AP European History IDs of Chapters 12-27

John Kay

Who is this: Who: A man who invented the flying shuttle, which enabled the weaver to throw the shuttle back and forth between the threads with one hand. What: His invention, the flying shuttle, greatly accelerated weaving. It did this by allowing the shuttle carrying the weft to be passed through the warp threads faster and over a greater width of cloth.

Anne Robert Jacques Turgot

Who is this: Who: A reform-minded, woman economics minister who issued a law abolishing all french guilds and who partially dominated the physiocracy movement. What: She wrote in her law that abolished all French guilds, "We wish to abolish there arbitrary institutions, which do not allow the poor man to earn his living; which reject a sex whose weakness has given it more needs and fewer resources, which destroy emulation and industry and nullify the talents of those whose circumstances have excluded them from membership of a guild; which deprive the state and the arts of all the knowledge brought to them by foreigners; which retard the progress of these arts; and which burden industry with an oppressive tax, which bears heavily on people."

Charles X

Who is this: Who: He was King of France from 1824-1830. For most of his life he was known as the Count of Artois. An uncle of the uncrowned King Louis XVII, and younger brother to reigning Kings Louis XVI and Louis XVIII, he supported the latter in exile and eventually succeeded him. He was replaced by Louise Philippe in the July Revolution. What: He was a true reactionary and wanted to reestablish the old order in France. Increasingly blocked by the opposition of the deputies, his government turned in 1830 to military adventure in an effort to rally French nationalism and gain popular support. A long standing economic and diplomatic dispute with Muslim Algeria, a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire, provided the opportunity. In 1830, a French force of thirty-seven thousand crossed the Mediterranean, landed to the west of Algiers, and took the capital city in three short weeks. Emboldened by the initial good new from Algeria. He repudiated the Constitutional Charter in an attempted coup. He issued decrees stripping much of the wealthy middle class of its voting rights and censored the press. The immediate reaction was an insurrection in the capital. People rioted in the streets of Paris, and three days of vicious street fighting brought down the government and he fled. Then the upper middle class, which had fomented the revolt, skillfully seated his cousin, Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, on the vacant throne.

Louis Philippe

Who is this: Who: He was King of the French from 1830 to 1848 as the leader of the Orléanist party. As a member of one of the most prominent aristocratic families in France and a cousin of King Louis XVI of France by reason of his descent from their common ancestors Louis XIII and Louis XIV of France, he had earlier found it necessary to flee France during the period of the French Revolution in order to avoid imprisonment and execution. France gained ties to north Africa under him, and got a vast new empire. He was more liberal than Charles X. What: People rioted in the streets of Paris, and three days of vicious street fighting brought down the government and Charles X fled. Then the upper middle class, which had fomented the revolt, skillfully seated his cousin, this man, duke of Orleans, on the vacant throne. Despite the abdication of Charles X, the political situation remained unchanged. This new king accepted the Constitutional Charter and adopted the red, white, and blue frag of the French Revolution. Beyond these symbolic actions, popular demands for reform went unanswered. The upper middle class had effected a change in dynasty that maintained the statues quo and the narrowly liberal institutions of 1815. Republicans, democrats, social reformers, and the poor of Paris were bitterly disappointed. They had made a revolution, but it seemed for naught. His reign was labeled the bourgeoisie monarchy because it served the selfish interests of France's wealthy elites, had been characterized by stubborn inaction, and complacency. The National guard broke ranks and joined the revolutionaries and this man refused to call in the army and abdicated in favor of his grandson. However, the common people in arms would tolerate no more monarchy.

T.E. Lawrence

Who is this: Who: He was a British author, archaeologist, military officer, and diplomat. He was renowned for his liaison role during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign and the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire during the First World War. The breadth and variety of his activities and associations, and his ability to describe them vividly in writing, earned him international fame as (his last name) of Arabia—a title used for the 1962 film based on his wartime activities. What: In 1916, Hussein rebelled against the Turks, proclaiming himself king of the Arabs. Hussein was aided by the British liaison officer this man, who in 1917, helped lead Arab soldiers in a successful guerrilla war against the Turks on the Arabian peninsula.

Benjamin Disraeli

Who is this: Who: He was a British conservative politician and writer who twice served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1874-1880. He played a central role in the creation of the modern Conservative Party, defining its policies and its broad outreach. He is remembered for his influential voice in world affairs, his political battles with the Liberal Party leader William Gladstone, and his one-nation conservatism or "Tory democracy". He made the Conservatives the party most identified with the glory and power of the British Empire. What: In 1867, the Second Reform Bill of this man and the Conservative party extended the vote to all middle class males and the best paid workers in order to broaden their own base of support beyond the landowning class.

Jan Van Eyck

Who is this: Who: He was a Flemish painter who was considered the artistic equal of Italian painters. He was much admired in Italy What: He was one of the first artists to use oil-based paints successfully. His religious scenes and portraits all show great realism and remarkable attention to human personality.

Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes

Who is this: Who: He was a French Roman Catholic abbé, clergyman and political writer. He was one of the chief political theorists of the French Revolution, and also played a prominent role in the French Consulate and First French Empire. What: He personified the evolution in thinking that firm rule was much more appealing than liberty. He wrote that the nobility was grossly overprivileged and the entire people should rule the French Nation. His motto was "Confidence from below, authority from above." In his famous pamphlet, What is the Third Estate?, he argued that the nobility was a tiny overprivileged minority and that the third estate constituted the true strength of the French nation.

Eugene Delacroix

Who is this: Who: He was a French Romantic artist regarded from the outset of his career as the leader of the French Romantic school. He painted Liberty Leading the People. What: He was one of romanticism's greatest artists, and he painted dramatic, colorful scenes that stirred the emotions. He was fascinated with remote and exotic subjects, whether lion hunts in Morocco or dreams of languishing, sensuous women in sultan's harem.

Henri de Saint-Simon

Who is this: Who: He was a French political and economic theorist and businessperson during the Industrial Revolution whose thought played a substantial role in influencing politics, economics, sociology, and the philosophy of science. What: He optimistically proclaimed the tremendous possibilities of industrial development; "The golden age of the human species is before us!" The key to progress was proper social organization that required the parasites — the court, the aristocracy, lawyers and churchmen — the leading scientists, engineers, and industrialists. The doers would carefully plan the economy and guide it forward by undertaking vast public works projects and establishing investment banks. He also stressed in highly moralistic terms that every social institution ought to have as its main goal improved conditions for the poor.

Jean-Paul Marat

Who is this: Who: He was a French political theorist, physician, and scientist who became best known for his role as a radical journalist and politician during the French Revolution. What: He was one of the prominent radical leaders during the revolution. He edited a radical newspaper and called to rid France of the enemies of the Revolution. His journalism became renowned for its fierce tone, uncompromising stance towards the new leaders and institutions of the revolution, and advocacy of basic human rights for the poorest members of society. He was one of the most radical voices of the French Revolution. He became a vigorous defender of the sans-culottes, publishing his views in pamphlets, placards and newspapers, notably his periodical L'Ami du peuple (Friend of the People), which helped make him their unofficial link with the radical, republican Jacobin group that came to power.

Dietrich Bonhoeffer

Who is this: Who: He was a German Lutheran pastor, theologian, anti-Nazi dissident, and key founding member of the Confessing Church. He lived from 1906-1945 and his writings on Christianity's role in the secular world have become widely influential. His book The Cost of Discipleship has become a modern classic. What: Apart from his theological writings, he was known for his staunch resistance to Nazi dictatorship, including vocal opposition to Hitler's euthanasia program and genocidal persecution of the Jews. He was arrested in 1943 by the Gestapo and imprisoned at Tegel prison for one and a half years. Later he was transferred to a Nazi concentration camp. After being associated with the plot to assassinate Adolf Hitler, he was quickly tried, along with other accused plotters, including former members of the Abwehr (the German Military Intelligence Office), and then executed by hanging in 1945 as the Nazi regime was collapsing.

Léon Blum

Who is this: Who: He was a French socialist politician, who identified with the moderate left, and three times Prime Minister of France in the 1900s. He was a part of the popular front policies in France as he led the socialists. What: Frightened by the growing strength of the fascists at home and abroad, the communists, socialists, and radicals formed an alliance, the Popular Front, for the national elections of 1936. Their clear victory reflected the trend toward polarization. The number of Communists in the parliament jumped drastically from 10 to 72, while the socialists, led by this man, became the strongest party in France, with 146 seats. The radicals, who were actually quite moderate, slipped badly and the conservatives lost ground to the far right. In the next few months, his government made the first and only real attempt deal with the social and economic problems of the 1930s in France. Inspired by the New Deal, it encouraged the union movement and launched a far-reaching program of social reform, complete with paid vacations and fort-hour workweeks. Supported by workers and the lower middle class, there measures were quickly sabotages by rapid inflation and accusations of revolution from Fascists and frightened conservatives. Wealthy people sneaked their money out of sever financial crisis. He was forced to announce a breathing spell in social reform. Political dissension in France was encouraged by the Spanish Civil War, during which authoritarian Fascist rebels overthrew the democratically elected republican government. French Communists demanded that the government support the Spanish republicans, while many French conservatives would gladly have joined Hitler and Mussolini in aiding the Spanish Fascists. Extremism grew, and France itself was within sight of civil war. He was forced to resign in June 1937, and the government quickly collapsed. An anxious and divided France drifted aimlessly once again, preoccupied by Hitler and German rearmament.

Richard Wagner

Who is this: Who: He was a German composer, theatre director, polemicist, and conductor who is primarily known for his operas. Unlike most opera composers, he wrote both the libretto and the music for each of his stage works. What: He is best known for creating several complex operas, including Tristan and Isolde and Ring Cycle, as well as for his anti-semitic writings.

Friedrich List

Who is this: Who: He was a German journalist and thinker who was a strong proponent of government support for industrialization. What: In the 1820s and 1830s, he spent several years in the United States, where he observed the country's rapidly developing economy with great interest. He retuned with the concision that the growth of modern industry was of the utmost importance. For him, manufacturing was a primary means of increasing people's well being and reliving their poverty, Moreover, he believed industrialization was essential to prevent the German states from falling behind the rest of the world. He wrote that the wider the gap between the backward and advanced nations becomes, the more dangerous it is to remain behind. The practical policies that he focused on were railroad building and the tariff. He supported the formation of a customs union, Zollverein, among the separate states. He wanted a high protective tariff, which would encourage infant industries, allowing them to develop and eventually hold their own against their more advanced British counterparts.

Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness

Who is this: Who: He was a Polish-British writer regarded as one of the greatest novelists to write in the English language. In one of his novels, he castigated the pure selfishness of Europeans in supposedly civilizing Africa; the main character, once a liberal scholar, turns into a savage brute. He joined the British merchant marine in 1878, and was granted British nationality in 1886. Though he did not speak English fluently until his twenties, he was a master prose stylist who brought a non-English sensibility into English literature. He wrote stories and novels, many with a nautical setting, that depict trials of the human spirit in the midst of an impassive, inscrutable universe. What: The novel is about a voyage up the Congo River into the Congo Free State, in the heart of Africa, by the story's narrator Marlow. Marlow tells his story to friends aboard a boat anchored on the River Thames, London, England. This setting provides the frame for Marlow's story of his obsession with the ivory trader Kurtz, which enables Conrad to create a parallel between London and Africa as places of darkness. Central to the author's work is the idea that there is little difference between so-called civilized people and those described as savages; this novel raises questions about imperialism and racism.

Pablo Picasso

Who is this: Who: He was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist, stage designer, poet and playwright who spent most of his adult life in France. Regarded as one of the greatest and most influential artists of the 20th century, he is known for co-founding the Cubist movement, the invention of constructed sculpture, the co-invention of collage, and for the wide variety of styles that he helped develop and explore. Among his most famous works are the proto-Cubist Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907), and Guernica (1937), a portrayal of the bombing of Guernica by the German and Italian air forces at the behest of the Spanish nationalist government during the Spanish Civil War. What: In Paris in 1907, this painter along with other artists, established cubism, a highly analytical approach to art concentrated on a complex geometry of zigzagging lines and sharply angled overlapping planes that exemplified the ongoing trend toward abstract, nonrepresentational art.

Robert Owen

Who is this: Who: He was a Welsh social reformer and one of the founders of utopian socialism and the cooperative movement. He was a social reformer that was one of the leaders of the attempt to create a single large national union in England in the British trade-union movement. What: He was a self-made cotton manufacturer that had pioneered tin industrial relations by combining firm discipline with concern for the health, safety, and hours of his workers. After 1815, he experimented with cooperative and socialist communities. Then he was involved in the organization of one of the largest and most visionary of the early national unions, the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union. When his ambitious schemes collapses, the British labor movement moved once again in the direction of credit unions. The most famous of these was the Amalgamated Society of Engineers, which represented skilled machinists. These unions won real benefits for members by fairly conservative means and thus became an accepted part of the industrial scene.

David Hume

Who is this: Who: He was a central figure in Edinburgh, whose emphasis on civic morality and religious skepticism had a powerful impact at home and abroad. What: Building on Locke's teachings on learning, he argued that the human mind is really nothing but a bunch of impressions. These impressions originate only in sensory experiences and our habits of joining these experiences together. Since our ideas ultimately reflect only our sensory experiences, our reason cannot tell us anything about questions that cannot be verified by sensory experience, such as the origin of the universe or the existence of God. His rationalistic inquiry ended up undermining the Enlightenment's faith in the power of reason.

Emelian Pugachev

Who is this: Who: He was a common Cossack soldier that sparked a gigantic uprising of serfs from 1773-1775. What: He sparked a gigantic uprising of serfs, very much as Stenka Razin had done a century earlier. Proclaiming himself the true czar, he issued orders abolishing serfdom, taxes and army service. Thousands joined his causes, slaughtering landlords and officials over a vast area of southwestern Russia. His untrained forces eventually proved no match for Catherine's noble led army. Betrayed by his own company, he was captured and savagely executed. His rebellion put an end to any intentions Catherine had about reforming the system. The peasants were clearly dangerous, and her empire rested on the support of the nobility.

Andreas Vesalius

Who is this: Who: He was a flemish physician and experimentalist. What: He studied anatomy by dissecting human bodies, often those of executed criminals. In 1543, the same year Copernicus published On The Revolutions, he issued his masterpiece, On the Structure of the Human Body. Its two hundred precise drawings revolutionized the understanding of human anatomy.

Claude Monet

Who is this: Who: He was a founder of French Impressionist painting, and the most consistent and prolific practitioner of the movement's philosophy of expressing one's perceptions before nature, especially as applied to plein-air landscape painting. The term "Impressionism" is derived from the title of his painting Impression, Sunrise, which was exhibited in 1874 in the first of the independent exhibitions mounted by Monet and his associates as an alternative to the Salon de Paris. What: He tried to portray his sensory impressions in his work. Impressionists looked to the world around them for subject matter, turning their backs on traditional themes such as battles, religious scenes, and wealthy elites. His colorful and atmospheric paintings of atmospheric haystacks exemplify the way impressionists moved toward abstraction.

Georges Danton

Who is this: Who: He was a leading figure in the early stages of the French Revolution and the first President of the Committee of Public Safety. His role in the onset of the Revolution has been disputed; many historians describe him as "the chief force in the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the First French Republic". What: He led the Mountain with Robespierre. The Mountain was the French National Convention's radical faction, which seized legislative power in 1793. Robespierre sent him, along with other long-standing collaborators to the guillotine because he believed that they had turned against him.

William Wordsworth

Who is this: Who: He was a major English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication Lyrical Ballads. What: He was a towering leader of English romanticism who was deeply influenced by Rousseau and the spirit of the early French Revolution. He settled in the rural Lake District of England with this sister, Dorothy, and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. In 1798, he and Coleridge published their lyrical ballads, which abandoned flowery classical conventions for the language of ordinary speech and endowed simple subjects with the loftiest majesty. He believed that all natural things were sacred, and his poetry often expressed a mystical appreciation of nature. He expressed his love of nature in commonplace forms that a variety of readers could appreciate.

Prince Klemens von Metternich

Who is this: Who: He was a politician and statesman of Rhenish extraction, represented Austria at the Council of Vienna, and was one of the most important diplomats of his era, serving as the Austrian Empire's Foreign Minister from 1809 and Chancellor from 1821 until the liberal revolutions of 1848 forced his resignation. What: He was a conservative who developed a new ideology in support of traditional political and religious authorities, which was based on the idea that human nature was not perfectible. He was Austria's foreign minister during the Council of Vienna, and he wanted a balance of power in an international equilibrium of political and military forces that would discourage aggression. He was also the leader of the dual revolution, actively intervened in revolutions taking place in different nations. In addition, he invented the Carlsbad Decrees.

