" to Protestant countries. However, these countries, mainly England, were equally guilty of killing off the Amerindian populations.

Late Middle Ages Literature

Based almost solely on religion. Written in Latin Church was greatest patron of arts and literature. Little political criticism. Hand-written

marquis de beccaria

Beccaria wrote On Crimes and Punishment. He wanted to humanize criminal law based on Enlightenment concepts of reason and equality. He said that the punishment for a crime should be based off of the damage done to society. He opposed the death penalty unless there was a serious threat to the state. He didn't like the idea of torture. The English Despots were influenced by his views.

Manchester

Before the industrial revolution, most people lived in the south of England. Coal and iron were in the Midlands and the north. In 1785, the population of many cities exceeded 50,000. By 1820, many British cities had a population of 50,000. With the birth of factory towns, cities grew into large industrial centers including Manchester.

"I heard from the white man and some of the soldiers some of the most gruesome stories. The former white man (I feel ashamed of my color every time I think of him)would stand at the door of the store to receive rubber from the plantation workers, who after, in some cases, weeks of privation in the forests, had brought in their baskets. A man bringing under the proper amount, the white man flies into a rage, and seizing a rifle from on the guards, shoots him dead on the spot. Very rarely did rubber come in but one or more were shot in that way at the door of the store 'to make the survivors bring more the next time'." The above passage refers to

Belgian rule in the Congo

Nationalism

Belief that a nation consists of a group of people who share similar traditions, history, and language. Nationalists argued that every nation should be sovereign and include all members of a community. A person's greatest loyalty should be to a nation-state.

Anabaptism

Beliefs: Opposed infant baptism, insisting that only adult baptism conformed to Scripture and advocated complete separation of church and state. Leaders: Thomas Munzer because he advocated the overthrow of the existing political and social order. He was executed in 1525.

13. Belle Époque

Belle Epoque was a time period from 1895 to 1914. During this time, the standard of living in industrialized countries was increased. After World War I, this time period was known as the good old days. Better living occurred more in Northern Europe than elsewhere. Wages went up, while the price of food declined. People had more leisure time which resulted in more money being spent.

Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone

Benjamin Disraeli was the leader of the Tories, or the conservatives. He passed the Voters Act of 1867 which allowed for more voters. This was to help his party, but ended up hurting the Whigs. William Gladstone was a representative for the secret ballot voting. He abolished the practice of buying military commissions. The Education Act of 1870 attempted to make schools available to all children.

4. Bernard de Fontenelle

Bernard de Fontenelle was a French philosophe and author who lived from 1657 to 1757. Fontenelle was the secretary of the French Royal Academy of Science from 1691 to 1741 and was very knowledgeable about scientific works from history and during his time, although he never conducted any scientific experiments of his own. In his book, Plurality of Worlds, Fontenelle described the advances in cosmology since antiquity.

bernard de fontenelle

Witch Hunts

Between 1400 and 1700, 70,000-100,000 people were killed because they were thought to be witches. The causes for these murders were one's belief in magic, the Catholic churches' claim that powers came from God or the Devil, the viewing of women as weaker vessels drawn to temptation, a panic-ridden environment, and the Protestant Reformation. The witch hunts ended with the Scientific Revolution, which discredited many superstitions, advances in medicine, extreme chaos, belief that God was the only spiritual force, and 16th and 17th-century literature.

witch hunts

"In the presence of my guests I reduced the telegram by deleting words, without adding or altering a single word...which made the announcement appear decisive. [My guest] said: 'Now it has quite a different ring. In its original form it sounded like a parley. Now it is like a flourish of trumpets in answer to a challenger.' I went on to explain: '...it will have the effect of a red flag on the Gallic bull.' " Question: The individual recounting the story above was

Bismarck

Audencias:

Board of 12 to 15 judges served as advisor to viceroy and highest judicial body.

Popular anti-clericalism, a major theme of Renaissance literature, was evident in

Boccaccio's Decameron

John Hus (1369-1415)

Bohemian Ideas similar to Wycliffe Eventually burned at the stake for his criticism of the Church

Which of the following describes a major difference between Northern humanists and Italian humanists?

Both looked to classical sources, but Northern humanists also emphasized Christian sources

Bramante and Saint Peter's

Bramante was an architect in the mid 1400's to the early 1500's. Alexander VI chose him to build a sanctuary to honor the crucifixion of Peter. He was the lead architect for the rebuilding of St. Peter's cathedral. After his death, some of his original plans were altered by Michelangelo

donato bramante

Brazil

Brazil was Portugal's major colony in the New World. For the production of coffee, cotton, and sugar slaves were brought in from Africa. A racial mixture of whites, Amerindians, and blacks resulted.

War of Spanish Succession (1702-1713):

Britain and France fought over northeastern North America

War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748):

Britain and France fought over northeastern North America; treaty preserved the status quo

Seven Years' War (1756-1763):

Britain and France fought over the Ohio Valley

the triangular trade

Britain sent textiles, rum, and manufactured goods to Africa. From africa, slaves were transported from Africa to the West Indies. From the West Indies and North America, sugar, tobacco, lumber, and cotton goods were sent to Britain.

12. Britain's Tories and Whigs

Britain's Tories and Whigs were two different political parties in the British government. The Tories made up the conservative political party and the Whigs made up the liberal political party.

40. brothers Grimm

Brothers Grimm were two German authors who wrote a series of German folk stories known as Grimm's Fairy Tales. The brothers Grimm were named Wilhelm and Jakob and were heavily influenced by preserving songs and sayings of German culture, an idea advocated strongly by Hurder. The fairytales in the brothers' book provided a strong example of how German romanticism and nationalism were closely related.

The first sculptor of the Renaissance was

Brunelleschi

Camille Pissarro and Claude Monet

Camille Pissarro was considered to be the father of imperialism by some. Claude Monet was the foremost impressionist painter. One ofs his painting, Impression Sunrise, was considered the first impressionist painting. He was well known for his "series paintings" of the countryside at Giverny.

Emile Zola wrote J'Accuse in defense of

Captain Alfred Dreyfus

3. Cardinal Fleury

Cardinal Fleury was the minister of the French King Louis XV. After the death of Cardinal Fleury in 1743, Louis XV sought to rule alone. However, he was lazy and, as a result, mistresses and ministers began to influence the King and therefore were able to control the affairs of state and undermine the prestige of the monarchy.

Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin

Cardinal Richelieu was a key figure in the emergence of a strong monarchy in France. He was the chief minister to Louis XIII. He strengthened royal authority through the elimination of private armies, fortification of Huguenot cities, and the crushing of aristocratic views. Cardinal Mazarin was allowed to dominate the government by Anne of Austria. He was originally Italian and carried on royal policies until he died in 1661. A revolt called Fronde was the most important event during Mazarin's reign. The goals of this revolt were to overthrow Mazarin in hopes to secure their positions and increase their power.

cardinals richelieu and mazarin

carnival

Carnival was a time of celebration in the eighteenth-century that took place before Lent, which was a forty-day period of abstaining from eating meat, promiscuous activities, and many recreations. During Lent, people were to purify themselves by fasting for Easter. However, Carnival was exactly the opposite. In Carnival, people would eat lots of meat, participate in promiscuous activities, songs, drinking, physical altercations, and practical jokes. Sometimes people would even throw pig's bladders filled with water at one another.

cartesian dualism

Cartesian Dualism is a scientific theory that was created by Rene Descartes. This theory separated all existence into the material and the spiritual. Spiritual objects can be examined by deductive reasoning, or logic, only and material objects are subject to the experimental method.

45. Caspar David Friedrich, J.M.W. Turner and Eugene Delacroix

Caspar David Friedrich created Wanders Above the Mist in 1818. In this piece of art, a mystic view of the submarine power of nature was conveyed. J.M.W. Turner depicted nature's power and terror. He liked to poetry wild storms and sinking ships. He made many landscapes, seascapes, sunrises, and sunsets. Eugene Delacroix was the most famous romantic painter. Exotic and dramatic use of color excited him. His most famous work is Liberty Leading the People. He portrayed the 1830 Revolution in France.

Sforza Family of Milan

Caterina Sforza

The sculpture by Bernini shown above celebrates

Catholic Reformation mysticism

The two most outstanding examples of the marriage between nationalism and power politics were

Cavour and Bismarck

Cecil Rhodes

Cecil Rhodes became the Prime Minister of Cape Colony in South Africa. He was the main sponsor of the "Cape-to-Cairo" dream. Here, the African continent would be dominated by the British.

"The punishment of death is pernicious to society from the example of barbarity it affords. If the passions, or the necessity of war, have taught men to shed the blood of their fellow creatures, the laws, which are intended to moderate the ferocity of mankind, should not increase it by examples of barbarity, the more horrible as this punishment is usually attended with formal pageantry." Question: The author of the above passage is

Cesare Beccaria

Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin was an amateur scientist who lived from 1809 to 1882. Darwin was born into an upper-class family, studied theology while attending Cambridge University with a side interest in biology and geology, became a naturalist in order to study plants and animals on a Royal Navy expedition on the H.M.S. Beagle in order to study and survey the landmasses in South America and South Pacific, and studied the structure of numerous different animal and plant organisms. Through his studies in the South Pacific and South America, Darwin developed an explanation for why animals and plants adapt to their environments. He called this explanation and theory for evolution the principle of natural selection. This theory was formulated in his book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection in 1859. Another main idea in Darwin's book was that all animal and plant organisms had once developed and evolved from simpler ancestors. This principle was known as organic evolution. Darwin also wrote about plant and animal species exclusively in this book. However, in a later book titled The Descent of Man, Darwin applied his theories of natural selection to mankind in 1871. In this book, Darwin argued that humans originated from animal ancestors, which was highly controversial.

On the Origin of Species

Charles Darwin was the author of this book. He was a British biologist who introduced ideas of natural selection and evolution. He argued that specific behaviors evolved because the changes would lead to advanages in survival and reproduction. God was not a part of his views on natural selection or evolution.

25. Charles Fourier

Charles Fourier was a French philosopher, influential early socialist thinker and one of the founders of utopian socialism. Some of Fourier's social and moral views, held to be radical in his lifetime, have become mainstream thinking in modern society.

Charles I

Charles I was an English king. Charles used "divine right" as justification for obtaining political power.

charles i

Charles I was an English king. Charles used "divine right" as justification for obtaining political power.

Monarchs and statesmen called "politiques," who put the security of the state ahead of religious prejudice included all of the following EXCEPT

Charles II of England

Charles II and the Restoration

Charles II was a Spanish Habsburg King that gave all of the Spanish territories to Louis XIV's grandson. Charles was one of the worst kings in the entire Habsburg dynasty. The restoration.

Charles VI

Charles VI was an Austrian emperor who lived from 1711 to 1740. Under his rule, Austria was prevented from the invasion of the French during the War of Spanish Succession because of its alliance with Britain and Prince Eugene's military. In 1713, Charles V wrote the Pragmatic Sanction which stated that the possessions of the Habsburgs should not be divided, and therefore passed down to an heir. After his death in 1740, his daughter Maria Theresa inherited his empire and ruled until 1780.

charles vi

21. Charles de Gaulle

Charles de Gaulle was the leader of the Free French. He was a general that resigned after establishing the free, democratic Fourth Republic, in 1946. In 1959, he came back to lead the Fifth Republic.

35. Charles de Gaulle's Fifth Republic

Charles de Gaulle's was an inspiring wartime leader of Free France. The Fifth Republic gave the president far more power than before and started in 1958.

Chartists

Chartists wanted political democracy. These people organized in the face of Owen's national trade union collapse. In this, it was demanded that all men have the right to vote. It sought to change what they saw as an oppressive economic system of exploitation.

Impact of Renaissance Humanism

Christian humanists of the Northern Renaissance criticized the church (e.g. Erasmus) and questioned the validity of the Latin Vulgate (Catholic Bible) ❖ Eventually led to reforms in the Catholic church during the Catholic Reformation ▪ The Italian Renaissance was at times marked by a de-emphasis on religion while emphasizing secularism and individualism among high church leaders ▪ Ulrich Zwingli (see below) was trained as a humanist and as a preacher he used Erasmus' edition of the Greek New Testament ▪ John Calvin (see below) was influenced by humanism, especially the writings of Erasmus ▪ After Martin Luther's reformation, humanists turned many monasteries into schools ▪ Catholic church abuses were reformed

civic humanism

Civic Humanism was a philosophical ideal that stated that political leaders and rulers should be highly educated. Some civic humanists include Coluccio Salutati, Leonardo Bruni, and Francesco Guicciardini. This idea also stated that politicians should use their education to make intelligent decisions and actions for their government.

19. classical economics

Classical economics were the same thing as classical liberalism. In this, people were reformist and political rather than revolutionary in character. It was believed that individuals were entitled to seek their freedom in the face of tyranny. "Natural rights" were something that all humans had and governments were to protect them. Rights were guaranteed by a constitution with definitions of power.

Commodore Matthew Perry (Chandler Bing)

Commodore Matthew Perry (Chandler Bing) was form the United States. He forced Japan to open trade in 1883.

The body composed of ministers and elders in Geneva that oversaw personal and group discipline and morality was the

Consistory

Which of the following best describes the primary goal of central European liberal political leaders prior to the revolutions of 1848?

Constitutional government reform and national independence

26. Consuelo Vanderbilt

Consuelo Vanderbilt was a wealthy American heiress. She married the duke of Marlborough which gave her $2 million net worth to her husband.

14. Consumerism and department stores

Consumerism led to an increase in living conditions in the late nineteenth century. This time period of consumerism was known as the "golden age of the middle class," however, consumption and wages rates increased by 50% throughout the 1820s and 1850s. After the 1850s, the gap between working and wealthy class was still very broad. Consumerism also led to an increase in the participation and spectation of sports including bicycling, soccer (football), automobile races, track and field, and rugby. Many women decided to take part in sports clubs and bicycling and abandoned their restrictive clothing and replaced it with dresses that allowed more movement. Department stores also increased in popularity as a result of consumerism and were mostly used by the middle-class population.

Which of the following best describes a primary goal of the Christian Democratic parties in Western Europe after the Second World War?

Continuation of a strong anticommunist foreign policy

13. Corn Laws and the Peterloo Massacre

Corn Laws halted the importation of cheaper foreign grains. The wealthy landowners benefitted, but the rest of the English population did not. Liberals were very mad, but did not have the political influence necessary to repeal the law. The Peterloo Massacre was the event were pro-liberal people were listening to anti-Corn Law speeches and were attacked by police. As a result, the press was brought under a more firm control and meeting were abolished.

Count Camillo di Cavour

Count Camillo di Cavour was from Sardinia-Piedmont and led the struggle for Italian unification. He served as King Victor Emmanuel's prime minister and was basically a moderate nationalist and an aristocratic liberal. He guided Sardinia-Piedmont into a liberal and economically liberal state. With The Law of Convents and Siccardi Law, the Catholic Church's influence was lessened. To combat this, Pope Pius IX issued his Syllabus of Errors.

Causes of the Reformation

Crises of the 14th and 15th centuries hurt the prestige of the Catholic church and its clergy Corruption in the Catholic Church Critics within the Church emphasized a personal relationship with God as primary

The first major writer to embody a number of the characteristics of the Renaissance was

Dante Alighieri.

Georges Danton

Danton was the leader of a revolutionary municipal government in Paris. This government took the power of the Legislative Assembly. With the urging of radicals, the Legislative Assembly suspended the Constitution of 1791.

Elizabeth I (1558-1603)

Daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn Held strong Protestant beliefs; Catholics saw her as illegitimate Politique Elizabethan Settlement Thirty Nine Articles

david hume

David Hume was a Scottish philosopher who lived from 1711 to 1776 and argued against faith in religion and natural law. Hume claimed that desire, not reason, governed human behaviors and that human ideas were the result of sensory experiences. This meant that human reason was limited only to what a person experienced with their senses. This contrasted with the emphasis of the Enlightenment on reason.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was the constitutional blueprint for France and was issued on August 26th, 1789. This declaration established the sovereignty of the people, influenced mostly by the ideas written in the American constitution, and guaranteed that a citizen is innocent until proven guilty, which is also known as due process of law. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen also supported classical liberalism, which was a type of Enlightenment philosophy. Classical liberalism stated that law is an expression of "general will", liberty is defined as the freedom to do whatever one wants, so long as it is not injurious to others, men are born with equal rights and are free, and the natural rights are resistance to oppression, liberty, security, and property. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen said that all people have freedom of religion and expression, taxes could be raised only with the consent of the governed and Parlement, public servants were to be held accountable for conduct in office, the confiscation of property from the people was required to be done with adequate compensation, and established the separation of powers in separate branches. These terms applied to every Estate in France, not just the First and Second Estates.

Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire is a six-volume series written by Edward Gibbon. In this book, Gibbon portrays the growth of Christianity as one of the major causes of the downfall of the Roman Empire. He also expressed his optimism concerning the future of Western European Civilization, and that he believed that Europeans have the ability to avoid the fate of the Romans.

Thirty-Nine Articles (1563)

Defined creed of Anglican Church under Elizabeth I

denis diderot's encyclopedia

Denis Diderot was a French author and philosopher who lived from 1713 to 1784 and wrote the first volumes of The Encyclopedia in 1765. This multi-volume series of literary work is considered to be one of the greatest works ever written and represented the views of the philosophes. The Encyclopedia was a collection of social and political critiques from various different authors and philosophers from the Enlightenment, put an emphasis on reason and science and criticized tyranny, religion, intolerance, and injustice, and taught its readers how to think objectively and critically. However, because The Encyclopedia promoted secular views from the Enlightenment such as reason and science, the Pope banned it and placed Diderot's book on the Index of Prohibited Books.

Late Middle Ages Technology

Depended on scribes

The "Prince of Humanists," who wrote In Praise of Folly as a criticism of the clergy and the abuses of the Christian Church was

Desiderius Erasmus

Renaissance Marriage and Family

Divorce available in certain cases (Protestant countries) • More prostitution • Increased marriages based on romance (but still more heavily based on economic considerations) • Woman was to make herself pleasing to the man (Castiglione) • Sexual double standard • Increased infanticide

Late Middle Ages Marriage and Family

Divorce non-existent Marriages arranged for economic reasons Prostitution in urban areas Ave. age for men: mid-late twenties Ave. age for women: less than 20 years old Church encouraged cult of paternal care Many couples did not observe church regulations on marriage Manners shaped men to please women Relative sexual equality

Dmitri Mendeleev

Dmitri Mendeleev was a Russian chemist who lived from 1834 to 1907. Mendeleev is most famous for classifying all the material elements on the basis of their individual atomic weights and then providing the systematic foundation for periodic law.

Predestination

Doctrine espoused by John Calvin that God has known since the beginning of time who will be saved and who will be damned. Calvin declared that "by an eternal and immutable counsel, God has once and for all determined, both whom he would admit to salvation, and whom he would condemn to destruction."

27. domestic servants

Domestic servants and unskilled workers were at the bottom of the middle class. By 1900, many working women were domestic servants in England.

Late Middle Ages Thought

Dominated by religion

Late Middle Ages Religion

Dominated politics; sought unified Christian Europe. Church is supreme to the state. Inquisition started in 1223; dissenters dealt with harshly

Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616)

Don Quixote (1605-15) o Masterpiece of Spanish literature; critical of excessive religious idealism & chivalric romance

Donatello's David

Donato di Donatello was an artist who lived from 1386 to 1466, and was the first Renaissance artist to create a nude sculpture. Although he created many sculptures during his life, his most famous work of art was his sculpture David. This sculpture was made of bronze and was the first of its kind since ancient times. It is also thought to be a celebration of the victory of the Republic of Florence over the Milanese in 1428 and a reflection of the strength of mankind. Donatello also studied and observed ancient statues in the city of Rome before creating David, which helped him to capture the essence of the ancient sculptures and use that in his own artwork.

Dowries

Dowries were common and important in families of all social castes, including wealthy, common, and landowning peasant families.

10. Dreadnoughts

Dreadnoughts were battleships that Germany possessed and utilized during World War I. These warships had awesome firing power and range.

price revolution

During the "Price Revolution," prices for all sorts of products in Europe and the New World grew at a gradual rate during the 16th century. This was mainly caused by the increasing population in Europe, which then increased the need for goods. This caused an increase in prices, along with the influx of gold and silver from the New World. Inflation arose in Europe and allowed producers to get more money for their products and services. The middle class benefited from this because their wealth was based on manufacturing and trading, so their social and economic statuses went up significantly. Peasant farmers also benefited because their fields could be transformed into cash crops. However, this had a negative effect on the nobility because their income was fixed on feudal rents and fees, so their standards of living diminished.

"Price Revolution"

During the "Price Revolution," prices for all sorts of products in Europe and the New World grew at a gradual rate during the 16th century. This was mainly caused by the increasing population in Europe, which then increased the need for goods. This caused the increase in prices, along with the influx of gold and silver from the New World. Inflation arose in Europe and allowed producers to get more money for their products and services. The middle class benefited from this because their wealth was based off of manufacturing and trading, so their social and economical statuses went up significantly. Peasant farmers also benefited because their fields could be transformed into cash crops. However, this had a negative effect on the nobility because their income was fixed on feudal rents and fees, so their standards of living diminished.

Transportation Revolution

During the 18th century, Britain experienced an expansion of transportation facilities. Entrepreneurs realized the need of a more efficient way to move goods and resources. Turnpike trusts constructed new roads and a network of canals were built. Railroads were soon built and dazzled people with promise. According to many economic historians, railroads were the "most important single factor in promoting European economic progress in the 1830s and 1840s". Britain was the leader of the revolution.

31. Great Purges

During the Great Purges, 40,000 army officers were expelled or liquidated. This later weakened the USSR in WWII. Millions of citizens were killed, simply disappeared, or died in gulags, forced labor camps.

11. "Eastern Question"

During the Greek Revolution, Europeans were concerned with the "Eastern Question". This question was "Which countries would fill the void in the Balkans resulting from the decline of the Ottoman Empire?".

5. Italy invades Ethiopia

During these invasions, Italy got revenge for their earlier defeat by Ethiopia. The League of Nations imposed sanctions on Italy, but didn't include oil on the list of embargoed goods. Hitler was encouraged by the international community lacked the will to enforce peace.

29. Reform Bill of 1832

Earl Grey wrote the Reformation Bill of 1832. This was considered a milestone in British history. The recent cholera epidemic spurred this and in turn, people demanded a more representative government. It increased the number of voters from 6% to 12%. It eliminated underpopulated rural electoral districts. As a result, the House of Commons was supreme over the House of Lords in Parliament.

Utopian Socialists

Early nineteenth-century socialists who hoped to replace the overly competitive capitalist structure with planned communities guided by a spirit of cooperation. Leading French utopian socialists such as Charles Fourier and Louis Blanc believed that property should be communally owned.

Mercantilism

Economic philosophy calling for close government regulation of the economy. Mercantilist theory emphasized building a strong, self-sufficient economy by maximizing exports and limiting imports. Mercantilists supported the acquisition of colonies as sources of raw materials and markets for finished goods. This favorable balance of trade would enable a country to accumulate reserves of gold and silver.

Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France

Edmund Burke was an author who lived from 1729 to 1797. His most famous book, Reflections on the Revolution in France, written in 1790, was one of the greatest intellectual defenses of European conservatism. Edmund Burke urged war as an ideological struggle against barbarism in France, defended inherited privileges, believed nations should be shaped by national character, national circumstance, and natural history, predicted the dictatorship and anarchy in France, disagreed with political philosophy that was based off of abstract principles of wrong and right, and advised England to slowly adapt its own liberties.

20. Eduard Bernstein

Eduard Bernstein was the most prominent evolutionary scientist and lived from 1850 to 1932. Bernstein was a member of the German Social Democratic Party, had spent years in exile in Great Britain, was influenced by the English parliament and moderate English socialism, wrote a book titled Evolutionary Socialism in 1899 that argued against Marxism, and stated that cooperation and evolution was key to success rather than revolution and class conflict.

Which of the following expresses a major social impact of the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century?

Education expanded to meet the need for biblical literacy.

Philosophes

Eighteenth century writers who stressed reason and advocated freedom of expression, religious toleration, and a reformed legal system. Leading philosophes such as Voltaire fought irrational prejudice and believed that society should be open to people of talent.

33. El Alamein

El Alamein, November 1942, was when the British forces drove the Germans out of Egypt. The Germans were pushed westward towards the west, across North Africa.

Elba and Saint Helena

Elba and Saint Helena were both places Napoleon was sent after his capture. He was first exiled to the island of Elba were he got an income from France. He then escaped back to France and got an army together. Soon after, he was captured again and sent to Saint Helena and was watched. He died there in 1821.

Elizabeth Blackwell

Elizabeth Blackwell accomplished the very first major breakthrough for women in medicine. She was admitted to the Geneva College of Medicine in New York by mistake, although she gained the respect of her males classmates because of her intelligence and perseverance. In 1849, she graduated from the Geneva College of Medicine and earned her M.D. degree. Later on, she opened a clinic in New York City.

Elizabethan Settlement

Elizabeth and Parliament required conformity to the Church of England but people were allowed to worship Protestantism and Catholicism privately Some church practices, including ritual, resembled Catholic practices Book of Common Prayer instituted in 1559 Catholicism remained, especially among the gentry, but could not be practiced openly Services given in English Monasteries not re-established Clergy allowed to marry Everyone required to attend church services of the Anglican Church (fined if absent)

William Shakespeare (1564-1616)

Elizabethan era; comedies, tragedies, histories & sonnets o Greatest of the English Renaissance authors o His works reflected the Renaissance ideas of classical Greek and Roman culture, individualism and humanism

In 1861, Tsar Alexander II of Russia initiated which of the following reforms?

Emancipation of the serfs

19. Emelyn Pugachev

Emelyan Pugachev was an illiterate Cossack who started a mass rebellion across southern Russia from the Urals to the Volga River in 1773. This revolt was so successful that Pugachev won the support of the majority of the peasantry because he issued a manifesto in July of 1774 that freed the peasants from military service and oppressive taxes. The peasantry killed more than fifteen hundred estate owners and their families because Pugachev encouraged them to seize the estates of their landlords. At the downfall of his revolt, Pugachev was captured, tortured, and murdered under the rule of Catherine the Great. As punishment for the peasantry, Catherine also introduced serfdom to new parts of the empire.

20. Pugachev Rebellion

Emelyn Pugachev was an illiterate Cossack who welded elements of discontent into a mass revolt. The rebellion spread all around Russia from the Urals to the Volga River. The support of peasants was won with a manifesto in July 1774. This manifesto freed all peasants from oppressive taxes and military service. The peasants were encouraged to seize their landlord's estates which resulted with the killing of estate owners and their families. Soon, government forces rallied and became more effective, which faltered the rebellion. Pugachev was eventually captured, tortured, and executed.

Emile Zola and Leo Tolstoy

Emile Zola was a giant of realist literature. She showed the steamy, animalistic view of the working classes. In her Germinal, the hard life of young mine workers in northern France was depicted. Leo Tolstoy was the greatest Russian realist. He regarded love, trust, and everyday ties as life's enduring views. War and Peace was his greatest masterpiece. It was the story of Russian society during the Napoleonic Wars.

emile

Emile was a book written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in 1762. In this book, he encouraged progressive education and self-expression. Rousseau also stated that a person should learn by doing, or hands-on learning. However, he did not promote equality for women and stated that they should not have the same social or educational opportunities as men.

The Pankhursts and The "Suffragettes"

Emmeline was a British political activist who helped the suffragettes in their movement to be able to vote. The "suffragettes" were people from the middle classes. They benefited from education and were exposed to earlier feminist works.Women were free to become activictist because many middle class families had servants. Working-class women and socialists distrusted the middle class and worked toward their goals independently.

32. Emperor Napoleon III

Emperor Napoleon III was the successor of Louis-Philippe of France and the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. Emperor Napoleon III was elected president of France by the vast majority. During the rule of this emperor, the country of France endured an era of prosperity and stability.

"The pasturing of stock is allowed in peace to eat up the food on the pastures to its utmost limits, thus the stock returns more ample profit to the farmer. In managing arable lands, the farmer derives other solid advantages, such as security against trespass and adoption of correct crop rotation." Question: The eighteenth century British quotation above is a justification for which of the following?

Enclosure of common lands

The Brethren of the Common Life

Encouraged Christians to live simply

War of the League of Augsburg (1688-1697):

England and France fought over certain territories in North America

Anglo-Dutch Wars (mid-17th century):

England sought to weaken Dutch dominance in the Atlantic; kicked the Dutch out of New York and Delaware

1. enlightened absolutism

Enlightened absolutism is an absolute monarchy where the ruler introduces reforms for the improvement of society, allows freedom of speech and the press, permits religious toleration, expands education, and rules in accordance with the law, all of which are principles of the Enlightenment.

Erasmus and the Praise of Folly

Erasmus was the most popular and congratulated northern humanist. He conquered the large feat of earning his living solely through writing and was a master of the Greek language. He translated the Greek and Latin versions of the New Testament to create a more pure copy

Which of the following was an economic policy of Louis XIV's finance minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert?

Establishing detailed manufacturing codes to improve the quality of French export goods

New Monarchs

European monarchs who created professional armies and a more centralized administrative bureaucracy. The new monarchs also negotiated a new relationship with the Catholic Church. Key new monarchs include Charles VII, Louis XI, Henry VII, and Ferdinand and Isabella.

The nineteenth century term "White Man's Burden" reflects the idea that

Europeans had a responsibility to improve the lives of their colonial peoples

Mary Stuart ("Mary, Queen of Scots")

Executed on Elizabeth's order

Jan van Eyck

Eyck was one of the most famous Flemish painters in the 15th century. Through his paintings he perfected oil painting, used religious symbols in his wood panel paintings and used extreme detail. Two of his most influential and popular paintings were the Ghent Altarpiece and Arnolfini and his Wife

factory discipline

Factory workers lost personal freedom. Work became impersonal. Due to this change, cottage workers were reluctant to to work in factories even for decent wages because of the different environment. Early factories and English poorhouses were very similar in that they were places destitute people came to work. With the shortage of adult workers, factory owners were forced to turn to child labor.

Cardinal Thomas Wolsey

Failed to get Henry's divorce

Christopher Columbus

Ferdinand and Isabella financed Columbus' expedition to the "Indies" in hopes of competing with Portuguese expansion. Instead of reaching the Indies, Columbus actually reached the Bahamas. He charted many of the major islands. Because of Columbus' explorations ,a new era of European exploration and domination came about the New World.

christopher columbus

Ferdinand and Isabella financed Columbus' expedition to the "Indies" in hopes of competing with Portuguese expansion. Instead of reaching the Indies, Columbus actually reached the Bahamas. He charted many of the major islands. Because of Columbus' explorations, a new era of European exploration and domination came about the New World.

Ferdinand and Isabella supported the expulsion or conversion of Muslims and Jews in Spain because

Ferdinand and Isabella were hostile to religious faiths other than Christianity

Oil paints were developed by the artists of

Flanders

Florence Nightingale

Florence Nightingale was an English nurse who lived from 1820 to 1910 and was a pioneer in modern nursing. Her "Light Brigade" efficiently tended to wounded men throughout the Crimean War. However, casualties due to disease stayed high.

Renaissance Art Patronage

Florence the leader in Renaissance art especially in the 1400s Rome became the center of Renaissance art in the 1500s (up to about 1527)

Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499)

Founded Platonic Academy at the best of Cosimo de' Medici o Translated many of Plato's works into Latin

Angela Merici (1474-1540)

Founded the Ursuline Order; They taught girls and believed education was the key to strengthening the Catholic Church.

In the second half of the seventeenth century, which of the following countries dominated European culture, politics, and diplomacy?

France

The most influential opponent of Great Britain's entry into the European Common Market in the 1960s was

France

Between 1871 and 1914, the two European countries LEAST likely to ally were

France and Germany

American Revolution (1775-1783)

France helped the U.S. win independence; Britain lost its most valuable colonies; Britain was forced to protect its worldwide empire against France, Netherlands, Spain

Treaty of Paris (1763)

France was removed from North America; Britain also got territories in India (Bengal) at France's expense

28. France's July Revolution of 1830

France's July Revolution of 1830 was a part of the Revolutions of 1830 that were caused by mass liberal and nationalist views against conservative oppression in that year. The July Revolution was caused by King Charles X attempting to impose absolutism in France by rolling back the constitutional monarchy, however, as a result of this attempt, an uprising in Paris forced King Charles X to give up his throne. As his successor, King Louis Philippe of the Orleans family, who ruled from 1830 to 1848, became ruler of France under a constitutional monarchy. Louis Philippe soon became nicknamed the "Bourgeoisie King." As a result of Louis Philippe becoming king of France, this country was now controlled by the bourgeoisie businessmen and bankers, or upper-middle class and because of this, there was a return to the narrow liberalism of 1815. The impact of this revolution was that it caused many other revolutions throughout Europe.

The Italian humanist who is generally given credit for the view that his own times were the "dawn of a new era," and an improvement over the Dark Ages was

Francesco Petrarch.

36. Francisco Franco and the Spanish Civil War

Francisco Franco led Spanish forces and rebelled against the Spanish government that was causing a Spanish Civil War through changing their political party from right to left. At the end of the brutal Spanish Civil War, a dictator arose in the Spanish government. Franco's military troops were supported by Germany and Great Britain as well during the war.

physiocrats

Francois Quesnay lead these French people who opposed merchant policies. They wanted to reform the agrarian system with the laissez faire.

francois quesnay

Francois Quesnay was a French economic theorist who lived from 1694 to 1774. Quesnay led the physiocrats in his country that opposed mercantilist policies. These physiocrats called for reformation for the present agricultural system and demanded laissez-faire in the agrarian system. Physiocrats also believed that the French nobility and government had too much authority over the land, which resulted in stifled agricultural production.

11. The New Deal

Franklin Roosevelt's "New Deal" in the U.S. sought to reform capitalism with increased government intervention in the economy. European countries were influenced by this. After 1938, a Keynesian approach was used. This propped up the economy through public works and subsidies. Franklin Roosevelt's "New Deal" in the U.S. sought to reform capitalism with increased government intervention in the economy. European countries were influenced by this. After 1938, a Keynesian approach was used. This propped up the economy through public works and subsidies.

franz joseph haydn

Franz Joseph Haydn was one of the most famous and important Classical musicians and composers, alongside Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Haydn lived from 1732 to 1809 and was a hired composer and musical director for the Esterhazy brothers, the wealthy Hungarian princes. In his career, Haydn composed 104 masses, symphonies, oratorios, string quartets, songs, and concerti. In 1790 and 1794, he made several visits to England where he was inspired by musicians who composed for public concerts to write his two highly renowned oratorios, The Creation and The Seasons which were both dedicated to the common people.