Sergei Kirov

Who is this: Who: He was a prominent early Bolshevik leader in the Soviet Union. He rose through the Communist Party ranks to become head of the party organization in Leningrad. In 1934, he was shot and killed by a gunman at his offices in the Smolny Institute. Some historians place the blame for his assassination at the hands of Joseph Stalin and believe the NKVD organized his execution, but conclusive evidence for this claim remains lacking. His death served as one of the pretexts for Stalin's escalation of repression against dissident elements of the Party, and disarming of the Party (every Party member was issued with a revolver up to that time, when Stalin had them all taken away), culminating in the Great Purge of the late 1930s in which many of the Old Bolsheviks were arrested, expelled from the party, and executed. Complicity in his assassination was a common charge to which the accused confessed in the show trials of the period. What: In late 1934, Stalin's number-two man, this man, was mysteriously killed. Stalin, who probably ordered his murder, blamed the assassination of Fascist agents within the party. He used the incident to launch a reign of terror that purged the Communist Party of supposed traitors and solidified his own control.

James Watt

Who is this: Who: He was a young Scottish person who was drawn to the critical study of the steam engine. What: He was employed at the time by the University of Glasgow as a skilled craftsman making scientific instruments. Scotland's Enlightenment emphasis on practicality and social progress had resulted in its universities becoming pioneers in technical education. In 1763, he was called on to repair a Newcomen engine being used in a physics course. After a series of observations, he saw that the Newcomen engine's waste of energy could be reduced by passing a separate condenser. This splendid invention, greatly increased the efficiency of the steam engine. To invent something is one thing, to make it a practical success in quite another. He needed skilled workers, precision parts, and capital, and the relatively advanced nature of the British economy proved essential. A partnership in 1755 with Matthew Boulton, a wealthy English industrials, provided he with adequate capital and exceptional skills in salesmanship that equaled those of the renowned pottery king, Josiah Wedgwood. Among Britain's highly skilled locksmiths, tinsmiths, and millwrights, he found mechanics who could install, regulate, and repair his sophisticated engines. From ingenious manufacturers such as the cannon maker John Wilkinson, he was gradually able to purchase precision parts, This support allowed him to create an effective vacuum in the condenser and regulate a complex engine. In more than twenty years of constant effort he made many further improvements. By the late 1780s, the firm of Boulton and him had made the steam engine a practical and commercial success in Britain. The coal-burning steam engine system of his and his followers was the Industrial Revolution's most fundamental advance in technology. For the first time in history, humanity had, at least for a few generations, almost unlimited power at its disposal. For the first time, inventors and engineers could devise and implement all kinds of power equipment to aid people in their work.

Lord Byron

Who is this: Who: He was an Anglo-Scottish poet and a leading figure in the Romantic movement. Among his best-known works are the lengthy narrative poems Don Juan and Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, and the short lyric poem "She Walks in Beauty". What: He is regarded as one of the greatest British poets and is best known for his amorous lifestyle and his brilliant use of the English language. His major works include Childe Harold's Pilgrimage and Don Juan. He died of fever and exposure while engaged in the Greek struggle for independence.

Karl Lueger

Who is this: Who: He was an Austrian politician, mayor of Vienna, and leader and founder of the Austrian Christian Social Party. He is credited with the transformation of the city of Vienna into a modern city. The populist and anti-Semitic politics of his Christian Social Party are sometimes viewed as a model for Hitler's Nazism. What: Anti-Semites created nationalist political parties that attacked and degraded Jews to win popular support. This man and his Christian Socialist Party, for example, won striking electoral victories in Vienna in the early 1890s. He, the mayor of Vienna from 1897 to 1910, combined the anti-Semitic rhetoric with municipal ownership of basic services and he appealed especially to the German speaking lower middle class, and an unsuccessful young artist named Adolf Hitler.

Theodor Herzl

Who is this: Who: He was an Austro-Hungarian journalist, playwright, political activist, and writer. He was one of the fathers of modern political Zionism. He formed the World Zionist Organization and promoted Jewish migration to Palestine in an effort to form a Jewish state (Israel). What: The growth of radical anti-Semitism spurred the emergence of Zionism, a jewish political movement whose adherents believed that Christian Europeans would never overcome their anti-Semitic hatred. To escape the burdens of anti-Semitism, leading Zionists, such as this man advocated the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine, a homeland where European Jews could settle and live free of social prejudice. Zionism was particularly popular among Jews living in Russia. Many embraced self emancipation and the vision of a Zionist settlement in Palestine, or emigrated to western or central Europe and the United States. About 2.75 million Jews left central and eastern Europe between 1881 and 1914.

John Keats

Who is this: Who: He was an English Romantic poet. He was one of the main figures of the second generation of Romantic poets, along with Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley, despite his work having been in publication for only four years before his death. What: This English Romantic lyric poet was dedicated to the perfection of poetry marked by vivid imagery that expressed a philosophy through classical legend.

Joseph M.W. Turner

Who is this: Who: He was an English Romanticist landscape painter. He was considered a controversial figure in his day, but is now regarded as the artist who elevated landscape painting to an eminence rivaling history painting. What: He was an English romantic painter who was fascinated by nature, but his interpretations of it contrasted sharply with Constable, aptly symbolizing the tremendous emotional range of the romantic movement. He depicted nature's power and terror; wild storms and sinking ships were favorite subjects.

Rudyard Kipling's The White Man's Burden

Who is this: Who: He was an English journalist, short-story writer, poet, and novelist. One of his poems included ideas that prayer and hard work under German direction would lead the work-shy native to work of his own free will and thus lead him to an existence fit for human beings. What: He wrote masterfully of Anglo-Indian life and was perhaps the most influential British writer of the 1890s. Many Americans accepted the ideology that he wrote about which was that Europeans could and should civilize more primitive nonwhite peoples and that imperialism would eventually provide nonwhites with modern achievements and higher standards of living. The poem invites the U.S. to assume colonial control of the Philippines.

Louis Napoleon

Who is this: Who: He was an emperor of France who was the nephew of another French monarch. He was the first President of France to be elected by a direct popular vote. He was blocked by the Constitution and Parliament from running for a second term, so he organized a coup d'état in 1851. What: During the first years of the Empire, Napoleon's government imposed censorship and harsh repressive measures against his opponents. Some six thousand were imprisoned or sent to penal colonies until 1859. Thousands more went into voluntary exile abroad like Victor Hugo. From 1862 onwards, he relaxed government censorship, and his regime came to be known as the "Liberal Empire." Many of his opponents returned to France and became members of the National Assembly. He is best known today for his grand reconstruction of Paris, carried out by his prefect of the Seine, Baron Haussmann. He was elected President of France in 1848 as he could be a tough ruler who would protect the middle-class and peasant property owners and provide stability, and enunciate a positive program for France in pamphlets widely circulated before the election. In the 1850s, he promoted new investment banks and massive railroad construction, fostering economic expansion and developing technology of the Industrial Revolution. He rebuilt Paris to improve the urban environment: profits of business owners soared, rising wages of workers outpaced inflation, and unemployment declined greatly. Oversaw government regulation of pawnshops, supported credit unions and better working-class housing. Granted workers the right to form unions and strike. At first, political power remained in the hands of the emperor, so he alone chose his ministers, but he restricted the newly reformed Assembly. Assembly members were elected by universal male suffrage every six years, but the electoral system gradually disintegrated. He organized Europe on the principle of nationality to gain influence & territory for France. He caused middle-class liberals, who had always wanted a less authoritarian regime, to denounce his rule in 1870, he again granted France a new constitution, which combined a parliamentary regime with an emperor as chief of state, sending France in a democratic direction.

Jethro Tull

Who is this: Who: He was an important English innovator who was part crank and part genius. What: He was a true son of the early enlightenment. He adopted a critical attitude toward accepted ideas about farming and tried to develop better methods through empirical research. He was especially enthusiastic about horses, rather than slower moving oxen, for plowing. He also advocated sowing seed with drilling equipment rather than scattering it by hand. Drilling distributed seed in an even manner and at the proper depth. There were also improvements in livestock inspired in part by the earlier successes of English country gentlemen in breeding ever faster horses for the races an fox hunts that were their passions. Selective breeding of ordinary livestock was a marked improvement over the haphazard breeding of the past. One of the most important aspects of the agricultural development was the enclosure of open fields and commons.

Alexander II

Who is this: Who: He was the Emperor of Russia from 1855 until his assassination in 1881. His most significant reform as emperor was emancipation of Russia's serfs in 1861, for which he is known as the Liberator. What: Military disaster forced this liberal-leaning man and his ministers along the path of rapid social change and modernization. In a bold move, he abolished serfdom in 1861. About 22 million emancipated peasants received citizenship rights and the chance to purchase about half of the land they cultivated. Yet they had to pay fairly high prices and because the land was to be owned collectively, each peasant village was jointly responsible fore the parents of all the families in the village. Collective ownership made it difficult for individual peasants to improve agricultural methods or leave their villages. Thus old patterns of behavior predominated limiting the effects of reform. Most of this man's later reforms were also halfway measures. In 1864, the government established a new institution of local government, the zemstvo. Members of this assembly were elected by a three class system of townspeople, peasant villagers, and noble landowners. A zemstvo executive council dealt with local problems. Russian liberals hoped that his reform would lead to an elected national parliament, but it did not. The zemstvos remained subordinates to the traditional bureaucracy and the local nobility. In addition, changes to the legal system established independent courts and equality before the law. The government relaxed but did not remove censorship, and somewhat liberalized police toward Russian Jews.

Pius IX

Who is this: Who: He was the longest-reigning pope in history, serving 31 years. He convened the First Vatican Council, which decreed papal infallibility, but the council was cut short due to loss of Papal States. What: The initial cautious support for unification by him had given way to hostility after he was temporarily driven from Rome during the upheavals of 1848. For a long generation, the papacy opposed not only national unification but also most modern trends. In the Syllabus of Errors, he denounced rationalism, socialism, separation of church and state, and religious liberty, denying that the Roman pontiff can and ought to reconcile and align himself with progress, liberalism, and modern civilization.

Czar Nicholas II

Who is this: Who: He was the last Emperor of Russia, ruling from 1894 until his forced abdication in 1917. His reign saw the fall of the Russian Empire from being one of the foremost great powers of the world to economic and military collapse. Due to the Khodynka Tragedy, anti-Semitic pogroms, Bloody Sunday, the violent suppression of the 1905 Revolution, the execution of political opponents and his perceived responsibility for the Russo-Japanese War, he was given the nickname "_____" the Bloody by his political adversaries. What: When this man, who replaced his father in 1894 ignored diplomatic protests, the Japanese launched a surprise attack in 1904. After Japan scored repeated victories which included annihilating a Russian fleet, Russia surrendered in 1905. Once again, military disaster abroad brought political upheaval at home. The business and professional classes had long wanted a liberal, representative government. Urban factory works were organized in a radical and still-illegal labor movement. Peasants had gained little from the era of reforms and suffered from poverty and overpopulation. At the same time, the empire's minorities and subject nationalists, continued to call for self-rule. With the army pinned down in Manchuria, all these currents of discontent converged in the revolution of 1905. In 1905, a massive crowd of workers and their families converged peacefully on the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg to present a petition to this man. Suddenly troops opened fire, killing and wounding hundreds. This bloody Sunday massacre produced a wave of general indignation that turned many Russians against the czar. Strikes and political rallies, peasen uprisings, and mutinies were sweeping the country. The revolutionary surge culminated in October 1905 in a paralyzing general strike that forced the government to capitulate. The czar then issued the October Manifesto, which granted full civil rights and promised a popularly elected Duma (or parliament) with real legislative power. The manifesto split the opposition.

Baron Georges Haussmann

Who is this: Who: He was the prefect of the Seine Department in France, who was chosen by the Emperor Napoleon III to carry out a massive program of new boulevards, parks and public works in Paris, commonly called his renovation of Paris. Critics forced his resignation for extravagance, but his vision of the city still dominates Central Paris. One of his projects included the cutting of the new north-south axis - known as the Boulevard Saint-Michel. What: He was an aggressive, impatient Alsatian whom Napoleon III placed in charge of Paris, Napoleon III found an authoritarian planner capable of bulldozing both buildings and opposition. In twenty years, Paris was completely transformed. For two decades, he and his fellow planners preceded on many interrelated fronts. With a bold energy that often shocked their contemporaries, they razed old buildings in order to cut broad, straight, tree-lined boulevards through the center of the city as well as in the new quarters rising on the outskirts. These boulevards, designed in part to prevent the easy construction and defense of barricades by revolutionary crowds, permitted traffic to flow freely and afforded impressive vistas. Their creation also demolished some of the worst sums. New streets stimulated the construction of better housing, especially for the middle classes. Planners created small neighborhood parks and open spaces throughout the city and developed two very large parks suitable for all kinds of holiday activities, one on the affluent west side and one on the poor east side of the city. The city improved its sewers and a system of aqueducts more than doubled the city's supply of clean, fresh water. Urban planners in cities like Vienna and Cologne followed the Parisian example of tearing down old walled fortifications and replacing them with broad, circular boulevards, on which they erected office buildings, town halls, theaters, opera houses, and museums.

King Leopold II of Belgium King Cholera

Who is this: Who: He was the second King of the Belgians, known for the founding and exploitation of the Congo Free State as a private venture. Born in Brussels as the second (but eldest surviving) son of Leopold I and Louise of Orleans. What: Of enormous importance was the British occupation of Egyptian 1882, which established the new model of formal political control. This man, an energetic, strong-willed monarch of a tiny country with a lust for distant territory also played an important role. As early as 1861, he had laid out his vision of expansion as he said the sea bathes our coast, the world lies before us. Stream and electricity have annihilated distance, and all the non appropriated lands on the surface of the globe can become the filed of our operations and of our success. His expansionism focused on central Africa. He formed a financial syndicate under his personal control to send Henry M Stanley, a sensation-seeking journalist and part time explorer to the Congo basin. Stanley established traits stations, signed unfair treaties with African chiefs, and planted the Belgian flag. His actions alarmed the French who quickly sent out an expedition under Pierre de Brazza. In 1880, de Brazza signed a treaty of protection with the chief of the large Teke tribe and began to establishes aFrench protectorate on the north bank of the Congo River. His intrusion into the Congo ara called attention to the possibilities of African colonization and by 1882, Europe had caught African fever. A gold rush mentality led to determined race for territory. The Berlin Conference happened. The conference recognized Leopold's personal rule over a neutral Congo Free State and agreed to work to stop slavery and the slave trade in Africa.

Saints' Day Festivities

Who is this: Who: It is a Christian festival celebrated with celebration in honor of all the holy people in the christian faith, known and unknown. What: It is a celebration of all Christian holy individuals, particularly those who do not have special feast days. Relatives visit the graves of their deceased loved ones and bring gifts like flowers to their graves.

The Protestant Ethic

Who is this: Who: It is a book that is considered as a founding text in economic sociology and sociology in general. It was written by Max Weber, a German sociologist, economist, and politician. Begun as a series of essays, the original German text was composed in 1905, and was translated into English for the first time by American sociologist Talcott Parsons in 1930. What: In this book, Max Weber argues that the rise of capitalism is directly linked to Protestantism in northern Europe. Pointing to the early and successful modernization of countries like the Netherlands and England, he concluded that Protestantism gave religious approval to hard work, saving, and investing the foundations for capitalist development, because worldly success was a sign of God's approval. In other words, Weber wrote that capitalism in Northern Europe evolved when the Protestantism influenced large numbers of people to engage in work in the secular world, developing their own enterprises and engaging in trade and the accumulation of wealth for investment.

Thermodynamics

Who is this: Who: It is a branch of physics built on Newton's laws of mechanics that investigated the relationship between heat and mechanical energy. What: A perfect example of the translation of better scientific knowledge into practical human benefits was the development of this branch of physics. Building on Isaac Newton's laws of mechanics and on studies of steam engines, people in this branch of physics investigated the relationship between heat and mechanical energy. The law of conservation of energy held that different forms of energy, like heat, electricity, and magnetism, could be converted but neither created destroyed. By midcentury, physicists had formulated the fundamental laws of this branch of physics, which were then applied to mechanical engineering, chemical processes, and many other fields.

The British Labour Party

Who is this: Who: It is a centre-left political party in the United Kingdom. Growing out of the trade union movement and socialist parties of the nineteenth century, this party has been described as a "broad church", encompassing a diversity of ideological trends from strongly socialist to moderately social democratic. What: In Britain, the socialist but non-Marxist political party reflected the well-established union movement and was formally committed to gradual reform. Worker's established labor unions and movements promoting social and economic reforms that also developed into political parties representing the workers.

Poland

Who is this: Who: It is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges (the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains) in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine and Belarus to the east; and the Baltic Sea, Kaliningrad Oblast (a Russian exclave) and Lithuania to the north. A country that was jointly governed by king, senate, and diet. The realm of this country was almost five hundred thousand square miles, making it the largest European polity, but a population of only about 7.5 million people was very thinly scattered over the land. What: The country gained independence after World War I. After previous successes, the Bolsheviks moved westward into Polish territory, but they were halted on the outskirts of Warsaw in August 1920 by troops under the leadership of the Polish field marshal and chief of state Jozef Pilsudski. This defeat halted bolshevik attempts to spread communism further into Europe. Despite that, in 1921, the Red Army overran the independent national governments of the Caucasus. The Russian civil war was over, and the Bolsheviks had won an impressive victory. However, they would ultimately crumble due to economic strains and be taken over by the growing Soviet Union. Luther's ideas took root in germanized towns but were opposed by King Sigismund I as well as by ordinary Poles, who held a strong anti-German feeling. The reformed tradition of John Calvin, with its stress on the power of church elders, appealed to the Polish nobility, however. The fact that Calvinism originated in France, not in Germany, also made it more attractive that Lutheranism. But doctrinal differences among Calvinists, Lutherans, and other groups prevented united opposition to Catholicism, and a counter-reformation gained momentum. By 1650, due largely to the efforts of the Jesuits, the country was again staunchly Roman Catholic.

Surrealism

Who is this: Who: It is a cultural movement that began in the early 1920s, and is best known for its visual artworks and writings. The aim was to resolve the previously contradictory conditions of dream and reality. Artists painted unnerving, illogical scenes with photographic precision, created strange creatures from everyday objects and allowed the unconscious to express itself. What: Some Dadaists were attracted to this art style. These artists like Dalí were deeply influenced by Freudian psychology and portrayed images of the unconscious in their art. They painted fantastic worlds of wild dreams and uncomfortable symbols, where watches melted and giant metronomes beat time in precisely drawn but impossible alien landscapes. Many modern artists sincerely believe that art had a radical mission. The sometimes nonsensical manifestos written by members of this movement were meant to spread their ideas, challenge conventional assumptions, and foment radical social change.

Breech-Loading Rifle

Who is this: Who: It is a firearm in which the cartridge or shell is inserted or loaded into a chamber integral to the rear portion of a barrel. What: Modern mass production firearms are loaded like this firearm (though mortars are generally muzzle-loaded). Early firearms were almost entirely muzzle-loading, so this firearm different greatly to those. The development of advanced weaponry invariably ensured the military superiority of Europeans over colonized areas.

Public Housing

Who is this: Who: It is a form of the financial arrangements under which someone has the right to live somewhere in which the property is owned by a government authority. What: There was an English legislation in 1885 that lowered the interest rates to construct cheap housing, and soon thereafter local governments began public housing projects. The housing reform's goal was to provide homes for working class members, which would allow all of them to enjoy a family life similar to the middle class. This kind of house would be a detached house or a city apartment with several rooms, a private entrance, and separate toilet facilities.

Machine Gun

Who is this: Who: It is a fully automatic mounted or portable firearm, designed to fire bullets in quick succession from an ammunition belt or magazine, typically at a rate of 300 to 1800 rounds per minute. What: The Maxim gun was the first automated version of this gun invented in 1884 that gave Europeans a huge advantage in fighting African armies. The development of advanced weaponry invariably ensured the military superiority of Europeans over colonized areas. The rapidly firing Maxim gun, which was so lethal at Omdurman, Sudan, was an ultimate weapon in many another unequal battle. The Maxim gun was highly mobile and could lay down a continuos barrage that would decimate charging enemies, as in the slaughter of Muslim soldiers at the Battle of Omdurman in Sudan.

Tariff Protection

Who is this: Who: It is a government's way of supporting and aiding its own economy by laying high taxes on imported goods from other countries. What: This happened when the French responded to cheaper British goods flooding their country by imposing high tariffs on some imported products.

Secret Police

Who is this: Who: It is a group of intelligence services or law enforcement agencies that operate in secrecy. What: There was a type this law enforcement agency under Napoleon's rule that crushed anyone who defied him. Joseph Fouche was the head of the this agency.

Liberalism

Who is this: Who: It is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality. What: The principal ideas of this movement were equality and liberty. Liberals demanded representative government and equality before the law as well as individual freedoms such as freedom of the press, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, freedom of worship, and freedom of arbitrary arrest.

Ulster

Who is this: Who: It is a province in the north of the island of Ireland. What: On the eve of World War I, the unanswered question of Ireland brought Great Britain to the brink of civil war. The terrible Irish famine of the time had fueled an Irish revolutionary movement. Thereafter, the English slowly granted concessions, such as rights for Irish peasants and the abolition of the privileges of the Anglican Church. Gladstone said twenty years earlier that his mission was to pacify Ireland. He introduced bills to giver Ireland self government or home rule. They failed to pass but in 1913, Irish nationalists finally gained such a bill for Ireland. Thus Ireland, the Emerald Isle, was on the brink of achieving self-government. Yet to the same extent that the Catholic majority in the southern counties wanted home rule, the protestants of the northerns counties of this province came to oppose it. Motivated by the accumulated fears and hostilities of generations, these protestants refused to submerge themselves in a majority Catholic Ireland, just as Irish Catholics had refused to submit to a Protestant Britain.

Limitation of Women's Rights

Who is this: Who: It is a restriction on the liberties of females. What: Females lost many of the gains they had made in the 1790s. Under the Napoleonic Code, they were dependents on their fathers or their husbands and they could not make contracts or have bank accounts in their own names. Napoleon and his advisers aimed at re-establishing a family monarchy, where the power of the husband and the father was absolute authority over the woman and her children.

Centralized Bureaucracy

Who is this: Who: It is a system in which decisions about the day-by-day operations within the government are made by those knowledgable on the particular current issue and the decision-making power and political authority is held by the people in the highest level of the government, and all other political units are subject to them. What: The Committee of Public Safety wanted this system, but other people did not. Moderates in leading provincial cities revolted against the committee's power and demanded a decentralized government. Counter-Revolutionary forces in the Vendee won significant victories, and the republic's armies were driven back on all fronts. Later, only the areas around Paris and on the eastern frontier were firmly held by the central government. Defeat seemed imminent. But the Republic was not defeated then and many more battles were fought.

Hungary

Who is this: Who: It is a unitary parliamentary republic in Central Europe. It covers an area of 93,030 square kilometers, situated in the Carpathian Basin and bordered by Slovakia to the north, Romania to the east, Serbia to the south, Croatia to the southwest, Slovenia to the west, Austria to the northwest, and Ukraine to the northeast. With about 10 million inhabitants, it is a medium-sized member state of the European Union. It's capital and largest metropolis is Budapest, a significant economic hub, classified as an Alpha- global city. What: Military defeat brought turmoil and revolution to Austria-Hungary. Having started the war to preserve an imperial state, the Austro-Hungarian Empire perished in the attempt, resulting in the independent states of Austria, this country, and Czechoslovakia. For 4 months in 1919, until conservative nationalists seized power, Hungary became a Marxist republic along Bolshevik lines. The Treaty of St. Germain (1919) declared the country as a sovereign state, and the Treaty of Trianon (1920) regulated the status of the country and defined it borders; by the terms of the latter treaty, it's population was only 2/3 of the previous population of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

St. Helena

Who is this: Who: It is a volcanic tropical island in the South Atlantic Ocean. What: It is the rocky island where Napoleon was imprisoned after he lost the Battle of Waterloo. While he was imprisoned, Napoleon took revenge by writing his memoirs, nurturing the myth that he had been Europe's revolutionary liberator, a romantic hero whose lofty work had been undone by oppressive reactionaries.

Suez Canal

Who is this: Who: It is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea through the Isthmus. It was constructed by the Canal Company between 1859 and 1869. After 10 years of construction by 20,000 slaves, it was officially opened on November 17, 1869. The canal offers watercraft a shorter journey between the North Atlantic and northern Indian Oceans via the Mediterranean and Red seas by avoiding the South Atlantic and southern Indian oceans. What: It is a ship canal that was dug across the Isthmus in Egypt, designed by Ferdinand de Lesseps. It opened to shipping in 1869 and shortened the sea voyage between Europe and Asia. Its strategic importance led to the British conquest of Egypt in 1882. It connects the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea.

Cubism

Who is this: Who: It is an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. It has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century. The term is broadly used in association with a wide variety of art produced in Paris (Montmartre, Montparnasse and Puteaux) during the 1910s and extending through the 1920s. What: In Paris in 1907, painter Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), along with other artists, established a highly analytical approach to art concentrated on a complex geometry of zigzagging lines and sharply angled overlapping planes that exemplified the ongoing trend toward abstract, nonrepresentational art.

Laissez-Faire

Who is this: Who: It is an economic system in which transactions between private parties are free from government interference such as regulations, privileges, tariffs, and subsidies. What: It is a doctrine of economic liberalism that calls for unrestricted private enterprise and no government interference in the economy.

triangle trade

Who is this: Who: It is commercial exchange in the atlantic. What: It designated a three way transport of goods, European commodities, like guns and textiles to Africa; enslaved Africans to the colonies, and colonial goods like cotton, tobacco, and sugar back to Europe.

Charivari

Who is this: Who: It is degrading public rituals used by village communities to police personal behavior and maintain moral standards. What: Relying on degrading public rituals, the young men of the village would typically gang up on their victim and force him or her to sit astride a donkey facing backward and holding up the donkey's tail. They would parade the overly brutal spouse beater or the adulterous couple around the village, loudly proclaiming the offender's misdeeds. The donkey ride and other colorful humiliations ranging from rotten vegetables splattered on the doorstep to obscene and insulting midnight serenades were common punishments throughout much of Europe. They epitomized the community's effort to police personal behavior and maintain moral standards.

Mass Production

Who is this: Who: It is is the making of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines. What: It is a system of manufacturing based on principles such as the use of interchangeable parts, large-scale production, and the high-volume assembly line.

The Duma

Who is this: Who: It is the Russian parliament that opened in 1906, elected indirectly by universal male suffrage but controlled after 1907 by the czar and the conservative classes. What: By the summer of 1905, strikes and political rallies, peasant uprisings, revolts among minority nationalities, and mutinies by troops were sweeping the country. The revolutionary surge culminated in October 1905 in a paralyzing general strike that forced the government to capitulate. The czar then issued the October Manifesto, which granted full civil rights and promised a popularly elected parliament with real legislative power. The manifesto split the opposition. Frightened middle class leaders embraced it, which helped the government repress the popular uprising and survive as a constitutional monarchy. On the eve of the opening of the first parliament in 1906, the government issued the new constitution, the Fundamental Laws. The czar retained great powers. The parliament, elected indirectly by universal male suffrage with a largely appointive upper house, could debate and pass laws but the czar had an absolute veto. As in Bismarck's Germany, the czar appointed his ministers, who did not need to command a majority in the parliament. The predominantly middle class liberals, the largest group in the newly elected parliament, saw the Fundamental Laws as a step backward. Cooperation with Nicholas II's ministers soon broke down, and after months of deadlock the czar dismissed the parliament. Thereupon he and his reactionary advisers unilaterally rewrote the electoral law, increasing greatly the wright of the conservative propertied classes. When new elections were held, the czar could count on a loyal legislative majority. His government then pushed through important agrarian reforms designed to break down collective village ownership of land and encourage he more enterprising peasants, a wager on the strong meant to encourage economic growth.

Annexation of Austria

Who is this: Who: It is the adding of a certain country into Nazi Germany in March 1938. Anschluss is a word used to describe it; it means connection or joining. The idea of it began after the Unification of Germany excluded the country and the Germans of the country from the Prussian-dominated German nation-state in 1871. Following the end of World War I, in 1918, the a republic attempted union with Germany, but the Treaty of Saint Germain and the Treaty of Versailles forbade both the union. What: In late 1937 Hitler moved forward with plans to seize this country and Czechoslovakia as the first step in his long-contemplated drive for living space in the east. By threatening this country with invasion, Hitler forced the chancellor to put local Nazis in control of the government in March 1938. The next day, in the Anschluss, German armies moved in unopposed, and the country became two provinces of Greater Germany.

Appeasement

Who is this: Who: It is the diplomatic policy of making political or material concessions to an enemy power in order to avoid conflict. It was the British policy toward Germany prior to World War II that aimed at granting Hitler whatever he wanted, including western Czechoslovakia, in order to avoid war. What: Any hope of a united front against hitler quickly collapsed. Britain adopted this policy, granting Hitler everything he could reasonably want and more to avoid war. Britain doing this, which practically dictated French policy, was motivated in large part by the pacifism of a population still horrified by the memory of the First World War. As in Germany, many powerful conservatives in Britain underestimated Hitler. They believed that Soviet communism was the real danger and that Hitler could be used to stop it. Such strong anticommunist feelings made an alliance between the Western powers and Stalin against Hitler unlikely.

Carnival

Who is this: Who: It is the few days of revelry in Catholic countries that preceded Lent and that includes drinking, masquerading, dancing, and rowdy spectacles that upset the established order. What: Popular recreation merged with religious celebration in a variety of festivals and processions throughout the year. The most striking display of these religiously inspired events was this, a time of reveling and excess in Catholic Europe. Moreover, a combination of plays, processions, and raucous spectacles turned the established order upside down. Peasants dressed as nobles and men as women, and rich masters waited on their servants at the table. This annual holiday gave people a much appreciated chance to release their pent up frustrations and aggressions before life returned to the usual pattern of hierarchy and hard work.

Labor Aristocracy

Who is this: Who: It is the highly skilled workers, such as factory foremen and construction bosses, who made up about 15 percent of the working classes from about 1850-1914. What: Highly skilled workers, about 15 percent of the working classes became known as this. They earned only about two thirds of the income of the bottom ranks of the servant-keeping classes, but that was fully double the earnings of unskilled workers. The most aristocratic of these highly skilled workers were construction bosses and factory foremen, who had risen from the ranks and were fiercely proud of their achievement. This group also included members of the traditional highly skilled handicraft trades that has not been mechanized or placed in factories like cabinetmakers, jewelers, and painters.

Midwifery

Who is this: Who: It is the idea of having a person (typically a woman) trained to assist women in childbirth. What: The people of this group delivered the majority of babies in this time period. They assisted the woman who was in labor and delivering babies when it came time. The people in this group also treated female problems such as irregular menstrual cycles, breast-feeding difficulties, infertility, venereal disease, as well as ministered to small children. Orchestrated labor and birth. During this time and thanks to new medical tech, male surgeons tried to ruin the public's faith in midwives in order to get sole business from all deliveries.

viceroyalties

Who is this: Who: It is the name for the four administrative units of Spanish possessions in the Americas. What: The crown divided its New World possessions into two things, or administrative divisions: New Spain, with the capital at Mexico City, and Peru, with the capital at Lima. Two new things added in the eighteenth century were New Granada, with Bogotá as its administrative center, and La Plata, with Buenos Aires as the capital.

Parliamentary Sovereignty

Who is this: Who: When a parliament possesses a monopoly over the instruments of justice and the use of force within clearly defined boundaries. What: In a sovereign parliamentary, there is no system of courts, such as church tribunals, competes with state courts in the dispensation of justice; and private armies, such as those of feudal lords, present no threat to central authority.

Sergei Witte

Who is this: Who: He was a highly influential econometrician, minister, and prime minister in Imperial Russia, one of the key figures in the political arena at the end of 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century. What: From 1890 to 1900, economic modernization and industrialization surged ahead for the second time led by this man, the tough, competent finance minister. Inspired by the writings of Friedrich List, he believing that industrial backwardness threatened Russia's greatness. Under his leadership, the government doubled the network of state owned railways to thirty five thousand miles. He established high protective tariffs to support Russian industry and he put the country on the gold standard to strengthen Russian finances. His greatest innovation was to use Westerners to catch up with the West. He encouraged foreigners to build factories in Russia, believing that the inflow of foreign capital is the only way by which our industry will be able to supply our country quickly with abundant and cheap products. His efforts to entice Western Europeans to locate their factories there were successful in southern Russia. There, foreign entrepreneurs and engineers built an enormous and very modern steel and coal industry. Russia was catching up with the West.