13. Frederick II the Great

Frederick II the Great lived from 1740 to 1786 and he was one of the most highly educated and cultured monarch in the eighteenth century. He was a conscientious ruler of Prussia, was well versed in Enlightenment thought, and did not make very administrative innovations for the state. However, he made the Prussian bureaucracy very famous, efficient, and honest. Frederick II also established a single code of laws for his territories that eliminated the use of torture, unless it was used in cases for murder and treason, permitted limited freedom of speech and press, granted total religious toleration, did not allow the common people to become a part of the bureaucracy and instead saved those positions for people of the nobility, and grew Prussia's army to 200,000 men and then used it to capture the Austrian province of Silesia.

Frederick William I

Frederick William I was a Prussian King, also known as the "Soldiers' King" who ruled from 1713 to 1740. He was the most important of all the Hohenzollern kings regarding the development of the absolutism in Prussia. He was a Calvinist, and he merged militarism and all aspects of Prussian society. Under the rule of Frederick William I, Prussia became known as the "Sparta of the North." This meant that Prussia was more focused on its military and army than other things such as politics. This state had the fourth largest military in Europe, besides France, Russia, and Austria, and it was the most efficient bureaucracy in Europe.

frederick william i

frederick william the great elector

Frederick William, the "Great Elector" was a Prussian King who ruled from 1640 to 1688. He was a Calvinist, although he permitted religious toleration to Jews and Catholics. Frederick William made Prussia a Great Power, oversaw the Prussian military, which would become the best army in Europe, used taxation to fund the unification of Rhine, Prussia, and Brandenburg.

Frederick William the Great Elector

Frederick William, the "Great Elector" was a Prussian prince who ruled from 1640 to 1688. He was a Calvinist, although he permitted religious toleration to Jews and Catholics. Frederick William made Prussia a Great Power, oversaw the Prussian military, which would become the best army in Europe, used taxation to fund the unification of Rhine, Prussia, and Brandenburg.

14. "the first servant of the state"

Frederick the Great believed in "the first servant of the state". This belief was one that stated loyalty to the state should come before everything.

Threatened with arrest by the Catholic authorities, Luther was protected by

Frederick the Wise of Saxony

Huguenots

French Protestants who followed the teachings of John Calvin

Parlements

French regional courts dominated by hereditary nobles. The Parlement of Paris claimed the right to register royal decrees before they could become law.

Intendants

French royal officials who supervised provincial governments in the name of the king. Intendants played a key role in establishing French absolutism.

jacques-louis david

Frenchman Jacques-Louis David painted the Oath of the Horatii. He was one of the most famous Neoclassical artists of the 18th century. He painted this painting in order to emerge himself into the world of Classical antiquity. The painting emphasized patriotic duty and was an instant hit in Paris and Rome.

Friedrich Engels

Friedrich Engels was a German author who lived from 1820 to 1895 and criticized the middle classes and bourgeoisie in his novel, The Condition of the Working Class in England, written in 1844. Engels was a colleague of Karl Marx, a future revolutionary, and believed that the capitalist middle class exploited the proletariat. Engels' ideas later influenced Karl Marx and socialists.

Fuhrerprinzip

Fuherpinsip was the leadership principle that entitled a single-minded party under one leader. It was one group, not individual people, that made up the Nazi party.

Hegel's Dialectic

G. W. F. Hegel was a German philosopher. He said that social change resulted in the conflict of ideas. He also said that the thesis confronted by the antithesis, would result in a synthesis, which would then become the new thesis.

galen

Galen was a physician who lived in the 2nd century in Rome. He thought that an equilibrium between yellow bile, blood, black bile, and phlegm, also known as the four humors, was the basis for human health. Galen also practiced blood-letting, which was a common method to balance the four humors.

galileo galilei and the telescope

Galileo Galilei was a seventeenth-century astronomer who lived from 1564 to 1642. Galileo's most important achievements include the development of the laws of motion, the validation of the Copernican Theory, the invention of the telescope, and the publication of Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. In his laws of motion, Galileo used controlled experiments and the experimental method. In the acceleration experiment, he found that gravity is a universal force keeping objects on the surface of Earth and all falling objects accelerate at a uniform speed. With his invention of the telescope, he proved the Copernican Theory by demonstrating that the moon and other planets are not perfectly circular and discovering Jupiter's four moons, which disproved the common belief that it was in an indestructible crystal sphere. In his book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems written in 1632, he described the Copernican Theory as a mathematical proposition. In 1633, however, he was forced to retract his support of Nicolaus Copernicus' theory because of the inquisition of Pope Urban VII and was put under house arrest for the remaining part of his life.

The Risorgimento was completed with the conquest of southern Italy by

Garibaldi

Question: The 1860 cartoon above illustrates which of the following?

Garibaldi presenting liberated Italian territory to Victor Emmanuel

31. General Georges Boulanger

General Georges Boulanger was a military officer who attracted public attention of all those not happy with the Third Republic. These people were monarchists, Bonapartists, aristocrats, and nationalists. They favored a war against Germany in hopes of revenge. He appeared as a strong man, but he lost his nerve and fled France. He became a discredited man. This crisis served to rally support for the resilient republic.

28. Montcalm and Wolfe

General James Wolfe led British forces outside Quebec to defeat the French under General Louis-Joseph Montcalm. In this battle, both generals died. The British seized Montreal and the French were forced to make peace. The Treaty of Paris ended this war.

John Calvin established the center of his reformed church in

Geneva

Northern Italian cities developed international trade

Genoa, Venice, Milan

marie-therese de geoffrin

Geoffrin was a major patron for Diderot's Encyclopedia. She was also one of the hostess of the salon where she welcomed encyclopedists to work in secret.

George Eastman

George Eastman developed the first camera to use by an individual in 1888. He started the Eastman Kodak company.

10. Georges Von Haussmann

Georges Von Haussmann was one of the most important architects in the urban redesign. Haussmann worked with Napoleon III to entirely reconstruct the city of Paris, France by ridding it of its previous medieval architecture with narrow roads and old city walls and replacing it with gaslights, broad boulevards, a new public water supply, spacious buildings, an underground sewage system, circular plazas, and public squares. This new and improved city of Paris served an aesthetic and military purpose because the broad streets made it increasingly difficult for for insurrectionists to throw up barricades and troops could more easily move throughout the city to squash revolts. Haussmann also constructed better bourgeoisie housing on the outskirts of Paris, destroyed slums, and created new open spaces in parks throughout the city.

The Reformation survived and prospered because

German princes wanted independence from the Emperor.

Most of the Thirty Years was fought in

Germany

Which of the following began to overtake Britain as an industrial power towards the end of the nineteenth century?

Germany

5. Chemicals

Germany lead with photo processing and other things like dyes, soaps, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, and explosives.

Key Examples of Italian Baroque Art

Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Baldachino inside Saint Peter's. Michelangelo de Caravaggio, "The calling of Saint Matthew". Artemisia Gentileschi, "Judith Slaying Holofernes"

Gian Bernini

Gianlorenzo Bernini lived from 1598 to 1650. He was one of the most important Baroque architects and sculptors during the age of absolutism.

gian bernini

Gianlorenzo Bernini lived from 1598 to 1650. He was one of the most important Baroque architects and sculptors during the age of absolutism.

Giuseppe Garibaldi and the Red Shirts

Giuseppe Garibaldi was an Italian patriot who lived from 1807 to 1882. Garibaldi had supported Mazzini and built an army that consisted of one thousand Red Shirts. The Red Shirts were the nickname of his soldiers due to the distinctive color of their uniforms. With the guidance of Garibaldi, the Red Shirts had successfully pacified the revolts in Sicily by the end of July in 1860. In the following month, the Red Shirts marched up the Italian peninsula. The Two Sicilies and Naples collapsed in early September, and Garibaldi and his troops wanted democratic republicanism.

36. Giuseppe Mazzini and Young Italy

Giuseppe Mazzini was the leader of a Italian nationalist society. This Italian nationalist society was a secret organization was known as Young Italy. In 1849, Mazzini also founded the Roman Republic.

Late Middle Ages Painting

Gothic style Byzantine style dominates; nearly totally religious. Stiff, 1-dimensional figures Less emotion Stylized faces (faces look generic) Use of gold to illuminate figures Lack of perspective Lack of chiaroscuro Patronized mostly by the church

Late Middle Ages Architecture

Gothic style Pointed arches; barrel vaults, spires Flying buttresses Elaborate detail

Thomas Cranmer

Granted Henry VIII his annulment with Catherine of Aragon

Which of the following was a result of the implementation of the Schlieffen Plan at the beginning of the First World War?

Great Britain entered the war on the side of France and Russia

After 1850, which of the following groups of countries accounted for the most investment in the Americas, Asia, Africa, and Russia?

Great Britain, France, and Germany

Venice, Venetian Republic

Great naval and trading power Longest lasting of the Italian city-states

The armies of revolutionary France (1792-1815) enjoyed which of the following advantages over the armies of the major European monarchs?

Greater patriotism and morale

Renaissance Sculpture

Greek and Roman classical influences • Free-standing (e.g., Michelangelo's David) • Use of bronze (e.g., Donatello's David)

Physiocrats

Group of eighteenth-century French economists led by Francois Quesnay. The physiocrats criticized mercantilist regulations and called for free trade.

george friedrich hegel

Handel was born in Saxony, Germany. Handel's stormy international career was very secular in regards to temperament. To start his career in Italy, he began writing Italian style operas. He spent the majority of his adult life trying to run an opera company. He was patronized by the English royal court but still wrote music for large audiences. He tended to huge, unusual pieces. He is widely known for his religious music. Most commonly Messiah.

Why did Louis XIV revoke the Edict of Nantes (1685)?

He believed the Huguenots' existence threatened the unity of the state and religion

Francisco Pizarro

He conquered Modern-Day peru, the Inca Empire, along the Andes Mountains in 1532

Hernan Cortés

He conquered the Aztecs in Mesoamerica by 1521. He also wrote a description of Tenochtitlan, the Aztecs' city.

anton van leeuwenhoek

He devolved powerful microscopes. He was the first to see and write about bacteria, yeast plants,living organisms, and the circulation of blood corpuscles in capillaries. He looked at these in a drop of water.

Ferdinand Magellan

He had the first ship to circumnavigate the the globe. He also mapped out the huge size of the Pacific Ocean.

henry iv

He laid the foundation for France in the becoming of the strongest European power in the 17th century. He strengthened parlements and encouraged French colonization in the New World. He was the first king of the Bourbon dynasty. He weakened the nobility by not allowing the nobility of the sword to rule and making the nobles of the robe, new nobles who purchased their titles from the monarchy, high government officials.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

He lead the Haitian forces in a large slave revolt in Haiti. They were motivated by the French Revolutionary ideas. The Haitians won their independence from France in 1804.

gerolamo cardano

He prepared horoscopes for Edward VI of England.

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan

He saw people in a pessimistic state of nature. He called them solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short strong. From chaos, an anarchy resulted. He said that political sovereignty came from the people who transfer it to the monarchy. His ideas justified absolute monarchy, not the divine rights of kings. His ideas were not very popular in the 17th century.

thomas hobbes, leviathan

2. Louis XV

He wanted to rule alone, but he was a very lazy and weak ruler. Ministers and mistresses began to influence the king, control affairs of the state, and undermine the prestige of the monarchy. Madame de Pompadour was one of Louis XV's mistresses. She gained a lot of power and wealth. She made important governmental decisions and gave advice on appointments and foreign war. During Louis' monarchy, taxes, debt, and the amount of hungry people raised. Also, court life at Versailles was carefree. Louis left France with larger territories, a huge debt, an unhappy populace, and a 5 year old as the ruler.

tycho brahe

He was Europe's leading astronomer in the late 16th century. The best observatory in Europe was built by him. This observatory collected data on the universe. Copernicus' theory was proved by Brahe's data. Brache did not believe Copernicus' theory, though.

1. Immanuel Kant

He was a German Philosopher of the Enlightenment. In his theories, science and morality were separated into separate branches of knowledge. He argued that science could describe nature, but could not provide a guild more morality. He said that "Categorical imperative" was an intuitive instinct placed by God in the human conscience.

Immanuel Kant

paracelus

He was a Swiss physician and alchemist. He served as a pioneer in the experimental method in medicine. Various chemicals and drugs were tested. He saw chemical imbalances instead of humoral imbalances when it came to medical issues.

william harvey

He was an English royal physician. His On the Movement of the Heart and Blood, explains how blood was pumped and circulated.

15. Benito Mussolini

He was an editor of a socialist newspaper during the WWI era, but at heart was a nationalist. He organized the Fascist party. Socialism and Nationalism were combined to yield territorial expansion, benefits for workers, and land reform for peasants. This party was named after fasces; the rods carried by Imperial Roman officials as symbols of power. At first, his party failed because of competition with Social groups. He gained support from the conservative and middle classes for his anti-Socialist rhetoric. The Blackshirts were his paramilitary forces who attacked Communists, Socialists, and other enemies of the fascist program. Hitler followed this example with his Brownshirts. The March on Rome in 1922 lead to Mussolini taking power. He demanded the resignation of the existing government and his own appointment by the king. A large group of Fascists marched on Rome to threaten the king into accepting Mussolini's demands. The government collapsed; Mussolini received the right to organize a new cabinet or government. King Victor Emmanuel III gave him dictatorial powers for one year to end the nation's social unrest.

David Lloyd George

He was an orator from Wales who sought social reform, new programs like the National Insurance Act of 1911 were paid for by taxing the wealthy. Though they were modest, the House of Lords still confronted him, but a new law impeded their restrictions on legislation passed by the House of Commons.

Oliver Cromwell and New Model Army

He was one of the key leaders of the New Model Army. This army was comprised of Puritans who called themselves the Independants. They believed they were doing battle for the lord. Cromwell's army was very well trained and dispirited.

oliver cromwell and new model army

Otto von Bismarck

He was part of the Junker class, German nobility. He wanted a diplomatic experience because of the Prussian delegation to the German Confederation. Throughout this, the characteristics of leaders were learned. He helped in the unification of Germany and only participated in wars he knew he could win. He practiced Realpolitik, in which the ends justify the means. He thought that Prussia needed a stronger army, so he raised taxes without permission from parliament. Parliament did not do anything to stop him.

Gustavus Adolphus

He was the Swedish who had the first army of conscripts which were notable for their flexibility. He used the salvo technique where all rows of infantry fired instead of one by one. He used his calvary in a more mobile fashion and adopted the use of swords. Lighter artillery pieces were used also. Adolphus was imitated by many others soon after.

gustavus adolphus

George Frideric Handel

He wrote music in a variety if genres. His masterpiece is the oratorio The Messiah.

george frideric handel

He wrote music in a variety if genres. His masterpiece is the oratorio The Messiah.

5. Pierre Bayle

He wrote the Critical and Historical Dictionary. This advocated for the complete toleration of ideas. People should have the right to worship freely. He believed nothing could be known beyond doubt. He criticized Christian authorities because they didn't impose religious orthodoxy.

pierre bayle

abbot

Head of a monastery

Henry Cort and the puddling furnace

Henry Cort devolved the puddling furnace in the 1980s. It allowed the pig iron to be refined in turn with coke. He also devolved heavy-duty steam-powered rolling mills. These mills were able to shape finished iron into any shape or form. With these advancements, England produced more than half of the world's iron.

Henry Fielding's History of Tom Jones, A Foundling

Henry Fielding wrote novels about people without scruples who survived their wits. His The History of Tom Jones, A Founding was his best work. It was a long novel about the adventures of a young scoundrel. Scenes of English life in the hovels of London to the country houses of the aristocracy were presented. He described characters through comical means. Action rather than inner feeling was emphasized. He even attacked the hypocrisy of his own age.

Paris is well worth a mass, was reputedly said by

Henry IV to explain his religious conversion

Statute of the Six Articles (1539)

Henry attempts to maintain all 7 Catholic sacraments

37. Herculaneum and Pompeii

Herculaneum and Pompeii are two ancient Roman cities. In the eighteenth century, they became popular tourist attractions in Italy because there were many ancient ruins in them.

High Renaissance

High Renaissance took place in 16th century Rome. It included many "Renaissance Popes" like Alexander VI, Julius ll, and Leo X. These popes provided great support to the arts. A few of the many characteristics of this time period were classical balance, harmony, and restraint.

Which of the following statements best applies to Napoleon's domestic policies?

His Civil Code reaffirmed the ideals of the Revolution.

25. German invasion of the Soviet Union

Hitler's plan to invade Russia was to fulfill his dream of "lebensraum", or living space, in the east. The Soviets scorched everything of any value do deprive the Germans of any advantage. This was called "Scorched Earth". By winter, the Germans were at the gates of Moscow while laying siege to Leningrad, St. Petersburg, that lasted two years. In the Soviet Union, WWII became known as the "Great Patriotic War of the Fatherland". Atlantic Charter, 1941, was when Churchill and President Franklin Roosevelt, USA, met secretly after the invasion of the Soviet Union. They agreed that once the Axis Powers were defeated, there would be no territorial changes contrary to the wishes of inhabitants. This called for a "permanent system of general security", and later became the United Nations.

War of the Roses

House of York defeated House of Lancaster; gave rise to the Tudor dynasty

In France, the followers of John Calvin were called

Huguenots

huguenots

Huguenots were a group of French Calvinists that were in all types of social classes, although most of them came from the nobility of France. An important Huguenot family was the house of Bourbon, who ruled the southern French kingdom of Navarre. The numerous huguenots in the French nobility eventually became a threat to Monarchs. The Catholics greatly outnumbered the Calvinists, the Valois monarchy being a part of the Catholic group, and therefore did not favor Protestantism. After the death of the French King Henry II, his two sons rose to power, although they were unfit to rule and dominated by their mother, Catherine de' Medici.

Renaissance Philosophy

Humanism - Emphasis on secular concerns due to rediscovery and study of ancient Greco-Roman culture.

humanism

Humanism was a broad idea including the characteristics of individualism, secularism, a resurgence of antiquity, focus on studying ancient languages, rejection of Aristotelian views, and the priority of education. Individualism focused on the potential of one individual and secularism showed interest on things unrelated to religion. The resurgence of antiquity was focused on pagan writings and Christian thought. Ancient Roman Latin was the main language learned but Greek also was learned after the fall of Byzantine Empire. Greek writings, the New Testament, and Roman authors rejected Aristotelian views. Civic Humanism lead to the importance of education for leaders planning to be involved in civic affairs. Many people were also associated with Humanism such as Petrarch, Leonardo Bruni, Lorenzo Valla, Marsilio Ficino, and Pico della Mirandola.

Renaissance Literature

Humanism; secularism • Northern Renaissance focuses also on writings of early church fathers • Vernacular (e.g. Petrarch, Boccacio) • Covered wider variety of subjects (politics, art, short stories) • Focused on the individual • Increased use of printing press; propaganda

"Imperialism emerged as a development and direct continuation of the fundamental properties of capitalism...imperialism is the monopoly state of capitalism." The writer above would most likely accept which of the following statements as true?

Imperialism was a natural and predictable result of the growth of capitalism

Impressionism

Impressionistic paintings developed in France. Painters sought to capture the momentary overall feeling, or impression, of light falling on a real-life scene before their eyes. Photography advancements were made and cameras could accurately capture a subject, artists now moved away from trying to perfectly capture an image.

Constantinople and 1453

In 1453 the Ottomans demolished and took over the Byzantine Empire. They took over the empire quickly being that it was 80,000 against 7,000. After the demise of Constantinople, the Turks went on to conquer many other territories as well

Pius II's Execrabilis

In 1460, Pope Pius II issued the papal bull, which is a type of public declaration, letters patinant, or charter. The papal bull was called the Execrabilis. This appealed to a council over the head of a pope as heretical.

"New Monarchies"

In 1485, Henry Tudor defeated the last Yorkist king, Richard III, and established the first Tudor dynasty. Henry worked to reduce internal dissension and establish a strong monarchial government. He also ended the nobilities' private wars with the abolishment of livery and maintenance. Henry established the Court of Star Chamber to keep the nobles in line.

Dutch Republic (Netherlands)

In 1602, the Dutch East India Company was founded. Portuguese were expelled from Ceylon and the Spice Islands, Indonesia.

Italian and Egyptian Campaigns

In 1796, Napoleon Bonaparte won many battles in Italy using surprise, deception, and speed. Later in 1797, Napoleon returned to France and proposed to take Egypt, which was an important source of British wealth, in order to strike indirectly at Great Britain. However, since England controlled the seas and had cut off all of Napoleon's supplies in Egypt, he was forced to retreat in 1799.

Suez Canal

In 1883, Britain takes control of Egypt. The British start building the Suez Canal. The use mainly Egyptian labor while building this passage way.

7. the United Kingdom

In England in the eighteenth century, there were not many crop yields. However, in the 1870s, crop yields tripled although there was only a 14% increase in workers on the land. In order to fix this, an English man named Viscount Charles Townshend developed crop rotation. Townshend was the ambassador for England in the Netherlands, and saw how the Dutch used nitrogen-rich crops such as clover and turnips to replenish the soil to make fallowing unnecessary. Later back at home in England, he drained much of the land by planting potatoes, turnips, clover, peas, and beans. For this reason, some people called him "Turnip" Townshend. After crop rotation was introduced to England, the enriched soil led to more available food for livestock and manure was used for fertilizer. This increased available food for livestock meant that the mass slaughter of the animals was no longer needed to survive through the winter. The availability of animal feed also increased to allow livestock to live through the winter and therefore people could eat more fresh meat rather than preserving it through salting. By the year 1740, the majority of the English aristocracy became popular. Another man named Jethro Tull, who lived from 1674 to 1741, invented the seed drill which allowed for sowing crops in a straight line rather than the traditional way of scattering the seeds by hand. This seed drill was an example of how the scientific revolution applied to agriculture. Instead of using oxen, which were slower, Tull also used horses to plow. Another man named Robert Bakewell, who lived from 1725 to 1795, popularized the selective breeding of livestock. Because of this, healthier and larger animals were developed, the availability of candle tallow, meat, soap, wool, leather, and manure for fertilization increased.

19. Fall of France

In June 1940, the Fall of France occurred. In Vichy France, Hitler did not waste any time subduing France. In Southern France, a puppet government was created. Marshal Henri-Philippe Pétain was put in charge of Southern France. Pétain was a war hero in WWI at the battle of Verdun. Vichy France was taken over by Germany after "Operation Torch" in North Africa in late-1942.

14. Invasion of Czechoslovakia

In March of 1939, Germany invaded Czechoslovakia. This was surprising to the Czechoslovakians because Germany had promised not to invade their country because they had given them the Sudetenland territory in return for independence. By doing this, Hitler double crossed Chamberlain of England. Czechoslovakia did not resist the invasion.

Erasmus (1466-1536)

In Praise of Folly (1513) Criticized the corruption in the church and the hypocrisy of the clergy A contemporary remarked that "Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched"

39. Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther

In The Sorrows of Young Werther, the Romantic hero was personified by Werther. This hero was misunderstood and rejected by society. Through all of this, he stayed true to his inner self. He loved a girl and she rejected him, thus resulting in his suicide. The novel influenced many other stories with tragic stories of lovers.

7. Central Powers

In World War I the alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary and other nations allied with them in opposing the Allies.

French Phase

In the "French Phase" of the Thirty Years' War, Cardinal Richelieu of France and King Louis XII attempted to weaken the Habsburg Empire. This was a French policy that dated back to the early-mid 16th century when Francis I ruled over the country of France. This reversed Maria de' Medici's policy for Spain and declared war against Spain in 1635. France financially aided Gustavus Adolphus during the "Swedish Phase" of the war. Later on, France would enter the "International Phase" of the war which forced the Treaty of Westphalia upon the Habsburg Empire.

french phase

13. Balkans and the "sick man of Europe"

In the Balkans, nationalism created a "powder keg". The Ottoman Empire was considered "the sick man of Europe". The Ottomans left the Balkans and left a power vacuum. This was seen as the Eastern Question.

Battle of Trafalgar

In the Battle of Trafalgar the French and Spanish fleets were destroyed by the British navy. With this defeat, the supremacy of the British navy was established. A French invasion of Britain was no longer possible.

Coal Mines Act of 1842

In the Coal Mines Act of 1842, all children under the age of 10 years old were prohibited from working in underground mines.

Combination Acts

In the Combination Acts issued in 1799, parliament made labor unions illegal as a reaction to fear of radicalism in the French Revolution. Consequently, workers disregarded these laws. The Combination Acts were repealed by parliament in 1824 and labor unions were granted toleration after 1825.

Cottage Industry

In the Cottage Industry, a merchant-capitalist would give raw materials to a rural family who, in return, produced a semi-finished or finished product and sold it back to the merchant-capitalist for a profit. These rural families or cottage workers were generally paid by the number of products they sold to the merchant-capitalists. After this, the merchants would sell the product to someone else in order to make another profit. One of the most important products that were produced in the Cottage Industry was wool cloth. With the Cottage Industry, the work of four or five people in a rural family to operate a loom was reduced to one. This caused merchant-capitalists to favor this industry over the guild members in the cities due to its efficiency. However, the Cottage Industry also had many flaws. These flaws include disputes between merchants and cottagers over quality of cloth and weight of materials and the difficulty and unorganization which did not allow merchants to easily control the rural families. These issues and problems in the Cottage Industry led the merchants to look for more efficient methods of production which later resulted in the Industrial Revolution. The Cottage Industry first developed in Great Britain, and the results of this industry were that numerous rural families were able to supplement their incomes and the diversification of goods. Some of these new goods that were produced as a result of the Cottage Industry include musical instruments, textiles, clocks, knives, gloves, forks, buttons, and housewares.

2. Reason

In the Enlightenment, a secularist universal belief that reason and natural science could explain every question in life. This new belief challenged the Church because it stated that human nature and intellect was apart from God and that God had nothing to do with natural science. This led people to assume that they should put their faith not in revelation, but in their own reason.

reason

Factory Act of 1833

In the Factory Act of 1833, work shifts for children ages 9-13 were reduced to 8 hours and 12 hours for children ages 14-18. This act also made hiring children 8 years old and younger illegal and the children had to go to elementary schools that factory owners had to establish and the employment rate of children decreased rapidly.

15. First and Second Balkan Wars

In the First Balkan War, Serbia, Greece, and Bulgaria were allies. These people drove the Turks out of the Balkans. The fighting lasted less than a month and former Ottoman Balkan territories were divided among the Balkan states. Serbia wanted access to the Adriatic Sea and was mad when Austria created Albania to block Serbia from doing so. In the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria was mad that Serbia and Greece had important territory in Macedonia, thus attached the two countries. Serbia defeated Bulgaria and gained Albania as a result. With German support against Russia, Austria prevented Serbia from holding onto Albania. Serbia still didn't have access to the Adriatic Sea. Albania was granted independence. Russia could not help Serbia get Albania, so the Russians were humiliated.

Flight to Varennes

In the Flight to Varennes, Louis XVI tried to escape France, 1761, to avoid approving the Constitution of 1761. He was captured and kings and queens became prisoners of war. The king was forced to accept a constitutional monarchy. The king king was viewed as a traitor and lost a lot of public support.

Petite bourgeoisie

In the French Bourgeoisie, there were 2 levels, an upper and a lower. The lower level was called the lower bourgeoise, or the "petite bourgeoisie". This class consisted of small industrialists, merchants, and professional men who required stability and security from the government.

Great Exhibition of 1851

In the Great Exhibition of 1851 in England, the world's first industrial fair was organized. This fair was housed in the Crystal Palace, an enormous structure built out of glass and iron, located in Kensington in London, England. The Crystal Palace was a tribute to British engineering skills, wealth, imperial power, and success, covered 19 acres, and contained 100,000 exhibits that represented the diverse variety of products that were manufactured during the Industrial Revolution. The Great Exhibition was a symbol of the Industrial Revolution's achievements in human domination over nature. An estimated six million people visited the fair in the six months it was open, the majority of them being Britons that had traveled by train. However, there were also many foreign visitors as well.

Industrial Revolution

In the Industrial Revolution, machines replaced human and animal labor in the production of manufactured goods. The turning point of the Industrial Revolution was when the steam engine began to be used for the production of textiles in the 1780s. Before Europe gradually developed into a modern industrial society, it was a commercial and agricultural society. By the mid nineteenth century, the Industrial Revolution had spread across the entire continent, whereas in the 1830s, only a small portion of the English working class worked in factories. The economic changes in Europe during the Industrial Revolution were perhaps the most significant and important changes in society since Neolithic times when agriculture was developed. The Industrial Revolution was caused by the Commercial Revolution, the Price Revolution, the rise of capitalism, the Cottage Industry, the Scientific Revolution, the increase in population which resulted in larger markets, a growing demand for textiles, and the invention of Proto-Industrialism technology.

Bourgeoisie

In the Industrial Revolution, there were two groups of the factory-owning bourgeoisie class, which included the upper and lower bourgeoisies. The upper bourgeoisie consisted of industrialists, great bankers, and merchants. The upper bourgeoisie demanded high tariffs and free enterprise. The lower bourgeoisie, or "petite bourgeoisie," consisted of professional men, small industrialists, and merchants. These men demanded security and stability from the government.

Irish Potato Famine

In the Irish Potato Famine, disease in the potato crop increased and was accompanied with fever epidemics. The majority of the population that was affected by the Irish Potato Famine were Irish Catholic peasants who rented land from a small minority of English Anglicans and lived in poverty in the early 1800s. The Irish Potato Famine lasted from 1845 to 1851 and did not only affect Ireland, but the entirety of Europe as well. As a result of this famine, food prices increased, entire populations suffered, society was restless, an estimated 1.5 million people died of starvation, and another 3 million people emigrated from Ireland to England and the U.S. By the 1910s, the population of Ireland was almost cut in half by its previous population in 1845.

34. Petrograd Soviet

In the Petrograd Soviet, many of the soldiers and workers had overthrown Tsar Nicholas II and this organization was led by the Mensheviks. The Provisional Government was seen as the best option for the maintenance of the control of Russia and was therefore its authority was accepted by the Soviet.

Polish Kingdom

In the Polish Kingdom, it was necessary for voting in parliament to be unanimous in order for changes to be made. As a result, few things were amended so as to strengthen the Polish Kingdom. Poland was split into different pieces due to the inability of its monarchy to take power over the nobility. In Prussia and Russia, select members of the Polish nobility were encouraged to invoke liberum veto in order to weaken Poland. In the 1800s, Poland still was not governed by a sovereign, so it was split between the countries of Prussia, Russia, and Austria.

polish kingdom

Prussian-Danish War

In the Prussian-Danish War, Germany and Austria defeated Denmark. They took control of the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein. Both provinces were monitored by Prussia and Austria. Conflicts over jurisdiction lead to a major war between Prussia and Austria.

Second French Empire

In the Second French Empire, the authoritarian government was controlled by Napoleon III as the chief of state. Napoleon III also had total control over all of the civil service, armed forces, and police and only he had the power and authority to declare war and introduce legislation.

33. the "putting-out" or "domestic system"

In the domestic system, a merchant-capitalist entrepreneur would purchase raw materials, the majority of these being flax and wool, and then "put them out" to rural workers who would spin the raw materials into yarn. Then, the rural workers would weave the yarn into cloth on simple looms. Afterward, capitalist entrepreneurs would sell the final product, make a profit from it, and then use the money to manufacture more products.

36. Bismarck's welfare legislation

In the year of 1878, Bismarck convinced the German parliament to pass a piece of legislation that restrained publications and social meetings, however, social candidates were allowed to run for reichstag. This welfare legislation also made the social democratic party illegal, stated that one could only earn a full pension after 40 years of contribution at the age of 70, and stated widows and children could not be given benefits.

Bullionism

In this, a country should have as much silver and gold as possible. It needed a balance in trade to stay ahead of competing countries.

Renaissance Painting

Increased emphasis on secular themes • Classic Greek and Roman ideals • Use of perspective • chiaroscuro • Increased use of oil paints • Brighter colors • More emotion • Real people and settings depicted • Patronized largely by merchant princes • Renaissance popes patronized Renaissance art

Which of the following were major causes of the inflation in prices that occurred in Europe in the sixteenth century?

Increasing population and an influx of precious metals from the New World

Encomienda:

Indians worked for owner certain number of days per week; retained other parcels to work for themselves

What resulted from the British Parliament's passage of the Reform Act of 1832?

Industrial cities and the middle class gained parliamentary representation

Which of the following best expresses the relationship between European economic developments and imperialism in Asia and Africa?

Industrial processes fed demand for raw materials overseas

Important prerequisites for Great Britain's industrialization in the mid-eighteenth century included which of the following?

Innovations in agricultural techniques and increase in food production

John Calvin (1509-1564)

Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) Predestination Established a theocracy in Geneva Protestant work ethic

joint-stock trading companies

Investors would pool resources together for a single common purpose. This was the forerunner of the modern corporation. Joint-stock trading companies were also an important example of capitalism.

isaac newton

Isaac Newton was a seventeenth-century astronomer that lived from 1642 to 1727. He incorporated the scientific discoveries and theories of Kepler, Copernicus, and Galileo into a single theory that would be known as the Principle of universal gravitation. He proposed this theory in his book, Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, or Principia, in 1687. This book is thought to be the greatest scientific book ever written and includes Newton's laws of motion. These laws of motion were a set of mathematical principles to explain motion, and state that everything attracts everything else, gravitation is apparent in the movement of both heavenly and earthly objects and was proven by logistics alone. This was a direct challenge to medieval beliefs because it stated that God's participation in the natural world does not help to explain the forces of nature. This view would soon become the foundation of deism, the Enlightenment view of God. In order to complete his theory, Newton developed calculus.

Spanish Inquisition

Isabella sought to enforce the authority of the national church ▪ Often targeted conversos, Jews who had converted to Christianity, but who were suspected of backsliding into Judaism ▪ Began a wave of anti-Semitism in certain parts of Europe

Ivan III

Ivan III was a Russian prince who lived from 1462 to 1505. He expanded Russia's territory by incorporating surrounding principalities in the 1470s and 1480s into his own. This new state he had formed would be called the principality of Moscow.