The Institutes of the Christian Religion

Who is this: Who: A book in which John Calvin embodied his ideas. What: The cornerstone of Calvin's theology was his belief in the absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God and the total weakness of humanity. Before the infinite power of God, men and women are as insignificant as grains of sand.

The Partition of Poland

Who is this: Who: A separation of area in Poland that was divided between Austria, Russia, and Prussia. What: It was between Russia and Austria threatened over Russian gains from the Ottoman Empire. To satisfy desires for expansion without fighting, Prussia's Frederick The Great proposed that parts of Poland be divided up among Austria, Prussia, and Russia. The three powers divided the remainder, and the republic of Poland ceased to exist.

Heliocentric Theory

Who is this: Who: A theory created by Copernicus that stated that the stars and planets, including the Earth, revolved around a fixed sun. A theory of a sun-centered universe. What: It is the astronomical model developed by Nicolaus Copernicus. It positioned the Sun near the center of the Universe, motionless, with Earth and the other planets rotating around it in circular paths modified by epicycles and at uniform speeds. The Copernican model departed from the Ptolemaic system that prevailed in Western culture for centuries, placing Earth at the center of the Universe, and is often regarded as the launching point to modern astronomy and the Scientific Revolution.

The War of Spanish Succession

Who is this: Who: A war over the division of the Spanish possessions after the death of Charles II. What: The childless Spanish king Charles II died, opening a struggle for control of Spain and its colonies. His will bequeathed the Spanish crown and its empire to Philip of Anjou, Louis XIV's grandson. The will violated a prior treaty by which the European powers had agreed to divide the possessions between the king of France and the Holy Roman Emperor. Claiming that he was following both Spanish and French interests, Louis XIV broke with the treaty and accepted the will, triggering the War of the Spanish Succession. The English, Dutch, Austrians, and Prussians formed the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV. The peace of utrecht, which ended the war, allowed Louis's grandson Philip to remain king of Spain on the understanding that the french and Spanish crowns would never be united. France surrendered Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and the Hudson Bay territory to England, which also acquired Gibraltar, Minorca, and control o the African slave trade from Spain.

Cesare Beccaria's On Crimes and Punishment

Who is this: Who: A work made by a central figure who was a nobleman educated at Jesuit schools and the University of Pavia. What: It was a passionate plea for reform of the penal system that decried the use of torture, arbitrary imprisonment, and capital punishment, and advocated the prevention of crime over the reliance on punishment. The text was quickly translated to French and English and made an impact throughout Europe.

Montesquieu's On The Spirit of the Laws

Who is this: Who: A work that applied the example of physical sciences to the problem of government. The result was a complex, comparative study of republics, monarchies, and despotisms. What: Showing that forms of government were shaped by history and geography, he focused on the conditions that would promote liberty and prevent tyranny. He argued for a separation of powers, with political power divided and shared by a variety of classes and legal estates. Admiring greatly the English balance of power, he believed that in France, the thirteen high courts—the parlements—were frontline defenders of liberty against royal despotism. Apprehensive about the uneducated poor, he was clearly no democrat, but his theory of separation of powers had a great impact on the constitutions of the young United States and of France.

Essay Concerning Human Understanding

Who is this: Who: An essay by John Locke that brilliantly set forth a new theory about how human beings learn and form their ideas. What: Whereas Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz based their philosophies on deductive logic, Locke insisted that all ideas are derived from experience. The human mind at birth is like a blank tablet, or tabula rasa, on which the environment writes the individual's understanding and beliefs. Human development is therefore determined by education and social institutions. Locke's essay contributed to the theory of sensationalism, the idea that all human ideas and thoughts are produced as a result of sensory impressions. With his emphasis on the role of perception in the acquisition of knowledge, Locke provided a systematic justification of Bacon's emphasis on the importance of observation and experimentation. This essay passed through many editions and translations and was one of the dominant intellectual inspirations of the Enlightenment.

Napoleon's Invasion of Russia

Who is this: Who: An invasion by Napoleon on a country with a country during a harsh winter. What: Napoleon invaded this country but failed as the Russians kept on retreating. They kept on going farther and farther into Russia and this weakened the Napoleonic Army. Finally, Napoleon tried retreated from Russia but was harassed by Guerrilla attacks and the harsh winter was also a major problem for him. However, this was just the beginning of Napoleon's downfall.

Kulturkampf

Who is this: Who: Bismarck's attack on the Catholic Church within Germany, resulting from Pius IX's declaration of papal infallibility. What: The National Liberals backed Bismarck's attack on the Catholic Church, this culture struggle. Like Bismarck, the middle class National Liberals were alarmed by Pius's declaration of papal infallibility in 1870. That dogma seemed to ask German Catholics to put loyalty to their church, a foreign power, above their loyalty to their newly unified nation. The initiatives of this aimed at making the Catholic Church subject to government control. However, only in Protestant Russia did this even have limited success, because elsewhere Catholics generally voted for the Center Party, which blocked passage of laws hostile to the church. In 1878, Bismarck abandoned his attack on the church and instead courted the Catholic Center Party, whose supporters included many Catholic small farmers in western and southern Germany.

Locke's Second Treatise of Civil Government

Who is this: Who: He develops a number of notable themes. It begins with a depiction of the state of nature, wherein individuals are under no obligation to obey one another but are each themselves judge of what the law of nature requires. It also covers conquest and slavery, property, representative government, and the right of revolution. What: Opponents of King James II invited his daughter Mary and her husband, the Dutch prince William of Orange, to take the thrown of England. James fled for the safety in France. One of the most outspoken proponents of the Glorious Revolution that brought William and Mary to the throne was philosopher John Locke. Locke argues that sovereign power resides in the people, who may reject a monarch who does not obey the law.

Emperor Franz Joseph II of Austria

Who is this: Who: He was Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia from 1848 until his death in 1916. He was also President of the German Confederation. He was the longest-reigning Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, as well as the third longest-reigning monarch of any country in European history. He was the emperor of Austria during World War I. What: He was the successor to Ferdinand I of Austria. He was an eighteen year old boy who was brought in by counterrevolutionaries to replace Ferdinand I who was seen as having given in to the revolutionaries and had fled in the October uprising. Ferdinand was seen as too weak to resume the position of Emperor, so this man became the emperor of Austria.

William Gladstone

Who is this: Who: He was a British Liberal and earlier conservative politician. In a career lasting over sixty years, he served as Prime Minister four separate times. He first entered Parliament beginning as a High Tory and served in the Cabinet of Sir Robert Peel. After the split of the Conservatives he was a Peelite. In 1859 the Peelites merged with the Whigs and the Radicals to form the Liberal Party. As he became committed to low public spending and to electoral reform, earning him the sobriquet "The People's William." What: On the eve of World War I, the unanswered question of Ireland brought Great Britain to the brink of civil war. The terrible Irish famine of the time had fueled an Irish revolutionary movement. Thereafter, the English slowly granted concessions, such as rights for Irish peasants and the abolition of the privileges of the Anglican Church. This liberal prime minister said twenty years earlier that his mission was to pacify Ireland. He introduced bills to giver Ireland self government or home rule. They failed to pass but in 1913, Irish nationalists finally gained such a bill for Ireland.

Cecil Rhodes

Who is this: Who: He was a British businessman, mining magnate and politician in South Africa, who served as Prime Minister of the Cape Colony from 1890 to 1896. An ardent believer in British imperialism, he and his British South Africa Company founded the southern African territory, which the company named after him in 1895. He gained near-complete domination of the world diamond market. What: The British, led by this man in the Cape Colony during a time of imperialism, leapfrogged over the two Afrikaner states, the Orange Free State and the Transvaal, in the early 1890s and established protectorates over Bechuanaland and Rhodesia, named in honor of him. Although the British were unable to subdue the stubborn Afrikaners, English speaking capitalists like him deviled fabulously rich gold mines in the Transvaal and the British eventually conquered their white rivals in the bloody South African War, or Boer War. In 1910, the Afrikaner territories were united with the old Cape Colony and the eastern province of Natal in a new union of South Africa, established as a largely self governing colony. Gradually, though ,the defeated Afrikaners used their numerical superiority over the British settlers to take political power, as even the most educated nonwhites lost the right to vote, except in Cape Colony.

John Maynard Keynes

Who is this: Who: He was a British economist who denounced the Treaty of Versailles. His ideas fundamentally changed the theory and practice of macroeconomics and the economic policies of governments. He built on and greatly refined earlier work on the causes of business cycles, and is widely considered to be one of the most influential economists of the 20th century and the founder of modern macroeconomics. What: Many british people agreed with the analysis of this English economist, who eloquently denounced the Treaty Versailles in his book The Economic Consequences of the Peace. According to him, astronomical reparations and harsh economic measures would impoverish Germany, encourage Bolshevism, and increase economic hardship in all countries. only a complete revision of the treaty could save Germany and Europe. His attack engendered much public discussion and became very influential. It created sympathy for Germany in the English-speaking world, which often paralyzed English and American leaders in their relations with Germany over the next two decades.

Charles Lyell

Who is this: Who: He was a British lawyer and the foremost geologist of his day. He is best known as the author of Principles of Geology, which popularized James Hutton's concepts of uniformitarianism—the idea that the Earth was shaped by the same processes still in operation today. Principles of Geology also challenged theories popularized by Georges Cuvier, which were the most accepted and circulated ideas about geology in England at the time. What: Scientific research progressed rapidly outside of the world of industry and technology, sometimes putting forth direct challenges to traditional beliefs. In geology for example, this man effectively discredited the long standing view that the earth's surface had been formed by short lived cataclysms, such as biblical floods and earthquakes. Instead, according to his principle of uniformitarianism, the same geological processes that are at work today slowly formed the earth's surface over an immensely long time. The vast timescale required for the processes that he described to have these effects undermined traditional beliefs about the age of the earth asked on religious teachings.

Joseph Lister

Who is this: Who: He was a British surgeon and a pioneer of antiseptic surgery. By applying Louis Pasteur's advances in microbiology, he promoted the idea of sterile portable ports while working at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary. Lister successfully introduced carbolic acid to sterilize surgical instruments and to clean wounds, which led to a reduction in post-operative infections and made surgery safer for patients, distinguishing himself as the "father of modern surgery". What: In 1865, when Pasteur showed that the air was full of bacteria, this English surgeon immediately grasped the connection between aerial bacteria and the problem of wound infection. He reasoned that a chemical disinfectant applied to a wound dressing would destroy the life of the floating particles, by which he meant germs. His antiseptic principle worked wonders. In the 1880s, German surgeons developed the more sophisticated practice of sterilizing not only the wound but also everything, hands, instruments, and clothing that entered the operating room.

Niels Bohr

Who is this: Who: He was a Danish physicist from 1885-1962 who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. He was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research. He conceived the principle of complementarity: that items could be separately analyzed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as a wave or a stream of particles. What: He developed the model of the atom which bears his name, in which he proposed that energy levels of electrons are discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around the atomic nucleus but can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle of complementarity: that items could be separately analyzed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as a wave or a stream of particles. The notion of complementarity dominated his thinking in both science and philosophy.

Vincent Van Gogh

Who is this: Who: He was a Dutch Post-Impressionist painter who is among the most famous and influential figures in the history of Western art. In just over a decade he created about 2,100 artworks, including around 860 oil paintings, most of them in the last two years of his life in France, where he died. They include landscapes, still lifes, portraits and self-portraits, and are characterized by bold colors and dramatic, impulsive and expressive brushwork that contributed to the foundations of modern art. His suicide at 37 followed years of mental illness and poverty. What: An astonishing array of new artistic movements emerged one after another. Post-impressionists and expressionists such as this man, built on impressionist motifs of color and light but added a deep psychological element to their pictures, reflecting the attempt tot search within the self and reveal deep inner feelings on the canvas.

Edgar Degas

Who is this: Who: He was a French artist famous for his paintings, sculptures, prints, and drawings. He is especially identified with the subject of dance; more than half of his works depict dancers. He is regarded as one of the founders of Impressionism, although he rejected the term, preferring to be called a realist. He was a superb draftsman, and particularly masterly in depicting movement, as can be seen in his rendition of dancers, racecourse subjects and female nudes. His portraits are notable for their psychological complexity and for their portrayal of human isolation. What: He tried to portray his sensory impressions in his work. Impressionists looked to the world around them for subject matter, turning their backs on traditional themes such as battles, religious scenes, and wealthy elites. His many pastel drawings of balloons exemplify the way impressionists moved toward abstraction. Capturing a fleeting moment of color and light, in often blurry and quickly painted images, was far more important than making a heavily detailed, precise rendering of an actual object.

Maximilien Robespierre

Who is this: Who: He was a French lawyer and politician, and one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution, the defense of the Republic, and the Reign of Terror. What: When Louis XVI accepted the national assembly's constitution, a young provincial lawyer and delegate who was this man, concluded that the Revolution was over. He was right in the sense that the most constructive and lasting reforms were in place. Yet he was wrong in suggesting that turmoil had ended, for a much more radical stage lay ahead, one that would bring war with foreign powers, terror at home, and a transformation in France's government. He was a member of the Jacobin Club, more so the Mountain, which he led. He was a part of the second phase of the French revolution. During the Reign of Terror, his Committee of Public Safety tried and executed thousands suspected of treason and a new revolutionary culture was imposed. He also called for a halt to de-Christianization measures. After he was executed by the guillotine, the Thermidorian reaction began.

Honore de Balzac

Who is this: Who: He was a French novelist and playwright. The novel sequence The Human Comedy (La Comédie Humaine), which presents a panorama of post-Napoleonic French life, is generally viewed as his magnum opus. What: Literary realism began in France, where this man became an internationally famous novelist. He spent thirty years writing a vastly ambitious panorama of post revolutionary French life. Known collectively as The Human Comedy, this series of nearly one hundred, stories, novels, and essays vividly portrays more than two thousand characters from virtually all sectors of French society. He pictured urban society as grasping, amoral, and brutal. In his novel Father Goriot, the hero, a poor student from the provinces, eventually surrenders his idealistic integrity to feverish ambition and society's pervasive greed.

Emile Zola

Who is this: Who: He was a French novelist, playwright, journalist, the best-known practitioner of the literary school of naturalism, and an important contributor to the development of theatrical naturalism. He was a major figure in the political liberalization of France and in the exoneration of the falsely accused and convicted army officer Alfred Dreyfus, which is encapsulated in the renowned newspaper headline J'accuse. He was nominated for the first and second Nobel Prize in Literature in 1901 and 1902. What: Literary realism began in France where this man became an internationally famous novelist. He was most famous for his seamy, animalistic view of working-class life. But he also wrote gripping, carefully researched stories featuring the stock exchange, the big department store, and the army, a well as urban slums and bloody coal strikes. Like many later realists, he sympathized with socialism, a view evident in his overpowering novel Germinal (1885).

Jules Verne's Literature of Exploration

Who is this: Who: He was a French novelist, poet, and playwright best known for his adventure novels and his profound influence on the literary genre of science fiction. What: Novels written by a 19th century French author whose revolutionary science-fiction novels, including Around the World in Eighty Days and Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, have entranced readers for more than a century. Often referred to as the "Father of Science Fiction," he wrote his first novel, Five Weeks in a Balloon, at the age of 35. He went on to be the second most translated author on earth, writing books about a variety of innovations and technological advancements years before they were practical realities.

Jean-Francois Millet

Who is this: Who: He was a French painter and one of the founders of the Barbizon school in rural France. He is noted for his scenes of peasant farmers; he can be categorized as part of the Realism art movement. What: He is an artist who produced the works of The Gleaners (1857), The Angelus (1859), and The Potato Harvest (1855). He grew up on a humble farm, didn't attend the Academy, and despised the uppity Paris art scene. He was strongly affected by the Socialist Revolution of 1848, with its affirmation of the working class. Here he captures the innate dignity of these stocky, tanned women, who bend their backs quietly in a large field for their small reward.

Charles Fourier

Who is this: Who: He was a French philosopher and an influential early socialist thinker in the Industrial Revolution who was later associated with utopian socialism. Some of his social and moral views, held to be radical in his lifetime, have become mainstream thinking in modern society. He is, for instance, credited with having originated the word feminism. What: After 1830, the utopian critique of capitalism became sharper. This man envisioned a socialist utopia of mathematically precise, self-sufficient communities called phalanxes, each made up of 1,620 people. He was also an early proponent of the total emancipation of women. According to him, under capitalism, young single women were shamelessly sold to their future husbands for dowries and other financial considerations. Therefore, he called for the abolition of marriage and for sexual freedom and free unions based only on love.

Jean-Paul Sartre

Who is this: Who: He was a French philosopher, existentialist, playwright, novelist, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the key figures in the philosophy of existentialism and phenomenology, and one of the leading figures in 20th-century French philosophy and Marxism. What: In the words of a French existentialist, "existence precedes essence." By that, he meant that there are no God-given, timeless truths outside or independent of individual existence. Only after they are born do people struggle to define their essence entirely on their own. According to him and his life long intellection partner de Beauvoir, existence itself is absurd. Human beings are terribly alone, for there is not God to help them . The are left to confront the inevitable arrival of death and so are hounded by despair. The crisis of the existential thinker epitomized the modern intellectual crisis, the shattering of beliefs in God, reason and progress. He recognized that human beings must act in the world. He said "man is condemned to be free." Because life is meaningless, existentialists believe that individuals are forced to create their own meaning and define themselves through their actions. Such radical freedom ins frightening and he concluded that most people try to escape it by structuring their lives around conventional social norms. According to him, to escape is to live in bad faith to hide from the hard truths of existence. To live authentically, individuals must become engaged and choose their own actions in full awareness of their responsibility for their own behavior. Existentialism thus had a powerful ethical component. It placed great stress on individual responsibility and choice, on being in the world in the right way.

Henri Bergson

Who is this: Who: He was a French philosopher, influential especially in the first half of the 20th century and after WWII in continental philosophy. He is known for his influential arguments that processes of immediate experience and intuition are more significant than abstract rationalism and science for understanding reality. He is also known for having engaged in a debate with Albert Einstein about the nature of time, a debate which eventually contributed to a partial diminishment of his status, until most of his fundamental contributions were vindicated by the discovery of quantum physics. What: He argued that immediate experience and intuition were as important as rational and scientific thinking for understanding reality. According to him, a religious experience or mystical poem was often more accessible to human prehension than a scientific law or a mathematical equation.

Victor Hugo

Who is this: Who: He was a French poet, novelist, and dramatist of the Romantic movement. He is considered one of the greatest and best-known French writers. His literary fame comes first from his poetry and then from his novels and his dramatic achievements. Les Contemplations and La Légende des siècles are a few of his works. Outside France, his best-known works are the novels Les Misérables, and The Hunchback of Notre-Dame. He produced more than 4,000 drawings, and also earned respect as a campaigner for social causes such as the abolition of capital punishment. What: He achieved an amazing range of rhythm, language, and image in his lyric poetry. His powerful novels exemplified the romantic fascination with fantastic characters, exotic historical settings, and human emotions. The hero of his The Hunchback of Notre Dame is the great cathedral's deformed bell ringer, a human gargoyle looking over the teeming life of Paris. Renouncing his early conservatism, he equated freedom in literature with liberty in politics and society. His political evolution was thus exactly the opposite of Wordsworth's, in whom youthful radicalism gave way to middle-aged caution. As the contrast between the two artists suggests, romanticism was compatible with many political beliefs.

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon

Who is this: Who: He was a French politician and the founder of the mutualist philosophy. He was the first person to declare himself an anarchist and is widely regarded as one of the ideology's most influential theorists. He is even considered by many to be the "father of anarchism". He became a member of the French Parliament after revolution of 1848, and referred to himself as a federalist. What: He was a socialist thinker who embraced the radical ideas of anarchism. In 1840, he made the pamphlet What is Property? He was a self-educated printer and he famously argued that property is theft. Property, he claimed, was profit that was stolen from the worker, the source of all wealth. Distrustful of all authority and political systems, he believed that states should be abolished and that society should be organized in loose associations of working people.

Friedrich Nietzsche

Who is this: Who: He was a German philosopher, existentialist, poet, philologist, and Latin and Greek scholar whose work has exerted a profound influence on Western philosophy and modern intellectual history. He began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. His famous quote is "God is Dead" and he repeated Voltaire's famous quote, "Crush the wicked thing." What: He was particularly influential though not until after his death. He wrote more as a prophet in a provocative and poetic style. In the first of his Untimely Mediations, he argued that ever since classical Athens, the West had overemphasized rationality and stifled the authentic passions and animal instincts that drive human activity and true creativity. He questioned the conventional values of Western society. He believed that reason, progress, and respectability were outworn social and psychological constructs that suffocated self-realization and excellence. Though he was the son of a Lutheran minister, he famously rejected region. In his book. On the Genealogy of Morals, he claimed that Christianity embedded a slave morality that glorified weakness, envy, and mediocrity. In one of his most famous lines, an apparent madman proclaims that God is dead, metaphorically murdered by lackadaisical modern Christians who no longer really believed in him. He painted a dark world, perhaps foreshadowing his own loss of sanity. He warned that Western society was entering a period of nihilism, the idea that human life is without meaning, truth, or purpose. He asserted that all moral systems were lies and that liberalism, democracy ad socialist were corrupt systems designed to promote the weak at the expense of the strong.

Friedrich Engels

Who is this: Who: He was a German philosopher, social scientist, journalist, and businessman. He founded Marxist theory together with Karl Marx. In 1845, he published The Condition of the Working Class in England, based on personal observations and research in Manchester. What: This man had a pessimistic view and he was the future revolutionary and colleague of Karl Marx. After studying conditions in northern England, this young son of a wealthy Prussian cotton manufacturer published The Condition of the Working Class in England, which was a blistering indictment of the capitalist classes. He wrote that at the bar of world opinion, I charge the English middle classes with mass murder, wholesale robbery, and all the other crimes in the calendar. The new poverty of industrial workers was worse than the old poverty of cottage workers and agricultural laborers, according to Engels. The culprit was industrial capitalism, with its relentless competition and constant technical change. Engels's extremely influential charge of capitalist exploitation and increasing worker poverty was embellished by Marx and later socialists. And if the new class interpretation was more of a deceptive simplification than a fundamental truth for some critics, it appealed to many because it seemed to explain what was happening. Therefore, conflicting classes existed, in part, because many individuals came to believe they existed and developed an appropriate sense of class feeling, what we call now class consciousness. In 1848, on the eve of the revolutions of 1848, he along with Marx published The Communist Manifesto. Their opening claim that a spectre is haunting Europe — the spectre of communism was highly exaggerated.

Gustav Stresemann

Who is this: Who: He was a German politician and statesman who served as Chancellor in 1923 and Foreign Minister from 1923-1929, during the Weimar Republic. He called off passive resistance in the Ruhr and in October agreed in principle to pay reparations, but ask for a re-examination of Germany's ability to pay. His most notable achievement was the reconciliation between Germany and France, for which he and Aristide Briand received the Nobel Peace Prize. During a period of political instability and fragile, short-lived governments, he was generally seen as the most influential cabinet member in most of the Weimar Republic's existence. During his political career, he represented three successive liberal parties; he was the dominant figure of the German People's Party during the Weimar Republic. What: In August 1923, as the mark lost value and unrest spread throughout Germany, he assumed leadership of the government and tried to compromise. He called off passive resistance in the Ruhr and in October agreed in principle to pay reparations, but ask for a re-examination of Germany's ability to pay and Poincaré accepted. His hard line had become unpopular in Franc and it was hated in Britain and in the United States.

Werner Heisenberg

Who is this: Who: He was a German theoretical physicist who published his uncertainty principle, and he was one of the key pioneers of quantum mechanics. He published his work in 1925 in a breakthrough paper. In the subsequent series of papers, during the same year, this matrix formulation of quantum mechanics was substantially elaborated. In 1927 he published his uncertainty principle, upon which he built his philosophy and for which he is best known. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1932 "for the creation of quantum mechanics. What: As unsettling as Einstein's ideas was a notion popularized by this German physicist. In 1927, he formulated the uncertainty principle, which populated that nature itself is ultimately unknowable and unpredictable He suggested that the universe lacked any absolute objective reality. Everything was relative, that is, dependent on the observer's frame of reference. Such ideas caught on among ordinary people, who found the unstable relativistic world described by the new physicists strange and troubling. Instead, of Newton's dependable, rational laws, there seemed to be only probabilities in an extraordinary complex and uncertain universe.

Max Planck

Who is this: Who: He was a German theoretical physicist whose discovery of energy quanta won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918. He made many contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame as a physicist rests primarily on his role as the originator of quantum theory, which revolutionized human understanding of atomic and subatomic processes. What: Building on other work in radiation, this German physicist showed in 1900 that subatomic energy is emitted in uneven little spurts, which he called quanta, and not in a steady stream as previously believed. His discovery called into question the only sharp distinction between matter and energy: the implication was that matter and energy might be different forms of the same thing. The view of atoms as the stable basic building looks of nature, with as different king of unbreakable atom for each of the ninety two chemical elements, was badly shaken.

Franz Kafka

Who is this: Who: He was a German-language novelist and short story writer, widely regarded as one of the major figures of 20th-century literature. His work, which fuses elements of realism and the fantastic, typically features isolated protagonists faced by bizarre or surrealistic predicaments and incomprehensible social-bureaucratic powers, and has been interpreted as exploring themes of alienation, existential anxiety, guilt, and absurdity. His best known works include The Metamorphosis, The Trial, and The Castle. What: The Czech writer portrayed an incomprehensible, alienating world. His novels, The Trial and The Castle are stories about helpless individuals crushed by inexplicably hostile forces as is his famous novella The Metamorphosis, in which the main character turns into a giant insect. The German-Jewish man died young at forty one, and was spared the horror of seeing the world of his nightmares materialized in the Nazi state. In thee and many other works, authors between the wars used new literary techniques and dark imagery to capture the anxiety of the age.

Vladimir Lenin

Who is this: Who: He was a Russian communist revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He served as head of government of the Russian Republic and of the Soviet Union. Under his administration, Russia and then the wider Soviet Union became a one-party socialist state governed by the Russian Communist Party. Ideologically a Marxist, he had political theories named after him. He wrote Imperialism, The Highest Stage of Capitalism. What: Born into the middle class, he became an enemy of imperial Russia when his older brother was executed for plotting to kill the czar. As a law student, he eagerly studied Marxist socialism, which began to win converts among radical intellectuals during Russia's industrialization in the 1890s. A flexible thinker, he updated Marx's revolutionary philosophy to address existing conditions in Russia. Three interrelated concepts were central for him. First, he stressed that only violent revolution could destroy capitalism. Second, he argued that under certain conditions a Communist evolution was possible even in a predominantly agrarian country like Russia. Third, he believed that the possibility of revolution was determined more by human leadership that by historical laws. He got a radical, revolutionary arm of the Russian party of Marxist Socialism, the Bolsheviks, which successfully installed a dictatorial socialist regime in Russia. In increasingly poor health, he expressed opposition to the growing power of his successor, Joseph Stalin, before dying at his Gorki mansion.

Paracelsus

Who is this: Who: He was a Swiss German philosopher, physician, alchemist, botanist, astrologer, and general occultist. He is credited as the founder of toxicology. He is also a famous revolutionary for utilizing observations of nature, rather than referring to ancient texts, something of radical defiance during his time. He is credited for giving zinc its name, calling it zincum. Modern psychology often also credits him for being the first to note that some diseases are rooted in psychological conditions. What: He was an early proponent of the experimental method in medicine and pioneered the use of chemicals and drugs to address what he saw as chemical, rather than humoral imbalances.

Mustafa Kemal

Who is this: Who: He was a Turkish army officer, revolutionary, and founder of the Republic of Turkey, serving as its first President from 1923 until his death in 1938. His surname, Atatürk, meaning Father of the Turks, was granted to him in 1934 and forbidden to any other person by the Turkish parliament. What: Led by this man, the Turks refused to acknowledge the Allied dismemberment of their country and gradually mounted a forceful resistance. He had resurrected the successful Turkish defense against British at the Battle of Gallipoli, and despite staggering losses, his Turkish army repulsed the invaders. The Greeks and British sued for peace. In 1923, after long negations, the resulting Treaty of Lausanne recognized the territorial integrity of Turkey and solely abolished the hatred capitulations that the European powers had imposed over the centuries to give their citizens special privileges in the Ottoman Empire. This man, a nationalist without religious faith, believed that Turkey should modernize and secularize along Western lines. He established a republic, was elected presidents, and created a one-party system, partly inspired by the Bolshevik example, to transform his country. The most radical reforms pertained to religion and culture. For centuries, Islamic religious authorities had regulated the activities of Ottoman citizens. Profoundly influenced by the example of western Europe, he set out to mite the place of religion and religion leaders in daily affairs. He decreed a controversial separation of church and state, promulgated law codes inspired by European models, and established a secular public school system. Women received rights that hey never had before. By the time of his death, he had implemented much of his revolutionary program and moved Turkey much closed to Europe, foretelling current efforts by Turkey to one the European Union as a full-fledged member.

Toussant L'Ouverture

Who is this: Who: He was a freed slave who had joined the revolt and was named a Spanish officer. What: He switched sides, bringing his military and political skills, along with four thousand well trained soldiers to support the French war effort. He was later named the commander of Saint Domingue. He won a victory over Rigaud, a person who had set up his own government in the peninsula, and gained control of the entire colony. This victory was challenged by Napoleon who had his own plans for re-establishing slavery and using the profits as a basis for expanding French power. Napoleon ordered his brother-in-law, General Charles-Victor-Emmanuel Leclerc, to lead an expedition to the island to crush the new regime. Leclerc landed in Saint-Domingue and ordered the arrest of this man. The rebel leader, along with his family, was deported to France, where he died in 1803. It was left to his Lieutenant Jean Jacques Dessalines, to unite the resistance, and he led it to a crushing victory over French forces. Dessalines declared the independence of Saint Domingue and the creation of the new sovereign nation of Haiti, the name used by the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the island.

Immanuel Kant

Who is this: Who: He was a professor in East Prussia who was the greatest German philosopher of his day. What: He posed the question of the age when he published a pamphlet in 1784 entitled What is the Enlightenment? He answered, Sapere Aude (dare to know). Have the courage to use your own understanding is therefore the motto of the enlightenment. He argued that if intellectuals were granted the freedom to exercise their reason publicly in print, enlightenment would almost surely follow. He was no revolutionary, but he also insisted that in their private lives, individuals must obey all laws, no matter how unreasonable, and should be punished for impertinent criticism. Like other Enlightenment figures in central and east central Europe, he thus tried to reconcile absolute monarchical authority and religious faith with a critical public sphere.

Ludwig van Beethoven

Who is this: Who: He was a romantic German composer and pianist. What: He was the first great romantic composer who is also the most famous today. He used contrasting themes and tones to produce dramatic conflict and inspiring resolutions. As one contemporary admirer wrote; his "music sets in motion the lever of fear, of awe, of horror, of suffering, and awakens just that infinite longing which is the essence of Romanticism." His range and output was tremendous. At the peak of his fame, he began to lose his hearing, He considered suicide but eventually overcame despair: "I will take fate by the throat it will not bend me completelpely to its will." He continued to pour out immortal music, although his last years were silent, spent in total deafness.

Edward Jenner

Who is this: Who: He was a talented country doctor who made a crucial breakthrough on the smallpox virus. What: While the practice of inoculation with the smallpox virus was refined over the century, the crucial breakthrough was made by this man, a talented country doctor. His starting point was the countryside belief that dairymaids who had contracted cowpox did not get smallpox. Cowpox produces sores that resemble those of smallpox, but the disease is mild and not contagious. For eighteen years, this man practiced a kind of Baconian science, carefully collecting data. Finally in 1796, he performed his first vaccination on a young boy using matter taken from a milkmaid with cowpox. After performing more successful vaccinations, he published his findings in 1798. The new method of treatment spread rapidly, and smallpox soon declined to the point of disappearance in Europe and then throughout the world.

Titian

Who is this: Who: He was a venetian artist who produced portraits, religious subjects, and mythological scenes. What: He developed techniques of painting in oil without doing elaborate drawings first, which sped up the process and pleased patrons eager to display their acquisitions. Titian also created an artistic style known as mannerism with the help of other 16th century artists. In mannerism, their is distorted figures, exaggerated musculature, and heightened color so that it can express emotion and drama more intently.