J.S. Bach

J.S. Bach lived from 1685 to 1750 and was the most famous and important of all of the Baroque composers in the age of absolutism. He composed dense and polyphonic pieces, which was contrasted later by the balance and restraint of Mozart and Haydn in the Classical Period. Bach wrote in numerous genres, including instrumental and choral, and for various instruments such as concertos, masses, and organ works. Many different princes and churches asked him to create religious musical works throughout his career. St. Matthew Passion is thought to be the greatest in all history.

j.s. bach

jacob burckhardt

Jacob Burckhardt was a 19th-century Swiss historian, claimed the Renaissance was very different than the Middle Ages.

James Hargreaves' spinning jenny

James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny in 1764. This invention mechanized the spinning wheel and were simple, inexpensive, and hand operated. Early models of the spinning jenny had six to twenty-four spindles on a sliding carriage, and each of these spindles spun thread. The spinning jenny worked by women moving the carriage back and forth with one hand and spinning the wheel to supply power with the other hand and outpaced the weavers which were generally used by husbands.

"The state of the monarchy is the supremest thing upon the earth; for kings are not only God's lieutenants upon earth, and sit upon God's throne, but even by God Himself they are called gods...." This concept of the status of monarchy would be reflective of the view of

James I Stuart

45. James Joyce and Virginia Woolf and "stream of consciousness"

James Joyce wrote Ulysses and Virginia Woolf wrote Mrs. Dalloway. The Stream of Consciousness was a narrative that sought to capture a character's entire thought process usually in the form of an interior monologue.

James Watt and the steam engine

James Watt invented and patented the first efficient steam engine in 1769. About ten years later, the steam engine would be used regularly in production in England, became the most fundamental advance in technology, and replaced water power in cotton-spinning, flour, malt, and flint mills. Another industry that was greatly transformed by the steam engine was the iron industry.

jean bodin

Jean Bodin provided a theoretical basis for absolutist states. He thought absolutism could bring order and force people to obey the government.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

Jean-Baptiste Colbert was a French mercantilist and the finance minister in 1665 to 1683 for King Louis XIV. Colbert's goal was economic self-sufficiency, and he oversaw the building of canals and roads, gave certain industries government financed monopolies, placed many regulations on guilds in order to preserve the quality of products that were being made, decreased internal tariffs that inhibited the Five Great Farms, banned the exportation of food, and organized trading companies such as East India Co. and West India Co. for the purpose of international trading.

jean-baptiste colbert

"The law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have a right to concur either personally or by their representatives in its formation. The law should be the same for all, whether it protects or whether it punishes." Question: The quotation above is a formulation of the ideas of

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

jean-jacques rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Genevan philosopher who lived from 1712 to 1778. In his book, Social Contract, written in 1762, Rousseau stated that a lack of consideration of people, rather than property, was one of the main causes of social injustice, the general will should control a country, however, this meant that minority views would not be represented. Although Jean-Jacques Rousseau was considered as a part of the Enlightenment, he is viewed as a founder of the Romantic movement. The Enlightenment gave way to the glorification of emotion as a result of its emphasis on reason after the French Revolution. One of Rousseau's many beliefs was that a man in a simpler state of nature was to be considered a "noble savage" and was manipulated by the materialism of civilization.

social contract

Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote Social Contract. He believed that there was too much of an emphasis on property and not enough on the consideration of people. He thought this lead to social injustice. With the general will, a new emphasis on democracy would be applied.

Johann Gutenberg and the printing press

Johann Gutenberg's printing press invention was one of the most revolutionary inventions of the Renaissance era, and in recorded history. This is because it allowed texts and literary works to be printed efficiently and accurately, rather than traditionally by hand. This also allowed people in all parts of Europe to have access to classical and humanist texts for educational purposes. This also allowed authors and writers from this era to publish their own works and texts, which led to unique and diverse cultures within countries. The printing press also led to the first publication of the Bible.

johann sebastian bach

Johann Sebastian Bach lived from 1685 to 1750 and was the most famous and important of all of the Baroque composers in the age of absolutism. He composed dense and polyphonic pieces, which was contrasted later by the balance and restraint of Mozart and Haydn in the Classical Period. Bach wrote in numerous genres, including instrumental and choral, and for various instruments such as concertos, masses, and organ works. Many different princes and churches asked him to create religious musical works throughout his career. St. Matthew Passion is thought to be the greatest in all history.

johannes kepler

Johannes Kepler was an astronomer in the sixteenth century and lived from 1571 to 1630. He was the first Protestant scientist and was previously an assistant for Tycho Brahe. Kepler was most famous for mathematically proving the Copernican Theory and developing the three laws of planetary motion. The three laws of planetary motion states that planetary orbits are elliptical rather than circular, do not travel in uniform speed and are based on the planet's distance away from the sun, meaning that if a planet is closer to the sun then it's orbit will be faster.

three laws of planetary motion

Johannesburg Kepler was a Protestant scientist who had worked as an assistant to Brahe. He developed the three laws of planetary motion. The three laws were that planners were elliptical(not circular), did not move at a uniform speed, and that the time it takes a planner to orbit the sun is based on its distance from the sun.

"In conformity, therefore, to the clear doctrine of the Scripture, we assert, that by an eternal and immutable counsel, God has once for all determined, both whom he would admit to salvation, and whom he would condemn to destruction." The idea expressed in the passage above is most closely associated with the theological views of

John Calvin

The teachings of which of the following had the greatest impact on the Reformation in Scotland?

John Calvin

6. John Locke and Two Treatises of Government

John Locke lived from 1632 to 1704 and was one of the greatest and most important of all of the Enlightenment philosophers. In Locke's book, Two Treatises of Civil Government, written in 1690, he philosophically defended the "Glorious Revolution" in England. This book stated that humans are good but lack protection and that they are in a state of nature. Locke's ideas contrasted with Hobbes' view of humans as "nasty and brutish." Two Treatises of Civil Government also states that the consent of the governed should always justify the government's rule, the purpose of government is to support the rights of people, which are life, liberty, and property, there should be a social contract between the governed and the government; the governed agrees to obey the laws set in place by the government for the protection of natural rights in return, and the right to rebellion, in which the governed has the right to eradicate the government if it refuses to protect the natural rights of the people.

john locke and the two treatises of government

8. John Maynard Keynes

John Maynard Keynes wrote a novel titled Economic Consequences of the Peace in 1919. In this book, Keynes argued against the Treaty of Versailles and stated that the cruel punishments against the country of Germany would significantly negatively alter the European economy.

22. John Stuart Mill

John Stuart Mill was an English author who wrote the book, On Liberty, in 1859. In his book, Mill wrote about classical statements on liberty of the individual. Mill also argued for "absolute freedom of opinion" and encouraged that this freedom be protected from the tyranny of the majority and the government censorship. Later on in his life in 1867, John Stuart Mill advocated women's rights along with his wife in his novel, On the Subjection of Women.

23. On the Subjection of Women

John Stuart Mill wrote On the Subjection of Women. In this book, he argued for women's rights.

John Wycliffe and John Hus

John Wycliffe was a theologian from Oxford who lived from 1328 to 1348. He created English Lollardy, which was an attack on the Pope, the clergy, and medieval Christian beliefs and practices. He said that there was nothing in the Bible allowing papal authority, and therefore demanding that the Pope and the clergy be removed from the Church. Wycliffe believed that the content in the Bible should be the only authority for a Christian, so he advocated that it be written and printed in vernacular languages. His numerous followers were known as Lollards.

joint-stock investment banks

Joint-stock investment banks were banks created by selling shares of stocks to investors. These banks had access to more capital than private banks which were owned by one or two individuals. Joint-stock investment banks were important to industrial development because they brought in large amounts of capital sources for investment. These banks were also important in the 1860s and 1850s for the construction of railways.

17. Joseph II

Joseph II was an Austrian Habsburg emperor who ruled from 1780 to 1790. He was the son of Maria Theresa and his main goal was to enhance the power of the Habsburgs in Europe and the monarchy. In order to reform the empire, Joseph II abolished serfdom, attempted to grant the peasantry with hereditary rights to their holdings, instituted a new penal code that established the principle of equality of all before the law and abrogated the death penalty, introduced religious reforms, including religious toleration and restrictions for the Catholic Church. During his reign, Joseph II issued 11,000 laws and 6,000 decrees in order to transform and reform the Austrian Empire.

Joseph Lister

Joseph Lister was an English surgeon. He immediately grasped the connection between aerial bacteria and wound infection. He thought that a chemical disinfectant applied to a bandage would "destroy the life of the floating particles". This idea was called the Antiseptic Principle and it worked wonders. German surgeons soon developed a more sophisticated form of sterilizations. They sterilized not only the wind, but everything else that entered the operating room.

5. Joseph de Maistre and conservatism

Joseph de Maistre had conservative views. These views became a cornerstone for the Counter-Enlightenment of the early 19th centuries. He thought the divine right of kings lead to a stable government. He encouraged the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty in order to restore the French throne after Napoleon's defeat. He thought the Pope should have the ultimate authority in worldly matters. He believed in the rejection of Christianity by the rationalists philosophy of French Revolutionary leaders led to the bloodshed of the revolution.

11. Junkers

Junkers were the landed aristocracy or nobility that owned large estates with lots of serfs, which played an important role in the Prussian state. The Junkers had a complete monarchy over officer corps of the Prussian military that Frederick William had largely expanded.

6. Kaiser Wilhelm II

Kaiser Wilhelm II was a German ruler who did not renew the reinsurance treaty after removing Bismarck in 1890, expanded the German navy in 1898 in order to protect its international colonialism and trade, and issued the "blank check" which pledged Germany's support to Austria for the purpose of punishing Serbia.

Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto

Karl Marx was a German philosopher who lived from 1818 to 1883. Marx co-wrote the book The Communist Manifesto about Marxism. Karl Marx was born into a middle class family in Trier, Germany, came from a long line of rabbis, attended the University of Bonn in 1835 and later transferred to the University of Berlin where he earned a PhD in philosophy, became an editor for a liberal bourgeoisie newspaper in Cologne, Germany in 1842, moved to Paris afterwards and met Friedrich Engels, with whom he would write The Communist Manifesto. This book was published in January 1848 in the German language and roused the working classes to action. In The Communist Manifesto, Karl Marx defined communists as an advanced and resolute section of the working class and stated that they were able to understand "the line of march, the conditions, and the ultimate general results of the proletarian movement."

Marx's Das Kapital

Karl Marx was the founder of modern communism. He wrote the Communist Manifesto in 1847. He also wrote Das Kapital in 1867. These works explained historical development in terms of the interaction of contradictory economic forces. They also form the basis of all communist theory and had a profound influence on the social influences.

edict of nantes

King Henry was killed by a monk who was angry he had aligned with a Calvinist and Henry of Navarre took the throne. This ended the religious wars and he made the edict of Nantes. The edict of Nantes acknowledged Catholicism as the official religion of France. The Huguenots were given the right to worship in selected districts. They were allowed to enjoy all political privileges.

Louis XI and the Spider and Henry VII

King Louis XI was a French ruler who lived from 1461 to 1483 and was nicknamed the Spider because of his unnecessary and abundant taxation on French peasants. However, the French nobility was a potential threat to his power because of their independence.

King Victor Emmanuel

King Victor Emmanuel oversaw the the unification movement in Italy. This movement replaced earlier leaders. Realpolitik emerged as a strategy instead of the idealism of romanticism for unification.

Act of Supremacy (1534)

King is now the head of the English Church

2. Klemens von Metternich

Klemens von Metternich was an Austrian minister whose leadership and policies were represented in the Age of Metternich, which was an era of conservatism. Metternich epitomized a conservative reaction to the French Revolution and its aftermath and disagreed with liberalism and reformers because these forces would have a large impact on the multinational Habsburg Empire.

35. Kulturkampf

Kulturkampf meant the "struggle for civilization". In this, liberals joined Bismarck on his attack on the Catholic Church. The liberals distrusted catholic loyalty to the new Germany.

laissez-faire

Laissez-faire was a form of reformation used by Francois Quesnay and the physiocrats in the Enlightenment. This was used to reform the current agricultural system at that time.

Scholasticism

Late Middle Ages Thomas Aquinas Reconciles Christianity with Aristotelian science

3. "Legitimacy"

Legitimacy was the returning of power to the ruling families deposed by 2 or more decades of revolutionary war. The Bourbons were restored in France, Spain, and Naples. In Holland, Sardinia, Tuscany, and Modena dynasties were restored. Papal states were returned to the Pope.

27. "Peace, land, and bread"

Lenin's campaign was "Peace, land, bread".

31. Leon Trotsky

Leon Trotsky was the leader of the Petrograd Soviet, or the Red Army, and led to the Soviet overthrow and arrest of the Provisional Government. He was the 2nd most important in the October Revolution. The Provisional Government collapsed with little Bloodshed, unlike to the February Revolution. For the 1905 Revolution, he formed workers soviets.

Which of the following would most likely be described as l'uomo universal (universal man)?

Leonardo da Vinci

Leonardo da Vinci and the Mona Lisa

Leonardo da Vinci was one of the most important artists in the Renaissance era. His most famous painting is the Mona Lisa, which is viewed today as the greatest work of art in all of history. Leonardo used and developed the painting technique sfumato while creating the Mona Lisa. Sfumato is used by rounding and blending the edges of things in the painting.

Which of the following was an important consequence of the Glorious Revolution of 1688-1689?

Limits were put on the power of the English monarchy

28. Lord Tennyson's The Princess

Lord, or Alfred, Tennyson's The Princess was a poem that expressed ideal femininity. Being feminine was very important to women in the nineteenth century because this determined whether or not they would find a husband, which was crucial to their economic and social status during that time period.

The Platonic Academy, the intellectual center of Florence, was subsidized by

Lorenzo the Magnificent, Medici.

35. Louis Kossuth

Louis Kossuth was a Hungarian leader who demanded independence.

15. Louis Pasteur and germ theory

Louis Pasteur developed the germ theory of disease. He said that fermentation was caused by growth of living organisms and the activity of these organisms could be suppressed by heating the beverage.

Louis Pasteur

Louis Pasteur was a French chemist who studied fermentation in 1854. He found that fermentation depended on the growth of living organisms. Also, he found that the activity of these organisms could be suppressed by heat.

Louis XV

Louis XV was a French King who ruled from 1715 to 1774. During his rule, the nobility gained power and his ministers and mistresses used undue influence on Louis which undermined the prestige of the monarchy and controlled his affairs of state. The Parlement of Paris, the high court of Paris, was granted the power to disapprove or approve the king's decrees under the reign of Louis XV as well. Many judges that had purchased titles of "nobility of the robe" were once members of the middle class under Louis XV. This French king also wanted to raise taxes in order to pay for the Seven Years' War and the War of Austrian Succession, although the Parlement of Paris refused to allow him to do this. This caused eighteenth century French Kings to struggle with taxation, something that English kings Charles I and James I had struggled with previously in the early and mid seventeenth century. Louis XV was also not allowed to levy taxes without the permission of the Parlement of Paris, the representative of France, because of judicial opposition in the provinces and Paris. The Parlement of Paris received a lot of support from the opinion of the educated public.

Louis XVI

Louis XVI was a French King who ruled from 1774 to 1792. During his reign, France nearly became bankrupt. In the 1780s, fifty percent of the annual budget of France was used to pay the interest on its enormous debt. This large debt was caused by the French participation in the American Revolution and numerous colonial wars with England. However, the main issue was that the government was not allowed to declare bankruptcy as it had previously done. This was because the bourgeoisie and the aristocracy lenders would not permit their loans to be repudiated by the government. France also had no means of creating credit, central bank, or any paper currency. Unfortunately, the government could only increase taxes in order to get revenue.

louis xiv "sun king"

Louis XVI was considered the best practice of absolute monarchy in the 17th century. The reign prior to Louis XIV's was very unstable, making his look that much more stable. He personified the idea that the sovereignty of the state resided with the ruler. He was known as the Sun King because he was in the center of French power. He believed in the divine right of kings. He had the longest French reign of 72 years. During his reign, French culture dominated Europe.

5. Louis XVI

Louis XVI was the grandson of Louis XV and lived from 1774 to 1792. He was very naive about the operations of the French state affairs. He was married to Marie Antoinette, an Austrian princess who mainly spent her time dealing with court intrigues. The carelessness of these two French rulers and their incapability to aid the common people through their discontent eventually led to the beginning of the French Revolution.

14. Louis XVIII and Charles X

Louis XVIII was the first monarch of the Bourbon family in France that had been restored in the Age of Metternich. Because Louis XVIII kept reforms from Napoleon's reign, many ultraroyalists turned against him. After Louis XVIII's death, he was succeeded by his brother, Charles X of France. Charles X was the political opposite of his brother and abolished all of the Napoleonic reforms. However, because Charles X violated his commitment, this led to the edge of another French Revolution.

46. Ludwig von Beethoven and Hector Berlioz

Ludwig von Beethoven was one of the most important European musicians of all time and lived from 1770 to 1826. Beethoven was a transitional figure between the Classical and Romantic eras of music and was also one of the very first composers in history to covery his inner emotions and feelings through his music and to incorporate vocal music into a symphony by using the text in one of Schiller's poems in his ninth symphony. He exemplarized the genius that was not constrained by patronage, which all of his predecessors were, and many of his musical pieces that he created later on in his life were made while Beethoven was deaf. Hector Berlioz was another famous European musician who lived from 1803 to 1869. Berlioz was an important founder of programmatic music which conveyed actions and moods through instrumental music. One of his most important musical pieces, Symphonie Fantastique, was the first programmatic symphony and was Berlioz's masterpiece.

Edict of Worms:

Luther outlawed by Charles V and the Holy Roman Empire

martin luther

Luther was a very reform minded individual. He taught at the University of Wittenberg in Saxony. Luther was very inspired by the works of Erasmus and many say that Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched.

Salvation by faith alone, the ministry of all believers, and the authority of the Bible are principles basic to

Lutheranism in the early sixteenth century

38. Magyarization

Magyarization was a system used by Hungarians with the purpose of solving their nationalities problem. In magyarization, the government imposed the Magyar language upon every school so that the entire population of Hungary would be linguistically unified. Government and military officials were also only allowed to speak the Magyarian language.

Teresa de Avila (1515-1582)

Major Spanish leader of the reform movement for convents and monasteries

Duchy of Milan`

Major enemy of Florence throughout much of the Renaissance

Late Middle Ages Ideal

Man is well-versed in one subject and it is how to get to heaven

The most dynamic industrial city in Europe during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was

Manchester

Maria Montessori

Maria Montessori was an example of the "new woman", she received a medical degree and went on to creating a new style of teaching children based on natural and spontaneous activities, and inspired the creation of hundreds of Montessori schools.

15. Maria Theresa

Maria Theresa was an Austrian empress who ruled from 1740 to 1780. After her empire's shocking defeat and loss of Silesia to Prussia during the War of Austrian Succession, Theresa decided to reform the Austrian Empire to prepare for the next conflict with Prussia. In order to reform, she curtailed the roles of provincial assemblies in taxation and local administration. This now meant that the nobility and members of the clergy were required by law to pay income and property taxes to royal officials instead of the diets. She also divided the Bohemian and Austrian lands into ten provinces and, within them, districts. As a result of this, the Austrian Empire became more bureaucratic and more centralized. However, the administrative reforms were done to strengthen the power of the Habsburg state and enlarged and modernized the armed forces of Maria Theresa's empire. She was very Catholic and conservative and did not listen to the broader calls for reform of the philosophes.

6. Marie Antoinette

Marie Antoinette was Louis XVI's wife. She was a spoiled Austrian princess who spent her time focusing on her court. Neither Louis XVI or Marie were able to think of the depths of despair from France's financial crisis. The inability to see these effects soon lead to a violent revolution.

concordet and baron d'holbach

Marquis de Condorcet was the only writer who supported women's suffrage. In his Persian Letters, he supported the increase of women's rights. He did not believe family roles should change. Baron d'Holbach said that humans were like machines controlled by outside forces. He undermined the Enlightenment by attacking Christianity.

The Russian political cartoon above from the Cold War era ridicules the motivations of the

Marshall Plan

mary astell's a serious proposal to the ladies

Mary Astell was the daughter of a wealthy English coal merchant. Astell was the author of A Serious Proposal to the Ladies. She argued that women needed better education. She thought men would not accept her proposal.

42. Mary Shelley's Frankenstein

Mary Shelley was an English author who lived from 1797 to 1851. Shelley was the wife of Percy Bysshe Shelley, another famous English author. Mary Shelley's most famous and important book was Frankenstein. Frankenstein was a gothic story that was written about a mad scientist who assembled a monster by hand and brought it to life, however it later became crazy.

"I will allow that bodily strength seems to give man a natural superiority over woman; and this is the only solid basis on which the superiority of men over women can be built." Question : The passage above best reflects the argument of

Mary Wollstonecraft

mary wollstonecraft

Mary Wollstonecraft lived from 1759 to 1797 and was an English advocate for the educational and political equality for women. She believed that women are essential to the nation because they educate the children, so therefore they should receive the same educational opportunities as men do. Wollstonecraft also felt that women should not be ornaments to their husbands, but companions. In her book, Vindication of the Rights of Women, written in 1792, she harshly criticized the views on education of Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

Mary Wollstonecraft and the Vindication of the Rights of Woman

Mary Wollstonecraft was an English feminist in the eighteenth century. In 1792, she published a book called Vindication of the Rights of Women. The ideas in Wollstonecraft's book were similar to that of Olympe de Gouges.

vindication of the rights of women

Mary Wollstonecraft wrote Vindication of the Rights of Women in 1792. In this book, it said that more respectable women were more oppressed than others. If they were to understand far more than what is common and think in both sexes, then they would be treated as contemptible beings. It also said that many women fall prey to discontent instead of exploring their full potential and abilities.

Masaccio and the Expulsion of Adam and Eve

Masaccio was an early Renaissance artist who lived from 1401 to 1428 in Florence, Italy. He painted the Expulsion of Adam and Eve and used fresco and realism, and created the laws of perspective. He also used three dimensional human figures in this painting as well.

Max Planck and quanta

Max Planck developed Quantum mechanics. This said that subatomic energy is emitted in uneven little spurts called "quanta," not in a steady stream. At the atomic level, laws governing the universe seemed uncontrollable. Thus, matter and energy may be different forms of the same thing. The idea that atoms were stable, indestructible building blocks of matter was now questioned.

Maximilien Robespierre

Maximilien Robespierre was the leader of the Committee of Public Safety and was majorly influenced by Rousseau's ideas and supported revolutionary idealism. Robespierre created the Law of Maximum in which he planned out a planned economy in response to economic problems such as food shortages.

"A Country is not a mere territory; the particular territory is only its foundation. The Country is the idea which rises upon that foundation; it is the sentiment of love, the sense of fellowship which binds together all the sons of that territory." Question: The views of which of the following are expressed in the quotation above?

Mazzini

Medici Family

Medici power rested on banking and commerce

Michael Faraday

Michael Faraday made discoveries in electromagnetism. These resulted in the first dynamo, or generator.

18. Michael Faraday and electromagnetism

Michael Faraday was a British scientist who lived from 1791 to 1867. Faraday is most famous for his rudimentary discoveries in the 1830s and 1840s on electromagnetism which resulted in him inventing the first generator or dynamo. Generators were very useful and helpful in the development of different industries such as electric streetcars, electric motors, and electric lights.

The statue of David as well as The Pieta were creations of

Michelangelo Buonarotti

Michelangelo's works (David, Sistine Chapel, St. Peter's Basilica, and the Pieta)

Michelangelo was a highly renowned architect, painter, and sculptor. Along with Leonardo da Vinci and Donato di Donatello, he was one of the most important artists of the Renaissance era. One of his most famous works...

Montezuma

Moctezuma was an Aztec monarch who was often known as Montezuma. One day a man named Hernan Cortes visited Moctezuma in Tenochtitlan and he thought he was a representative of the god Quetzalcoatl, so he granted him a palace and gifts of gold during his stay.

Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527)

Modeled The Prince after Cesare Borgia, Pope Alexander VI's son, who sought to unite Italy under Roman rule o Most influential source on gaining and maintaining power in modern European History o Emphasized practical politics: "the end justifies the means"; "it is better to be feared than loved"

Which of the following best explains the results of elections to the Constituent Assembly during the Russian Revolution?

Moderate socialists won the most seats, but the Bolsheviks annulled the results

There would be an end of everything were the same man or the same body...to exercise those three powers, that of enacting laws, that of executing the public resolutions, and of trying the causes of individuals.... The author of this quotation is

Montesquieu

Late Middle Ages Scripture

More gothic; extremely detailed. Relief

wolfgang amadeus mozart

Mozart was a child prodigy who received his first harpsichord at age 6. His first opera was written at 12. He wanted a patron but the archbishop of Salzburg was overly demanding. He was forced to move to Vienna. In Vienna he failed to find a patron which made his life miserable. He constantly wrote music until he died at age 35. He upheld the tradition of Italian comic operas. His music was described as an ease of melody and a blend of grace, precision, and emotion.

In the sixteenth century, all of the following had religious civil wars or political insurrections except

Muscovite Russia

Thermidorian Reaction

Name given to the reaction against the radicalism of the French Revolution. It is associated with the end of the Reign of Terror and reassertion of bourgeoisie power in the Directory.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon Bonaparte was a French ruler who lived from 1769 to 1821. Napoleon was born of Italian descent in Corsica, a French island. He was a military genius, specialized in artillery, was a "child of the Enlightenment", a child of the French Revolution, was associated with the Jacobins, and vacancies that were caused by the emigration of aristocratic officers led Napoleon to rapidly advance in the army. Eventually, Napoleon Bonaparte inspired a divided country during the Directory period into an unified nation. However, in this unified nation, individual liberty would be sacrificed. Napoleon became First Consul on December 25, 1799. Napoleon acted as more of an absolute ruler than a revolutionary statesman. His goals were to create an effective hierarchical bureaucracy, demand the loyalty of the people to their state, and reward ability, which is how he governed France, Napoleon was one of the last and most respected of all of the enlightened despots.

First Consul and Emperor

Napoleon was the First Council. He acted more like an absolute ruler than as a revolutionary statesman.

neoclassicism

Neoclassicism was an artistic movement that developed in the late eighteenth-century in the country of France. In this art movement, the idea was to depict the simplicity and dignity of the Classical style from the Greco-Roman era. Most of these neoclassicist artists were influenced heavily by the excavations of the Roman cities Herculaneum and Pompeii from antiquity. One of the most famous of the neoclassicist artists was Jacques-Louis David, who lived from 1748 to 1825. His most important and famous painting was the Oath of Horatii.

balthasar neumann

Neumann was one of the greatest architects in the 18th century. He used Baroque-Rococo style, which incorporated light, bright colors, and rich detail. He used this style in the churches and palaces he designed. His two masterpieces are the pilgrimage church of the Vierzehnheiligen and the Bishop's Palace, Residenz.

New Imperialism

New Imperialism began in 1880s in Africa, earlier in Asia; in 1800 Europeans controlled about 7% of the world's territory--by 1914 they controlled 84%. Britain's control of Egypt in the 1880s became the model for the "New Imperialism". Major causes include: search for new markets and raw materials, missionary work, and new military and naval bases to protect one's interests against other European powers.

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494):

New World divided by Spain and Portugal; Pope Leo VI

newspapers and libraries

Newspapers and libraries were an easy way to spread information. Newspapers printed information daily and offered it to the mass general public. These papers were filled with news and special stories. They were very affordable and even free in coffee shops. In private circulating libraries, books were circulated through many different cities. These books were available for rent. This circulation of books spread information from town to town.

Which of the following viewed the universe as a vast machine controlled by the laws of gravity and inertia?

Newton

24. Nicholas II and Alexandra

Nicholas II was a tsar of Russia and his wife was Tsarina Alexandra. Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown in February 1917 by the Provisional government. Later in November 1917, the Provisional government was overthrown by the Bolsheviks because of increased war casualties. Tsarina Alexandra was widely hated by the population of Russia.

nicolaus copernicus

copernicus

Nicolaus Copernicus was an astronomer who lived from 1473 to 1543. In his book, On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres, written in 1543 for Pope Paul III, he challenged Church doctrine with his theories unintentionally. Because of this, he postponed the publication of his book. His theory, known as the Copernican Theory, stated a heliocentric view of the world, meaning the earth revolves around the sun and the sun is in the center of the universe. This was the opposite of Church's geocentric view of the world, meaning everything in the universe revolves around the earth, which is also the center of the universe. Many religious figures, including Martin Luther and John Calvin, strongly disagreed with his theories and used Biblical texts to support their medieval geocentric beliefs. Catholics did not react as forcefully as the Lutherans and Calvinists because they did not always interpret the Bible accurately or literally. However, later on in 1616, the Catholic Church claimed Nicolaus Copernicus' theory to be heretical and persecuted those who attempted to prove this theory. On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres was written by Nicolaus Copernicus. It was dedicated to Pope Paul II and challenged the Church doctrine. The publication of this book was put off because he feared the backlash of the scientific community. The idea of a heliocentric universe was first promoted by Nicolaus Copernicus in his book, On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres in 1543. In this book, Copernicus stated that the stars were stationary, although their apparent motion was caused by the rotation of the Earth, the universe was possibly infinite, and he challenged the views and beliefs of Ptolemy and the Bible's Book of Genesis which was geocentrism.

Friedrich Nietzsche's "Slave Morality"

Nietzsche believed Christianity had held back human impulse for life and the human will through its twisted 'morality', and must cease in order for humans to be liberated and to become higher beings.

34. Normandy

Normandy is located on the northern French coast and was where D-Day, or "Operation Overlord," happened on June 6th, 1944. On D-Day, a western front was established and 120,000 Allied troops invaded France by crossing the English Channel.

Pluralism

Official holding more than one office

44. November 11, 1918

On November 11, 1918, Germany accepted an armistice. Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany was required to surrender his throne because of this. After he abdicated, he fled to Holland.

19. Eastern Front

On the Eastern Front, the war was much more mobile. General von Hindenburg and General von Ludendorff defeated invading Russian armies at Tannenberg in 1914.This turned the tides of the war in the east. The Russians were poorly organized and suffered many casualties at the hands of the Germans. With the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Vladimir Lenin took Russia out of the war, after the Bolshevik Revolution. The Russians were forced to give the Germans ¼ of their territory.

on the movement of the heart and blood

On the Movement of the Heart and Blood is a book written in 1628 by William Harvey. In this book, Harvey explained how blood circulates throughout the body through veins and arteries and is pumped by the heart.

italian renaissance

One of the most important aspects of the Italian Renaissance was its patronage of the arts. Not only did Italian Renaissance artists create religious and biblical art, but they also focused on individualism and the subject that they were painting or sculpting. These paintings and sculptures were widely patronized by elite commissioners. During the quatrocentro, the republic of Florence was the leader of Renaissance art and Rome was the leader of Renaissance art during the cinquecento. Some new artistic techniques that were developed and used in paintings during the Italian Renaissance include geometric perspective, chiaroscuro, individualism, and sfumato. Most sculptures that were created in the Italian Renaissance were free-standing, focused on the glorification of the human body rather than God, and influenced by statuary from the Greco-Roman era. In architecture in the Italian Renaissance, many forms from antiquity were used, such as the Greek temple architecture and columns and Roman arches and domes, and simplicity, balance, and symmetry. Some of the most famous Italian Renaissance artists, specifically from Florence, Italy include Giotto, Filippo Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti, Lorenzo Ghiberti, Donato di Donatello, Masaccio, Bramante, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael Santi, Michelangelo Buonarroti, Titian, Andrea Palladio, and Sandro Botticelli.

Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494)

Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486) Emphasized that humans are capable of achieving great things and are made in God's image; (contrasts medieval view of humans as insignificant and inherently sinful) Major figure in the Platonic Academy in Florence

Which of the following best expresses Voltaire's views concerning religion?

Organized religion perpetuates superstition and ignorance.

38. Oswald Spengler's The Decline of the West

Oswald Spengler was an anti-utopian author who lived from 1880 to 1936. His most famous painting, The Decline of the West, was painted from 1918 to 1922 and stated that all cultures experience cycles of decline and growth and that Western Civilization was becoming old and would soon be conquested by Asians.

The pilot in the cartoon above is

Otto von Bismarck

Thomas Cromwell

Oversaw development of king's bureaucracy

The Thermidorean Reaction (1794) accomplished which of the following?

Overthrew the Committee of Public Safety and established the Directory

Enlightened monarchs of the eighteenth century supported all of the following except

Pacifist foreign policy

Humanism in Renaissance art

Pagan themes evident in Botticelli's Birth of Venus, Raphael's School of Athens o Glorification of the human body evident in such works as Michelangelo's David, and the Creation of Adam on the Sistine Chapel o Bronze used in Donatello's David; marble used in Michelangelo's David and Pieta o Architectural works drew on ancient Greek and Roman designs such as domes (Il Duomo and St. Peter's Basilica) and Greek Temple Architecture (Bramante's Tempietto and front of St. Peter's Basilica)

14. Pan Slavism

Pan-Slavism was a nationalist movement. This movement's purpose was the unification of the Slavic peoples, encourage the Croats, Serbs, Slovenes, and the Bosnians, and they also sought a singular political entity in Southeastern Europe. In this movement, Russia concentrated on the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires, especially the Balkan territories, after its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War.

In 1868, which area in Italy was not part of the United Kingdom of Italy?

Papal States

english civil war

Parliament was victorious in the English Civil War. The largest and most important success of the parliament was the creation of the New Model Army. Parliament ended the war, with the help of the New Model Army, with the capture of King Charles I in 1546.

English Civil War

Parliament was victorious in this war. The largest and most important success of the parliament was the creation of the New Model Army. Parliament ended the war, with the help of the New Model Army, with the capture of King Charles I in 1546.

english civil war

16. Pasteurization

Pasteurization is a safety precaution encouraged and developed by Louis Pasteur. In pasteurization, beverages are heated before consumption for the purpose of suppressing the fermentation by growth of living organisms. This safety precaution aided in the reduction of food poisoning.

John Locke based his Two Treatises on Government primarily on which of the following views of human nature?

People are basically rational and learn from practical experience

43. Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron

Percy Bysshe Shelley wrote Prometheus Unbound. In this book, he detailed the revolt of humans against a society that oppresses them. Lord Byron embodied the melancholic Romantic figure. He died fighting for Greek independence against the Turks, 1824.

Peter Brueghel the Elder

Peter Brueghel the Elder was a Northern Renaissance artist who lived from 1520 to 1569. He created many different paintings, including Peasant Dance, Peasant Wedding, and The Battle Between Carnival and Lent. His artwork depicted everyday people, however he was not influenced by humanism, secularism, or individualism unlike most other Renaissance artists.

Peter the Great

Peter the Great was a Russian ruler who built the Peterhof Palace. The Peterhof is located in St. Petersburg, and its creation was largely influenced by Versailles.

peter the great

Peter the Great was a Russian ruler who built the Peterhof Palace. The Peterhof is located in St. Petersburg, and its creation was largely influenced by Versailles.

Romanticism

Philosophical and artistic movement in late eighteenth and early nineteenth century Europe that represented a reaction against the Neoclassical emphasis upon reason. Romantic artists, writers, and composers stressed emotion and the contemplation of nature.

Existentialism

Philosophy that God, reason, and progress are all myths. Humans must accept responsibility for their actions. This responsibility causes an overwhelming sense of dread and anguish. Existentialism reflects the sense of isolation and alienation in the twentieth century.

Invisible Hand

Phrase coined by Adam Smith to refer to the self-regulating nature of a free marketplace

Piedmont and the House of Savoy

Piedmont was a northern Italian state whose main goal was the unification of Italy. Numerous advocates for this goal focused mainly on Piedmont after the failure of the revolution of 1848 and 1849. The northern Italian state of Piedmont was ruled and controlled by the House of Savoy and included Sardinia. Although he had been defeated by the Austrians, King Charles Albert attempted to take the leading role in causing national unity. Before Victor Emmanuel II, who lived from 1849 to 1878, appointed Count di Camillo di Cavour, who lived from 1810 to 1861, the prime minister of Piedmont in 1852, this small state seemed unlikely to be able to supply the needed leadership.

Which of the following 19th century Italian figures actively sought to prevent the unification of Italy?

Pius IX

25. Plutocrats

Plutocrats were produced from big business peoples. These plutocrats were part of the upper European class. very wealthy. They invested in railway shares, public utilities, government bonds, businesses, and their own estates.

Glasnost

Policy initiated by Soviet premier Mikhail Gorbachev in the mid-1980s. Glasnost resulted in a new openness of speech, reduced censorship, and greater criticism of Communist Party policies.

Marxism

Political and economic philosophy of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. They believed that history is the result of a class conflict that will end with the triumph of the industrial proletariat over the bourgeoisie. The new classless society would abolish private property.

Which of the following was most directly responsible for the founding of the Fifth Republic in 1958?

Political conflict over the war in Algeria

Liberalism

Political philosophy that in the nineteenth century advocated representative government dominated by the propertied classes, minimal government interference in the economy, religious toleration, and civil liberties such as freedom of speech.

Conservatism

Political philosophy that in the nineteenth century supported legitimate monarchies, landed aristocracies, and established churches. Conservatives favored gradual change in the established social order.

What accounts for the involvement of peasants in counterrevolutionary movements directed against the French revolutionary government?

Poor living conditions due to crop failures and famine

"The art of printing is very useful insofar as it furthers the circulation of useful...books but it can be very harmful if it is permitted to widen the influence of pernicious works. It will therefore be necessary to maintain full control over the printers so that they may be prevented from bringing into print writings which are antagonistic to the Catholic faith." This statement was most likely authored by

Pope Alexander VI

slave trade and the Middle Passage

Portugal first introduced slave trade in Brazil for the purpose of farming sugar plantations. By the late 17th century, Dutch West India CO. and England's Royal African Co. had both brought thousands of African slaves to the New World, especially the Caribbean and North America. In the 1800s, an estimated 60% of Brazil's population and 20% of the United States' population was African. Around 50,000,000 African peoples were either enslaved or died throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. The expedition from West Africa across the Atlantic Ocean to the New World that slaves had to travel was called the "Middle Passage."

Post-Impressionism

Post-Impressionism wanted to know and depict worlds other than the visible world of fact. This sought to show unseen, inner worlds of emotion and immunization. This showed a complicated psychological view of reality as well as an overwhelming emotional intensity. Cubism concentrated on zigzagging lines and overlapping planes. Art focused on mood, not objects.

16. Pragmatic Sanction

Pragmatic Sanction was issued by Leopold I in 1713. This said that the Habsburg Empire would stay intact under his daughter's rule.

Spread of Calvinism

Presbyterianism in Scotland led by John Knox Huguenots - French Calvinists; brutally suppressed in France Dutch Reformed - United Provinces of the Netherlands Puritans and Pilgrims in England; established colonies in America Countries where Calvinism did not spread: Ireland, Spain, Italy - heavily Catholic

Fourteen Points

President Woodrow Wilson's idealistic peace aims. Wilson stressed national self-determination, the rights of small countries, freedom of the seas, and free trade.

Renaissance Technology

Printing press • New inventions for exploration

William Tyndale

Produced the first English version of the Bible; executed

The 1834 Zollverein (Prussian customs union) was designed to do which of the following?

Promote trade and political unity in Germany

Kulaks

Prosperous landowning peasants in czarist Russia. Joseph Stalin accused the kulaks of being class enemies of the poorer peasants. Stalin "liquidated the kulaks as a class" by executing them and expropriating their land to form collective farms.

Tragedy at Münster

Protestant and Catholic forces captured the city and executed Anabaptist leaders

Anabaptist

Protestants who insisted that only adult baptism conformed to Scripture. Protestant and Catholic leaders condemned Anabaptists for advocating the complete separation of church and state.

Proto-Industrialization

Proto-Industrialism, or the cotton industry, was fundamental to the growth of Europe's economy in the 18th century. With this Proto-Industrialism, rural populations were very eager to supplement income. Merchants sought cheap rural labor rather than paying craftsman higher fees. The industry was then "put-out" into the countryside with the "putting-out system".

Which state during the 18th century practiced the greatest toleration towards Catholics, Lutherans, Reformed Jews, and Calvinists?

Prussia

The struggle for mastery in Germany in the first half of the 19th century occurred between which two countries?

Prussia and Austria

Which of the following statements is most accurate about German unification in 1871?

Prussia used military methods and autocratic rule to unite Germany

Junkers

Prussia's landowning nobility. The Junkers supported the monarchy and served in the army in exchange for absolute power over their serfs.

12. "Prussian militarism"

Prussian militarism was the belief that a military should come before everything. It was said that "Prussia was not a country with an army, but an army with a country with an army which served as headquarters and food magazine".

ptolemy

Ptolemy was an astronomer who lived in the 2nd century. He was one of the first scientists to promote a geocentric view of the world. This meant that he believed that the Earth was located in the center of the universe and that all other cosmic subjects, including the sun, revolved around it.

The Russian nobility regained power lost under Peter the Great when Catherine the Great was forced to turn to them for help during

Pugachev's rebellion

Puritans and Cavaliers

Puritans were one of the most important religious groups in the English struggle between the King and Parliament. Puritans did not believe that there should be an hierarchy in the Church. This meant that all people should earn salvation themselves and not through a Pope, minister, or priest. Because of this, Puritans proposed a new branch of Christianity. This newfound religion would follow Puritan beliefs and ideas and was called Presbyterianism.

puritans and cavaliers

Queen Victoria

Queen Victoria had the longest reign in European history. She had great duty and moral respect. These were reflected in her attitudes of her age.

Raphael and the School of Athens

Raphael Santi created the perfect example of humanism through the School of Athens. This painting includes Greco-Roman architecture, Plato, Aristotle, thinkers, scientists, and mathematicians, and sculptures in the contrapposto stance.

Realism

Realism was a nineteenth century artistic and literary style which emphasized the common life of ordinary people, especially with photographic accuracy in artwork. The idea of realism began in art in 1850 and soon after spread to literature. Some of the most important realist authors include Gustave Flaubert who wrote Madame Bovary, William Thackeray who wrote Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a Hero, and Charles Dickens. Some of the most famous realist artists include Gustave Courbet who painted The Stonebreakers and Jean-Francois Millet who painted The Gleaners.

"Iron and Blood" and Realpolitik

Realpolitik was the accomplishing one a person's political goals through practical means rather than allowing idealism to run politics and political decisions. "Iron and blood" was a speech given by Otto von Bismarck. This speech stated that all political decisions made in the German Confederation would be made and enforced through "iron and blood" or the military.

realschule and volkschulen

Realschule was the first college in Germany which was built in Berlin in 1747. This college allowed its male students to study bookkeeping, modern languages, and geography to prepare themselves for a career in business. Volkschulen was a state-supported primary school in the Habsburg Austrian Empire. However, only one in four children attended this school.

40. "reason of state"

Reason of state was the idea that a ruler and a minister should look beyond the dynastic interests to the long term future of their states.

Reichstag

Reichstag was a parliament that consisted of 2 houses that equally shared power. The bundesrat was the upper house, which included representatives from each state. The lower house was the bundestag and had representatives elected by universal male suffrage.

The Thermidorean reaction was a turnabout in France in reaction to the

Reign of Terror

Renaissance humanism was a threat to the Church because it

rene descartes and deductive reasoning

rene descartes

Rene Descartes was a scientist who lived from 1596 to 1650. In his book, Discourse on Method, he supported the use of deductive reasoning, and used this to support his existence, writing, "coquito ergo sum" or "I think; therefore I am." This was proven solely by logic. In deductive reasoning, Descartes believed that science starts with clear and unchangeable facts and the problem should be split into as many subsections as possible using a step-by-step logical sequence. Descartes also demonstrated the correlation between geometry and algebra and invented analytical geometry. René Descartes used deductive reasoning to prove his reasoning with his "I think; therefore, I am". His proof relied solely on logic. He said that science must start with clear facts and divide each problem into as many parts as possible. Cartesian Dualism is a scientific theory that was created by Rene Descartes. This theory separated all existence into the material and the spiritual. Spiritual objects can be examined by deductive reasoning, or logic, only and material objects are subject to the experimental method.

i think; therefore i am

René Descartes used deductive reasoning to prove his reasoning with his "I think; therefore, I am". His proof relied solely on logic. He said that science must start with clear facts and divide each problem into as many parts as possible.

Major city-states and figures in Renaissance Italy

Republic of Florence Duchy of Milan Rome, the Papal States Naples, Kingdom of the two Sicilies Venice, Venetian Republic Isabella d'Este Condottieri Girolamo Savonarola Charles VIII Niccolò Machiavelli Charles V

Characteristics of Humanism

Revival of ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, literature, and art o Strong belief in individualism and the great potential of human beings ▪ virtú: the quality of being a great man in whatever noble pursuit o Focused initially on studying ancient languages, especially Latin and later, Greek o Rejected Aristotelian views and medieval scholasticism o Believed in a liberal arts educational program that included grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, politics and moral philosophy o Often, more secular and lay dominated

Humanism

Revival of antiquity (Greece and Rome) in literature

21. David Ricardo's "iron law of wages"

Ricardo's "iron law of wages" was a situation with plentiful amount of workers. This kept the wages low, which hurt the working class.

"The power of the laborer to support himself does not depend on the quantity of money he receives for wages, but on the quantity of food, necessaries, and conveniences essential to him from habit, which that money will purchase. The natural price of labor therefore, depends on the price of food, necessaries, and conveniences required for the support of the laborer and his family." Question: The above passage refers to

Ricardo's iron law of wages.

Which of the following contributed most strongly to the decline of Sweden as a major European power in the eighteenth century?

Rivalry with the larger and more resource-rich Russia

Robert Owen

Robert Owen organized the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union. He pioneered industrial relations by combining discipline with a concern for health, safety, and work hours of workers. Owen's and other unionization efforts failed. The British labor movement moved once again after 1851 in the direction of craft unions.

42. "degenerate art"

"Degenerate art" was an artistic movement that glorified the strong and powerful individual man and criticized modern or "Jewish art". This movement was heavily and majorly supported by Adolf Hitler and his Nazi party. Hitler and the Nazis believed they had created a new form of German art, however, it was simply nineteenth century art which depicted realistic scenes in common life.

38. Romanticism

Romanticism was a European philosophy that encouraged faith, emotion, nature, and individualism and challenged the rationalism of the Enlightenment. Eventually, Romanticism became politically associated closely with nationalism and liberalism. Some characteristics of romanticism are that it focused on emotion rather than reason by emphasizing faith, the human senses, and passion, glorified nature by emphasizing its tempestuousness and beauty and disagreeing with deism and the idea that nature is a harmonious whole, which are both ideas of the Enlightenment, rejecting the views of the Enlightenment, encouraging personal flexibility and personal freedom, emphasizing feeling, industrial evils, humanitarian movements were started in order to abolish slavery, and poverty evils, using ideas such as honor, chivalry, and faith from the Middle Ages, and focusing on transcribed proverbs, songs, and tales and peasant life as well. Some of the most important and historically famous founders of Romanticism include Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who wrote Social Contract about the belief that materialism and society corrupted human nature, Immanuel Kant, who promoted human freedom, the existence of God, and immortality and rationalism from the Enlightenment, George William Friedrich Hegel, who promoted dialect, which is a thesis that is challenged by an opposing view and results in a mixture of the two ideas, and was the leading figure of German idealism, and Johann Gottlieb Fichte, who wrote Addresses to the German Nation, in which Fichte developed romantic nationalism that promoted the idea of Germans being a superior race to other peoples and was very anti-semitic. Some of the most important romantic poets include William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Sir Walter Scott, who wrote Rob Roy and Ivanhoe, Lord Byron, and Percy Bysshe Shelley, who wrote Prometheus Unbound. Some of the most famous romantic authors include George Sand, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who wrote Sorrows of the Young Werther and Faust, Victor Hugo, who wrote Hunchback of Notre Dame and Les Miserables, and brothers Grimm, who wrote Grimm's Fairy Tales. Some of the most important romantic artists include Francisco Goya, who painted The Third of May, Caspar David Friedrich, who painted Wanderers Above the Mist, Eugene Delacroix, who painted Liberty Leading the People, Theodore Gericault, who painted Raft of the Medusa, J.M.W. Turner, and John Constable. Some of the most famous romantic musicians include Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, Hector Berlioz, who composed Symphonie Fantastique, Franz List, who composed Hungarian Rhapsody, Antonin Dvorak, Giuseppi Verdi, Richard Wagner, and Peter Tchaikovsky.

Renaissance Architecture

Rounded arches, clear lines; Greco-Roman columns • Domes (e.g. Il Duomo by Brunelleschi) • Less detailed • Focus on balance, symmetry and form

Politiques

Rulers who put political necessities above personal beliefs. For example, both Henry IV of France and Elizabeth I of England subordinated theological controversies in order to achieve political unity.

Following the abolition of serfdom, from 1861-1905, which of the following best characterizes the situation of the Russian peasantry?

Rural overpopulation and land shortage caused continuous unrest

The Decembrist Revolution of 1825 occurred in

Russia

The cause of the Crimean War included British and French objections to

Russian foreign policy toward the Ottoman Empire

40. Russification

Russification was a policy that imposed Russian traditions and customs upon non-Russian peoples. Russification's primary purpose was to create sources of opposition to policies of tsars and anger different national and ethnic groups. This policy was pursued by Alexander II.

st. bartholomew's day massacre

Saint Bartholomew's Day was a devastating massacre of Huguenots in August 1572 when Catholic and Calvinist parties were reconciled due to the marriage of the sister of Charles IX, the Valois King, and Henry of Navarre, who was the son of Jeanne d'Albret. Jeanne d'Albret introduced Calvinist ideas into her kingdom. However, since the Huguenots posed a potential threat to his power, Charles and his advisors decided to assassinate multiple Huguenot leaders in a cruel and inhumane manner.

Simony

Sale of church offices

Samuel Crompton and the Spinning Mule

Samuel Crompton invented the spinning mule in 1779. This combined the best features of the spinning jenny, a mechanicalized spinning wheel, and the water frame, used to improve thread spinning. As a result of this, all cotton spinning was gradually down in factories.

samuel richardson's pamela

Samuel Richardson's first novel, Pamela: or Virtue Rewarded, was written about a young servant girl's resistance to her master's numerous seduction attempts. She then writes him a series of letters that reject him, and he then realizes that she is very smart and attractive. Because of this realization, he marries her. This book became popular because it showed sentiment and emotion, which was also popular in the eighteenth century.

Sardinia and Piedmont

Sardinia and Piedmont were unified as Sardinia-Piedmont after the Revolutions of 1848 and 1849 in Italy under King Victor Emmanuel, Count Cavour, and Garibaldi. After this unification movement, many previous leaders were replaced including Mazzini, Gioberti, and Pope Pius IX. Realpolitik also emerged as a strategy instead of romanticism for unification, which was a Machiavellian approach to practical politics.

Petrarch

Saw the Medieval period as the "Dark Ages" "Father of humanism" and first modern writer, literature was no longer subordinate to religion

The eventual showdown between Prussia & Austria resulted from a dispute involving

Schleswig and Holstein

Secularism

Secularism involves non-religious subjects in works of literature, art, and politics. This caused education in Italy to rely less on theology and more on ancient texts and languages, including Roman and Greek literature in the 1500s. The Roman authors that were generally studied included Cicero, Livy, Virgil, and Quintilian. Plato was the most studied ancient Greek author.

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914 was carried out by nationalists seeking an expanded

Serbia

The major source of trouble in the Balkans on the eve of World War I was bitter hostility between

Serbia and Austria

37. Serjents, "bobbies," and Schutzmannschaft

Serjents, "bobbies", and Schutzmannschaft were civilian police forces. They were well trained forces whose purpose was to make Europe a disciplined and well ordered society. Serjents in France, dressed in all blue uniforms and served to protect France's citizens at all times. In Britain, the failures of the constables (unpaid selected peacekeepers) led to the "bobbies" being put on the streets. Their primary goal was to prevent crime. They were called bobbies because Sir Robert Peel created the legislation to create them. The Schutzmannschaft was the police force in Germany, and was initially modeled after Britain's bobbies. This soon turned into a more military force, that was also used for political purposes. Their heavy weaponry also made them more military-like.

The Zollverein (1819) was designed to do which of the following?

Set up a customs union to promote free trade

4. Madame de Pompadour

She was Louis XV's mistress. She made many important governmental decisions and gave advice on appointments and foreign war. She also gained a lot of power and wealth from Louis XV.

Isabella d'Este

She was an exemplary woman who changed the roles of women in the late 1400s and early 1500s. She was nicknamed the "First Lady" of the Renaissance, encouraged other women to take political action and educate themselves during that time period, ruled Mantua after the death of her husband, established a school for women, and wrote many letters that tell us about political views in Mantua throughout the Renaissance.

18. Catherine II the Great

She was the wife of Peter III. She learned to speak Russian and won the favor of the guard. When Peter was murdered, Catherine took over Russia. She claimed to want to reform Russia through Enlightenment. She wrote Instruction as a guide to the deliberations. She questioned serfdom, torture, and capital punishment. Under her rule, Russia was divided into 50 provinces. Each province was divided into districts and was ruled by an elected ruler. The day-to-day governing was now taken care of by these elected rulers. The gentry was now formed with legal privileges. In 1785, The Charter of the Nobility was formed to formalize rights like exemption from taxation and corporal punishment. Catherine expanded Russia's territory westward into Poland and to the south towards the Black Sea.

Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis

46. Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud was one of the three giants of thought, along with Darwin and Marx. He had the Freudian Psychology. Freud believed that humans were largely irrational creatures. The human subconscious is not subject to reason. Due to this, humans are not in control of themselves. He also said that sexuality was a key driving force in one's psychological makeup. If ones sexual desires were suppressed, psychological problems would become present. Freud was the founder of psychoanalysis. He believed the hysteria of his patients originated in unhappy early childhood experiences where they had repressed strong feelings. The ego, the id, and the superego were three contending forces that Sigmund Freud, who lived from 1856 to 1939, used to explain that a human's inner life was a battleground. Freud believed that the id controlled unconscious drives and was controlled by the pleasure principle, the ego consisted of many different sorts of impulses, lustful drives, crude appetites, and desires, was the coordinator of the inner life, was governed by the reality principle, and was the seat of reason, and the superego served to compel the ego to curb the unsatisfactory needs of the id, symbolized moral values and inhibitions, and was the locus of conscience.

The concept of woman as the "Other" came from The Second Sex, as important feminist work by

Simone de Beauvoir

41. Sir Walter Scott

Sir Walter Scott was a Scottish writer. He wrote narrative poems and historical novels. Some of his works were Rob Roy and Ivanhoe. Ivanhoe was a story of a fight between Saxon and Norman knights in medieval England. He represented the romantic's interest in history and was influenced by the German romanticism of Goethe.

Smallpox

Smallpox affected the greatest number of European explorers out of all the new diseases they came across in the New World.

adam smith's wealth of nations

Smith's book was considered the "bible" of capitalism. It explained the laissez-faire philosophy of the physiocrats. The invisible hand of the marketplace will dictate the price of goods using supply and demand. The price in which benefits society the most, will be used.

Social Darwinism and Herbert Spencer

Social Darwinism was the result of Herbert Spencer combining Darwin's ideas to human society. This was used to justify the conquest of "weaker" peoples. Also, industrialist justified their wealth with this. With survival ofthe fittest, natural laws dictated why certain people were successful and others were not.

43. "socialist realism"

Social realism was produced by the Soviet Union because Stalin made artistic creativity and very uniform thing. Soviets wanted realist presentations to show the social values in the ruling regimes.

19. Marxist "revisionism"

Some Marxist believe in a pure Marxism. This accepted the imminent collapse of capitalism and the need for socialist ownership of means of production. Revisionism was a severe challenge to this Marxist position.

The Treaty of Westphalia (1648) helped to ensure all of the following EXCEPT

Spain and Portugal were united

33. Cuba and the Philippines

Spain lost the control of Cuba and the Philippines after their defeat in the Spanish-American War in 1898. This increased the unhappiness with the status quo.

"Religion supplies the pretext and gold the motive." This statement was a contemporary characterization of

Spanish and Portuguese expansion in the New World

the viceroy

Spanish land was divided into 2 parts, New Spain and Peru. Peru was governed by a viceroy. Viceroys represent Spain's royal person, hold superior government, administer equal justice, and promote clam, peace, ennoblement, and pacification. Viceroys served as the King's civil and military officer. They were aided by advisors called audiencias.

31. Stalingrad

Stalingrad was a critical battle of the eastern front. This was the first time Germany was defeated on land. Hitler wanted to take over the industrial city of Stalingrad. He also wanted to taking control of Soviet oil fields in the Caucasus region. German armies were surrounded by Soviet forces. Hitler refused to allow the German forces to surrender and the bulk of the German army in Stalingrad was destroyed in the battle.

John Wycliff (1328-1384)

Stated the Bible was the sole authority Stressed a personal relationship with God His followers were known as Lollards

Which of the following was the most important factor behind the Price Revolution of the sixteenth century?

Steady population growth and rising food costs

George Stephenson's Rocket

Stephenson made the railway locomotive commercially successful in 1825. His locomotive, the Rocket, traveled the Liverpool-Manchester at 16 mph. It was the first import railroad in the world. It was located in the heart of industrial England.

Luther's Beliefs on Women

Stressed that marriage was a woman's career in the Christian home Women should be educated - schools for girls relationship between a husband and wife should be companionate sex was an act to be enjoyed by a husband and wife Luther and his wife Katherina von Bora were a good example of this view

Pope John Paul II (elected 1978) did which of the following?

Supported the Solidarity labor movement in Poland.

Robot

System of forced labor used in eastern Europe. Peasants usually owed three or four days a week of forced labor. The system was abolished in 1848.

The lists of grievances, or cahiers de doleances, brought by the members of the Estates General to Versailles in 1789 called for

Tax equity

the Aztecs and Tenochtitlan

Tenochtitlan was the capital city of the Aztecs. It was built in the center of a lake. It had long and broad streets. The aztecs traveled by canoe. Inside the city, there were markets with many different types of merchandise. Cortes said that the manner of living was similar to Spain. Tenochtitlan was taken over by Hernan Cortes.

36. The "April Theses"

The "April Theses" was made in 1917 and was a speech by Vladimir Lenin. In this speech, Lenin rejected cooperation with the "bourgeois" Provisional Government, demanded the establishment of a Soviet republic, demanded a Socialist revolution, and wanted nationalization of landed estates and banks. Some slogans used in this speech were "Stop the War Now", "All Power to the Soviets", and "All Land to the Peasants".

26. "Great Patriotic War of the Fatherland"

The "Great Patriotic War of the Fatherland" was the name of World War II in Russia.

33. "Prague Spring"

The "prague spring" was a time period when Alexander Dubcek was elected leader. This ushered in a new period of thaw and rebirth in 1968. "Socialism with a human face" wanted greater democracy and freedom of speech. He looked over de-centralization including the division of the country into the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The influence of Czech reformers frightened hardline communists.

8. "Sanitary idea"

The "sanitary idea" was the most important of all of the ideas in the public health movement. This idea stated that having a clean and sanitary urban environment was the most important key in the prevention of diseases. After the spread of the "sanitary idea" across Europe, water and sewage systems were set in place in order to provide clean water through pipes to remove feces and other bodily fluids away from the municipal outhouses. These sewage and water systems were also beneficial to the economy in that the price of these systems was equivalent to 1/20 of the price of removing the excrement by hand.

40. "War Communism"

The "war communism" was when the Bolsheviks mobilized the home front for the Russian Civil War. The "war communism" forced peasants to give food to towns and cities, declared that all territory is nationalized, integrated a "total war" idea into the war, and the state controlled the industries and halted private trade. This was the earliest form of socialism in the Soviet Union and resulted in a major decrease in production rates. In order to take down opponents, the Cheka assassinated thousands of people, including enemies of the working class, the tsar, and the royal family.

1527 Sack of Rome

The 1527 sack of Rome was performed by the armies of Emperor Charles V, also the king of Spain. This was the end of the Renaissance in Italy.

Act of Union, 1707

The Act of Union in 1707 was when Scotland unified with England. After this unification, England and Scotland came together to form the United Kingdom.

Of the following, which contributed most to Germany's defeat in the First World War?

The Allied use of submarine warfare

Antwerp and Amsterdam

The Antwerp in Flanders was the banking and commercial center of Europe in the 16th century. in the 17th century, the Amsterdam was the financial center after the Dutch Revolt against Spain.

Arc de Triomphe

The Arc de Triomphe was created to commemorate Napoleon's victory. The arc was one of classical style and heartened back to the Roman Empire when the Caesars would build arcs to signify victories. Napoleon was emphasizing the conquest of the empire.

27. Atlantic Charter

The Atlantic Charter, 1941, was when Churchill and President Franklin Roosevelt, USA, met secretly after the invasion of the Soviet Union. They agreed that once the Axis Powers were defeated, there would be no territorial changes contrary to the wishes of inhabitants. This called for a "permanent system of general security", and later became the United Nations.

Ausgleich

The Austro-German Compromise of 1867 established dual monarchy in Austria-Hungary. It was signed by emperor Franz Joseph of Austria.

Austro-Prussian War

The Austro-Prussian War, also known as the Seven Weeks' War or German Civil War, occurred in 1866. This war was centered in Austria and Prussia and was declared by Bismarck as a localized war. Bismarck made diplomatic preparations for this war against Austria and negotiated with the neighboring countries of Russia, France, and Italy for noninterference. Unfortunately for Prussia, Prussia had superior riflery that used breech-loading rifles and railroads to mass troops. After Prussia's victory over Austria, the majority of Germany became united and the "kleindeutsch plan" prevailed. Italy also gained Venice from this war and Austria was given very generous peace terms.

3. Axis Powers

The Axis Powers were mainly Germany, Italy, and Japan. These were the major powers that joined under the pretense of battle communism. They wanted to spread fascist ideas.

Balkans' Crisis

The Balkans' Crisis was a worrisome question among all the Balkans: who would control their region? The Balkans were unsure of who would rule their land, the Austro-Hungarian Empire or Russia. They thought the Austro-Hungarian Empire would step up to power because they had designs on their territory and they also believed Russia would step up to power because they had wanted to take their territory back, as well as Constantinople, since the reign of Catherine the Great.

32. Bank of England

The Bank of England was the first bank of it's time to make loans in addition to receiving deposits and exchanging foreign currencies. The bank also issued bank notes as a way to back it's credit. This provided a paper substitute for gold and silver. With the insurance of government bonds paying regular interest, a national debt was created. This was different than the monarch's personal debts.

Battle of Austerlitz

The Battle of Austerlitz occurred in December 1805 in Moravia. In this battle, Russian leader Alexander I removed his troops from the battle, which gave Napoleon Bonaparte of France yet another victory on the land. In exchange for peace, Austria surrendered large territories, and the Third Coalition collapsed. After the Battle of Austerlitz, Napoleon Bonaparte became the master of central and western Europe. To commemorate his victory, he commissioned the Arc de Triomphe in 1806. The Arc de Triomphe symbolized the conquest of an empire by using classical style architecture which hearkened back to the Roman Empire when Caesars built arches to commemorate their victories.

32. Battle of Midway

The Battle of Midway lasted from June 4th, 1942 to June 7th, 1942. This was a naval battle that was located in the Pacific Theater of World War II.

Battles of Sadowa and Sedan

The Battle of Sadowa was in the Austro-Prussian war. In this battle, Bismarck beat Austria and isolated Austria without the use of peace settlements. The battle of Sedan took place during the Franco-Prussian War. Prussian armies went into France and captured the French army, including Napoletan III. Four months later, Paris collapsed and the war ended.

21. Battle of Verdun

The Battle of Verdun lasted from February to December. Germany wanted a battle that would "bleed France white" and many them sue for peace. France lost 540,000 men and Germany lost 430,000 men. This was the war's 2nd most bloody battle. General Philippe Pétain's leadership of French forces made him a national hero.

22. Battle of the Somme

The Battle of the Somme lasted from July to November of 1916. In this battle, French and British offensive forces sought out to break through German lines and this ended up being the deadliest battle of all of World War I. The casualties for each set of troops was 650,000 for German troops, 420,000 for British troops, and 200,000 for French troops.

3. Bessemer Process

The Bessemer process resulted in high-quality steel that was produced much more efficiently and far less expensively than before. With oil, kerosene was used for lighting.

Bismarckian System

The Bismarckian system happened after the warp of the balance of power, Russia attempted to seize Ottoman territory, only to be thwarted by Bismarck at the Congress of Berlin. Alliances switched back and forth constantly during this time period.

16. the blackshirts

The Blackshirts, also known as the squadristi, were the paramilitary forces that attacked and murdered enemies of fascism, especially socialists and communists. These paramilitary forces were controlled and commanded by Benito Mussolini and were followed by the German "Brown Shirts" who were controlled by Adolf Hitler. The Blackshirts were to be held responsible for the lack of stability within the Italian government.

29. Bolsheviks

The Bolsheviks, or the majority, followed Lenin's ideas. They planned a revolution in light of the 1905 Revolution, or Bloody Sunday. The government wanted to suppress these people. Lenin was forced to flee, but still led these people. Fear of a right-wing counter-revolution played into the Bolsheviks' hands as they were able to cast themselves as the defenders of the revolution. On November 8, they took control of the government. Those who opposed, were arrested. In the Constituent Assembly Assembly elections of 1918, the Bolsheviks lost. They soon overthrew the government in 1918 with the Red Army. These people were renamed the Communist Party. These people not only took power, but they maintained it. Many Bolsheviks disagreed with Lenin at first, but Russia's poor showing in early 1918 convinced them to support peace.

Baldassare Castiglione (1478-1529)

The Book of the Courtier (1528) Perhaps most important book on courtly manners written during the Renaissance Emphasized that a Renaissance man should be well-read in the classics, a gentleman, warrior, poet, musician, etc Women were essentially to be ornaments for their husbands

37. British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)

The British Broadcasting Corporation, BBC, was a radio corporation. Many countries established direct control over the radio by the government. The US was the only country with private ownership of radio. The BBC was a corporation controlled by the government.

Which of the following was a result of the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857?

The British government ended the rule of the British East India Company

15. Carbonari

The Carbonari, Charcoal makers in Italian, was an informal network of secret revolutionary societies active in Italy from about 1800 to 1831. The Italian Carbonari may have further influenced other revolutionary groups in France, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Russia, Brazil and Uruguay.

8. Carlsbad Decrees, 1819

The Carlsbad Decrees were issued by the Carlsbad Diet and drove nationalism and liberalism underground. The Carlsbad Decrees also cracked down on liberalism in universities.

Which of the following resulted from the National Assembly's passage of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790?

The Catholic Church was brought under control of the French state.

catholic reformation (counter reformation)

The Catholic Reformation, or "Counter Reformation", was the reformation of catholicism and the Catholic Church, countered the gains of Protestantism, and the response to those who questioned the Church, the papacy, and the clergy. Pope Paul III was one of the most important people in the papacy to bring reformation to the Church and challenging the Protestants. Instead of creating new doctrines, Paul III attempted to better the Church discipline through doctrines that already existed. In the Catholic Reformation, the Council of Trent was created, which lessened the number of indulgences that were sold, the sale of Church offices, and gave bishops more control over the clergy. Two new religious orders were founded, the Jesuits, or Society of Jesus, in 1540 and the Ursuline order of nuns in 1544. The Society of Jesus reformed the Church through education and spread the Gospel to pagan people. The Ursuline order of nuns reformed the Church and challenged heresy through Christian education.

41. Cheka

The Cheka was a secret police created in December in hopes of eliminating opponents. This organization became very feared and was practically an absolute power. The Cheka hunted down and executed thousands of opponents, such as the tsar and his family and other enemies of the proletariat.