Sigmund Freud

Who is this: Who: He was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. What: An Austrian neurologist in the late 1880s, he developed a very different view of the human psyche. Basing his insights on the analysis of dreams and of hysteria, he concluded that human behavior was basically irrational, governed by the unconscious, a sort of mental reservoir that contains vital instinctual drives and powerful memories. The unconscious profoundly influenced people's behavior, it was unknowable to the conscious mind, leaving people unaware of the source or meaning of their actions. He described three structures of the self - the Id, the ego, and superego, that were basically at war with one another. The primitive, irrational id was entirely unconscious. The source of sexual, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking instincts, the id sought immediate fulfillment of all desires and was totally immoral. Keeping the id in check was the super ego, the conscious or internalized voice of parental or social control. For Freud, the superego was also irrational. Overly strict and puritanical, it was constantly in conflict with the pleasure-seeking id. The third component was the ego, the rational self that was mostly conscious and worked to negotiate between the demands of the id and the superego.

J.A. Hobson

Who is this: Who: He was an English economist, social scientist and critic of imperialism, widely popular as a lecturer and writer. He wrote Imperialism: A Study. What: The expansion of empire aroused sharp, even bitter critics. A forceful attack was delivered in 1902, after the unpopular South African War, by this radical English economist in his Imperialism book, a work that influenced Lenin and others. He contended that the rush to acquire colonies was due to the economic needs of unregulated capitalism, particularly the need of the rich to find outlets for their surplus capital. Yet, he argued, imperial possessions did not pay of economically for the entire country. Only unscrupulous special-interest groups profited from them, at the expense o both European taxpayers and the natives. Moreover, he argued that the quest for empire diverted popular attention away from domestic reform and the need to reduce the great gap between rich and poor.

Jeremy Bentham

Who is this: Who: He was an English philosopher, jurist, and social reformer. He is regarded as the founder of modern utilitarianism, which is the doctrine that actions are right if they are useful or for the benefit of a majority. What: Edwin Chadwick found inspiration in the ideas of this radical philosopher, whose approach to social issues, called utilitarianism, had taught that public problems ought to to be dealt with on a rational, scientific basis to advance the greatest good for the greatest number. Utilitarianism is the idea that social policies should promote the greatest good for the greatest number.

Charles Dickens

Who is this: Who: He was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the world's best-known fictional characters and is thought of as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era. His works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the twentieth century critics and scholars had recognized him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity. What: He was a contemporary novelist who recorder his impressions of early train travel as he wrote a striking passage. He wrote, "Through the hollow, on the highest, by the heath, by the orchard, by the park, by the garden, over the canal, across the river, where the sheep are feeding, where the mill is going, where the barge is floating, where the dead are lying, where the factory is smoking, where the stream is running, where the village clusters...away with a strike and a roar and a rattle, and no trace to leave behind but dust and vapor. After surviving a terrible railroad crash, he himself developed an intense fear of train travel. The increase in speed also led doctors to worry about the effects of constant noise and vibration on passengers and crew.

James Joyce

Who is this: Who: He was an Irish novelist, short story writer, and poet. He used the stream-of-consciousness technique, relying on internal monologues to explore the human psyche. He contributed to the modernist avant-garde and is regarded as one of the most influential and important authors of the 20th century. He is best known for Ulysses, a landmark work in which the episodes of Homer's Odyssey are paralleled in an array of contrasting literary styles, perhaps most prominent among these the stream of consciousness technique he utilized. What: He used the stream-of-consciousness technique, relying on internal monologues to explore the human psyche. It is a literary technique found in works by Virginia Woolf and this man, that uses interior monologue, a character's thoughts and feelings as they occur, to explore the human psyche. The most famous and perhaps the most experimental stream-of-consciousness novel is Ulysses by this Irish novelist. Into an account of a single day in the life of an ordinary man, he weaves an extended ironic parallel between the aimless wanderings of his hero through the streets and pubs of Dublin and the adventures of Honer' hero Ulysses on his way home from Troy. Ulysses was surely one of the most disturbing novels of its generation. Abandoning any sense of a conventional plot;breaking rules of grammar, and blending foreign words, puns, b9its of knowledge, and scraps of memory together in bewildering confusion, Ulysses is intended to mirror modern life: a gigantic riddle impossible to unravel. Since he included frank descriptions of the main character's secular thoughts and encounters, the novel was considered obscene in Great Britain and the United States and was banned there until the early 1930s.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

Who is this: Who: He was an Italian general, politician and nationalist who played a large role in the history of Italy. He is considered the sword of the Italian Unification and is grouped with Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, Victor Emmanuel II of Italy and Giuseppe Mazzini, as one of Italy's "fathers of the fatherland". What: He was a superpatriot, but the job of unification was still only had done after a northern Italian state was created. The son of a poor sailor, he personified the romantic, revolutionary nationalism and republicanism of Mazzini and 1848. Leading a corps of volunteers against Austria, he emerged as an independent force in Italian politics. Partly to use him and partly to get rid of him, Cavour secretly supported his bold plan to liberate the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Landing in Sicily in 1860, his Guerrilla band of a thousand red shirts captured the imagination of the peasantry, which rose in bloody rebellion against their landlords. Outwitting the twenty thousand man royal army, the guerrilla leader won battles, gained volunteers and took Palermo. Then he and his men crossed to the mainland, marched triumphantly toward Naples, and prepared to attack Rome and the pope. Cavour quickly sent Sardinian forces to occupy most of the Palpal States and to intercept him. Cavour realized that an attack on Rome would bring war with France and he feared this man's radicalism and popular appeal. He immediately organized a plebiscite in the conquered territories. Despite the ring of some radical supporters ,this man did not oppose Cavour and the people of the south voted to join the kingdom of Sardinia. When he and Victor Emmanuel rode together through apples to cheering crows, they symbolically sealed the union of north and south. Cavour had successfully controlled this man and turned popular nationalism in a conservative direction.

Enrico Fermi

Who is this: Who: He was an Italian physicist from 1901-1954, who created the world's first nuclear reactor, the Chicago Pile-1. He has been called the "architect of the nuclear age" and the "architect of the atomic bomb". He was one of the few physicists to excel both theoretically and experimentally. He held several patents related to the use of nuclear power, and was awarded the 1938 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on induced radioactivity by neutron bombardment and the discovery of transuranic elements. He made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical mechanics. What: He left Italy in 1938 to escape new Italian Racial Laws that affected his Jewish wife Laura Capon. He emigrated to the United States where he worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II. He led the team that designed and built Chicago Pile-1, which went critical on 2 December 1942, demonstrating the first artificial self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction. He was on hand when the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, went critical in 1943, and when the B Reactor at the Hanford Site did so the next year. At Los Alamos he headed F Division, part of which worked on Edward Teller's thermonuclear "Super" bomb. He was present at the Trinity test on 16 July 1945, where he used his method that bears his name to estimate the bomb's yield.

Giuseppe Mazzini

Who is this: Who: He was an Italian politician, journalist and activist for the unification of Italy and spearheaded the Italian revolutionary movement. His efforts helped bring about the independent and unified Italy in place of the several separate states, many dominated by foreign powers, that existed until the 19th century. He also helped define the modern European movement for popular democracy in a republican state. What: He was a radical and idealistic patriot who called for a centralized democratic republic based on universal male suffrage and the will of the people. Austria smashed his republicanism in 1848. His brand of democratic republicanism seems quixotic and too radical. Garibaldi personified the romantic, revolutionary nationalism and republicanism of him. Nationalism was a force or liberal reform and peaceful brotherhood, expressed in its most optimistic form by this thinker.

Czar Nicholas I

Who is this: Who: He was the Emperor of Russia from 1825 until 1855. He was also the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland. He is best known as a political conservative whose reign was marked by geographical expansion, repression of dissent, economic stagnation, poor administrative policies, a corrupt bureaucracy, and frequent wars that culminated in Russia's disastrous defeat in the Crimean War. What: The forces of reaction squelched reform in Russia. In St. Petersburg in December 1825, a group of about three thousand army officers inspired by liberal ideals staged a protest against the new czar. Troops loyal to this man surrounded and assaulted the group with gunfire, cavalry, and cannon, leaving some sixty men dead; the surviving leaders were publicly hanged, and the rest sent to exile in Siberia. Through military might, secret police, imprisonment, and execution, conservation regimes in central Europe used the owners of the state to repress liberal reform wherever possible.

Victor Emmanuel III

Who is this: Who: He was the King of Italy from 1900 until his abdication in 1946. In addition, he claimed the thrones of Ethiopia and Albania as Emperor of Ethiopia and King of the Albanians, claims not recognized by all the great powers. During his long reign of nearly 46 years, which began after the assassination of his father Umberto I, the Kingdom of Italy became involved in two World Wars. His reign also encompassed the birth, rise, and fall of Italian Fascism. What: Striking a conservative, anticommunist note in his speeches and gaining the support of army leaders, Mussolini demanded the resignation of the existing government. In October 1922, a band of armed Fascists marched on Rome to threaten the king and force him to appoint Mussolini prime minister of Italy. The threat worked. This king, who himself had no love fore the liberal regime, asked Mussolini to take over the government and form a new cabinet. Thus, after widespread violence and a threat of armed uprising, Mussolini seized power using the legal framework of the Italian constitution.

Lorenzo Valla

Who is this: Who: He was the author of the standard Renaissance text on Latin philology, and he served as a secretary to the king of Naples. What: He defended predestination against the advocates of free will, exposed the Donation of Constantine, and pointed out errors in the Latin Vulgate.

Joseph II of Austria

Who is this: Who: He was the more radical son of Maira Theresa, who drew on Enlightenment ideals, earning the title of "revolutionary emperor." What: He moved forward rapidly when he came to the throne. He abolished serfdom and decreed that peasants could pay landlords in cash rather than through labor on their land. This measure was violently rejected not only by the nobility but also by the peasants it was intended to help, because they lacked necessary cash. When this disillusioned man died prematurely at forty-nine, the entire Hapsburg empire was in turmoil. His brother, Leopold II, canceled his radical edicts in order to re-establish order. Peasants were once again required to do forced labor for their lords. Despite differences in their policies, he and the other absolutists of the later eighteenth century combined old-fashioned state-building with the culture and critical thinking of the Enlightenment. In doing so, they succeeded in expanding the role of the state in the life of society. They perfected bureaucratic machines that were to prove surprisingly adaptive and enduring. Their failure to implement policies we would recognize as humane and enlightened—such as abolishing serfdom—may reveal inherent limitations in Enlightenment thinking about equality and social justice, rather than deficiencies in their execution of Enlightenment programs. The fact that leading philosophies supported rather than criticized eaten rulers' policies exposes the blind spots of the era.

Charles II

Who is this: Who: He was the son of Charles I, and he fled the country and went into exile in France after his father was beheaded after refusing to accept Dual Sovereignty. What: He ruled according to the divine right of kings and rejected the notion of Dual Sovereignty. He also had fears of popery as he was sometimes sympathetic to the catholic church. He passed the Test Act.

Russification

Who is this: Who: It is a form of cultural assimilation process during which non-Russian communities, voluntarily or not, give up their culture and language in favor of the Russian one. What: According to race theorists, the nation was supposed to be racially pure, and ethnic minorities were views as outsiders and targets for reform, repression, and relocation. Thus the ethnic Russian leaders of the Russian empire targeted minority Poles and Czechs for this process by which they might learn the Russian language and assimilate into Russian society. Germans likewise viewed the large number of ethnic Poles living in East Prussia as a national threat that required Germanization before they could be seen as equals to the supposedly superior Germans. For many nationalists, driven by ugly currents of race hatred, Jews were the ultimate outsiders, the stereotypical inferior race that posed the greatest challenge to national purity.

Quinine

Who is this: Who: It is a medication to treat malaria and babesiosis. This includes the treatment of malaria due to Plasmodium falciparum that is resistant to chloroquine when artesunate is not available. While used for restless legs syndrome, it is not recommended for this purpose due to the risk of side effects. What: It was very important to empire building. First taken around 1850 in order to prevent the contraction of deadly malaria, it enables European soldiers and officials to move safely into the Affiance interior and overwhelm native peoples. It was newly discovered and it proved no less effective in controlling malaria, which had previously decimated whites in the tropics whenever they left the breezy coastal enclaves and dared to venture int mosquito-infested interiors. It was an advance in medicine that preserved European control of Africa and Asia by preserving European lives.

Fascism

Who is this: Who: It is a movement characterized by extreme, often expansionist nationalism, anti socialism, a dynamic and violent leader, and glorification of war and the military. What: It is a form of radical authoritarian nationalism that came to prominence in early 20th-century Europe. The first fascist movements emerged in Italy during World War I, before it spread to other European countries. Opposed to liberalism, Marxism, and anarchism, this government is usually placed on the far-right within the traditional left-right spectrum. People of this government saw World War I as a revolution that brought massive changes to the nature of war, society, the state, and technology. The advent of total war and the total mass mobilization of society had broken down the distinction between civilians and combatants. A "military citizenship" arose in which all citizens were involved with the military in some manner during the war. The war had resulted in the rise of a powerful state capable of mobilizing millions of people to serve on the front lines and providing economic production and logistics to support them, as well as having unprecedented authority to intervene in the lives of citizens.

Social Darwinism

Who is this: Who: It is a name given to various phenomena emerging in the second half of the 19th century, trying to apply biological concepts of natural selection and survival of the fittest in human society. It is a body of thought drawn from the ideas of Charles Darwin that applied the theory of biological evolution to human affairs and saw the human race as driven by an unending economic struggle that would determine the survival of the fittest. What: Some thinkers applied Darwin's theory of biological evolution to human affairs. English philosopher Herbert Spencer saw the human race as driven forward to ever greater specialization and progress by a brutal economic struggle that determined the survival of the fittest. The poor were the ill fated weak, the prosperous were the chosen strong. This thought gained adherents among nationalists, who view global competition been countries as a grand struggle for survival as well as among imperialists, who used these ideas to justify the rule of the advanced West over their colonial subjects and territories. The term itself emerged in the 1880s.

Existentialism

Who is this: Who: It is a philosophy that stresses the meaninglessness of existence and the importance of the individual in searching for moral values in an uncertain world. This philosophy loosely united highly diverse and even contradictory thinkers in a search for usable moral values in a world of anxiety and uncertainty. What: It is a term applied to the work of certain late-19th- and 20th-century European philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences, shared the belief that philosophical thinking begins with the human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual. While the predominant value of its thought is commonly acknowledged to be freedom, its primary virtue is authenticity. In the view of a follower, the individual's starting point is characterized by what has been called a sense of disorientation, confusion, or dread in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world. Many followers have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophies, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience.

Gallipoli

Who is this: Who: It is a place where there was a battle of the First World War that took place in the Ottoman Empire between 1915 and 1916. The peninsula forms the northern bank of the Dardanelles, a strait that provided a sea route to the Russian Empire, one of the Allied powers during the war. Intending to secure it, Russia's allies Britain and France launched a naval attack followed by an amphibious landing on the peninsula, with the aim of capturing the Ottoman capital of Constantinople. The naval attack was repelled and after eight months' fighting, with many casualties on both sides, the land campaign was abandoned and the invasion force was withdrawn to Egypt. What: In 1915, at the battle of this place, British forces tried and failed to take the Dardanelles and Constantinople from the Ottoman Turks. The Invasion force was pinned down on the beaches and the ten-month long battle cost the Ottomans 300,000 and the British 265,000 men killed, wounded, or missing. The British were more successful at inciting the Arabs to revolt against the Ottoman rulers. They bargained with the foremost Arab leader, Hussein ibn-Ali, the chief magistrate of Mecca, the holist city in the Muslim world. Controlling much of the Ottoman Empire's territory along the Red Sea, an area known as the Hejaz, Hussein managed in 1915 to win vague British commitments for an independent Arab kingdom. In 1916, Hussein rebelled against the Turks, proclaiming himself king of the Arabs. Hussein was aided by the British liaison officer TE Lawrence who in 1917, helped lead Arab soldiers in a successful guerrilla war against the Turks on the Arabian peninsula.