Christine de Pisan (c.1363-c.1434)

The City of Ladies; The Book of Three Virtues ▪ Chronicled accomplishments of great women of history. ▪ Renaissance woman's survival manual. ▪ She was perhaps Europe's first feminist

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy secularized religion. This made a national church with 83 bishops and dioceses. This was the biggest mistake made by the National Assembly. It represented the first large failure. Protestants, Jews, and agnostics could take part in the election based on citizenship and property qualifications. The clergy was forced to take a loyalty oath to the new government. This ended up deeply dividing France over the issue of religion.

the Columbian Exchange

The Columbian Exchange was a trade route in which the economic power in Europe moved to the Americas, which expanded it into a rapidly growing international economy. Europe was affected by this exchange by better diets, more wealth, and the expansion of global empires. For Amerindians, the results were catastrophic due to the brutality of the European explorers, especially the Spanish. Diseases also spread throughout this trade route, mainly including smallpox and syphilis. These greatly affected the American Indians and killed off about 90% of their population and thousands Europeans because neither of them had built up immune systems to the other peoples' diseases. Some other diseases spread through the Columbian Exchange included measles, bubonic plague, influenza, and typhus. Many new animals and plants came to the Americas from Europe as well, including wheat, sugar, rice, coffee, horses, cows, pigs, sheep, goats, and chickens. Some plants and animals that Europeans took with them from the New World include potatoes, corn, tomatoes, pineapple, tobacco, beans, vanilla, chocolate, and turkeys.

Commercial Revolution

The Commercial Revolution lasted from 1500 to 1800 and was mainly caused by population growth recovering to its previous level before the Plague struck. In this revolution, the leading bankers were the Fugger Family in Germany and the House of Medici in Italy. The Hanseatic League began in the Middle Ages in the German states and evolved to eventually control trade in the majority of northern Europe in the 16th century. There were lots of chartered companies, joint-stock companies, "putting out" industry, new industries, and stock markets throughout this revolution and the First Enclosure movement in England occurred. New consumer goods became common along with Mercantilism. The Commercial Revolution is significant because towns emerged, replacing the old rural communities in Europe, and crime, poverty, and unemployment rates skyrocketed along with sanitary problems in cities. A new era of exploration also emerged and the bourgeoisie's political and economic significance increased greatly during this revolution.

Committee of Public Safety

The Committee of Public Safety was an emergency government that dealt with international and external challenges to the revolution. Maximilien Robespierre led this group. With the sans-culottes, the committee collaborated closely.

Which of the following is an accurate description of the outcome of the Paris Commune?

The Commune was crushed by the French army

6. Concert of Europe

The Concert of Europe lasted from 1815 to the 1850s, which was the Congress of Vienna to the Crimean War. The Concert of Europe was a series of arrangements of arrangements with the purpose of enforcing the status quo, which was highly conservative in nature, a crusade against nationalism and liberalism, and its primary architect was Metternich, as defined by the Vienna settlement. The two most important provisions of the Concert of Europe were the Quadruple Alliance and the Congress System. In the Quadruple Alliance, Russia, England, Austria, and Prussia came together to provide concerted action against a threat to the balance of power or peace. This threat to the balance of power or peace was most likely thought to be from France, and these four countries decided that no other Bonaparte should ever rule France again. Austria used the Quadruple Alliance in order to defend the status quo against any threat or charge to that system. Some threats to the existing order included nationalism and liberalism. In the Congress System, European international relations were controlled by the Great Powers to defend and monitor the status quo and unanimity among members of the Quadruple Alliance was required by the principle of collective security. In 1822, England removed itself from the Congress System, which brought it to an end. Great Britain withdrew from the Congress System because it disagreed with the squashing of a Spanish liberal revolt. The Holy Alliance was also a part of the Concert of Europe proposed by King Alexander I of Russia in 1815. The Holy Alliance included Austria, Russia, and Prussia, was the first attempt to put a halt to liberalism, proposed all monarchs to sign a statement which agreed to upholding Christian principles of peace and charity, was overly impractical and ideological and was therefore not taken seriously by many countries, including Great Britain, was seen as an unholy alliance of monarchies against progress and liberty by liberals, and was taken seriously by monarchs in eastern Europe when they squashed nationalist attempts in that area.

The Concordat of 1801

The Concordat of 1801 was a form of religious reformation with the Roman Catholic Church written by Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon's motives for this peace between France and the Roman Catholic Church were that religion would help the French people to accept the economic inequalities in their country's society and making peace with the Church would weaken its link with monarchs that wanted a restoration of the Bourbon dynasty. In the Concordat of 1801, the pope surrendered claims to Church property that was stolen during the Revolution, the French government claimed its power to depose or nominate bishops, and, in return, priests that had resisted the Civil Constitutions of the clergy replaced those who had sworn an oath to their state, Catholic worship was permitted in public, seminaries of the Church were reopened, citizens who had obtained Church lands pledged their allegiance and loyalty to the French government because the pope gave up the claim to the Church's land, the religious toleration and equal civil rights of atheists, Catholics, Jews, and Protestants was increased, and the Revolutionary Calendar was replaced with the Christian calendar. In order to dispel the notion of an established church, Napoleon Bonaparte placed Protestant ministers of different denominations on the state payroll.

Continental System

The Continental System was a system in which Napoleon waged economic war against Britain as a result of his loss in the Battle of Trafalgar. However, this system was a major failure for France because it caused major antagonism towards Napoleon's rule in Europe, imports from the New World had a high demand in Europe, European industries were unable to equal the industrial output of Great Britain, the Continental system was impossible without railroads, dealers, shipbuilders, and shippers were ruined, which caused Eastern Europe to go into crisis because they depended heavily on imports and had no industry, and England expanded exports to Latin America in order to make up the lost trade with Europe. In response to the Berlin Decree of 1806 in which Napoleon wanted to starve Great Britain by closing the ports if they first stopped in England and coercing neutral Denmark, Portugal, Spain, Prussia, and Russia to follow the boycott with the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807, England issued the "order in council" in which neutrals could enter continental ports if they first stopped in Great Britain. In response to the "order in council," Napoleon issued the Milan Decree in 1807. The Milan Decree stated that any neutral ship entering a British port or submitting to a British warship would be confiscated if it tried to enter a Continental port. Britain had maintained the balance of power against France in a consistent manner by shifting their alliances.

Credit Mobilier

The Credit Mobilier of Paris was the most of the most famous railroad company in heavy industries. This railroad helped build railroads across France and Europe.

Crimean War

The Crimean War started with the failure of the Concert of Europe. Its credibility was undermined with the Great Powers inability to cooperate during the revolutions of 1848 and 1849. This war was caused by a dispute between 2 groups of Christians over privileges in the Holy Land, or Palestine. Another cause was the Ottoman Empire's declaration of war, because Nicholas refused to withdraw from Danubian provinces, on Russia 1853. Britain and Russia declared war on France in 1854. The majority of this war was fought on the Crimean peninsula. Florence Nightingale was a British nurse who became a pioneer in modern nursing. The Peace of Paris ended this conflict. Russia came out as the loser. They no longer had control of maritime trade on the Danube, had to recognize Turkish control of the mouth of the Danube, and renounced claims to Moldavia and Wallachia, which became Romania.

the Crystal Palace

The Crystal Palace was a huge structure made of glass and iron. It housed the first industrial world fair. The Crystal Palace covered 19 acres and contained 100,000 exhibits. These showed a wide variety of products created during the Industrial Revolution. Over a span of 6 months, 6 million people visited this fair. This was a great symbol of British success. To show this success and domination, even trees were brought inside the palace.

2. Dawes Plan

The Dawes Plan began in 1924. This was a plan made by the League of Nations and its purpose was to restructure Germany's debt with loans from the United States to Germany so that they could pay Great Britain and France back, who would then pay the United States back their loans. This plan resulted in an economic revival for Germany.

17. the Decembrist Revolt

The Decembrist were upper-class opponents to the autocratic Russian system of government. They supported popular grievances among Russia's autocratic government. These people led the first upper-class revolt against Russia's government. They wanted to prevent nicholas I's assumption of the throne. Nicholas I suppressed the revolt.

Declaration of Pillnitz

The Declaration of Pillnitz was issued by Austria and Prussia in August of 1791. The emigres were French nobles that had fled France in 1789 and majorly influenced Austria and Prussia to declare restoration of the French monarchy as their goal. However, these emigres wanted a holy war rather than a violent one. Leopold, the Austrian emperor, was willing to use Austria's military in order to restore order to France, but only if all of the other powers joined him as well. Following this, Leopold received unanimous agreement from all of the leaders of the Great Powers. The Declaration of Pillnitz was actually a bluff used for the purpose of slowing down the revolution and rid Leopold of the French emigres. Because of this, Republican sentiment in France gained strength in response to the Declaration because Leopold of Austria misjudged French revolutionary sentiment.

Distinctions, therefore, can be founded only on public utility. In 1789 these statements were part of

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

27. Diplomatic Revolution of 1756

The Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 was when Austria and France, which were traditionally enemies, came together in an alliance against Prussia. Although Great Britain was an ally of Prussia and supported them with money, but few soldiers, England saw Prussia as a better check on the French power than Austria, even though Russia was their ally.

Tomás de Torquemada

The Dominican monk who oversaw the Spanish Inquisition.

Dual Monarchy

The Dual Monarchy was the result of Germany's victory over Austria in 1866 which weakened Austria's grip on power and also forced it to make a compromise. The Dual Monarchy allowed the Hungarian Magyars and the German-speaking Austrians to dominate and control the minorities including the Little Russians, Poles, Slavic peoples, Slovenes, Croats, Slovaks, Serbs, and Czechs in their states. Louis Kossuth, a Hungarian nationalist, defined Dual Monarchy as, "the alliance of the conservative, reactionary and any apparently liberal elements in Hungary with those of the Austrian Germans who despise liberty, for the oppression of the other nationalities and races.

Dutch East India Company

The Dutch East India Company was a company centered in the Dutch Republic, known as the Netherlands today. This company was established in the year of 1602, and would eventually emerge as the major force behind imperialism in the Dutch Republic. The Dutch East India Company banished the Portuguese peoples from Sri Lanka, which was named Ceylon during this century. It also expelled these people from other Spice Islands such as Indonesia. In 1650, this company began to challenge Spain in the New World and had power over most of the American and African trade routes.

50. Easter Rebellion

The Easter Rebellion was an act of violence in Ireland that occurred in April of 1916. In this rebellion, participants of the Irish Republican Brotherhood and Citizens Army overtook the government building in Dublin. British troops then defeated it and executed its leader.

Edict of Fontainebleau

The Edict of Fontainebleau was written in 1685 and countered the Edict of Nantes. In this text, it was stated that Huguenots were no longer permitted to practice Calvinism. This caused an estimated 200,000 Huguenots to emigrate to England, Holland, and other English colonies in the New World from France to avoid religious persecution. Later on, Huguenots would be important patrons of Enlightenment, specifically its religious toleration.

edict of fontainebleau

Einsatzgruppen

The Einsatzgruppen was a special strike force that was created to push Jewish people into the ghettos.

24. the Enabling Act

The Enabling Act was passed in March 1933 by the Reichstag. This act allowed Adolf Hitler to have absolute dictatorial power for four years and stated that the only political party that was legal was Nazism.

31. agricultural enclosures

The Enclosure Movement in England began in the sixteenth century when landowners wanted to increase their profits of wool production by enclosing fields so that they could raise sheep. However, later on in the eighteenth century, enclosures intensified and became based mainly off of agriculture. This practice of agricultural enclosures ended the open field system on common lands. The Agricultural Enclosures led to the emergence of the commercialization of agriculture. In the commercialization of agriculture, parliament passed over 3,000 enclosure acts in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries which benefited the large landowners. Some of the most important of the 3,000 enclosure acts passed by Parliament are the Corn Laws, which were passed in 1815 and benefited the landowners. However, the Corn Laws were notorious because they benefited the wealthy and harmed the English peasantry. Because of the Corn Laws, the majority of the peasantry emigrated to cities and towns to look for jobs since work became less available in the countryside. Many young women also emigrated to these cities and towns to be employed as domestic workers or prostitutes in rare cases. Women were indispensable parts of a household's economic survival in traditional communities. These enclosures meant that men and women were forced off their land, which resulted in a significant decrease in economic opportunities for women.

encomienda system

The Encomienda system was a system in which the Spanish government attempted to reduce the cruelty and brutality towards American Indians in the Spanish Empire. However, these laws were unsuccessfully implemented. In this system, Amerindians were to work for an owner for a set amount of days per week and in return they were granted pieces of land to work for themselves. The success of this system was one of the main reasons as to why Spain did not import many slaves from Africa.

english royal society

The English Royal Society was founded in 1660 and was considered the most prestigious and successful scientific society. In this society, scientists were able to create an international scientific community in which scientists from all over England could come together and communicate and share theories and discoveries.

Estates General

The Estates General was made up of representatives from each of the three estates. These representatives were elected and it was decided that the 3rd party should get double representation. The 1st and 2nd parties had about 300 representatives each and the 3rd party had about 600. Members of the 3rd party were very reform minded while those of the 1st and 2nd were of an urban background with historicity towards privilege. The Estates General opened at Versailles and was immediately divided over issues.

32. February Revolution

The February Revolution occurred in 1917. In this revolution, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia was overthrown. The reasons for the overthrow of this tsar were that the defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War resulted in reforms in 1905 and hurt the regime's credibility, dissatisfaction with the regime spread across Russia because of a lack of important reforms after the Revolution of 1905, an extremely significant economic and human toll on Russia during the first World War, numerous famines and military casualties, incompetent leadership throughout the war from the tsar, and Rasputin began to influence the Tsarina Alexandra, who ruled while her husband was fighting in the war, and the Russian court, although he was eventually executed by aristocratic conspirators. The February Revolution was located in St. Petersburg and began due to massive strikes in February and January because of massive food shortages. Many women demanded bread in Petrograd and were supported by soldiers and workers, and some other protestors demanded the overthrow of the tsar and wanted a provisional government. Many soldiers, whose orders were to defeat the uprisings, joined in and supported the rebellion. Tsar Nicholas II surrendered his throne and title of tsar of Russia on March 2nd of 1917 and the remainder of the royal family was put under house arrest for the rest of their lives. The casualties during this revolution only amounted to an estimated 1,000 Russian protestors and as a result of this revolution, the Russian Duma established a provisional, or dual, government on March 12, 1917. In the Provisional Government, there were liberals and Constitutional Democrats who wanted to further the war. In the Petrograd Soviet, many of the soldiers and workers had overthrown Tsar Nicholas II and this organization was led by the Mensheviks. The Provisional Government was seen as the best option for the maintenance of the control of Russia and was therefore its authority was accepted by the Soviet.

20. First Battle of the Marne

The First Battle of the Marne occurred in September 1914. In this battle, British and French forces defeated German forces that threatened Paris. The French forces were led by General Joseph Joffre and this battle was significant because it symbolized the end of mobility on the Western Front.

First International

The First International was also known as the International Working Men's Association and was formed by French and British unionists in 1864 and was an umbrella organization for working class interests. Karl Marx was the dominant personality for the International Working Men's Association's General Council. Marx also put in a lot of hours in order to organize its activities. However, the First International was later damaged by internal dissension in the ranks and failed in 1872, although it was revived in 1889.

12. First and Second Moroccan Crisis

The First Moroccan Crisis was settled in 1906 by the Algeciras Conference. In this crisis, Kaiser Wilhelm II encouraged Moroccan independence although it was a French colony, French dominance in Tunisia and Morocco was supported by Italy and Great Britain, Russia, Great Britain, France, and the United States thought Germany would become a threat to Europe, Germany was entirely isolated by the rest of Europe besides Austria's support, Germany's emergence as a world power was prolonged by other European countries by denouncing their "encirclement," and the Triple Entente was established as a response to Germany. The Second Moroccan Crisis occurred in 1911. In this crisis, Germany surrendered for small concessions in Africa, France gained the support of England, a German gunboat traveled to Morocco with the purpose of protesting Fez being occupied by France, and this crisis was predicted to escalate into a world war.

Franco-Prussian War

The Franco-Prussian War lasted from 1870 to 1871 and was started by Bismarck. Bismarck started this war with France with the purpose of unifying the rest of Germany and annexing Lorraine and Alsace. In order to provoke the French to get them to engage in warfare with Germany, Bismarck bragged that a French diplomat had been banned from Germany, however this was highly exaggerated. Because of this, France declared war with Germany and Bismarck used this war to bring the remaining four German states, Saxony, Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Baden, into his North German Confederation. After Germany's victory over France, a wave of shock spread all throughout Europe. In January of 1871, Napoleon III was captured and Paris was invaded by the Germans. Two of the most important battles during this war that led Germany to its victory were the Battle of Sedan and the Battle of Metz. At the end of the Franco-Prussian War, the Treaty of Frankfurt was issued in May of 1871 and the territories of Alsace and Lorraine were granted to Germany.

34. Frankfurt Assembly

The Frankfurt Assembly, or Frankfurt Parliament, was established in May 1848 and consisted of romantic, liberal, and nationalist leaders who were called upon for elections to an assembly from all of the states of the German Confederation in order to unify themselves. The Frankfurt Assembly declared war against Denmark with the purpose of annexing Schleswig and Holstein. As a response of this war on Denmark, Prussia declared war on Denmark as well. After this, the Frankfurt Assembly presented a constitution for a unified German federation and appointed King Frederick William IV of Prussia as emperor.

French Parlements

The French Parlement, also known as the Parlement of Paris, stopped Louis XV from raising taxes to fund the War of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War. This parlement stated that the king was not allowed to levy taxes without the consent of the Parlement of Paris. The Parlement of Paris acted as the representative of France and was widely supported by public opinion.

Levee en Masse

The French Policy of conscripting all males into the army. This created a new type of military force based upon mass participation and a fully mobilized economy.

Which of the following best characterizes eighteenth century France just prior to the Revolution of 1789?

The French monarchy was experiencing a deepening financial crisis.

the Fronde

The Fronde was a series of noble revolts in the mid-late 1640s between the noble classes in France. This occurred under the rule of Cardinal Mazarin while King Louis XIV was between the ages of five and eleven. However, there were also a number of noble revolts against Mazarin which allowed him to defeat them. Because of the humiliation Louis XIV experienced from the nobility, he was determined to control it in the future.

the fronde

Fugger Family

The Fugger Family was an international banking family like the House of Medici. The most important of this family was Jacob Fugger, who lived from 1459 to 1525. Jacob Fugger was an important man in patronizing the art of the Northern Renaissance.

24. garden city movement

The Garden City Movement was a movement led by Ebenezer Howard. This movement promoted the building of new cities and towns that were separated by an open countryside which would include a sense of community, recreational areas, and fresh air. These open countrysides would advocate a healthy family life.

german peasants revolt

The German Peasants' War in 1524 was caused by the cruelty and abusiveness of lords toward their peasants and the unnecessarily abundant taxation for the peasantry. This war was led not by Martin Luther, but instead by one of his previous followers, Thomas Muntzer. Muntzer was a pastor who turned the peasantry against their leaders. Soon after this, the war spread to southwestern, northern, and eastern Germany. After this, Luther encouraged the German princes to suppress the peasant hordes, although he also blamed them for this uprising because of their cruelty towards the peasantry. In May 1525, the revolt ceased, and Luther became very dependent on state authorities for the expansion of his reformed Church.

16. German-Soviet Non-aggression pact

The German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact was issued in August of 1939. In this pact, Hitler demanded reassurance that Russia would refuse to engage in warfare with Germany if they invaded Poland, which meant that Germany would have to fight a one-front war against Great Britain and France and shocked the world that Hitler and Stalin came to an agreement. The public provisions of the treaty was a 10 year non-aggression pact between the Soviet Union and Germany, however, the private agreement was that the USSR and Germany would invade Poland and divide the country into two equal sides. The USSR would gain Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia. Great Britain and France also offered Russia military risk without gain. However, Hitler offered no military risk and territorial gain.

16. Germanic Confederation

The Germanic Confederation replaced the Holy Roman Empire after its end in the early nineteenth century and its goal was to guarantee the independence of the 39 member states. The goal of the German Confederation was to preserve the entirety of German states from domestic disorder by joint action. The organization of the government of the German Confederation was a Diet or assembly and it acted as President over Austria. The German Confederation was majorly ineffective throughout the half-century that it existed.

The Great Famine

The Great Famine was a period in Ireland were there was mass starvation, disease, and emigration. It was also much like the Irish Potato Famine. Most of the Irish population were Catholic peasants. They rented land from English Anglicans. Protestant landlords did not improve agriculture in Ireland. The disease in potato crop continues to increase along with accompanying fever epidemics. Food prices, widespread suffering, and social unrest accompanied fever epidemics. The Great Famine resulted in the death of 1.5 million people, migration of people to US of Britain, and the cutting of the Irish population in half.

Great Northern War

The Great Northern War lasted from 1700 to 1721 between Russia, led by Peter the Great, along with its allies, including Denmark, Saxony, and Poland, and Sweden, led by Charles XIII. This war came to an end in 1721 by the Treaty of Nystad. In this treaty, it was stated that Russia gained Lativa and Estonia, which established it's "Window on the West" on the Baltic Sea.

great northern war

35. "Great Terror"

The Great Terror was first directed at peasants. Terror was used on Communists, powerful administrators, and ordinary people, often for no apparent reason. This resulted in the arrest of 8 million people.

Hapsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire

The HRE contained about 300 semi autonomous German states. The individual states each had their own foreign policy and wars. Sometimes wars would break out between separate states. Austria was the center of Habsburg Power. The HRE wasn't a new monarchy because the emperor didn't have centralized control, couldn't tax, or raise armies. Maximilian I gained territory in France from his marriage to Mary of Burgundy. Charles V was the most powerful ruler in the 16th century. He controlled the Austrian Hapsburg lands along with the Spanish Empire. The sack of Rome, 1527, were carried out by his armies and ended the Italian Renaissance. The HRE was stuck in a dynastic struggle with Francis I to gain control of Burgundy and Italian lands during the Habsburg-Valois Wars. Charles V wanted to prevent the spread of the Protestant Revolution.

holy roman empire, 1648

The HRE contained about 300 semi-autonomous German states. The individual states each had their own foreign policy and wars. Sometimes wars would break out between separate states. Austria was the center of Habsburg Power. The HRE wasn't a new monarchy because the emperor didn't have centralized control, couldn't tax, or raise armies. Maximilian I gained territory in France from his marriage to Mary of Burgundy. Charles V was the most powerful ruler in the 16th century. He controlled the Austrian Hapsburg lands along with the Spanish Empire. The sack of Rome, 1527, were carried out by his armies and ended the Italian Renaissance. The HRE was stuck in a dynastic struggle with Francis I to gain control of Burgundy and Italian lands during the Habsburg-Valois Wars. Charles V wanted to prevent the spread of the Protestant Revolution.

The Habsburgs

The Habsburgs flourished in the 15th century due to the successful policy of dynastic marriages. Also during the Habsburg dynasty, new territories were added which made them an international power. The French rulers feared that they would be surrounded by the Habsburgs. This brought the Habsburgs an undying opposition toward the French.

the Inca and Pachakuti

The Inca was a small community in Cuzco in the mountains of southern Peru. In the 1440s, they were ruled by Pachakuti. He created a highly centralized state and transformed Cuzco into a city of stone.

inductive method

The Inductive Method is a method developed by Francis Bacon for scientific experimentation. In this method, there are 4 steps; first, you begin with inductive observation, form a hypothesis, experiment, and organize the data obtained from the experiment. This Inductive Method, along with Descartes' deductive reason, established the backbone of the modern scientific method.

The Jacobins

The Jacobins were a group of people in the Legislative Assembly. This group was named after their political club, and soon came to dominate the entire Legislative Assembly. A subgroup of the Jacobins, the Girondins, became the advanced or "left" party of the Revolution in the Legislative Assembly. Later, the Girondins led France into war. Girondins were also committed to liberal revolution.

1. Japanese invasion of Manchuria

The Japanese invasion of Manchuria happened in 1931. The league of Nations condemned the invasion but did little by way of sanctions. Japan pulled out of League of Nations.

Capitalism

The Joint-stock companies, when investors pool resources for the same purpose, were an early example of capitalism.

5. Kellogg-Briand Pact

The Kellogg-Brians Pact was crafted by the American secretary of state Frank B. Kellogg and the French Aristide Briand. 63 nations eventually agreed to the pact, in which they pledged "to renounce war as an instrument of national policy." Nothing was said about what would happen if the treaty was violated.

11. Kruger Telegram

The Kruger Telegram triggered British anger at Germany when the Kaiser congratulated the Boers on their victory over British troops in South Africa.

9. Latin America revolts

The Latin America revolts were revolts against the Spanish and Portuguese. These revolts were in hopes of freedom. The creole elites, descendants of Europeans who became permanent inhabitants of Latin America, were influenced by ideas of enlightenment and the new political ideals. The principles of equality for all people seemed very appealing. The Latin American people eventually won their independence along with economic independence, Great Britain now controlled the Latin American economy instead of Spain and Portugal. Old trade patterns emerged. They exported wheat, tobacco, wool sugar, coffee, and hides to Northern America.

Law of General Maximum

The Law of Maximum was one that sought a planned economy in response to food shortages and related economic problems. With this, France would be able to wage war against its external enemies.

48. League of Nations

The League of Nations was created in 1919 at the Paris Peace Conference. Russia and Germany were not a part of this league which would eventually weaken this organization. However, because the U.S. Senate was unable to ratify the Versailles Treaty, the United States was isolated from the rest of the world for two decades. As a result of this, the League of Nations turned out to be only a fraction of what it wanted to achieve.

Legislative Assembly

The Legislative Assembly was a new group of legislators to replace the members of the national assembly in the new government. These new members agreed that no one could take part in this new government. The new government reflected the emergence of new political factions. These factions competed for power and were mostly republican. These new members were younger and less cautious than the people in the National Assembly. Jacobins, named after their political club, dominated the Legislative Assembly. The Girondins were a group of Jacobins and became the left or advanced party of the Revolution in the Legislative Assembly. They led the country into war. During the period of the Legislative Assembly, war was the main issue.

28. Lend-Lease Program

The Lend-Lease Program of 1941 donated large sums of supplies and money to aid the Soviets and the British. This ended the neutrality of the United States.

Liberum Veto

The Liberum Veto said that voting in the Polish parliament had to be unanimous in order for any change to be made. Little was able to be done to strengthen the kingdom because of this. The Polish monarchy was unable to consolidate its power over the nobility which then lead to Poland's partition. Russia and Prussia encouraged members of the Polish nobility to start Liberum Veto to weaken the country.

liberum veto

2. London Economic Conference

The London Economic Conference was a conference held in 1933. This conference failed to obtain international cooperating through fixing the Great Depression. The failure of the conference signaled to Hitler that democracy was not organized and lacks a will to address crises around the globe. The United States was one of the major reasons that the treaty did not work.

23. The Lusitania and unrestricted submarine warfare

The Lusitania happened in 1915. U-boats sank a British passenger liner and killed 1,200 people, 128 being American. American public opinion was turned squarely against Germany. With unrestricted submarine warfare, Germany would sink all ships with their U-boats. This was the most important reason for the US to enter the war.

17. March on Rome

The March on Rome in 1922 lead to Mussolini taking power. He demanded the resignation of the existing government and his own appointment by the king. A large group of Fascists marched on Rome to threaten the king into accepting Mussolini's demands. The government collapsed; Mussolini received the right to organize a new cabinet or government. King Victor Emmanuel III gave him dictatorial powers for one year to end the nation's social unrest.

House of Medici

The Medici family ruled the Republic of Florence in the 14th and 15th centuries. There were two men from this family that ruled. The first was Cosimo de' Medici, who co-ruled the Republic of Florence with other powerful families in Italy. The second was Lorenzo de' Medici, the son of Cosimo, who was an important patron of the arts as well. In the 15th century, the House of Medici was one of the most powerful banks in Europe and had locations in Italy, England, and France. This bank, at first, controlled clothing, but grew to control wool, silk, and alum trades. The House of Medici finally fell in 1494.

Meiji Restoration

The Meiji Restoration was an event that restored practical imperial rule to the Empire of Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Tokugawa shôgun, or the great general, was the ruler of Japan during the feudal period. He then lost his power and the emperor was restored to supreme position. The emperor took the name Meiji, which meant enlightened rule, as his name.

11. Munich Conference and appeasement

The Munich Conference discussed the issue of the Sudetenland. It was to be resolved in a conference arranged by Chamberlain. Germany, Britain, Italy, and France attended this conference. The solution to the issue of the Sudetenland was for Czechoslovakia was forced to give away the Sudetenland. The policy of appeasement was adopted by Chamberlain. Appeasement means to make concessions to an aggressor in order to achieve peace. With appeasement, the Pacifist sentiment in Britain and France was very strong.

The painting above by Jacques Louis David portrays which of the following events during the French Revolution?

The National Assembly taking the Tennis Court Oath

The National Assembly

The National Assembly was the governing body in France during the Age of Montesquieu in the French Revolution. The National Assembly governed France from 1789 to 1791 and was made up of the Third Estate, or bourgeoisie, who declared themselves the true ruler on June 17th, 1789. Some of the most historically important acts of the National Assembly include the Storming of the Bastille on July 14th, 1789 when food shortages, bread prices, rate of unemployment, and fear of military repression became so high that a mob of tradesmen and workers armed themselves and angrily stormed the Bastille in search of weapons and gunpowder, the "Great Fear" in 1789 in which the peasantry attacked the manor houses in order to destroy the legal records of feudal obligations, the abolition of feudalism and equality of taxation for all classes in France on August 4th, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen which was issued on August 26th, 1789, the Women's March to Versailles in October of 1789 in which Jean-Paul Marat led 7,000 women and the Paris national guard 12 miles from Paris to Versailles to demand that the French king redress their economic problems, and the creation of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790 which created a national church with 83 dioceses and bishops, allowed agnostics, Protestants, and Jews to legally take part in elections, and forced the clergy to take a loyalty oath to the newfound government.

Leonardo Bruni's The New Cicero

The New Cicero is a historical fiction novel written by Leonardo Bruni about the history of Florence, Italy. In it, Bruni uses historical documents from primary sources. This book is also the first modern history. Bruni was one of the most important civic humanists and was a chancellor for the Republic of Florence, and was the first person to ever use the word "humanist."

28. New Economic Policy

The New Economic Policy, or NEP, was in effect from 1921 to 1928 and its main goal was to destroy the brutal and cruel aspects of "war communism." The New Economic Policy was Lenin's response to economic ruin, military mutiny, and revolts from the peasantry. In this new policy, select capitalist measures were permitted and the government was given total control over major banks, industries, and railroads. The Russian economy was supported as a result of the New Economic Policy.

North German Confederation

The North German Confederation was a result of the Austro-Prussian war and the unification of the North German states. The Germans signed a military agreement. Bismark proved that nationalism and an authoritarian government could be combined and that nationalism and liberalism could be seperated. Each state was to have its own local government but would represent its king and chancellor, or Bismark. Foreign policy and the army were controlled by the king. Parliament has two houses, a rich and a poor.

northern renaissance

The Northern Renaissance consisted of most of the countries of Northern Europe. Artists in these countries shared common characteristics in their artwork, including realism, Gothic cathedrals, and wooden panel paintings. Christian Humanism was also a very important philosophical idea in the Northern Renaissance, and this form of humanism stated that early Church writings provided answers on how to improve society and reform the Church. The most important artists of the Northern Renaissance included Jan van Eyck, an oil painter who lived from 1390 to 1441 and created Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride, Michelangelo, a painter, sculptor, and architect who created the Sistine Chapel, David, Pieta, and St. Peter's Basilica, and Albrecht Durer, a painter who lived from 1471 to 1528 and created Adoration of the Magi.

26. Nuremberg laws

The Nuremberg laws stated that it was illegal for Jewish and German people to be married or have extramarital relationships. These laws also took away Jews' citizenship in Germany and socially and politically segregated the Jewish population with the purpose of purging the Aryan race and German population. Jews were excluded from German citizenship and forbade marriages and extramarital relationships between Jews and German Citizens. Separated Jews politically, socially, and legally to preserve the Aryan race.

35. October Revolution

The October Revolution resulted in a Communist dictatorship. Vladimir Lenin rose to power. He was transported back to Russia in 1917. This was in hopes of getting Russia out of the war by fomenting a more radical revolution that demanded peace. With the "April Theses", Lenin rejected all cooperation with the "bourgeois" Provisional Government, called for a "Socialist revolution" and the establishment of a Soviet republic, and sought nationalization of banks and landed estates. Lenin thought a communist revolution could occur, but Lenin also believed that a small professional revolutionary elite would have to force the issue.

Ottoman Empire and Suleiman the Magnificent

The Ottoman Empire could not maintain possessions in eastern Europe and the Balkans because of Austrian and Russian expansion. This empire was built on expansion. The absolute power was in the hands of the Sultan. In 1560, a gradual decline of the empire started because of failed western expansion. Suleiman the Magnificent was the most powerful ruler in the world during the 16th century. He practically conquered Austria in 1529, captured Belgrade, took over ½ of eastern Europe, all of the Balkan territories, most of Hungary, and part of southern Russia. Talented children from conquered territories were were incorporated in the Ottoman Empire's bureaucracy or became professionals. The Janissary corps were where the unselected slaves went to serve in the Turkish army. A decline in 1683 occured after a failed attempt to conquer Vienna.

ottoman empire and suleiman the magnificent

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire had total control over the southeastern European territories of Hungary, Transylvania, Slovenia, and Croatia before the year of 1699 but lost them as a result of the end of the Crimean War. Russia also invaded Bessarabia in 1812 and Crimea in 1783. In the early nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire was on an entirely new verge of collapse. This was due to an independent nationalist revolt for Greece in 1830 and the territory of Serbia claimed autonomy in 1827.

30. The Commune

The Paris Commune was an independent republican government formed on March 26th, 1871. This government consisted of radical republicans. This government was established as a response to the French rejecting the republicans and the monarchists gaining 400 out of 630 seats in the National Assembly. In April of 1871, after brutal fighting had broken out amongst the National Assembly and the Commune, many members of the proletariat, both men and women, stood up for the Commune and took charge against the National Assembly. One of the most important leaders of the Paris Commune was Louise Michel, who lived from 1830 to 1905, who was also a schoolteacher. Michel was important because she formed many different committees for the defense of the Commune. In May of 1871, the troops of the National Assembly murdered an estimated 30,000 soldiers in the Commune's army.

45. Paris Peace Conference

The Paris Peace Conference included the Big Four: David Lloyd George, Britain, Georges Clemenceau, France, Woodrow Wilson, US, and Vittorio Orlando, Italy. The Central Powers were excluded from negotiations as France was concerned with its future security. Italy left the conference, angry it would not get some Austrian and Balkans territories it had been promised in 1915.

Peace (Treaty) of Westphalia

The Peace of Westphalia allowed all of the German states to decide their own religion. France was granted some of western Germany, Alsace, Metz, Toul, Verdun, and was given control over the Franco-German border. Sweden and the German states of Brandenburg and Bavaria were granted some land in Germany.

peace of westphalia

The People's Will

The People's Will was a Russian reformation movement that attempted to use violence, fear, and intimidation to cause reform.

philosophes

The Philosophes were a group of philosophers in the 18th century that was located in France. These French philosophers were committed to fundamental reformation in society. The Philosophes popularized the Enlightenment so that, by 1775, the majority of western Europe's educated elite believed in the Enlightenment as well. This group believed progress could be made through discovering natural laws that governed nature and also the existence of humans.

15. Polish Corridor and Danzig

The Polish Corridor separated east Prussia from Germany. Danzig was a baltic port city. Hitler tried to take this city over, but a war was threatened, so he did not take over Danzig.

Politburo

The Politburo consisted of about a dozen members. These people dominated discussions of policy and personnel.

10. the Popular Front

The Popular Front was a coalition of of radicals, republicans, communists, and socialists. This coalition was led by Leon Blum.

Price Revolution

The Price Revolution was a time of inflation across Europe. This was because producers were able to make a better profit by selling their manufactured goods, which stimulated production. The bourgeoisie gained the majority of their wealth from manufacturing and trading during the Price Revolution.

Machiavelli's The Prince

The Prince is a novel written by Niccolo Machiavelli in 1513 in which he discussed individualism, Cesare Borgia, and his own personal views on how rulers should act, which influenced European politicians for centuries to come. He also expressed his views on secularism and said that rulers should sometimes be practical and cunning, and aggressive and ruthless at other times.

machiavelli and the prince

the principle of universal gravitation

The Principle of Universal Gravitation is a law discovered by Isaac Newton in 1687. This scientific law states that gravitation is evident in the orbits of planets and earthly objects and that everything in the universe attracts everything else in the universe. This law challenges medieval scientific beliefs and was the foundation of deism.

protestant reformation

The Protestant Reformation was caused by crises in the 15th and 14th centuries that hurt the prestige of the clergy, corruption in the Catholic Church, especially simony, pluralism, absenteeism, sale of indulgences, nepotism, the moral decline of the Popes, and clerical ignorance, critics of the Church who encouraged personal relationships with God, including John Wycliffe, John Hus, Thomas a Kempis, and Erasmus, and the idea of Christian Humanism from the Renaissance.

33. Provisional Government

The Provisional Government was a dual government that ruled in Russia. It consisted of Constitutional Democrats and liberals, who wanted to continue the war. The Petrograd Soviet consisted of workers and soldiers who had overthrown the tsar, soldiers now controlled the army. Alexander Kerensky became leader of the Provisional Government, while remaining a member of the Soviet. The Army Order No. 1, 1917, was issued by the Petrograd Soviet seeking to replace military officers loyal to the tsar and place the Soviet in firm control of the army.

22. Public Health Act of 1875

The Public Health Act of 1875 in England stated that new buildings without an internal drainage system and running water were not permitted to be constructed. This legislative act was significant because the municipal government had taken a step in regulating improved living conditions of the urban population for the first time in history.

Rasputin

The Rasputin was a notorious mystic that influenced Tsarina ALexandra. She believed Rasputin had saved her son, and heir to the throne, Alexei, from death. The Russian government ministers were very mad at Rasputin's hold on the Royal family. Aristocratic conspirators eventually killed him.

Reform Bill of 1867

The Reform Bill of 1867 was an essential step towards the democratization of Britain. This act helped pave the way for the democratization of Britain by lowering monetary requirements for voting, which enfranchised male urban workers. After the Reform Bill of 1867 was passed, voters increased from 1 million to over 2 million.

34. the Reichstadt

The Reichstadt was the lower house of the German parliament. This house in parliament was elected based on male suffrage, however, it did not have ministerial responsibility. Although it failed to develop before the beginning of World War I, it presented opportunities for growth in political democracy.

Reign of Terror

The Reign of Terror was the most notorious event of the Revolution. With the Law of Suspects, enemies of the revolution were brought to Revolutionary Tribunals that heard cases of treason. During the Reign of Terror, Queen Marie Antoinette was executed. The guillotine performed many of the 40,000 executions throughout France. Executions became a sport. The terror became a political weapon not directed at any class in particular; 8% nobles, 14% bourgeoisie, 6% clergy, and 70% peasants and laboring classes. Many deaths occured in open revolts. No one felt safe from Robespierre's terror. The Jacobins ultimately executed Robespierre. Girondists were executed in September 1793 and Danton and his followers in April 1794.

Renaissance

The Renaissance started in c. 1300 and ended in 1527 due to the sacking of Rome by foreign armies. This time period was considered the beginning of modern European History. In 1450, the Renaissance spread into the upper parts of Europe and lasted from the 16th to the 17th century. Jacob Burckhardt, a 19th-century Swiss historian, claimed the Renaissance was very different than the Middle Ages. The Renaissance culture applied to the upper classes.

"Bloody Sunday"

The Revolution of 1905 was caused by a poor economy and strains of war. To respond to these conditions, peasants and the middle class demanded reforms. Bloody Sunday was one of these revolts. Peasants and workers walked peacefully to Winter Palace to ask for reforms. The Tsar was not in town, so this quickly turned into the killing of the peaceful marchers. The army opened fire on the marchers in cold blood.

10. Rome-Berlin Axis

The Rome-Berlin Axis was an alliance between Germany and Italy. This alliance was formed as a response to the military cooperation in Spain. In 1940 in the Tripartite Pact, the country of Japan joined this alliance. Japan joined this alliance for the purpose of gaining military support and mutual defense.

39. Russian Civil War

The Russian Civil War were the Reds, Bolsheviks, and the Whites, officers of old army, and 18 groups proclaiming themselves the real government of Russia.

26. Russian Social Democratic Workers Party

The Russian Social Democratic Worker's Party was formed in the year 1898 in Minsk, Russia. One of its most important leaders and founders was Vladimir Lenin, who became the heir to Karl Marx in socialism, was exiled by the Russian government to Switzerland, and created a central philosophy. In this philosophy, Lenin believed that the only way that capitalism could be destroyed was through cruel and brutal revolts, disagreed with revisionism, believed that socialist revolution could only be achieved through certain conditions even in Russia, believed that the peasantry was a potential threat and could become rebellious due to their poverty, and urged that a strongly disciplined and controlled proletariat was necessary and needed to be governed by an elite of full time revolutionaries and intellectuals. This belief was contradictory to Marx's beliefs in that Marx believed that revolution should be controlled by the proletariat.

Duma

The Russian parliament created after the revolution of 1905.

Sadler Commission

The Sadler Commission was an investigation by parliament on the working conditions of children in factories. Two pieces of legislation that were issued by parliament to improve these factory working conditions include the Factory Act of 1833 and the Mines Act of 1842. In the Factory Act of 1833, work shifts for children ages 9-13 were reduced to 8 hours and 12 hours for children ages 14-18. This act also made hiring children 8 years old and younger illegal and the children had to go to elementary schools that factory owners had to establish and the employment rate of children decreased rapidly. In the Coal Mines Act of 1842, all children under the age of 10 years old were prohibited from working in underground mines.

the salon movement

The Salon Movement was an intellectual movement that was majorly influenced by women. In this movement, Enlightenment philosophers would go into salons, coffee houses, academies, Masonic lodges, and lending libraries and discuss Enlightenment culture and views. This movement symbolized a break away from the Church and government because of the new venues in civic society that disseminated information to society. However, in England's coffee houses, a male-dominated, first class clientele was present, although many other salons in this country encouraged women to participate in Enlightenment discussions. Two influential women from the Salon Movement include Madame de Geoffrin, who patronized Denis Diderot's Encyclopedia, Madame de Stael, who carried German romantic ideas to France in the early 19th century, and Louise de Warens. Many other French women in the Salon Movement would organize salons and participate in the discussions, however they were not always treated as equal to men.

witch hunts

The Scientific Revolution greatly decreased the previously common and popular support of witch hunts. This was because this revolution discredited superstition and witchcraft as a misconception or fallacy.

scientific revolution

The Scientific Revolution was caused by Medieval universities, the Renaissance, navigational issues, and scientific methodology. In the Middle Ages, philosophers had separated themselves from theologians and major universities and colleges created new topics of study in math, astronomy, and physics also known as natural philosophy. Important scientists also taught at these universities, and one of the most important of these universities was Gresham College. At this college, scientists worked with officials in the Royal Navy, merchants, and shipbuilders. This university became the main center for scientific discovery and learning in the early and mid-seventeenth century. In the Renaissance Era, science was stimulated by the rediscovery of mathematics from antiquity. Renaissance patronage was also generally scientific, as well as humanistic and artistic. Navigational struggles during the age of overseas expansion caused a need for scientific navigational advancements. Some new navigational tools and instruments that were invented throughout the Scientific Revolution include the air pump, telescope, microscope, barometer, pendulum clock, and thermometer. In scientific methodology, Francis Bacon thought that trial and error and experimental research was important, and Rene Descartes put emphasis on deductive reasoning. The new world view in the 17th and 18th centuries was caused by the Scientific Revolution. Because of this new world view and the emergence of secularism, many highly educated peoples became opposed towards religion. The Scientific Revolution would later become an important foundation in Western Society.

33. Second French Republic

The Second French Republic was led by liberal Alphonse Lamartine, an allie of the bourgeoisie. Louis Blanc was a socialist thinker who led the working classes. He demanded work for the unemployed. National workshops were ultimately created. These workshops created work for the unemployed.

Second German Empire

The Second German Empire was ruled by Emperor William I and consisted of all of the German states. This unification of the German states was caused by the Prussian army and Prussian monarchy. This benefited the German liberals because they had finally achieved unity all throughout Germany. However, because the Second German Empire was ruled by Prussian leadership, this harmed the liberalists because there were now militaristic and authoritarian values over their constitutional sentiments in this new empire.

25. Seven Years' War

The Seven Years' War was also known as the French and Indian War and lasted from 1754 to 1763. It was the biggest war in the eighteenth century and began in the Ohio Valley of North America. This war began because, in 1754, George Washington, a young American officer, engaged a French force protecting Ft. Duquesne, what is today known as Pittsburg.

6. Spanish Civil War

The Spanish Civil War lasted from 1936 to 1939 and was led by Francisco Franco. Franco led Spanish forces and rebelled against the Spanish government that was causing a Spanish Civil War through changing their political party from right to left. At the end of the brutal Spanish Civil War, a dictator arose in the Spanish government. Franco's military troops were supported by Germany and Great Britain as well during the war.

32. Spanish-American War

The Spanish-American War was significant in that, when the Spanish were defeated by the Americans in 1898, they lost Cuba and the Philippines to America. This directly led to an increase in dissatisfaction with the status quo. Later that year, a group called the Generation of 1898 made up of young intellectuals demanded social and political reforms. As a response, Conservatives and Liberals wanted to enlarge the electorate and gain support for their policies from the masses. However, these attempted reformations were ineffective in allaying the unrest and the rate of growth of industrialization led to more workers being attracted to anarchism and socialism in certain areas. In July 1909 in Barcelona, fighting broke out and military troops cruelly defeated these rebels. This uprising and its suppression made it obvious that reformation would not come easily. This was due to the large landowners, the army, and the Catholic Church being tied to a conservative social order.

Sudetenland

The Sudetenland was part of Czechoslovakia. Hitler demanded for Germany to receive the German-speaking portion in west Czechoslovakia, if war was to be avoided. Hitler's requests were denied. A world war seemed as though it would happen.

Pius IX's Syllabus of Errors

The Syllabus of Errors was a book written by Pope Pius IX. In this book, he included excerpts of earlier documents and presented a list of "condemned prostitutes".The Syllabus does not explain why each particular proposition is wrong, it does cite earlier documents to which the reader can refer for the Pope's reasons for saying each proposition is false.

Syllabus of Errors, 1864

The Syllabus of Errors was issued by Pope Pius XI to condemn liberalism in response to the control of secondary education being returned to the government.

Temple of Reason

The Temple of Reason was originally the Notre Dame Cathedral until it was rebuilt by the Cult of the Supreme Being.

Ten Hours Act of 1847

The Ten Hours Act of 1847 was an Act of parliament. It said that women and children could only work in a factory 10 hours a day.

Thirty Years War

The Thirty Years' War was between the French Bourbon dynasty and the Spanish Habsburg dynasties. There were four phases of this war, which include the Bohemian Phase, which lasted from 1618 to 1625, the Danish Phase, which lasted from 1625 to 1629, the Swedish Phase, which lasted from 1630 to 1635, and the Franco-Swedish Phase, which lasted from 1635 to 1648. The most important events in the Bohemian Phase include the Battle of White Mountain in 1620 and the Spanish Conquest of Palatinate in 1622. The most important event in the Danish Phase is the Edict of Restitution in 1629. The most important events in the Swedish Phase include the Battle of Lutzen in 1632 and the Battle of Nordlingen in 1634. The most important event in the Franco-Swedish Phase is the Battle of Rocroi.

thirty years war

thirty years' war

38. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was issued in March of 1918 and removed Russia from World War I. During World War I, this country lost 25% of its land to Germany, including Finland, the Baltic states, Poland, and Ukraine, and one third of its population was decimated. This treaty was nullified in November when the Allies defeated Germany.

Treaty of Karlowitz

The Treaty of Karlowitz gave Austria the control of Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slovenia. This established an Austrian empire in southeastern Europe.

treaty of karlowitz

The Treaty of Karlowitz gave Austria the control of Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slovenia. This established an Austrian empire in southeastern Europe.

3. Treaty of Locarno

The Treaty of Locarno was concluded by Gustav Stresemann and Aristide Briand, foreign ministers of Germany and France. guaranteed Germany's new western borders with France and Belgium.

29. Treaty of Paris

The Treaty of Paris was written in 1763 and ended the Seven Years' War. This treaty was the most important European treaty since 1648 when the Treaty of Westphalia was written. The Treaty of Paris stated that France was no longer a part of North America, and was forced to give up Canada and its colonial possessions east of the Mississippi River to Great Britain, and gave the Louisiana territory, including New Orleans, to Spain as compensation for its support in the war. Because of this treaty, Spain had to give up Florida to Great Britain in return for Cuba and the Philippines and France was also forced to accept British domination in the country of India, especially in Bengal, although they were allowed to keep their posts there. This later became significant when India became Britain's most important possession in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Because of all this new land England acquired, it became the world's most dominant colonial empire.

Treaty of Tordesillas

The Treaty of Tordesillas was written in 1494 and in which Spain wanted to claim Columbus' findings in the New World. In this treaty, Pope Leo V granted half of the New World to Spain and the other half to Portugal. This land was divided by a north-south line in the Atlantic Ocean; the west half belonged to Spain and the east to Portugal. Portugal was given African slave trade rights and the rights to Brazil and Africa, and Spain was granted the Americas.

47. Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles was a Harsh Treaty that ended World War I in 1919.

Triple Alliance

The Triple Alliance grouped Germany, Austria and Italy together. They pledged to support existing political order and to defend each other against France or two or more powers that were not in the Triple Alliance.

Triple Entente

The Triple Entente was the "friendship" or understanding that linked the Russian Empire, French Third Republic, and United Kingdom of Great Britain. This happened after the Anglo-Russian Entre in 1907.

42. Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR)

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republic, also known as the USSR, was established in 1922.

Vendee

The Vendee was in open revolt against the Convention in western France. Most of the deaths in the Reign of Terror occurred in the Vendee.

41. Wannsee Conference

The Wannsee Conference was a meeting where the "Final Solution" and use of concentration camps were decided on in 1942. Heydrich was the chief executor and it was held in Wannsee, Berlin.

23. War of the Austrian Succession

The War of Austrian Succession began in 1740 and ended in 1748 and was between England, France, and Spain. This war was fought in North America and India. It came to an end in 1748 when the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was written, which preserved the status quo in colonial empires.

18. Weimar Republic

The Weimar Republic's government was taken over by the Social Democratic Party, or SPD, at the end of World War I on November 9, 1918. After this, many people within the country of Germany became afraid that communist revolutions would rise. Soon after, many communist revolts did occur, the most important of them being the Spartacists, who took control of Berlin for a week and were led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, although they were forced out by German forces, known as the Freikorps, later and their leaders were sentenced to death and executed. After this, the Weimar Republic relied heavily on their military groups to save and protect it from the communist outbreaks. In June 1919, the government of the Weimar Republic signed the Treaty of Versailles, which was thought to have been a weakness by the conservatives.

18. Western Front

The Western Front was a line of fortifications and trenches in World War I. This front spanded from the North Sea all the way to Switzerland. The major European countries that fought on the Western Front were Great Britain, Germany, and France.

Winter Palace

The Winter Palace is one of the most important and scenic examples of Baroque Art in all of Russia. It was rebuilt by the daughter of Peter the Great, Catherine.

winter palace

The Winter Palace is one of the most important and scenic examples of Baroque Art in all of Russia. It was rebuilt by the daughter of Peter the Great, Catherine.

30. Agricultural Revolution

The agricultural revolution was a time when there was an increase of food production because of more farmland, an increase in the yields of per acre, healthier and more abundant livestock, and an improved climate. In this time period, the summers provided more ideal growing conditions. With the abandonment of land from the old open-field system, more land was available. New crops such as alfalfa, turnips, and clover were introduced. These store nitrogen in their roots which naturally restore the soil. With an increased amount of livestock, the meat in the European diet increased vastly. Food production was also enhanced with the increase of livestock numbers. With more animals, came more maunre, or natural fertilizer. The potato and maize were two crops that were produced in greater yields. The potato became very popular in Germany, the Low Countries, and Ireland. The potato took little to no effort to product in mass quantities. It was full of carbohydrates, calories, and vitamins A and C. Potatoes could also be stored for long periods of time.

Allies

The allies during World War II were the countries of France, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and the United States. A series of underground movements throughout World War II helped the allies by giving them detailed troop movements, hiding Allied prisoners and downed Allied pilots, and publishing newspapers in secret. In the Battle of the Bulge in December of 1944, Adolf Hitler made his last attempt to force the Allies out of the western German border. However, because he failed, the Allied troops moved deep into Germany in 1945. During the Potsdam Conference ordered Japan to unconditional surrender or else it would face complete destruction. During this conference was when President Truman of the United States ordered the atomic bombs to be dropped on Japan.

8. Allies

The allies were one of the opposing sides of World War I. The allies consisted of the countries Russia, Great Britain, France, Romania, Japan, Italy, and the United States.

American Revolution

The american revolution was a war between the 13 American colonies and Great Britain. The American colonies wanted independence from Britain. Britain had a very strong military with a stable economic resource, so the war was a gamble. The continental army, the american army, consisted of undisciplined amateurs when compared to the British. The war effort was complicated due to international divisions. To aide the colonies' cause were foreign countries that wanted revenge for earlier defeat at the hands of the British. With the help of foreign countries, the American colonies gained their freedom from Britain. In Europe, the war caused books, newspapers, and magazines covered America events. Also, new arrangements in international politics were made. The war proved many ideas of the liberal political ideas of Enlightenment were not valid.

The Grand Army

The army of Napoleon Bonaparte of France was known as the Grand Army and consisted of more than 600,000 men. In June 1812, Napoleon led his Grand Army into Russia and won in Borodino, killing off 45,000 of Russia's troops but losing 30,000 men of his Grand Army. Once they had won this battle, they had to travel the "Great Retreat" back to Poland in October of 1812 through the vast territory of Russia lacking food and freezing. During the Great Retreat, only 40,000 French troops made it back alive in January of 1813. When the rest of Europe found out that the Grand Army was nearly entirely gone, disaster resulted and they liberated themselves which led to the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in April of 1814.

11. the assembly line

The assembly line made the creation of product much easier. Each worker or group of workers would be responsible for one step on the assembly line. These work especially well in factories.

Deism

The belief that God created the universe but allowed it to operate through the laws of nature. Deists believed that natural laws could be discovered by the use of human reason.

Social Darwinism

The belief that there is a natural evolutionary process by which the fittest will survive. Wealthy business and industrial leaders used Social Darwinism to justify their success.

Bourgeois v. Proletariat

The bourgeoisie and the proletariat had a conflicted relationship in that the bourgeoisie believed that they emerged victorious from the ruins of feudalism, however, Engels and Marx argued that they were not entirely victorious. This led to the bourgeoisie becoming the antagonists in the then emerging class struggle, however this time they faced the industrial working class, also known as the proletariat. Marx and Engels predicted that the proletariat would overthrow the bourgeoisie masters and then form a dictatorship after their victory in order to reorganize the methods of production.

The Bourgeoisie

The bourgeoisie was a part of the Third Estate in France and wanted social and political power to be congruent with their emerging economic power. The bourgeoisie did not like the Second or First Estates because they held almost all of the social and political power in France and the lettre de cachet, which stated that the government was allowed to arrest and imprison any person without a trial or charges. This group encouraged tax relief for the middle class, or Third Estate, and reduction of privileges for the First and Second Estates, or nobility.

Reconquista

The centuries-long Christian "reconquest" of Spain from the Muslims. The Reconquista culminated in 1492 with the conquest of the last Muslim stronghold, Granada.

scientific method

The combination of Bacon's inductive reasoning method and Descartes' deductive reasoning formed the basis of the scientific method. This is the process scientists go through when answering a question or solving a problem.

Pan-German League

The conflict between modernization and traditionalism created right-wing pressure groups like this one, which stressed strong German nationalism and advocated imperialism to unite the classes, though they persisted to be anti-Semitic.

1. Congress of Vienna

The congress of Vienna was a temporary triumph for old conservative order. It was represented by the leadership and policies of Klemens von Metternich, an Austrian minister.

Which of the following was a major factor in the spread of humanist culture in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries?

The development of the printing press

Directory

The directory was a 5 member executive used to govern France. The middle class governed France, which became the directory's biggest weakness because it's support came from a narrow band of French society. In 1795, women's workshops were disbanded and women were urged to tend to their homes. The directory was challenged by an aristocratic royalist uprising.

9. Public transportation

The electric streetcar had revolutionized public transport by the 1890s. Suburbs were created on the outskirts of towns. Electricity led to the creation of London's subway system in the 1860s and then Paris' metro in 1900. Only 9% of Britain's urban population was overcrowded, with 2 or more people per room.

12. Electric streetcar

The electric streetcar was invented in the 1890s and almost immediately revolutionized public transportation. This invention also made establishing and constructing suburbs on the outside of the city of Paris easier. The electric streetcar was later evolved into the subway in London, England in the 1860s and the metro in Paris, France in 1900. Generators were used to develop electric streetcars.

Emigres'

The emigres were a group of the French nobility that fled their country in 1789. When the emigres moved to Austria and Prussia, they influenced the rulers to make the restoration of the French monarchy as their goal.

Vernacular

The everyday language of a region or country. Miguel de Cervantes, Geoffrey Chaucer, Dante, and Martin Luther all encouraged the development of their national languages by writing in the vernacular. Desiderius Erasmus, however, continued to write in Latin.

By ending clerical celibacy and monastic life, the Protestant Reformation put greater emphasis on which of the following?

The family as the center of life

The 1941 political cartoon shown above refers to which of the following?

The fear that the Nazi-Soviet Nonagression Pact would provide Germany with access to Middle East oil

30. five-year plans

The first Five-Year Plan was known as the "Revolution from above" and was enacted in 1928. This signaled the end of the New Economic Policy. The main objectives of the Five-Year Plans were to increase the industrial output rate by 250%, the steel output by 300%, and the agriculture output by 150% and force 20% of the peasantry to surrender their privately owned land to the government and join collective farms.

First and Second Estates

The first and second estates consisted of the clergy and nobility. The clergy, church, in the first estate owned 10% of the land. They were exempt from paying taxes but would pay "voluntary" contributions every 5 years. In the second estate, nobles owner about 30% of the land. These people held many leading positions in the government, military, law courts, and the higher church offices.

43. Second Battle of the Marne

The first battle that the US participated in overseas. They stopped Germany from taking France. This was the turning point of world war 1

Bourbon Dynasty

The first king of the Bourbon Dynasty was Henry IV. Henry began this dynasty in 1589 when he came to power as a part of a political compromise in order to end the Civil Wars in France. In order to receive recognition from Paris, he converted from Calvinism to Catholicism. In 1598, Henry IV issued a small bit of religious toleration to the French Calvinists, also known as Huguenots. This religious toleration would be called the Edict of Nantes.

bourbon dynasty

21. partitions of Poland

The first partition of Poland occurred after the Seven Years' War in 1772 and gave Frederick the Great the Polish territory between Brandenburg and Prussia, which brought more unity to the dispersed lands of Prussia, gave Galicia to Austria, gave eastern Poland to Russia, and gave West Prussia to Prussia. All of this lost territory included about 30% of Poland's land and 50% of its population. At the end of the rule of Frederick the Great, Prussia was widely considered to be a great European power. In 1774, the second partition of Poland, the Russian and Prussian empires obtained some land. In the third partition of Poland in 1795, Austria, Prussia, and Russia invaded and conquered the remaining Polish territory. Throughout the three partitions of Poland, in total, Russia gained around half of the Polish territory.

Advocates of northern humanism believed which of the following?

The fusion of Christian and Classical ideals provides the best definition of virtuous conduct

mercantilism

The goal of mercantilism was to form a self-sufficient economy. To do this, a favorable balance of trade where you import less than you import needed to be reached.

36. Grand Tour

The grand tour was one important aspect of 18th century travel. In this experience, sons of aristocrats completed their education in each of England's major cities. The aristocracy thought the Grand Tour was crucial in the education process. Along this expedition, the traveler faced many geographical challenges. Due to the intention of the trip, education, a tutor typically accompanied the boys'. The tutors were not allowed to limit the boys from doing anything, though.

Which of the following characterized painting and sculpture during the Renaissance?

The human body presented in naturalistic terms

heliocentric universe

The idea of a heliocentric universe was first promoted by Nicolaus Copernicus in his book, On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres in 1543. In this book, Copernicus stated that the stars were stationary, although their apparent motion was caused by the rotation of the Earth, the universe was possibly infinite, and he challenged the views and beliefs of Ptolemy and the Bible's Book of Genesis which was geocentrism.

absolutism

The idea of absolutism came from the traditional assumption of power and the "divine right of kings". Louis XIV was the idea of an absolute monarch. In western European absolutism, sovereignty of a country was embodied in the person or ruler, absolute monarchs were not under national assemblies, nobility was controlled, and career officials made up the bureaucracies. Jean Bodin provided a theoretical basis for absolutist states. He though absolutism could bring order and force people to obey the government. Thomas Hobbes made a pessimistic view of human beings. He said humans were in a state of nature of solitary, poor, nasty, bruntish, and short strong. Bishop Jacques-Benigne Bossuet was an advocate for the divine right of kings.

Individualism

The idea of individualism was very different than the Middle Ages where humans were viewed as small, wicked, and inconsequential. During the renaissance, the great potential and growth was seen in people The idea of Virchu, excelling in all quests of the individual, came about.

Divine Right of Kings

The idea that rulers receive their authority from God and are answerable only to God. Jacques-Benigne Bossuet, a French bishop and court preacher to Louis XIV, provided the theological justification for the divine right of kings by declaring that "the state of monarchy is the supremest thing on earth, for kings are not only God's lieutenants upon God's throne, but even by God himself are called gods. In the scriptures kings are called Gods, and their power is compared to the divine powers."

Agricultural Revolution

The innovations in farm production that began in eighteenth-century Holland and spread to England. These advances replaced the open-field agricultural system with a more scientific and mechanized system of agriculture

Columbian Exchange

The interchange of plants, animals, diseases, and human populations between the Old World and the New World.

6. internal combustion engine

The internal combustion engine used kerosene oil to light factory machines.

Theodore Herzl and Zionism

The jews were persecuted and discriminated against. This led to the Jewish creation of the state Palestine. Herzl founded the movement in 1897. He witnessed anti-Semitism in Austria-Hungary first- hand and followed the Dreyfus Affair. In the 1917 Balfour Declaration, Great Britain publicly supported the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

habsburg and valois wars

The key regions of conflict between the HRE and France were Northern France, Netherlands, Switzerland, Rheinland, Northern Spain, and Italy. These conflicts were known as the Habsburg-Valois Wars which prevented Charles V from concentrating on the Lutheran problem in Germany. The main area of conflict for the HRE and the Ottoman Empire was Constantinople and the Balkans. The Ottomans were a large threat being they defeated King Louis of Hungary, Charles V's brother in law. Also, the ottomans overran Austria, Hungary, and up to Vienna, but were stopped. Charles V had problems with the invasion of others. He also struggled to gain religious control over Rome.

22. Liberum veto

The liberum veto was a parliamentary restrin in Poland. It said that decisions needed to be unanimous in order to make change. This made it very hard to make change in Poland.

Mass production

The mass production of goods with new technologies was increased significantly by the Second Industrial Revolution. There were four new main groups of goods with new technologies promoted by the Second Industrial Revolution. These main groups include the steel industry, the oil industry, the electricity industry, and the chemical industry. In the steel industry, the Bessemer process was developed in order to more efficiently and inexpensively produce high-quality steel. Some products that were made with this process in the steel industry include heavy machinery, steel rails, and larger structures. In the oil industry, the internal combustion engine used kerosene with the purpose of illuminating for their factory machines. In the electricity industry, electricity powered large cities, factory towns, and industrial centers and the first electric power stations in the entire continent of Europe were constructed in England in 1881. This was after the invention of the power grid by Thomas Edison in the late 1870s. Electricity was also used by many other different industries such as the construction, steel, shoemaking, and textile industries. The chemical industry was led by Germany in that they were the most highly developed in pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, photo processing, explosives, soaps, and dyes.

Military Revolution

The military revolution increased monarchical power. Gunpowder was also introduced which made the noble castles, armies, and mounted knights much more vulnerable. Complex forts were built by monarchs. Armies continued to cost more and more and now was beyond most nobles. Although nobles couldn't support the army, they would show their support for the king by gaining titles and offices and serving on royal court or royal office

Containment

The name of a U.S. foreign policy designed to contain or block the spread of Soviet policy. Inspired by George F. Kennan, containment was expressed in the Truman Doctrine and implemented in the Marshall Plan and the North American Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance.

Natural Rights

The natural rights in France during the French Revolution according to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen are that men are born and remain equal in rights and free, liberty, property, security, resistance to oppression, no single ruler can have authority over the people without their consent, a citizen is allowed to do anything that does not bring harm to another, citizens have the right to concur through representatives in its formation or personally, no man can be detained, accused, or arrested unless it is a case determined by the law, no one is allowed to be disturbed because of their opinions or religious beliefs, every man can freely write, print, and speak, citizens can determine the need for taxation for themselves, society can demand an accounting of their administration from every public agent, and no one may be deprived of their right to their property. The natural rights of women according to the Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen are that women are born free and their rights are equal to men's rights, liberty, property, security, resistance to oppression, no single ruler can have authority over the people without their consent, liberty and justice are rights of all people, all people are allowed to give their opinion in the government, women must obey all the same laws as men, women have the right to mount the scaffold, free communication of thought and opinion, all people have the right to verify the necessity of the public contribution, women have the right to demand an accounting of their administration, and property can belong to women.

17. New Weapons of War

The new weapons of war were the machine gun, tank, airplane, poison gas, and submarine. Machine guns were one of the most important reasons for a frightful casualties that occurred in previous wars. With tanks, artillery was not made mobile. Airplanes introduced a bombarding way of warfare. Poison gases were used to distract. Submarines were really shown through the Germany U-boats.

Nobility of the Robe

The nobility of the robe derived their status from officeholding. This was a way that commoners could obtain a noble rank. They bought their titles.

Italian society differed from the rest of Europe during the Renaissance in which of the following ways?

The number of urban commercial centers

Which of the following was the immediate cause of the revolutions that occurred in several major European cities in 1848?

The overthrow of Louis-Philippe of France

Peninsular War

The peninsular war was the first great revolt against Napoleon's power. This revolt occurred in Spain. In response to Napoleon's efforts to tighten his control over Spain, Spanish people waged a costly guerrilla war. The British aided the Spanish people in their revolt. The French suffered from Britain's blockade, which resulted in the failure of the Continental System. Napoleon needed a scapegoat so he turned on Alexander I of Russia, who was a supporter of his blockade.

Imperialism

The policy of extending one country's rule over other lands by conquest or economic domination.

De-Stalinization

The policy of liberalization of the Stalinist system in the Soviet Union. As carried out by Nikita Khrushchev, de-Stalinization meant denouncing Joseph Stalin's cult of personality, producing more consumer goods, allowing greater cultural freedom, and pursuing peaceful coexistence with the West.

Which of the following actions by Napoleon aided the cause of German unification?

The political reorganization of territory into the Confederation of the Rhine

Luddites

The poor houses provided work to those who were unemployed. The conditions inside of these houses were typically intentionally oppressive. The goal of these places were to persuade workers to to leave and find work elsewhere.

Poor houses

Nuclear Family

The poorer people tended to be unable to support to support their extended family. The wealthier families tended to be able to support extended families when they were in need.

38. London's one million

The population sizes of towns and cities were steadily increasing. London was the largest city with 1,000,000 inhabitants.

Which of the following ideas did Darwin draw on in developing his theories of evolution?

The population theories of Thomas Malthus

Potato

The potato originated in South America and was imported to Europe by the European explorers on the Columbian Exchange. This soon became very popular across the Atlantic Ocean and became the most important crop in Europe a few centuries later.

"What the breechloader, the machine gun, the steamboat, the steamship, quinine, and other innovations did was to lower the cost in both financial and human terms of penetrating, conquering, and exploiting new territories. So cost-effective did they make imperialism that not only national governments but even individuals like Henry Stanley and Cecil Rhodes could precipitate events and stake out claims to vast territories which later became parts of empires." The historian quoted above would most likely use which of the following statements to explain imperialism in Africa after 1870?

The power of European technology provided the mechanism that made imperialism cheap and easy

Legitimacy

The principle that rulers who have been driven from their thrones should be restored to power. For example, the Congress of Vienna restored the Bourbons to power in France.

Enclosure Movement

The process by which British landlords consolidated or fenced in common lands to increase the production of cash crops. The Enclosure Acts led to an increase in the size of farms held by large landowners.

Decolonization

The process by which colonies gained their independence from the imperial European powers after World War II.