Eugenics

Who is this: Who: It is a pseudoscientific doctrine that maintains that selective breeding of human beings can improve the general characteristics of a national population, which helped inspire Nazi ideas about race and space and ultimately contributed to the Holocaust. It is a set of beliefs and practices that aims at improving the genetic quality of the human population. What: Fascists embraced this doctrine. It was popular throughout the Western World in the 1920s and 1930s and was viewed by many as a legitimate social policy. But Fascists, especially the German National Socialists, or Nazis, pushed thees ideas to the extreme. Adopting a radicalized view of this doctrine, the Nazis maintained that the German nation had to be purified of groups of people deemed unfit by the regime. Such ideas ultimately led to the Holocaust, the attempt to purge Germany and Europe of all Jews and other undesirable groups by mass killing during World War II. Though the Soviets sometimes persecuted specific ethnic groups, in general they justified these attacks using ideologies of class rather than race.

Totalitarianism

Who is this: Who: It is a radical dictatorship that exercises entire claims of the beliefs and behavior of its citizens by taking control of the economic, social, and intellectual, and cultural aspects of society. It is a political system in which the state recognizes no limits to its authority and strives to regulate every aspect of public and private life wherever feasible. A distinctive feature of these governments is an "elaborate ideology, a set of ideas that gives meaning and direction to the whole society". What: This model of government emphasizes the characteristics that Fascist and Communist dictatorships had in common. One-party states of this government used violent political repression and intense propaganda to gain complete power. In addition, the state tries to dominate the economic, social, intellectual, and cultural aspects of people's lives. The concept of it was first developed in the 1920s by the Weimar German jurist, and later Nazi academic, Carl Schmitt, and Italian fascists. Schmitt used the term in his influential work on the legal basis of an all-powerful state, The Concept of the Political (1927). The concept became prominent in Western political discourse as a concept that highlights similarities between Fascist states and the Soviet Union.

Einstein's Theory of Relativity

Who is this: Who: It is a theory by a German physicist that time and space are respective to the observer and that only the speed of light remains constant. What: It is a theory that usually encompasses two interrelated theories by a German physicist: special and general. Special applies to elementary particles and their interactions, describing all their physical phenomena except gravity. General explains the law of gravitation and its relation to other forces of nature. It applies to the cosmological and astrophysical realm, including astronomy. This theory was created by a German-Jewish genius who went further than the Curies and Planck in undermining Newtonian physics. His theory postulated that time and space are relative to the viewpoint of the observer and that only the speed of light is constant all frames of reference in the universe. In order to make his revolutionary and paradoxical idea comprehensible to laypeople, he used analogies involving moving trains. For example, if a woman in the middle of a moving car got up and walked forward to the door, she had gone, relative to the train, a half car length. But relative to na observer on the embankment, she had gone further. To him this meant that time and distance were not natural universals but depended on the position and motion of the observer.

Logical Positivism

Who is this: Who: It is a theory that sees meaning in only those beliefs that can be empirically proven, and that therefore rejects most of the concerns of traditional philosophy, from the existence of God to the meaning of happiness and nonsense. What: It was a movement in Western philosophy that sought to legitimize philosophical discourse by placing it on a basis shared with empirical sciences' best examples, such as Einstein's general theory of relativity. Its central thesis was verificationism, a theory of knowledge which asserted that only statements verifiable through empirical observation are cognitively meaningful. Efforts to convert philosophy to this new scientific philosophy were intended to prevent confusion rooted in unclear language and unverifiable claims. Adherents of this worldview argued that what we know about human life must be based on rational facts and direct observation. They concluded that theology and most traditional philosophy were meaningless because even the most cherished ideas about God, eternal truth and ethics were impossible to prove using logic. This outlook is often associated with Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein.

Louis Pasteur's Germ Theory of Disease

Who is this: Who: It is a theory that states that disease is caused by the spread of living organisms that can be controlled. These microorganisms invade humans and other living hosts. Their growth and reproduction within their hosts can cause a disease. "Germ" may refer to not just a bacterium but to any type of microorganisms, especially one which causes disease. Microorganisms that cause disease are called pathogens, and the diseases they cause are called infectious diseases. Even when a pathogen is the principal cause of a disease, environmental and hereditary factors often influence the severity of the disease, and whether a particular host individual becomes infected when exposed to the pathogen. Pasteur made the connection between germs and health. What: It was a breakthrough in understanding how bad drinking water and filth actually made people sick. This theory came to be when a French chemist developed it. This man, who began studying fermentation for brewers in 1884, used a microscope to develop a simple test that brewers could use to monitor the fermentation process and avoid spoilage. He found that fermentation depended on the growth of living organisms and that the activity of these organisms could be suppressed by heating the beverage, a process that came to be called pasteurization, which he first implemented in the early 1860s. The breathtaking implication of this discovery was that specific diseases were caused by specific living organisms, germs, and that those organisms could be controlled. By 1870, the work of this man and others had demonstrated the general connection between germs and disease.

A Doll's House

Who is this: Who: It is a three-act play about feminism in prose by Henrik Ibsen. It premiered at the Royal Theatre in Copenhagen, Denmark in 1879, having been published earlier that month. The play is significant for its critical attitude toward 19th-century marriage norms. It aroused great controversy at the time, as it concludes with the protagonist, Nora, leaving her husband and children because she wants to discover herself. Ibsen was inspired by the belief that "a woman cannot be herself in modern society," since it is "an exclusively male society, with laws made by men and with prosecutors and judges who assess feminine conduct from a masculine standpoint." What: In short, the typical middle-class marriage was more similar to a child-parent relationship than a partnership of equals, a situation finely portrayed in this, Henrik Ibsen's noted play made in 1879. The inequality of marriage was codified in European legal systems that, with rare exceptions, placed property ownership in the hands of the husband.

Minié Ball

Who is this: Who: It is a type of muzzle-loading spin-stabilized rifle bullet named after its co-developer, Claude-Étienne, inventor of the rifle, which also bears his name. It came to prominence in the Crimean War and American Civil War. What: The French army officer Claude-Etienne invented the bullet that would bear his name in 1849. The bullet, a cylindrical bullet with a hollow base that expanded when fired, proved lethally accurate over relatively long distances, and was soon used to devastating effect by the British army against Russian forces during the Crimean War. After the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, both Union and Confederate soldiers used it in their muzzle-loading rifles. The development of advanced weaponry invariably ensured the military superiority of Europeans over colonized areas.

Total War

Who is this: Who: It is a war in which distinctions between the soldiers on the battlefield and civilians at home are blurred, and where the government plans and controls economic and social life in order to supply the armies at the front with supplies and weapons. What: On the western front in France and the eastern front in Russia, the belligerent armies bogged down in a new and extremely costly kind of war termed this by German general Erich Ludendorff. This meant new roles for soldiers and civilians alike. At the front, it meant lengthy, deadly battles fought with all the destructive weapons a highly industrialized society could produce. At home, national economies were geared toward the war effort. Governments revoked civil liberties, and many civilians lost lives or livelihoods as occupying armies moved through their towns and cities. The struggle expanded outside Europe, and the Middle East, Africa, East Asia, and the United States were all brought into the maelstrom of this.

"The Protocols of the Elders of Zion"

Who is this: Who: It is an antisemitic fabricated text purporting to describe a Jewish plan for global domination. The forgery was first published in Russia in 1903, translated into multiple languages, and disseminated internationally in the early part of the 20th century. According to the claims made by some of its publishers, the Protocols are the minutes of a late 19th-century meeting where Jewish leaders discussed their goal of global Jewish hegemony by subverting the morals of Gentiles, and by controlling the press and the world's economies. What: Fanatic Anti-Semites whipped up resentment against Jewish achievement and Jewish financial control and claimed that they Jewish race or blood posed a biological threat to Christian peoples. Such ideas were popularized by the repeated publication of the notorious forgery, which is a falsified account of a secret meeting supposedly held at the First Zionist Congress in Basel in 1897. The Protocols, actually written by the Russian secret police, suggested that Jewish elders planned to dominate the globe. Such anti-semitic beliefs were particularly popular among conservatives, extreme nationalists, and people who felt threatened by the Jewish competition.

Natural Philosophy

Who is this: Who: It is an early modern term for the study of the nature of the universe, its purpose, and how it functioned. It encompassed what we would call science today. What: It focused on the fundamental questions about the nature of the universe, its purpose and how it functioned. In the early 1500s, natural philosophy was still based primarily on the ideas of Aristotle, the great Greek philosopher of the fourth century BCE. Medieval theologians such as Thomas Aquinas brought Aristotelian philosophy into harmony with christian doctrines.

Bloody Sunday

Who is this: Who: It is the name given to the events in 1905 in St Petersburg, Russia, when unarmed demonstrators led by Father Georgy Gapon were fired upon by soldiers of the Imperial Guard as they marched towards the Winter Palace to present a petition to Czar Nicholas II of Russia. What: It was a massacre of peaceful protesters at the Winter Palace in St Petersburg in 1905, triggering a revolution that overturn absolute czarist rule and made Russia into a conservative constitutional monarchy. In 1905, a massive crowd of workers and their families converged peacefully on the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg to present a petition to Nicholas II. Suddenly troops opened fire, killing and wounding hundreds. This produced a wave of general indignation that turned many Russians against the czar.

Social Democratic Party in Germany, German Social Democratic Party

Who is this: Who: It is the oldest extant political party represented in the German Parliament and was one of the first Marxist-influenced parties in the world. It was a mass-based political party that emerged as a sophisticated vehicle for social, economic, and political reform. Worker's established labor unions and movements promoting social and economic reforms that also developed into political parties representing the workers. What: It was a German working-class political party founded in the 1870s. It championed Marxism but actually turned away from Marx's main ideas and worked instead for social and workplace reforms in the German parliament.

Nativism

Who is this: Who: It is the political position of supporting a favored status for the local majority of a nation while targeting and threatening newcomers or immigrants. It is policies and beliefs, often influenced by nationalism, scientific racism, and mass migration, that give preferential treatment to established inhabitants over immigrants. What: The French people tried to limit the influx of Italian migrant workers, German ones worked to stop Poles from crossing eastern borders, and Americans restricted immigration from southern and eastern Europe as well as banning it outright from much of Asia.

Three Crop Field Rotation

Who is this: Who: It is the practice of growing a series of different types of crops in the same area in sequential seasons. What: There was production growth that was contributed to by this, allowing farmers to forgo the unproductive fallow period altogether and maintain their land in continuous cultivation. The secret is to eliminate the fallow lay in deliberately alternating grain with crops that restored nutrients to the soil.

Educational System

Who is this: Who: It is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits through a specific system of teaching. What: Wollstonecraft advocated coeducation out of the belief that it would make women better wives/mothers, make women good citizens, and make women economically independent.

Urban Redesign

Who is this: Who: It is the process of reshaping cities, towns and villages. What: France took the lead in this area during the rule of Napoleon III, who sought to promote the welfare of his subjects through government action. He believed that rebuilding much of Paris would provide employment, improve living conditions, limit the outbreak of cholera epidemics, and testify to the power and glory of his empire. In Baron Georges Haussmann, an aggressive, impatient Alsatian whom he placed in charge of Paris, Napoleon III found an authoritarian planner capable of bulldozing both buildings and opposition. In twenty years, Paris was completely transformed. For two decades, Haussmann and his fellow planners preceded on many interrelated fronts. With a bold energy that often shocked their contemporaries, they razed old buildings in order to cut broad, straight, tree-lined boulevards through the center of the city as well as in the new quarters rising on the outskirts. These boulevards, designed in part to prevent the easy construction and defense of barricades by revolutionary crowds, permitted traffic to flow freely and afforded impressive vistas. Their creation also demolished some of the worst sums. New streets stimulated the construction of better housing, especially for the middle classes. Planners created small neighborhood parks and open spaces throughout the city and developed two very large parks suitable for all kinds of holiday activities, one on the affluent west side and one on the poor east side of the city. The city improved its sewers and a system of aqueducts more than doubled the city's supply of clean, fresh water. Urban planners in cities like Vienna and Cologne followed the Parisian example of tearing down old walled fortifications and replacing them with broad, circular boulevards, on which they erected office buildings, town halls, theaters, opera houses, and museums.

virtù

Who is this: Who: It is the quality of being able to shape the world according to one's own will. What: It gave people the thought that they can do anything and it made people more individualistic. People wanted credit for things because they were doing it. They were not doing it through God, people were doing the things themselves.

The Irish Potato Famine, The Great Famine

Who is this: Who: It is the result of four years of this crop's failure in the late 1840's in Ireland, a country that had grown dependent on potatoes as a dietary staple. What: As population and potatoes dependency grew, conditions became very precarious. From 1820 onward, deficiencies and diseases in the potato crop occurred with disturbing frequency. Then in 1845 and 1846, and again in 1848 and 1851, the potato crop failed in Ireland. Blight attacked the young plants, and leaves and tubers rotted. Unmitigated disaster, this followed, as already impoverished peasants experienced widespread sickness and starvation.

Censorship

Who is this: Who: It is the suppression of free speech, public communication or other information which may be considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or politically incorrect as determined by governments. What: Napoleon imposed restrictions on free speech and freedom of the press. He also manipulated voting in the occasional elections. His subjects were not allowed talk of the Old Regime and Revolution, material that challenged his or the church's authority, or the glorification of other cultures.

Empiricism

Who is this: Who: It is the theory that all knowledge is derived from sense-experience. It is deriving truth through your senses. What: It is the notion that experiences involving the five human senses are the greatest source of knowledge. Prior to the scientific revolution, it was both the ends and the means. In the scientific revolution, it would be the mere staring mean. The ends would come courtesy of a rigorous testing process involving a hypothesis based on it, followed by constant experimentation. Now, no previous law was assumed to be true; nothing was true but that which could be confirmed by experimentation.

Proletarianization

Who is this: Who: It is the transformation of large numbers of small peasant farmers into landless rural wage earners. What: A tiny minority of wealthy English landowners held most of the land and the pursued profits aggressively, leasing their holdings through agents at competitive prices to middle-size farmers, who relied on landless laborers for their workforce. These landless laborers usually worked very long hours, usually following a dawn-to-dusk schedule six days a weak all year long. not only was the small landholder deprived on his land, but improvements in technology meant that fewer laborers were needed to work the large farms and unemployment spread throughout the countryside. No other European country had this. England's village poor found the cost of change heavy and unjust.

Global Mass Migration

Who is this: Who: It refers to the migration of large groups of people from one geographical area to another. It was the mass movement of people from Europe in the nineteenth century; one reason that the West's impact on the world was so powerful and many-sided. What: A poignant human drama accompanied economic expansion: millions of people pulled up stakes and left their ancestral lands in the course of history's greatest migration. To millions of ordinary people for whom the opening of China and the interest on the Egyptian debt hd not the slightest significance, this great movement was the central experience in the saga of Western Expansion.

New Economic Policy

Who is this: Who: It was Lenin's 1921 strategy to re-establish limited financial freedom in an attempt to rebuild agriculture and industry in the face of economic disintegration. It was a political strategy of Soviet Russia proposed by Vladimir Lenin, who described it as a progression towards "state capitalism" within the workers' state of the USSR. Lenin characterized "state capitalism" in 1922 as a financial system that would include "a free market and capitalism, both subject to state control" while socialized state enterprises were to operate on "a profit basis." What: Lenin replaced War Communism with this, which re-established limited economic freedom in an attempt to rebuild agriculture and industry. During the civil war, the Bolsheviks had simply seized grain without payment. Now peasant producers were permitted to sell their surpluses in free markets, and private traders and small handicraft manufacturers were allowed to reappear. Heavy industry, railroads, and banks however, remained wholly nationalized.

Bolsheviks

Who is this: Who: It was Lenin's radical, revolutionary arm of the Russian party of Marxist socialism, which successfully installed a dictatorial regime in Russia. What: They were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903. The RSDLP was a revolutionary socialist political party formed in 1898 in Minsk, Belarus to unite the various revolutionary organizations of the Russian Empire into one party. The faction was founded by Vladimir Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov, were by 1905 a major organization consisting primarily of workers under a democratic internal hierarchy governed by the principle of democratic centralism, who considered themselves the leaders of the revolutionary working class of Russia.

The Black Shirts

Who is this: Who: It was Mussolini's private militia from 1923-1943 that destroyed socialist newspapers, union halls, and Socialist Party headquarters, eventually pushing Socialists out of the city governments in northern Italy. It was originally the paramilitary wing of the National Fascist Party and, after 1923, an all-volunteer militia of the Kingdom of Italy. Its members were distinguished by their uniforms of a certain color and their loyalty to Benito Mussolini, the Duce (leader) of Fascism, to whom they swore an oath. The founders of the paramilitary groups were nationalist intellectuals, former army officers and young landowners opposing peasants' and country laborers' unions. Their methods became harsher as Mussolini's power grew, and they used violence and intimidation against Mussolini's opponents. In 1943 the MVSN was integrated into the Italian armed forces. What: When Mussolini saw that his violent verbal assaults on rival Socialists won him growing support from conservatives and the frightened middle classes, he shifted gears in 1920 and became as sworn enemy of socialism. Mussolini and his private militia grew increasingly violent. Few people were killed, but Socialist Part newspapers, union halls, and local headquarters were destroyed and they managed to push Socialists out of city governments in northern Italy.