Proletariat

The proletariat was the fastest growing social class in the nineteenth century. The proletariat consisted of factory workers and was a new group in society. During the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, a surplus of labor led to poor conditions for workers. These conditions included 14 hour day shifts, few holidays, brutal and unsafe working environments, and low wages, especially for children and women. Poorhouses were where the conditions were worst for the workers and were intentionally oppressive.

7. Public Health Movement

The public health movement sought to lessen the high disease and mortality rate that occurred in cities. Due to this movement, liberalism shifted from laissez-faire to interventionist economic and social policies on behalf of the less privileged. These policies were based on rational approach to reform that addressed the impact of the Industrial Revolution on the individual. Edwin Chadwick became the most important reformer of living conditions in cities. Under him, the Sanitary Idea was the most important. It said that disease could be prevented by cleaning up the urban environment

Intendant System

The purpose of the Intendant System was to weaken the nobility, and replaced them with civil servants or intendants. These servants reported to the king himself and were mainly from the middle class and of the minor noble faction. These minor nobles were known as "nobles of the robe." In the 32 districts, there was a single intendant responsible for justice, police, and finances. This caused the government to be more efficient and controlled.

intendant system

railroads

The railroad or "iron horse" was invented in 1825 by George Stephenson, although it was developed from the steam wagon in London in 1803 and adapted to run on rails in 1812. In 1829 this became widely used all over England and Stephenson's locomotive, the Rocket, traveled along the Liverpool-Manchester Railway at 16 miles per hour. The Liverpool-Manchester Railway was the first important railroad in the world because it was located in the center of industrial England. By the 1840s, numerous private companies were organized in order to build more railways and rail lines. Railroads greatly decreased the cost of shipping freight on land, facilitated the growth of the urban working class from the countryside, and resulted in the increased industrial productivity of the national and regional markets in order to meet larger demand. Numerous small peasants, cottagers, and farm laborers were employed to build railroads. After the construction of rail lines, many workers that built the railroads traveled on them from the countryside to cities in search of employment.

Which of the following is most closely associated with Friedrich Nietzsche?

The rejection of bourgeois morality

Detente

The relaxation of tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. Detente was introduced by Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and President Richard Nixon. Examples of detente include the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT),

Which of the following is true of the German Peasants' Revolt of 1524-1525?

The revolt resulted from a combination of new religious ideas and peasant demands

31. Revolutions of 1848

The revolutions of 1848 was the watershed political event of the 19th century. They were influenced by the nationalism, liberalism, romanticism, and economic dislocation and instability. Britain and Russia avoided significant upheaval. The revolutions resulted in the end of serfdom in Austria and Germany, an increased male suffrage in France, established parliaments in German states, and stimulated the unification impulse in Prussia and Sardinia-Piedmont.

Sans-culottes

The sans-culottes were an extremely radical faction majorly from the working class that was separate from the National Convention. This group heavily influenced the National Convention, kept the French revolution moving forward through their influence and violence, and were held accountable for the marching of Versailles, driving the king from the Tuileries, the September Massacres, and the storming of the Bastille. Because the sans-culottes believed the National Convention could be too moderate, they formed a direct democracy together with a mass uprising if necessary.

Humanism

The scholarly interest in the study of the classical texts, values, and styles of Greece and Rome. Humanism contributed to the promotion of a liberal arts education based on the study of the classics, rhetoric, and history.

28. Soviets

The soviets were councils that consisted of intellectuals, workers, and soldiers. These councils were formed by Leon Trotsky and Vladimir Lenin, majorly influenced Europe before World War I, and formed a national body known as the Soviet.

Renaissance Religion

The state is supreme to the church. • "New Monarchs" assert power over national churches. • Rise of skepticism • Renaissance popes worldly and corrupt

What was the main theme of Machiavelli's The Prince?

The survival of the state must take precedence over moral law.

The Taille

The taille was a tax on owning land placed on the third estate, or peasantry, rich merchants, professionals, the middle class, urban artisans, and unskilled workers, in France.

the Tennis Court Oath

The tennis court oath was that the 3rd estate swore to remain together until it had given France a constitution. The 3rd estate assumed sovereign power on behalf of the nation.

Third Estate

The third estate were the commoners in French society. This was the mass majority of the total French population. The people in the third estate were the peasants, skilled artisans, shopkeepers, and other wage earners. These people owned about 35% of the land. Serfdom no longer existed. French peasants still had obligations to their lords. Many people in this estate were economically discontent, which lead to the revolution.

The Three Estates

The three estates were the divisions of French society. The first estate was the clergy which was 1% of the population. The second estate were the nobility which are 3-4% of the population. The third estate were the bourgeoisie or middle class peoples. The bourgeoisie consisted of artisans, urban workers, and peasants.

the three estates

When Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859, he used the phrase "origin of species" to mean which of the following?

The transmutation of any species into another over time

Child Labor

The use of child labor increased because of the change of profession of agricultural workers and the fear of English factories. Many agricultural workers became weavers because of the good wadges. Also, English factories resembled many poorhouses which scared off many potential workers. Many abandoned children became a source of labor from local parishes and orphanages. Factory owners exercised authority over children, like slave owners. Children worked as chimney sweeps, market girls, and shoemakers.

Scientific Method

The use of inductive logic and controlled experiments to discover regular patterns in nature. These patterns or natural laws can be described with mathematical formulas.

Which of the following ideas is common to the works of both Karl Marx and the classical economists?

The value of a product is largely determined by the value of the labor used to produce it

"Now I look back; four years of development in the midst of a generation predestined to death, spent in caves, smoke-filled trenches, and shell-illuminated wastes; years enlivened only by the pleasures of mercenary, and nights of guard after guard in an endless perspective; in short, a monotonous calendar full of hardships and privation, divided by the red-letter days of battles." This description of trench warfare on the Western Front conveys which of the following regarding the nature of World War I?

The war marked a generation filled with alienation and disillusionment

Sans-Culottes

The working people of Paris who were characterized by their long working pants and support for radical politics.

Junkers

These were Prussian landed aristocracy members who served as officers in the army. They formed the backbone of the Prussian military officer corps.

junkers

These were Prussian landed aristocracy members who served as officers in the army. They formed the backbone of the Prussian military officer corps.

Zemstvos

These were local assemblies in Russia that were semi-self governing. Representatives were elected from noble landowners, townspeople, and peasants. There was still an advantage towards the nobles. This provided a more equal judiciary system and gave equality before the law.

Creoles

These were people born in the New World to Spanish parents. They dominated politics and later, independence movements.

Which of the following best characterizes Renaissance humanists?

They emphasized rhetoric based on classical models

All of the following were achieved by women during the French Revolution EXCEPT

They gained proportional representation in the Chamber of Deputies.

Ferdinand and Isabella

They introduced inquisition to Spain to ensure the orthodoxy of coverts. They later expelled all professed Jews from Spain, which was about ⅞ of them. In 1502, Muslims were also expelled from Spain. To be considered a Spaniard, one must be Catholic. Through all of the expelling of other religions, Ferdinand and Isabella brought Spain closer together.

Which of the following accurately describes a major change in status experienced by Russian serfs in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries?

They lost rights, including the right to own property and the right to petition the czar against their masters

Which of the following best describes the writers of the Romantic school?

They stressed emotion rather than reason

Saint Petersburg

This became the capital of Russia and was cosmopolitan in character. In the construction of this great city, Peter ordered many noble families to move their homes according to his plans. Merchants and artisans were to live in the city and help build it. The peasant's death toll was enormous, 100,000, due to their heavy laboring. By Peter's death, the city was the largest in northern Europe with 75,000 inhabitants.

saint petersburg

Olympe de Gouges and The Rights of Woman

This book followed the official Declaration of the Rights of Men. She applied each of the 17 articles from the Rights of Men and added the right of women to divorce under certain conditions, control property in marriage, and equal access to all forms of education.

Thomas Paine, Rights of Man

This book was a response to Burke's argument. He defended Enlightenment principles and France's revolution. He saw the triumph of liberty over despotism.

on the revolutions of heavenly spheres

This book was written by Nicolaus Copernicus. It was dedicated to Pope Paul II and challenged the Church doctrine. The publication of this book was put off because he feared the backlash of the scientific community.

john harrison's chronometer

This gave mariners the ability to determine longitude in the late 18th century.

5. "blank check"

This is a reference to the full support provided by William II to Austria-Hungary in its conflict with Serbia. Also refers to the promise of support given by Russia to Serbia to develop of Slavic state.

Bohemian Phase

This is the first phase of the Thirty Years War. The Bohemian Phase began in one of the Hapsburgs' territories. The Bohemian Estates accepted the Bohemian Archduke Ferdinand. He was their king but soon after, they were unhappy with their choice. In May 1618, Protestant nobles rebelled against Ferdinand. They did this by throwing 2 Habsburg governors and a secretary out of the Royal Castle's window. The Bohemian rebels took control of Bohemia, dethroned Ferdinand, and appointed a new Protestant ruler of the Palatine, Elector Frederick V. Ferdinand realized that with the election of Frederick, would upset the balance of religious and political power. The ensure this didn't happen, Ferdinand defeated Frederick and the Bohemians at the Battle of White Mountain. Bohemia was declared the land of Protestant nobles and had Catholicism as the sole religion.

bohemian phase

deism

This is the religious arm of the Enlightenment. In this, the existence of God was a rational explanation of the universe. God created the universe and then just watched it run like a clock. He was considered a deistic Creator, a cosmic clockmaker. The universe was governed by a natural law but not God himself. Deism came from Newton's theories about natural life.

modern scientific method

This method combines Bacon's inductive method and the deductive method of Descartes. It is the process scientists go through when solving a problem or answering a question.

7. Essay Concerning Human Understanding

This one of the greatest works of the Enlightenment. The importance of the environment on human development was stressed. The table rasa stated that the human mind was born as a blank slate and was later evolved by passive senses. He believed education was critical to determine human development. This infected the Christian view that humankind was essentially sinful.

essay concerning human understanding

Botticelli's Primavera

This painting includes many popular gods and goddesses such as Venus, Flora, Cupid and Mercury alongside the three graces. In Botticelli's later years, he entered a religion crisis which lead him to reject all of his prior commitment to the pagan gods. He turned to producing exclusively religious works.

3. Russian-German Reinsurance Treaty

This promised the neutrality of both Germany and Russia if either country went to war with another country. Kaiser Wilhelm II refused to renew the reinsurance treaty after removing Bismarck in 1890. This was a huge diplomatic blunder. Russia wanted to renew it but now had no assurances it was safe from a German invasion. France and Russia are now allies. Germany and Germany developed closer ties.

Flemish Style

This style was popular in the Low Countries with important artists. These works were influenced by the Italian Renaissance, had more minute detailing, used oil paint, incorporated more emotion, and were preoccupied with death.

Treaty of Utrecht

This treaty ended the War of the Spanish Succession. The treaty made Phillip V the Spanish ruler. This started the Spanish Bourbon dynasty. The throw was of England Spain were to remain separated. Utrecht received Gibraltar and England emerged as a naval force.

treaty of utrecht

geocentric universe

This viewpoint said that Earth was the center of the universe. It also said that the universe was a static, motionless, place.

26. French-Indian War

This war was the largest conflict of the Seven Years' War. There were two primary areas of contention, the waterways of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and Ohio River valley. These areas were protected with forts and guards. The French moved south from the Great Lakes towards the Mississippi. Forts were established from Appalachians to the Mississippi river. The French found allies with many indians, who thought of them as traders and not as settlers, like the British. The French had initial success in this war but soon, the British took over. They were convinced that with the conquering of the French, the British could have a successful colonial empire. WIlliam Pitt the Elder was the leader if the British army. He made a minimal effort in Europe while concentrating resources, especially the navy. The French troops had a greater number but their ability to used them relied on the naval support. The British defeated many French fleets in naval battles. The French could not defend their troops, so a series of British victories soon followed. Forts were captured quickly. The British went on to capture Montreal, the Great Lakes area, and the Ohio valley. The French were forced to give up. With the Treaty of Paris, French Canada and the lands east of the Mississippi were given to Britain. The Spanish control of Florida was transferred to Britain. The French gave their control of Louisiana to the Spanish.

Girondins

This was 1 of 2 factions among the Jacobins. This faction was more moderate than the Mountain, radical republicans, and was more rural.

Peterhof

This was Peter's palace in Saint Petersburg. It was more or less Peter's version of Versailles. The palace was built to show Peter's power as was the palace of Versailles XIV.

peterhof

This was Peter's palace in Saint Petersburg. It was more or less Peter's version of Versailles. The palace was built to show Peter's power as was the palace of Versailles XIV.

inflation

This was a huge problem in the 16th and 17th centuries. Inflation was also called the price revolution and was a Europe wide phenomenon. Different areas were affected at different times, though. Inflation is when the value of money goes down and goods start to cost more.

Enlightenment

This was a secular world view. In this, natural science and reason explained aspects of life. Now, man's intellect set him apart from God. The most basic assumption was that faith in human reason rather than faith in revelation. The religious arm of Enlightenment was Deism. Most principals of the Scientific Revolution were applied to human society and institutions. John Locke was the greatest of the Enlightenment thinkers. He wrote Two Treatises it Government which was a philosophical defense for the "Glorious Revolution" in England. People agreed to obey the government in return for natural rights with a social contract. With the right to rebellion, people had a right to abolish government that didn't protect the natural rights.

enlightenment

the Stuarts

This was an European royal house that originated in Scotland in 1603. They succeeded the Tudor dynasty. James I, Charles I, Charles II, James II, William III and Mary II, and Queen Anne were all Stuart royalty. This dynasty lasted until the death of Queen Anne in 1714.

the stuarts

Pragmatic Sanction

This was an edict issued by Charles VI, the Holy Roman Empire. This edict ensured the Habsburg hereditary possessions could be inherited by a daughter. Charles VI was succeeded by his daughter, Marisa Theresa.

pragmatic sanction

principia

This was one of the greatest books written on science. It explained the natural laws of motion. In the movement of heavenly bodies and earthly objects, gravitation is present. To explain motion, Newton used a set of mathematical principles.

"science of man"

This was the belief that Newton's scientific method would allow the discovery of the natural laws in human life. The "science of man" would be commonly known as social sciences. In some areas of this idea natural laws, which governed human actions, seemed less that universal at the time. Scottish philosopher David Hume made this possible. He was called a pioneering social scientist. He thought that observation and reflection grounded in "systematized common sense". With the examination of the experiences of human life, this science was possible.

alchemy

This was the medieval forerunner of chemistry. It dealt with the transformation of matter. Paracelsus mixed magic and science. Gerolamo Cardano was a pioneer of algebra and also played a part in alchemy. Brache dedicated a lab to its study. Isaac Newton believed in alchemy, his theory of universal gravitation was based upon it.

Syphilis

This was the most significant disease given to the Europeans by Amerindians. Thousands of people in Europe were affected.

49. Article 231

This was the provision of the Versailles Treaty that blamed Germany for World War 1.

dialogue on the two chief world systems

This was written by Galileo. He wrote about the Copernican system, which was heretical. He called it a mathematical proposition.

Castiglione's Book of the Courtier

This work was written by Baldassare Castiglione and was considered one of the most important pieces on Renaissance social etiquette. It highlighted the key qualities one needed to possess to be a true gentleman. To be considered a true gentleman, one should lead an active life and be physically and intellectually capable. Also, he described the ideal Renaissance man. In order to be an ideal "Renaissance Man" he should be understanding of the Greek and Roman classics, a successful warrior, musically inclined, a dancer, and had a modest but confident personal demeanor.

35. Thomas Gainsborough

Thomas Gainsborough was a British painter who lived in the eighteenth century. His most important painting, Conversation in the Park, shows the relaxed life of two aristocrats in a park in their country estate.

Which of the following is an important defense of the principle of absolute monarchy?

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan

20. Thomas Malthus

Thomas Malthus was an English man who believed that the human population would end up being too much for the food supply to support. Malthus predicted that this lack of food would lead to massive famines. This prediction was known as the "Malthusian trap."

"The power of population is infinitely greater than the power in the earth to produce subsistence for man. Population, when unchecked, increases in a geometric ratio. Subsistence only increases in an arithmetic ratio. A slight acquaintance with the numbers will show the immensity of the first power in comparison with the second." Question: The argument presented above is fundamental to

Thomas Malthus's belief in the inevitability of working class poverty.

Which of the following best summarizes Nazi aims in the systematic killing of millions of Jews along with large number of communists, disabled people, Gypsies, homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, and socialists?

To eliminate allegedly "inferior" and "undesirable" peoples

"The Allied and Associated Governments affirm, and Germany accepts, the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage...as a consequence of the war." ----Treaty of Versailles, 1919 Which of the following bests states one purpose of the treaty clause above?

To justify large reparations payments from Germany

trades unions

Trade unions were popular in the early nineteenth century and were a part of nearly all of the industries of the Industrial Revolution. Some of the trade unions even used violence to attack in strikes in cities like Glasgow, Manchester, Durham, and Northumberland. As a result of these violent strikes, the Combination Acts were repealed in 1824. In the 1830s and 1820s, social reformer Robert Owen led many trade unions and his plans established the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union.

Diet of Worms (1521)

Tribunal of the Holy Roman Empire with power to outlaw and sentence execution through stake-burning

18. Tsar Nicholas I

Tsar Nicholas I was a conservative Russian leader. Nicholas I's main goal as ruler over Russia was to prevent uprisings and revolts. He prevented these rebellions by suppressing individual freedom, strengthening the government bureaucracy, and increasing censorship.

Which of the following held that the communion service was merely symbolic of Christ's presence at the ceremony?

Ulrich Zwingli

Napoleonic Code

Under the Napoleonic Code, legal unity provided the first clear codification of French law. This was possibly the longest lasting legacy of Napoleon's rule. This included a civil code, code of criminal procedure, a commercial code, and a penal code. It emphasized the protection of private property and a strong central government. Many of the achievements made during the Revolution were made permanent. This denied women an equal status as men.

Michael Servetus (1511-1553)

Unitarian beliefs; burned at stake

Urbanization

Urbanization was one of the most important sociological effects of the Industrial Revolution and was the largest population transfer ever in human history. Many industrial centers, or factory towns, developed from large cities, many people moved from the countryside in southern England to these factory towns for work, iron and coal were mined in the north and the Midlands, and numerous cities in England and Scotland that previously had a population of less than 50,000 grew into industrial centers with well over 50,000 inhabitants. One of the most important English factory towns was Manchester. By the nineteenth century, industrial centers had evolved from cultural and governmental centers. Although living conditions were the same as the countryside, the overpopulation in these cities made them appear worse. In order to remedy their economic dissatisfaction, labor unions sought to make political reformations to better the living conditions in the factory towns.

Renaissance Sculpture Techniques

Use of marble and bronze (as was the case in ancient Greece and Rome) ▪ Free-standing sculptures; designed to be seen in the round; contrapposto stance ▪ Glorification of the human body and emphasis on individualism ▪ Ghiberti (1378-1455): bronze doors for Florentine baptistery ("Gates of Paradise") ▪ Donatello (1386-1466 - sculptor: David ▪ Michelangelo: David, the Pieta

Renaissance Architecture Style

Utilized Greek temple architecture in numerous structures ▪ Simplicity, symmetry and balance ▪ Brought back domes and Roman arches of the ancient Greco-Roman tradition ▪ Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) - architect of cathedrals (Il Duomo in Florence) ▪ Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472), architect of cathedrals. ▪ Michelangelo: dome atop St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican

24. utopian socialism

Utopian Socialism was a system of economic equality that was planned out by the government. This idea of Utopian Socialism was first promoted by early French Socialists such as Count Henri de Saint-Simon, Louis Blanc, Pierre Joseph Proudhon, and Charles Fourier.

23. V.A. Huber and Octavia Hill

V.A. Huber was a German housing reformer. He thought that good housing was a prerequisite for a stable family and functioning society. Octavia Hill was a practical minded British house reformer.He believed that workers and their families were entitled to happy homes. She thought the poor needed guidance and encouragement, but not charity.

Lorenzo Valla

Valla was the prominent expert on the Latin Language. In On the False Donation of Constantine, Valla exposed the acts of constantine as an 8th century fraud through written criticism. Valla also acknowledged errors in the Latin Vulgate, the Catholic Church's Bible. Pointing out these errors, gave challengers of Church authority an unplanned advantage. Valla was a secretary under Pope Nicholas V.

Vasco da Gama

Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese sailor who lived from 1469 to 1525 and went on an expedition to India on water in 1498. This was built on Bartolomeu Dias' route, and he brought many Indian products home to Portugal. This created a large demand for Indian goods in Europe. This also symbolized a large blow to the Italian trading monopoly with Asian countries and precipitated the economic and political decline of the city-states in Italy.

Versailles

Versailles was a huge palace built for Louis XIV. He lived in this palace. This was very costly to build. The palace also housed members of the kings government and served as a home for many French nobles. This palace impressed many foreigners and became a source of envy for others.

versailles

vesalius and the structure of the human body

Vesalius was a Flemish physician who lived from 1516 to 1564. In his book, The Structure of the Human Body, he renewed and modernized the study of the human body and its anatomy. In this book, Vesalius drew 200 intricate pictures of the human body which led to a revolution in the comprehension of human anatomy. Vesalius was able to create such intricate and detailed drawings because he dissected cadavers, most of which were criminals and was the first person to ever assemble the human skeleton.

20. Vichy France

Vichy France was a French government formed in southern France and led by Marshal Henri-Philippe Petain. Petain was a war hero in World War I at the Battle of Verdun however he was executed for treason later on. Afterwards, this government was taken over by Germany in "Operation Torch" in 1942 in North Africa.

Renaissance Ideal

Virtù - Renaissance Man should be well- rounded (Castiglione)

30. Vladimir Lenin

Vladimir Lenin was one of the most important leaders and founders of the Russian Social Democratic Worker's Party. Lenin founded this party in 1898 in Minsk, Russia and became the heir to Karl Marx in socialism, was exiled by the Russian government to Switzerland, and created a central philosophy. In this philosophy, Lenin believed that the only way that capitalism could be destroyed was through cruel and brutal revolts, disagreed with revisionism, believed that socialist revolution could only be achieved through certain conditions even in Russia, believed that the peasantry was a potential threat and could become rebellious due to their poverty, and urged that a strongly disciplined and controlled proletariat was necessary and needed to be governed by an elite of full time revolutionaries and intellectuals. This belief was contradictory to Marx's beliefs in that Marx believed that revolution should be controlled by the proletariat. Vladimir Lenin also helped lead the formation of a national body known as the Soviet with the help of Leon Trotsky.

" Their lives revolved around two poles - the salon and the censor. In one they stimulated the flow of thinking; regarding the other, they disguised their beliefs with acerbic wit." Question: An individual whose life would fit this description is

Voltaire

voltaire

Voltaire lived from 1694 to 1778 and was the most influential Enlightenment philosophers. He wrote many criticisms about those who disagreed with him, challenged Catholic theology, inspired reformation through his social criticism that would later affect the French Revolution by saying, "Ecrasez l'infame," which means, "crush the infamous thing," and was a patron of "enlightened despotism" which was a kinder version of absolutism. Voltaire held strong deist beliefs, believed that miracles and prayer do not correlate with natural law and that human reason led to progress in society rather than religious faith, called for religious toleration, strongly disagreed with injustice and bigotry, was raised a Christian but distrusted organized religion and thought it was corrupt in leadership and moved away from the central message of Christ, believed equality should come before the law in all cases except the equality of classes, held views similar to those of Hobbes' 17th century beliefs, and influenced Frederick the Great of Prussia, Joseph II of Austria, Napoleon of France, and Catherine the Great of Russia.

In the second half of the seventeenth century, the Austrian Hapsburgs subdued revolt and centralized control in their territories by doing which of the following?

Waging warfare against rebel groups and supporting the Catholic Reformation

8. Robert Walpole

Walpole was the prime minister from 1721 to 1742. He searched for a peaceful foreign policy in hopes of avoiding land taxes.

47. Werner Heisenberg and the uncertainty principle

Werner Heisenberg was born in 1901 and died in 1976. He introduced the "principle of uncertainty" in 1927, This principal said that it is impossible to know the position and speed of an individual election, it is therefore impossible to predict its behavior.

Which of the following best characterizes the attitude of the nineteenth century Russian Slavophiles?

Westernization should not be allowed to destroy the distinctive aspects of Slavic culture

The Abbe Sieyes exerted a major influence on the French Revolution through his book?

What is the Third Estate

The British Prime Minister who was associated closely with the Irish Home Rule Bill was

William Gladstone

10. Frederick William I

William I was a Prussian King. He promoted the evolution of Prussia's civil bureaucracy through the development of the General Directory. It was the administrator of central government, military, police, economic, and financial affairs. He wanted to keep a highly efficient bureaucracy of civil service workers. The supreme values of this were obedience, honor, and service to the king. He kept a close watch over officials to make sure they were performing their duties. He also used a strict class stratification. He used nobles as officials which in turn, ensured a close bond with them. This loyalty of the nobles towards their king lead to an absolute monarchy.

37. William II

William II was the emperor who followed Bismarck. He was eager to pursue his own policies, so he cashiered Bismarck. William II was big on artillery and socialism.

9. William Pitt the Elder

William Pitt the Elder became prime minister of the country of England in 1757 and remained in this position until 1761. During his rule, Pitt the Elder acquired Canada and India in the Seven Years' War, which furthered imperial ambitions in Great Britain.

William Shakespeare

William Shakespeare was an English Renaissance author who lived from 1564 to 1616. He is the most famous Renaissance author, and his work was influenced by humanism, individualism, and Greco-Roman culture. Shakespeare wrote numerous comedies, tragedies, histories, and sonnets.

William Wordsworth

William Wordsworth was an English romantic poet who lived from 1771 to 1855 and was largely influenced by Rousseau's philosophical ideas and the spirit of the beginning of the French Revolution. In 1798, Wordsworth published Lyrical Ballads which was one of the most influential and important pieces of literature in the history of the English language. William Wordsworth believed that nature is a mysterious force that a poet could learn from, portrayed, idealized, and majesticized simple subjects, and abandoned poetic conventions and did not use classical rules in his poetry.

Dardanelles and Sevastopol

With Dardanelles, Britain did not want Russia to take the territory. If Russia were to obtain this territory, Russia would have became one of the Great Powers. This was the reason why Britain entered the war. Sevastopol was the main Russian fortress. The British and French had a long siege of Russia. Six months after the death of Tsar Nicholas I, the war was ended.

9. Anglo-Japanese Alliance

With the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, Britain wanted a Japanese agreement to "benevolent neutrality". This would counter any threat to India by Russia. This ended Britain's "splendid isolation".

7. the congress system

With the congress system, European international relations were controlled by a series of meetings held by the Great Power. These meetings monitored and defended the status quo. Britain withdrew from the Congress in 1822. This killed the Congress system.

Heavy industry

With the rise of supplies of coal, the iron production was boosted. This paved the way for the heavy industry. During the heavy industry, the manufacture of machinery and materials used in production were more popular.

Catholic Women

Women continued to enjoy opportunities in the Church through religious orders

Calvin's Beliefs on Women

Women should be subjugated Protestant churches had greater control over marriage than did the Catholic church Suppressed common law marriages Protestant women lost opportunities in church service that Catholic women enjoyed Protestant women eventually lost rights to manage their own property or to make legal transactions in their own name

"We shall squeeze the orange until the pips squeak." This expression of making the defeated nations pay the costs of the war was most opposed at the Versailles Peace Conference following World War I by

Woodrow Wilson

46. Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points

Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points was a speech given in January 1918. In this speech, the idea of Wilsonian Idealism was created and Wilson stated that he was aiming to bring the war to an end along democratic and liberal lines. Wilson's fourteen points were that he sought to abolish secret treaties, demanded freedom of the seas, wanted the removal of economic barriers, especially tariffs, encouraged the reduction of armament burdens, promoted "self-determination," which was the promise of liberty to minorities, sought the adjustment of colonial claims in interests of colonizers and natives, demanded the German evacuation of Russia and the Balkans, the restoration of the Balkans and Belgium, and the return of Schleswig and Alsace-Lorraine to Denmark and France, wanted the adjustment of Italian borders along ethnic lines, encouraged autonomy for non-Turkish territories within the Turkish Empire, and promoted the creation of an international organization with the purpose of providing collective security. Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points also foreshadowed the formation of the League of Nations which was established after the war.

16. World War I

World War I was caused by the rivalry between the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance, the emergence of the Dual Alliance in 1879, the Russian-German Reinsurance Treaty in 1887, the "Splendid Isolation" of Great Britain, the Anglo-Japanese Alliance in 1902, the Entente Cordiale in 1904, the Anglo-German arms race, imperialism leading to tensions between European Great Powers over the continent of Africa, and nationalism resulting in a "powder keg" in the Balkans.

"One of our immediate tasks is to put an end to the war at once. But inorder to end the war, which is closely bound up with the present capitalistic system, it is necessary to overthrow capitalism itself. In this work we shall have the aid of the world labor movement, which has already begun to develop in Italy, England, and Germany." In this statement, Vladimir Lenin advances which of the following ideas for the Bolshevik movement in Russia?

Worldwide revolution and an end to World War I are closely connected

Confessions of Augsburg, 1530

Written by Luther's friend Philip Melanchthon ▪ Attempted compromise statement of religious faith to unite Lutheran and Catholic princes of the HRE; rejected by Catholic princes

Christene de Pisan

Wrote The City of Ladies and The Book of Three Virtues. She showed women that they could break away from marital stereotypes and showed them that they weren't "ornaments". She was also the ruler of Mantua, well educated, a patron of the arts, a school founder for young women, and wrote letters that gave information on politics and courtly life.

christine de pisan

Thomas More (1478-1536)

Wrote Utopia (1516) o Created an ideal society on an island; but to achieve harmony and order people had to sacrifice individual rights o Saw accumulation of property as a root cause for society's ills: gap between rich & poor

Colloquy of Marburg (1529):

Zwingli splits with Luther over issue of Eucharist ▪ Zwingli and other sects were excluded from the Confessions of Augsburg

The July Revolution of 1830 in France overthrew the regime of Charles X and gave France

a "bourgeois monarchy"

Jacob Burckhardt

a 19th-century historian, claimed the Renaissance period stood in distinct contrast to the Middle Ages

After the defeat of King Charles I in the English Civil War and his execution in 1649, England was governed for a decade by

a commonwealth led by Oliver Cromwell and his son

At the core of Francios Rabelais' humanist was

a faith in the fundamental goodness of institutions and their ability to mold better individuals

Copernicus' primary contribution to the Scientific Revolution was his theory of

a heliocentric universe

Count Camillo Cavour hoped to unify Italy by means of

a military alliance with France against Austria.

Panslavism was

a nationalist movement among Slavs

The Bartholomews Day Massacre was

a slaughter of thousands of French Protestants

As described in the Treaty of Rome (1957), the European Economic Community most closely resembled

a tariff union

In which area did the status of women rise and opportunities for them increase the most during the Renaissance?

access to education

The mandate system, created by the League of Nations, was a form of colonialism where the colonial rulers were

accountable for the well-being of the inhabitants with the ultimate goal of teaching them how to rule themselves

At the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965), the Roman Catholic Church sought primarily to

address relations between the Roman Catholic and the modern world

Major Protestant and Roman Catholic leaders of the sixteenth century condemned the Anabaptists because Anabaptists

advocated a complete separation of church and state

At the Berlin Conference (1884), European powers

agreed on how to divide Africa among themselves

Hermandades

alliance of cities to oppose nobles; reduced power of the nobility

Cosimo de Medici

allied with other powerful families of Florence and became the unofficial ruler of the republic Most powerful of the Medici rulers

The leadership of the Dutch revolts (1566-1648) sought all of the following except

an alliance with the English Catholics

Christian humanism of the sixteenth century can be characterized as which of the following?

an effort to promote personal spirituality through education.

All of the following are associated with the Commercial Revolution in early modern Europe except

an expansion of the guild system

Frederick the Great (1740-1786) contributed most to the rise of Prussia as a major European power by

annexing the Habsburg province of Silesia

Among the causes of unrest within the Habsburg dominions in 1848 were all of the following EXCEPT

aristocratic resurgence among the German nobility

Rene Descartes and Francis Bacon contributed to scientific development in the seventeenth century by

articulating theories of the scientific method

"Thus all artists are under a great and permanent obligation to Michelangelo, seeing that he broke the bonds and chains that had previously confined them to the creation of traditional forms." Vasari, Lives of the Artists (1550) In this quote, Vasari was expressing the contemporary view that

artists should be honored as geniuses who create beautiful new works.

The painting above, by the Spanish artist Francisco Goya illustrates which of the following events of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Era?

atrocities by the French army during the Peninsular Campaign

Calvinist opposition to Spanish rule in the Netherlands during the 16th century took all of the following forms except

attempts to assassinate Philip II

Martin Luther believed that the most important role for a Christian woman was to

become a wife and mother

Predestination

belief that God is all-knowing and therefore has already chosen who has been saved and who has not; "good works" was not sufficient for salvation

Seventeenth-century rulers supported the development of scientific academies primarily because rulers

believed that academies offered valuable technical benefits and enhanced royal prestige

The Ottoman Empire and the Austrian Empire were most similar in that

both contained multinational ethnic groups

Henry VIII (1509-1547)

can be viewed as a "new monarch" although some would consider him part of the more powerful next generation of rulers

J.A. Hobson and, later, Lenin ascribed imperialism primarily to

capitalist greed

Mercantilism

certain nations such as France, England and the Netherlands, sought self- sufficient economy and a favorable balance of trade; "bullionism"

Mestizos:

children of mixed white and Indian descent

As World War I dragged on without a decision and mounting casualties, there was an acceleration in the trend toward

class distinctions and antagonisms

New Industries

cloth, mining, printing, book trade, shipbuilding, cannons & muskets

Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503)

commissioned a fortune in Renaissance art

"Green" political parties emerged in Western Europe in the 1970s and 1980s as a result of

concern about the impact of industrialization on the environment

Hernando Cortès (1485-1547):

conquered Aztecs in Mesoamerica

Francisco Pizarro (1478-1541):

conquered Incas in South America

The political and social values of the Vichy government in France during the World War II are best described as

conservative-authoritarian, corporatist, Catholic

The Great Fear of July 1789

consisted of peasant uprisings in rural France

Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574)

contemporary Renaissance art historian who detailed the lives of many Renaissance artists

Naples, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies

controlled by Spain after 1435

Rome, the Papal States

controlled by the "Renaissance popes"

The Warsaw Pact was formed in 1955 to

counteract the power of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

John Eck (1486-1543):

debated Luther at Leipzig in 1520 ▪ Luther denied both the authority of the pope and the infallibility of a general council ▪ Luther was excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1520

Philip II of Spain (1556-1598)

dedicated his reign to establishing Catholic orthodoxy

Unitarianism:

denied deity of Christ but believed in Christian principles.

Napoleon's primary aim in establishing the Continental System was to

destroy Great Britain's economy

The long-term effect of the Thirty Years War on the German states was to

devastate the German states economies

Pedro Cabral (1467-1520):

discovered Brazil

"The state of the monarchy is the supremest thing upon the earth; for kings are not only God's lieutenants upon earth, and sit upon God's throne, but even by God Himself they are called gods...." The author of the statement believed most strongly in

divine right of kings

The economic system employed by the Spanish to settle and exploit native labor in the sixteenth century in the Americas was known as which of the following?

economienda

Civic Humanism

education should prepare leaders who would be active in civic affairs

The one positive result of the failures of the revolutions of 1848 in Italy & Germany was the

emergence of Piedmont-Sardinia & Prussia as champions of Italian & German unification, respectively

The most notable characteristic of the Scientific Revolution of the 17th century was the

emphasis on empirical data and observation

A major difference between Calvinism and Lutheranism relates to

emphasis on predestination

After the death of Stalin, Khrushchev modified Soviet policy by

emphasizing the production of consumer goods

John Locke's concept of the tabula rasa relates best to

empiricism

The most serious blunder made by the National Assembly during the early stages of the French Revolution was

enactment of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy

The Reformation leader, John Calvin, believed strongly in and

encouraged education so that everyone could read the scriptures.

The policy of glasnost proved to be a dangerous policy for the Soviet Union because it

encouraged open discussion and criticism of the government

The primary purpose of the Peace of Augsburg (1555) was to

end the civil war between Lutherans and Roman Catholics in the German states

The levee en masse was a measure intended to

enlist personnel for the war effort

The main purpose of the women's march to Versailles in October 1789 was to

ensure the king's support for the Declaration of Rights and cheap bread for Paris

Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)

established a theocracy in Zurich, Switzerland o Disagreed with Luther over the Eucharist (Communion); saw it as only symbolic while Luther believed the spirit of Christ existed in the Eucharist--consubstantiation; Catholics believed in transubstantiation—that the wine and bread consumed during Communion turned into the actual body and blood of Christ in the believer.

Tsar Alexander II of Russia (1855-1881)

established the zemstvos which were assemblies which allowed the Russian nobility to maintain control over local politics.

Britain has experienced violence in Northern Ireland, and Russia has experienced violence in Chechnya. Both conflicts are examples of societal divisions based on

ethnicity

During the French Revolution the Committee of Public Safety was primarily concerned with

executive duties of government

In seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Prussia, the Junkers supported the monarchy and served in the army in return for

exemption from all taxes

In the mid-nineteenth century, industrial growth in Western Europe was significantly stimulated by the

expansion of transportation systems

Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457)

expert in the study of Latin; translated Roman manuscripts Donation of Constantine (1439-40) exposed false land claims of the Catholic Church

A major goal of English chartists in the 1840s was

extending the vote to working people

Emperor Joseph II of Austria failed in his attempts to reform his country because he

failed to win the support of the nobility

nepotism

favoring family members in the appointment of Church offices

Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460)

financed exploration along coast of West Africa

Vasco Nunez de Balboa (1475-1517):

first to sight the Pacific Ocean; explored the isthmus of Panama

Habsburg-Valois Wars:

five wars between 1521 and 1555 (Francis I vs. Charles V) ▪ France tried to keep Germany divided (although ironically, France was Catholic) ▪ Political impact of Lutheranism in Germany: division lasted until late 19th century. ▪ Wars ended by the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559)

League of Schmalkalden, 1531:

formed by newly Protestant (Lutheran) princes to defend themselves against emperors drive to re-Catholicize Germany. ▪ Francis I of France allied with League (despite being Catholic)

Mennonites:

founded by Menno Simmons later became descendants of Anabaptists

In The Wealth of Nations (1776), Adam Smith strongly advocated a policy of

free trade and minimal government

"Many virtues of the mind are as necessary to a woman as to a man, but I do think that beauty is more necessary to her than to the Courtier, for truly that woman lacks much who lacks beauty. In a Lady who lives at court a certain pleasing affability is becoming above all else, whereby she will be able to entertain graciously every kind of man with agreeable and attractive conversation." This quote from Castiglione's Book of the Courtier (1527) demonstrates that in terms of their status during the Renaissance, women

gained educationally but were often treated as objects

Maximilian I (r. 1493-1519)

gained much territory in eastern France with his marriage to Mary of Burgundy o This sparked a fierce dynastic struggle between the Valois in France and the Habsburgs that would last until 1559 (Hapsburg-Valois Wars).

Mercantilism is a system of economic principles emphasizing

government intervention to secure a favorable balance of trade and the growth of national reserves of gold and silver

The Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher (1979-1990) is associated with all of the following EXCEPT

government ownership of heavy industry

Charles I of England was forced to call Parliament into session even though he did not want to because only it could

grant new taxes

Nationalism in Europe after 1815

grew out of an awareness of the Volkgeist (Volkish thought)

As a result of Alexander II's (1855-1881) reforms, Russia experienced which of the following in the nineteenth century?

growth of revolutionary groups demanding further change

Johann Tetzel (1465?-1519)

had been authorized by Pope Leo X to sell indulgences ▪ "As soon as a coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs."

Louis XVI supported the declaration of war against Austria in 1792 because

he hoped the French army would be defeated and the old regime restored

Classical economists

held that a free market is governed by "natural laws".

Charles V Habsburg's response to the Reformation was influenced by

his preoccupation with the many political problems throughout the empire

Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521):

his ship was the first to circumnavigate the globe

After 1860, Napoleon III became increasingly liberal in his domestic policies in response to

his unsuccessful foreign policy

The system of intendants was established in seventeenth-century France primarily to

implement royal policies locally

The Ottoman Empire was referred to as the "sick man" of Europe primarily because of its

inability to effectively maintain its empire in the Balkans during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries

According to Adam Smith, rational economic behavior was in accord with

individuals pursuing their own self-interests

The nineteenth century Concert of Europe acted primarily as a( n )

informal collective security arrangement of the great powers

Conservatism after 1815 remained strong, building on the ideas of Edmund Burke, who held that

institutions should change by gradual adaptation

Joint-stock companies

investors pooled resources for common purpose (forerunner of modern corporation)

The Provisional Government in Russia (1917) failed primarily because

it continued to pursue an unpopular war

Peasants tended to support the Reformation because

it seemed to promise political liberation and greater social opportunities.

During Stalin's rule of the Soviet Union, the term kulak was a designation assigned to

landowning peasants

Condottieri

leaders of private armies hired by cities for military purposes

Jacques Lefevre d'Etables (1454-1536)

leading French humanist; produced 5 versions of the Psalms that challenged a single authoritative Bible

Charles VIII (r. 1483-1498)

led French invasions of Italy that made it a battleground for international ambitions between France and Spain and effectively ended the sovereignty of most Italian city-states

The civil revolt known as "the Fronde" that shook France between 1648 and 1653 was

led by nobles of the sword trying to regain lost influence

Napoleons 1801 Concordat with the Catholic

left the church under the supervision of the state

The Russian zemstvos were

local assemblies with regional self-governing powers

"Vernacular" is a term used to describe

local language

Lorenzo "the Magnificent" de' Medici

major patron of the arts

The Treaty of Versailles (1919) contributed to the outbreak of the Second World War, in part, because the treaty

mandated punitive war reparations from Germany

Which of the following best describes the political and economic environment of much of fifteenth century Italy?

many independent city-states with prosperous merchant oligarchies

Ptolemy's Geography, 1475

map making

elaborate detail

medieval architecture

flying buttresses

medieval architecture

pointed arches; barrel vaults; spires

medieval architecture

byzantine style dominates; nearly totally religious

medieval painting

gothic style

medieval painting

lack of chiaroscuro

medieval painting

lack of perspective

medieval painting

less emotion

medieval painting

patronized mostly by the Church

medieval painting

stiff, 1 dimensional figures

medieval painting

stylized faces

medieval painting

use of gold to illuminate figures

medieval painting

depended on scribes

medieval technology

Nineteenth century liberalism was most likely to be espoused by

middle class

Isabella d'Este (1474-1539)

most famous Renaissance female ruler (ruled Mantua)

Francis Xavier (1506-1552)

most important Catholic missionary in the East Indies

Charles V (r. 1519-1556)

most powerful ruler in Europe (1st Holy Roman Emperor) o Ruled Spanish and Austrian Habsburg branches, sacked Rome in 1527 o Sought to prevent spread of Protestant Reformation in Germany

Calvinism

most significant of the new Protestant sects most militant and uncompromising of all Protestants

The consolidation of Germany was primarily the victory of

nationalism over liberalism

Causes for exploration

o "God, glory, and gold" were the primary motives o Christian Crusaders in 11th & 14th centuries created European interest in Asia and Middle East o Rise of nation states ("New Monarchs") resulted in competition for empires and trade ▪ Portugal and Spain sought to break the Italian monopoly on trade with Asia. o Impact of the Renaissance: search for new knowledge ▪ Revival of Platonic studies, especially mathematics ▪ Awareness of living "at dawn of a new age" ▪ Invention of printed book: publication and circulation of accurate texts and maps

Features of the Commercial Revolution

o Banking: Fuggers (in Germany), Antwerp in 16th century, Amsterdam in 17th century o The Hanseatic League evolved from within the German states in the Middle Ages that eventually controlled trade in much of northern Europe well into the 16th century. o Stock markets: e.g., Bourse in Antwerp o First Enclosure movement in England (for sheep raising), 16th c.; enclosure in 18th century o "Putting-out" Industry emerged in the English countryside for production of cloth. o The Columbian Exchange

Female rulers in the Renaissance

o Caterina Sforza in Milan o Isabella I: Unified Spain along with her husband Ferdinand. o Mary Tudor ("Bloody Mary"): Ruled England (1553-1558) o Elizabeth I: Ruled England (1558-1603) o Catherine de Mèdicis: Ruled France as regent from 1559 to 1589

Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592)

o Developed the essay form, which became a vehicle for testing new ideas o Skepticism: Doubt that true knowledge could be obtained ❖ Believed that the skeptic must be cautious, critical and suspend judgment. ❖ Thus, one must be tolerant of others' views

Characteristics of Christian Humanism

o Emphasis on early church writings (esp. New Testament) for answers to improve society o Studied Hebrew and Greek texts of the Bible and writings of the Church fathers o Emphasized education and power of human intellect to bring about institutional change and moral improvement o Writings led to criticism of the Catholic Church and paved the way for the Reformation.

Peasant Marriage in the Renaissance

o European Family Pattern ▪ Nuclear family (poor people tended to be unable to support extended families) ▪ Wealthier people (and some landowning peasants) tended to have extended families o Based mostly on economic considerations; not love ▪ Dowries were extremely important in wealthy families. ▪ Women tended to play a more significant role in the economy in Northern Europe. o Average age for women: less than 20 (for men it was mid-late 20s) ▪ Class issues: rich tended to marry earlier than middle classes, and poor tend to marry earlier too, or not to marry at all. ▪ In Italy, the age gap between husbands and wives was larger than in Northern Europe o Increased infanticide and abandonment (among the poor) ▪ Increase of foundling hospitals (2/3 of abandoned babies were girls) ▪ Low rate of illegitimate births • Dramatic population growth until 1650 o Divorce available in certain areas (but still very limited) compared to Middle Ages where divorce was non-existent • This was largely due to a modest increase in divorce in Reformation countries o Rape not considered a serious crime o More prostitution than in Middle Ages

Erasmus (1466-1536)

o In Praise of Folly (1509): Criticized the immorality and hypocrisy of Church leaders and the clergy; some say that "Erasmus lay the egg that Luther hatched" o Made new "purer" translations of the Greek and Latin versions of the New Testament o Most famous intellectual of his time

Women in the Renaissance

o Middle-class women especially suffered a marked decline in their status along with that of noble women during the Italian Renaissance o Middle class women were exclusively relegated to the private sphere while men monopolized political and economic issues in the public sphere. o Sexual chastity was essential for both women of the nobility and the bourgeoisie; a double- standard existed as chastity was not expected of men o Medieval feudalism permitted homage to female vassals but in Renaissance Italy feudalism came to be replaced by powerful city-states. Thus, the political power of women in many cases vanished. ❖ Noble women thus experienced a state of almost universal dependence on her family and husband o Non-military education by tutors for young noblemen (and women) had often been done by females in the Middle Ages. During the Renaissance female tutors were replaced with male humanistic tutors or boarding schools (that emphasized patriarchal and misogynous bias), thus reducing the educational influence of women.

Causes of the Commercial Revolution

o Roots existed in the Middle Ages such as the Hanseatic League o Population growth created larger markets: 70 million in 1500; 90 million in 1600 o "Price revolution": (long slow upward trend); increased food prices, increased volume of money, influx of gold & silver o States and emerging powers sought to increase their economic power o Rise in capitalism (laissez-faire): entrepreneurs; bourgeoisie at the forefront

Francois Rableis (1494-1553)

o Secular works portrayed his confidence in human nature and reflected Renaissance tastes. o Gargantua (1534) and Pantagruel (1532): satirized French society, emphasized education, attacked clerical education and monastic orders

Significance of the Commercial Revolution

o Slow transition from a European society that was almost completely rural and isolated to a society that was more developed with the emergence of towns. o Enabled the emergence of more powerful nation states o Brought about the age of exploration as competing nations sought to create new empires overseas o The "price revolution" o Bourgeoisie grew in political and economic significance o Increased standard of living o African slave trade emerged

Peasants' War (1524-1525)

o Twelve Articles,1525: peasants demanded an end to feudalism ▪ Inspired by Luther's writings o Yet, Luther was opposed to violence and peasant movement ▪ Luther was a conservative in that he believed people should obey their secular rulers. o About 100,000 peasants were killed as both Protestant and Catholic armies crushed the revolt

Absenteeism

official not participating in benefices

During the great witchcraft persecutions of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, those most often tried as witches were

older women

Queen Elizabeth I of England

organized the defeat of the Spanish Armada

European countries were motivate to assert imperial control over countries on other continents during the second half of the 19th century by all of the following EXCEPT

overpopulation

Valois dynasty

oversaw France's recovery after the 100 Years' War

The Syllabus of Errors reflected the anti-liberal position of the

papacy

Sale of indulgences

paying a fee to the Church so that a person could escape purgatory and go to heaven

During the Reformation, Anabaptism drew its membership mostly from the ranks of the

peasants

Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512):

perhaps first European to realize a new continent had been found; "America" named after him

Renaissance Art Painters, Techniques, and Paintings

perspective: 3-D effects (developed largely by Brunelleschi) ▪ chiaroscuro: use of dark and light colors to create the illusion of depth ▪ Individualism in portrayal of human figures ▪ sfumato: blurring or softening sharp lines in painting; developed by Leonardo ▪ Giotto (1266-1336) - considered the first Renaissance artist; use of chiaroscuro ▪ Masaccio (1401-1428) painted real, nude human figures ▪ Sandro Botticelli (1444-1510) - painter: Birth of Venus, La Primavera ▪ Michelangelo (1475-1564): ceiling of the Sistine Chapel ▪ Raphael (1483-1520): School of Athens, numerous Madonna and Child paintings ▪ Leonardo (1452-1519): Mona Lisa, The Last Supper ▪ Titian (c. 1485-1576): greatest painter of the Venetian school

European Socialists

played virtually no role in European politics during the Great War and waited for the end of the hostilities

Many European intellectuals viewed Frederick the Great of Prussia (reigned 1740-1786) as an enlightened despot because of his

policies of religious toleration

Kepler's heliocentric theory differed from that of Copernicus in that the former

posited elliptical planetary movement

The Fashoda incident was significant in that

power relationships in Europe determined the outcome of events in Africa

The immediate aim of the Truman Doctrine (1947) was to

prevent the overthrow of the Greek and Turkish governments

The Royal Society in London was founded in 1660 to

promote scientific research

One of the first actions taken by Mikhail Gorbachev when he became leader of the Soviet Union in 1985 was to

propose a series of reforms designed to save the failing communist regime

The "blank check" that Kaiser William gave Austria on July 5, 1914

provided clear assurance of German military support against Serbia

Renaissance humanists sought virtue in

public performance of civic duties

El Greco (1541-1614)

quintessential mannerist who spent most of his creative life in Spain ▪ Burial of Count Orgaz (1586) is among his most famous works

The Romantic movement in late-eighteenth and early-nineteenth century Europe was characterized by

reaction against the principles of the Enlightenment

The Sepoy Rebellion and the Boxer Rebellion were similar in that they both were

reactions to Western imperialism

The Counter Reformation

reaffirmed traditional Catholic doctrine and theology.

Which of the following best describes the spirit of the Congress of Vienna?

reassertion of royal legitimacy and rejection of republicanism

The Edicts of Nantes issued by Henry IV of France did which of the following?

recognized the rights of French Huguenots

The most serious conflict facing great thinkers of the 17th century, such as Isaac Newton and Blaise Pascal, was

reconciling scientific discoveries with Christian teaching

In England in the early 19th century, liberals worked most actively to

reform the House of Commons

The Roman Catholic Council of Trent (1545-1563) had as its primary result

reform within the Catholic church and reaffirmation of Catholic doctrine

Francesco Ximenes de Cisneros (1436-1517)

reformed Spanish clergy and church, Grand Inquisitor of the Spanish Inquisition

The term "Prague Spring" refers to the

reforms by the Czechoslovak government in 1968

The Boxer Rebellion of the early twentieth century was an attempt to

remove foreign influences from China

domes

renaissance architecture

focus on balance and form

renaissance architecture

less detailed

renaissance architecture

rounded arches, clear lines; greco-roman columns

renaissance architecture

brighter colors

renaissance painting

chiaroscuro

renaissance painting

classic greek and roman ideals

renaissance painting

increased emphasis on secular themes

renaissance painting

increased use of oil paints

renaissance painting

more emotion

renaissance painting

patronized largely by merchant princes

renaissance painting

real people and settings depicted

renaissance painting

renaissance popes patronized renaissance art

renaissance painting

use of perspective

renaissance painting

new inventions for exploration

renaissance technology

use of the printing press

renaissance technology

Which of the following best describes the French social structure on the eve of the French Revolution (1789)?

resentment by the Third Estate of noble and clerical privileges

Peace of Lodi (1454)

resulted in a balance of power and peace between Milan, Florence, and Naples that lasted until the French invasions of the 1490s

The first significant setback to Philip IIs dream of Habsburg dominance in Europe and the New World was the

revolt of the Netherlands

Vasco da Gama (1469-1525):

rounded south of Africa and found all-water route to India ▪ Major blow to Italian city-states' monopoly on trade with Asia.

Bartholomew Diaz (1450-1500):

rounded southern tip of Africa

The sequence of events that led to the French Revolution of 1789 is best summarized by which of the following?

royal financial crisis, convening of the Estates-General, storming of the Bastille

The 18th century philosophes believed that society could best achieve progress through

scientific empiricism

The first political use of the terms "right" and "left" was to describe the

seating arrangements in the French National Assembly chamber during the French Revolution.

The Entente Cordiale of 1904

settled colonial disputes between France and Great Britain

The phenomenon of "rotten boroughs" in England in the 19th century can best be attributed to

shifts in population as industrial cities grew

Renaissance thinkers most commonly believed that women

should receive a humanist education with the exception of rhetoric since women were not suited for leadership roles.

In the 15th century Lorenzo Valla proved that the Donation of Constantine was a forgery by

showing that the language used in the document was not in use in the age of Constantine

Fugger family

significant in patronizing art of the Northern Renaissance; international banking family

All of the following factors contributed to the formation of a Franco-Russian alliance in the late nineteenth century EXCEPT

similarity of political regimes

Each of the following statements about the outset of World War I are true EXCEPT :

socialist politicians in every country opposed their government's decision to enter the war

The primary reason why Russia, Great Britain, and France supported the Greek war for independence in the 1820s was that each

sought to extend its own influence in the Balkans

Printing press: Johann Gutenberg

spread of humanistic literature to rest of Europe

"...there is no place for industry ...no arts; no letters; no society; and which is the worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." Question: This quotation from Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan (1651) described the concept known as

state of nature

Chartered companies

state provided monopolies in certain regions (BEIC, DEIC)

One of the chief influences of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars (1789-1815) on Europe outside of France was that they

strengthened German nationalism

Consumer goods

sugar (most important), tea, rice

Martin Luther's response to the German Peasants' War (1524-1525) demonstrated his

support of the prevailing social and political order

Armies of Charles V, sack of Rome in 1527

symbolized end of Renaissance in Italy

In his Institutes of the Christian Religion, John Calvin sought to

systematize Protestant doctrine as the basis for a reformed Christianity

The Protestant Reformation

tended to strengthen the power of secular rulers.

In contrast to most of Europe, marriages in Italian Renaissance cities

tended to take place between older men who had made their fortune and much younger women.

Martin Behaim

terrestrial globe, 1492

The central thesis of Pico della Mirandola's Oration on the Dignity of Man was

that God gave man the freedom to shape his own being.

Italy entered World War I on the side of the Allies because

the Allies promised Italy territory controlled by Austria

During the Renaissance, the most widely read book of manners for the wealthy was

the Book of the Courtier by Castiglione

"Men are born, and always continue free and equal in respect of their rights. Civil Distinctions, therefore, can be founded only on public utility." Question: In 1789 these statements were part of

the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

The immediate cause for the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War was

the Ems Dispatch

A factor accelerating the British government's repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 was

the Irish potato famine

The Revolutions of 1848 reflected the interests of all of the following except

the Marxists

"Politics, religion, philosophy, news: nothing was excluded. Her circle met daily from five to nine. There one found men of all ranks in the State, the Church, and the Court, soldiers and foreigners, and the leading writers of the day." Question: What is being described?

the Parisian salon of Julie de Lespinasse

Between 1869 and 1914, Egypt was crucial to the British Empire because

the Suez Canal was considered Britain's "life line."

The response of the Roman Catholic church to the Protestant Reformation included all of the following except

the abolition of the Index of Prohibited Books

Which of the following is most closely associated the rise of Prussia as a major power?

the army

All of the following were among President Wilson's Fourteen Points EXCEPT :

the autonomous development of the peoples of the Russian Empire

All of the following were causes of the English Civil War during the mid-seventeenth century EXCEPT

the character of Oliver Cromwell

abbess

the head of a convent or monastery for women

Which of the following factors led most immediately to the convening of the French Estates-General in May 1789?

the impending bankruptcy of the French government

The political strength of the Medici family in Florence was initially based on

the influence and wealth of their bank.

Luddites and other artisans opposed the development of factories primarily because

the new machinery being introduced into the factories was eliminating their jobs

The point of view of the artist in the caricature of eighteenth century French society shown above is that

the peasantry is exploited both by the church and by the nobility

Which of the following was a major result of the Thirty Years War (1618-1648)?

the political fragmentation of the Holy Roman Empire was maintained.

The nineteenth-century English cartoon above depicts

the pollution resulting from industrialization

The factors that led to the Protestant Reformation include all of the following except

the rise of absolute monarchs

The model of the universe which resulted from the scientific work of Galileo and Newton embraced

the science of mechanics

A central theme in the work of Shakespeare was

the striking contradiction between a person's nobility and his capacity for evil and self-destruction.

In art, chiaroscuro refers to

the technique of stressing contrasts of light and shade.

Which of the following was accomplished by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk?

the treaty fulfilled the Bolshevik promise of immediate peace.

The cartoonist intended to portray

the triumph of the British from Cairo to Cape Town

When Sigmund Freud remarked that "in mental life nothing which has once been formed can perish," he meant that

the unconscious preserves unpleasant as well as pleasant thoughts

A major problem facing Italy after its unification was

the uneven economic development of the north and south

In the second half of the nineteenth century, the balance of power in Europe was greatly changed by

the unifications of Germany and Italy

What is the social significance of women working in factories during World War I?

the vital contribution of women to the war effort helped in their liberation from narrow social roles

Unlike Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin emphasized that

the working class, on its own, would not develop revolutionary consciousness

A primary factor in the influence of the sans culottes in the French Revolution was

their alliance with the Jacobins

The cities of northern Italy differed from most of the rest of Europe in all of the following ways EXCEPT

they continued to be under the effective control of the nobility

The principal reason Louis XIV (1643-1715) built his palace at Versailles was to

tighten his control over the nobility

The important decision made by leading German officials at the Wannsee Conference was

to begin implementation of the Final Solution to the Jewish Question

Which of the following was the key aim of the British Corn Laws in the early 1800s?

to protect the interests of British grain producers

Which of the following was the major reason for the establishment of the Ausgleich in 1867?

to satisfy the demands of the Magyars

Mary Wollstonecraft and John Stuart Mill both wrote

tracts on liberty and the rights of women

Monarchy, as a system of government, emerged significantly strengthened in the 18th century because

turmoil caused by the wars and revolts of the 17th century made most Europeans willing to sacrifice freedom for security

Machiavelli's The Prince represented an attempt to find ways to

unify the entire Italian peninsula under a powerful ruler.

The constitution that Otto von Bismarck created for the united German Empire included

universal male suffrage for Parliament

In Germany, England, and Poland the Renaissance was centered at the

universities

Martin Luther initially criticized the Roman Catholic church on the grounds that it

used indulgences as a fund-raising device

"The greatest happiness for the greatest number of people" is a principle generally associated with

utilitarianism

They gained proportional representation in the Chamber of Deputies.

vicious attacks against the king by army officers led by Napoleon

The Colloquy of Marburg in 1529

was a debate between Luther and Zwingli which resulted in a formal split within Protestantism

The Balfour Declaration (1917)

was a pledge of British support for the future establishment of a Jewish state

The Boulanger Crisis

was caused by a right-wing scheme to overthrow the Third French Republic and install General Georges Boulanger as the political leader

The Petition of Right (1628-1629)

was directed at addressing a range of Parliamentary grievances before approving new sources of revenue which were requested by Charles I

By 1500 the leading patrons of intellectual and artistic pursuits were

wealthy bourgeoisie

The Carlsbad Decrees (1819)

were a check on the growth of liberal and nationalist ideas.

Bismarck's Kulturkampf

were anti-Catholic laws directed at curtailing the influence of the Center Party

All of the following were true about the assignats EXCEPT that they

were first issued to pay compensation to aristocratic families for those who had been guillotined

The English Reformation was unique in that the government broke with Rome

when there was no theological dispute between king and pope

In the 1960s, Western European women's lives were significantly changed by the

widespread use of oral contraceptives

The print above, commemorating the women's march on Versailles in October 1789, shows that

women helped the progress of the Revolution

A social historian would be most likely interested in researching which of the following topics related to World War II?

womens participation in the labor force during the war

The seventeenth-century French leader, Cardinal de Richelieu,

worked hard to strengthen royal absolutism

Bartholomew de las Casas (1474-1566)

writings about Columbus and his successors' cruel treatment of Indians helped spread "black legend" Protestant countries regarding the Spanish empire

Defense of the Seven Sacraments was a tract

written by Henry VIII in which he supported the Roman Catholic Church's position on sacramental theology

Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444)

wrote history of Florence; division of historical periods; narrative form; civic humanist; first to use the term "humanism"

Thomas a Kempis

wrote the Imitation of Christ

Habsburg Empire: (Holy Roman Empire)

• HRE consisted of about 300 semi-autonomous German states • Most powerful European political entity in the 16th century (under the reign of Charles V) o NOT a "new monarchy" in that the emperor did not have centralized control, could not levy taxes and raise armies outside of his own hereditary lands in Austria • Center of Habsburg power was in Austria and in nearby German states

Upper Class Women in the Renaissance

• Women enjoyed increased access to education • However, lost some status compared to women in the Middle Ages; many women now functioned as "ornaments" to their middle-class or upper-class husbands • Women were to make themselves pleasing to the man (Castiglione) • Sexual double-standard: women were to remain chaste until marriage; same not true for men • Important Renaissance noblewomen at court in education and culture

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)

▪ 1492, first European to reach the New World since the Vikings c. 1000 ▪ Significance: a wave of European explorers, conquerors and settlers followed

Technology

▪ Astronomy ▪ Magnetic compass (ca. 1300): helped determine direction ▪ Quadrant (c. 1450), astrolabe (c. 1480) and cross staff (c. 1550): determined latitude ▪ Ships ❖ Portuguese caravel (ca. 1450): lighter, faster ships; could sail into the wind ❖ Lateen sail and rope riggings: maneuverable sails took advantage of wind power from any direction ❖ Axial rudder (side rudder): improved ability of ships to change direction ❖ Gunpowder and cannons: provided protection from hostile ships and enabled European domination of indigenous peoples

Francis I (1515-1547)

▪ Concordat of Bologna (1516): king now appointed bishops to the Gallican Church • Major reason why Reformation did not take hold in France ▪ taille: head tax on all land and property ▪ Large royal army

Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528)

▪ Foremost northern Renaissance artist; master of the woodcut ▪ First northerner artist to master Italian Renaissance techniques of proportion, perspective, and modeling

Treaty of Utrecht (1713)

▪ France lost Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Hudson Bay territory to Britain ▪ Spain lost the asiento to Britain; allowed one British ship to sell to Spanish empire each year

Flemish Style Art Characteristics

▪ Heavily influenced by the Italian Renaissance ▪ More detail throughout paintings (especially the background) than the Italian Renaissance ▪ Use of oil paints (in contrast to Italian Renaissance that used tempera) ▪ More emotional than the Italian style ▪ Works often preoccupied with death

Bosch (c. 1450-1516)

▪ Master of symbolism and fantasy ▪ His art often looks surrealistic (like Dali of the 20th century) and focused often on death and the torments of Hell

Jan Van Eyck - (c. 1339- c. 1441)

▪ Most famous and innovative Flemish painter of the 15th century ▪ Perfected oil painting; wood panel paintings used much religious symbolism. ▪ Employed incredible detail in his works ▪ Arnolfini and his Wife (1434) is perhaps his most famous work

Opposition to the "new monarchs"

▪ Nobles resented the decline of political influence ▪ Clergy members saw the pope as their leader, not the monarch ▪ Independent towns resisted more centralized monarchial control

Peter Brueghel the Elder (1520-1569)

▪ Not influenced much by the Italian Renaissance ▪ Focused on lives of ordinary people [e.g. Peasant Dance (1568), Peasant Wedding (c. 1568), and The Battle Between Carnival and Lent (1559)]

Artemesia Gentileschi (1593-1651/3)

▪ Perhaps the first female artist to gain recognition in the post-Renaissance era. ▪ First woman to paint historical and religious scenes: e.g. her "Judith" paintings ▪ Female artists at this time were consigned to portrait painting and imitative poses

Causes of the Persecution of Witches

▪ Popular belief in magic ❖ "Cunning folk" had been common in European villages for centuries: played a positive role in helping villagers deal with tragedies such as plagues, famines, physical disabilities, and impotence. ❖ Claims to power often by the elderly or impoverished, and especially women ▪ The Catholic Church claimed that powers came from either God or the Devil ❖ Used witch hunts to gain control over village life in rural areas. ▪ Women seen as "weaker vessels" and prone to temptation: constituted 80% of victims ❖ Most between age 45 and 60; unmarried ❖ Misogyny (hatred of women) played a role as Europe was a highly patriarchal society ▪ Most midwives were women; if babies died in childbirth midwives could be blamed ▪ Religious wars and divisions created panic environment: scapegoating of "witches" ❖ Leaders tried to gain loyalty of their people; appeared to be protecting them

Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543)

▪ Premier portrait artist of his era: painted Erasmus, More, numerous portraits of King Henry VIII and also his family members ▪ The Ambassadors (1533) encompasses some of the major themes of the era: exploration, religious discord, preoccupation with death (the skull in the foreground) and the rising tide of international relations in an age of expansion

Characteristics of Mannerism

▪ Reaction against the High Renaissance ideals of balance, symmetry, simplicity and realistic use of color ▪ Works often used unnatural colors while shapes were elongated or otherwise exaggerated

Henry VII (1485-1509)

▪ Reduced the power of the nobility ❖ Star Chamber: nobles were tried without a jury and were often tortured ❖ Nobles not allowed to have own private armies ▪ English Parliament still had influence over taxation and government policy

Characteristics of New Monarchies

▪ Reduced the power of the nobility through taxation, confiscation of lands (from uncooperative nobles), and hiring of mercenary armies or the creation of standing armies • The advent of gunpowder increased the vulnerability of noble armies and their knights • Many nobles in return for their support of the king gained titles and offices ▪ Reduced the political power of the clergy ▪ Created more efficient bureaucracies ▪ Increased the political influence of the French bourgeoisie (at the expense of the nobility) ▪ Increased the public (national) debt by taking out loans from merchant-bankers

End of Witch Hunts

▪ Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries increasingly discredited superstition ▪ Advances in medicine and the advent of insurance companies enabled people to better take care of themselves when calamities struck. ▪ Witch trials had become chaotic; accusers could become the accused (thus, using witch trials for political gain could be very risky) ▪ Protestant Reformation emphasized God as the only spiritual force in the universe. ❖ Yet, witch trials did occur in great numbers in Protestant countries as well ▪ Some literature of the 16th & 17th century implied that people had a large degree of control over their own lives and did not need to rely on superstition.

Peace of Augsburg, 1555

▪ Temporarily ended the struggle in Germany over Lutheranism ▪ Princes in Germany could choose either Protestantism or Catholicism ▪ Resulted in the permanent religious division of Germany

Anabaptist Beliefs

▪ Voluntary association of believers with no connection to any state ("left wing of the Protestant Reformation") ▪ Rejected child baptism ▪ Believed the end of the world was near ▪ Rejected the Trinity

Louis XI "Spider King" (1461-83)

▪ large royal army ▪ ruthlessly suppressed nobles ▪ taxes ▪ power over clergy ▪ actively encouraged economic growth

Lutheran Beliefs

❖ Salvation through faith alone ❖ Bible is the sole authority ❖ "Priesthood of all believers:" Church consists of entire Christian community ❖ Only two sacraments are valid: baptism and communion

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