Balfour Declaration

Who is this: Who: It was a 1917 British statement that declared British support of a National Home fore the Jewish people in Palestine. What:It was a letter dated 1917 from the United Kingdom's Foreign Secretary Arthur James Balfour to Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild, a leader of the British Jewish community, for transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland. British plans for the former Ottoman lands that would become Palestine further angered Arab nationalists. This, written by British foreign secretary Balfour, had announced that Britain favored a National Home fore the Jewish People in Palestine, but without discrimination against the civil and religious rights of the non-Jewish communities already living in the region. The declaration enraged Arabs.

Mein Kampf

Who is this: Who: It was a 1925 autobiographical book by Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler. The work laid out his basic ideas on "racial purification" and territorial expansion that would define National Socialism. The work outlines Hitler's political ideology and future plans for Germany. It was edited by Hitler's deputy Rudolf Hess. Hitler began the book while imprisoned for what he considered to be "political crimes" following his failed Putsch in Munich in November 1923. Although Hitler received many visitors initially, he soon devoted himself entirely to the book What: At his trial, Hitler gained enormous publicity by denouncing the Weimar Republic. He used his brief prison term to dictate his book, where he laid out his basic ideas on "racial purification" and territorial expansion that would define National Socialism. In his book, Hitler claimed that Germans were a master race that needed to defend its pure blood from groups he labeled racial degenerates, including Jews, Slavs, and others. The German race was destined to triumph and grow, and,according to Hitler, it needed Lebensraum, living space. This space could be found to Germany' east, which Hitler claimed was inhabited by the subhuman Slavs and Jews. The future dictators outlines a sweeping vision of war and conquest in which the German master race would colonized east and central Europe and untimely replace the subhumans living there. He championed the idea of the leader-dictator, or führer, whose unlimited power would embody the people's will and lead the German nation to victory. These ideas, a deadly combination of race and space, would ultimately proper the world in the Second World War.

Kellogg-Briand Pact

Who is this: Who: It was a 1928 international agreement in which signatory states promised not to use war to resolve "disputes or conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever origin they may be, which may arise among them." Parties failing to abide by this promise "should be denied of the benefits furnished by this treaty." It was signed by Germany, France, and the United States in 1928, and by most other nations soon after. Sponsored by France and the U.S., the agreement renounces the use of war and calls for the peaceful settlement of disputes. It is named after its authors, United States Secretary of State and French foreign minister. What: In 1928, fifteen countries signed the agreement, initiated by French prime minister and US secretary of state. The signing states agreed to renounce war as a instrument of international policy and to settle international disputed peacefully. The agreement made not provisions for action in case war actually occurred and could not prevent the arrival of the Second World War in 1939. In the late 1920s, however, it fostered a cautions optimism and encouraged the hope that the United States would accept its responsibilities as a great world power by contributing to European stability.

The Lateran Agreement

Who is this: Who: It was a 1929 pact that recognized the Vatican as an independent state, with Mussolini agreeing to give the church heavy financial support in return for public support from the pope. It was a pact made in 1929 between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See, settling the "Roman Question". It was named after the palace, where it was signed. Italy was then under a Fascist government, but the succeeding democratic governments have all upheld the treaty. It recognized the Vatican as an independent state, with Prime Minister Benito Mussolini agreeing to give the church financial refund. In 1947, it was incorporated into the democratic Constitution of Italy. What: Mussolini drew increasing support from the Catholic Church. In this pact of 1929, Mussolini recognized the Vatican as an independent state, and he agreed to give the church significant financial support in return of the poe's support. Because he was forced to compromise with these conservative elites, Mussolini never established complete totalitarian control.

The Lusitania

Who is this: Who: It was a British ocean liner that a German submarine sank in World War I, causing a major diplomatic uproar. The ship was a holder of the Blue Riband, and briefly the world's largest passenger ship until the completion of her sister ship Mauretania. The Cunard Line launched this ship in 1906, at a time of fierce competition for the North Atlantic trade. She made a total of 202 trans-Atlantic crossings. What: In may 1915, a German submarine sank the British passenger liner, claiming more than 1000 lives, among them 139 US citizens. President Woodrow Wilson protested vigorously, using the tragedy to incite American public opinion against the Germans. To avoid almost-certain war with the United States, Germany halted its submarine warfare for almost two years. Early in 1917, the German command, hoping that improved submarines could starve Britain in to submission before the United States could come to its rescue, resumed unrestricted submarine warfare. This was a reckless gamble, and the Unites States declared war on Germany in April of that year. Eventually the United States tipped the balance in favor of the British, French, and their allies.

Saint-Domingue

Who is this: Who: It was a French colony on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola. What: The slaves and some people of color that were free from this island began waging a rebellion against French authority. Eventually this place became the Republic of Haiti after declaring independence.

Bauhaus

Who is this: Who: It was a German art school operational from 1919 to 1933 that combined crafts and the fine arts, and was famous for the approach to design that it publicized and taught. What: It was a German interdisciplinary school of fine and applied arts that brought together many leading modern architects, designers, and theatrical innovators. In 1919, Gropius merged the schools of fine and applied arts at Weimar into a single school. This brought together many leading architects, designers, and theatrical innovators. Working as a effective, inspired team, they combined the study of fine art, inkling parenting and sculpture, with the study of applied art in the crafts of printing, weaving, and furniture making. Throughout the 1920s, with its stress on functionalism and quality design for everyday goods, attracted enthusiastic students from all over the world.

The Battle of Waterloo

Who is this: Who: It was a battle that was fought near Brussels in present-day Belgium, then part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. A French army under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated by two of the armies of the Seventh Coalition: an Anglo-led Allied army under the command of the Duke of Wellington, and a Prussian army under the command of Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, Prince of Wahlstatt. What: Upon hearing or political unrest in France and diplomatic tensions in Vienna, Napoleon stages a drink escape from Elba and marched on Paris with a small band of followers. French officers and soldiers who had fought so long for their emperor response to the call. Louis XVIII fled, and once more Napoleon took command. But Napoleon;s gamble was a desperate long shot, for the allies were united against him. At the end of a frantic period known as the Hundred Days, they rushed his forces at this battle and imprisoned him on the rocky island of St. Helena, off the Western Coast of Africa. Louis XVIII returned to the throne, and the allies dealt more harshly with the French.

The Battle of Omdurman

Who is this: Who: It was a battle where an army commanded by the British General Sir Herbert Kitchener defeated the army of Abdullah al-Taashi, the successor to the self-proclaimed Mahdi territory. Kitchener was seeking revenge for the 1885 death of General Gordon. It was a demonstration of the superiority of a highly disciplined army equipped with modern rifles, machine guns, and artillery over a force twice their size armed with older weapons, and marked the success of British efforts to re-conquer the Sudan. What: A British force, under Kitchener, moved cautiously and more successfully up the Nile River, building a railroad to supply arms and reinforcements as it went, Finally, in 1989, these British troops met their foe at this city, where poorly armed Sudanese Muslim troops charged time and time again, only to be cut down by the recently invented Maxim machine gun. In the solemn words of one English observer, it was not a battle but an execution. The bodies were not in heaps but they spread evenly over acres an acres. In the end, about 10,000 Muslin soldiers lay dead, while only 28 Britons had been killed and 145 wounded.

The Continental System

Who is this: Who: It was a blockade imposed by Napoleon to halt all trade between continental Europe and Britain, thereby weakening the British economy and military. What: It was the foreign policy of Napoleon in his struggle against Great Britain during the Napoleonic Wars. As a response to the naval blockade of the French coasts enacted by the British government, Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree, which brought into effect this system of a large-scale embargo against British trade. The system was effective intermittently for about half the time. In terms of economic damage to Great Britain, the blockade was largely ineffective.

The Bastille

Who is this: Who: It was a building that played an important role in the internal conflicts of France and for most of its history and was used as a state prison by the kings of France. It was stormed by a crowd on in the French Revolution and became an important symbol for the French Republican movement. What: Knowledge spread of the massing of troops near paris and several hundred people stormed this building. It was a royal prison and these people stormed this building to obtain weapons for the city's defense. Faced with popular violence, Louis soon announced the reinstatement of his finance minister and the withdrawal of troops from Paris. The National Assembly was now free to continue its work.

The Labour Party under Ramsay MacDonald

Who is this: Who: It was a centre-left political party in the United Kingdom under a British statesman who was the first Prime Minister of this party, leading Labour governments from 1929-1931 and, having been expelled from the party he had helped to found, a National Government from 1931-1935. What: Relative social harmony was accompanied by the rise of this party as a determined champion of the working class and of greater social equality. Committed to the kind of moderate revisionist socialism that had emerged before World War I, this party replaced the Liberal Party as the main opposition to the Conservatives. This shift reflected the decline of old liberal ideals of competitive capitalism. limited government control ,and individual responsibility. This party was under this man who governed the country with the support of the smaller Liberal Party yet his party moved toward socialism and gradually and democratically, so as not to antagonize the middle classes.

the wars of the roses

Who is this: Who: It was a civil war between adherents of the ducal houses of York and Lancaster and the point was to contend for control of the Crown. The wars are called what it was called because the symbol of the Yorkists was white and the symbol of the Lancastrians was red. What: The wars hurt trade, agriculture, and domestic industry. Under the rule of Henry VI, the authority of the monarchy sank lower than it had been in centuries. The Yorkist Edward IV began establishing domestic tranquility. He succeeded in defeating the Lancastrian forces and after 1471, began to reconstruct the monarchy.

Zollverein

Who is this: Who: It was a coalition of German states formed to manage tariffs and economic policies within their territories. It was a customs union among the separate states. What: This formation of a customs union among the separate German states was an early proponent to unifying these German lands. This union came into being in 1818 and had spread to most of the German states by 1834, allowing goods to move between member states without tariff, while erecting a single uniform tariff against other nations.

Italian Invasion of Ethiopia

Who is this: Who: It was a colonial war fought between the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy run by Mussolini and the armed forces of the an African empire that started in 1935 and ended in 1936. The war resulted in the military occupation of this African empire. What: Mussolini matched his aggressive rhetoric with military action Italian armies invaded the African nation of this country in October 1935. After surprising setback at the hands of the poorly armed army, the Italians won in 1936, and Mussolini could proudly declare that Italy had its empire. Though it shocked international opinion, the war resulted in close ties between Italy and Nazi Germany. After a visit to Berlin in the fall of 1937, the Italian dictator pledged support for Hitler and promised that Italy and Germany would march together right to the end.

The Spanish-American War

Who is this: Who: It was a conflict fought between Spain and the United States in 1898. Hostilities began in the aftermath of the internal explosion of the USS Maine in Havana harbor in Cuba leading to United States intervention in the Cuban War of Independence. The US took the Philippines in this war. What: The great conquest by the United States was the Philippines, taken from Spain in 1898 through this war. When it quickly became clear that the United States had not intention of granting the independence it had promised, Philippine, patriots rose in revolt and were suppressed only after long, bitter fighting. Some Americans protested the taking of the Philippines but to no avail. Thus another great Western power joined the imperialist ranks in Asia. The white man's burden was an important factor in the deices to rule rather than liberate. Like their European counterparts, these Americans believed that civilization had reached unprecedented heights and that they had unique benefits to bestow on supposedly less advanced peoples. Another argument was that imperial government protected native from tribal warfare as well as from cruder forms of exploitation by white settlers an business people.

First Balkan War

Who is this: Who: It was a conflict that lasted from 1912 to 1913 and comprised actions of the Balkan League, the kingdoms of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro, against the Ottoman Empire. The combined armies of the Balkan states overcame the numerically inferior and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies and achieved rapid success. As a result of the war, the League captured and partitioned almost all remaining European territories of the Ottoman Empire. Ensuing events also led to the creation of an independent Albania. Despite its success, Bulgaria was dissatisfied over the division of the spoils in Macedonia, which provoked the start of the second war. What: The tensions in the Balkans soon erupted into regional warfare. In this war, Serbia joined Greece and Bulgaria to attack the ottoman Empire and then quarreled with Bulgaria over the spoils of victory.

Second Balkan War

Who is this: Who: It was a conflict which broke out when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its share of the spoils of the initial War, attacked its former allies, Serbia and Greece in 1913. Serbian and Greek armies repulsed the Bulgarian offensive and counter-attacked, entering Bulgaria. With Bulgaria also having previously engaged in territorial disputes with Romania, this war provoked Romanian intervention against Bulgaria. The Ottoman Empire also took advantage of the situation to regain some lost territories from the previous war. When Romanian troops approached the capital Sofia, Bulgaria asked for an armistice, resulting in the Treaty of Bucharest, in which Bulgaria had to cede portions of its initial war gains to Serbia, Greece and Romania. In the Treaty of Constantinople, it lost Edirne to the Ottomans. What: In this war, Bulgaria attacked its former allies. Austria intervened and forced Serbia to give up Albania. After centuries, nationalism had finally destroyed the Ottoman Empire in Europe. Encouraged by their successes against the Ottomans. Balkan nationalists increased their demands for freedom from Austria-Hungary, dismaying the leaders of that multinational empire.

Yugoslavia

Who is this: Who: It was a country in Southeast Europe. It came into existence after World War I in 1918 under the name of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes by the merger of the provisional State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs with the formerly independent Kingdom of Serbia. It gained international recognition in 1922. The country was named after the South Slavic peoples and constituted their first union, following centuries in which the territories had been part of the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary. What: A greatly expanded Serbian monarchy gained control of the western Balkans and took the the name of this country, meaning "land of the south slavs." It came into existence after World War I in 1918; however, after an economic and political crisis in the 1980s and the rise of nationalism, it broke up along its republics' borders, at first into five countries, leading to wars. The borders of this country cut through a jumble of ethnic and religious groups that often despised each other, which led to economic weakness and political instability.

Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre

Who is this: Who: It was a day when there was a savage Catholic attack on Calvinists. What: It was the marriage ceremony of the king's sister Margaret of Valois to the protestant Henry of Navarre, which was intended to reconcile Catholics and Huguenots. Instead, Huguenots not wedding guests in Paris were massacred and other protestants were slaughtered by mobs. Religious violence spread to the provinces, where thousands were killed. This massacre led to ca civil war that dragged on for fifteen years.

Debt Peonage

Who is this: Who: It was a form of serfdom in the 1700s that allowed a planter or rancher to keep his workers or slaves in perpetual bondage of owing money by periodically advancing food, shelter, and a little money. What: Silver mining also stimulated food production for the mining camps, and wealthy Spanish land-owners developed of system of this to keep indigenous workers on their estates. Under this system, which was similar to serfdom, a planter or rancher would keep workers in perpetual debt bondage by advancing them food, shelter, and a little money.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Who is this: Who: It was a fundamental document of the French Revolution and in the history of human and civil rights issued by the National Assembly. What: It was issued at the beginning of the French Revolution and proclaimed that "liberty consists in being able to do anything that does not harm another person." In the context of the monarchical and absolutist forms of government then dominating Europe, this was a truly radical idea. The call for liberty was first of all a call for individual human rights. Before the revolutionary period, even the most enlightened monarchs believed that they needed to regulate what people wrote and believed. Opposing this long standing practice, supporters of the cause of individual liberty demanded freedom to worship according to the dictates of their consciences, an end to censorship, and freedom from arbitrary laws and from judges who simply obeyed orders from the government. The call for liberty was also a call for a new kind of government. Reformers believed that the people had sovereignty, which is that people alone had the authority to make laws limiting an individual's freedom of action. In practice, this system of government meant choosing legislators who represented the people and were accountable to them. Monarchs might retain their thrones, but their rule should be constrained by the will of the people.

Le Encyclopédie

Who is this: Who: It was a general set of books giving information, and Diderot said that he wanted this set of books to change the general way of thinking. It was also written by d'Alembert. What: It survived initial resistance from the French government and the Catholic Church. It contained seventy thousand articles by leading scientists, writers, skilled workers, and progressive priests, and it treated every aspect of life and knowledge. Not every article was daring or original, but the overall effect was little short of revolutionary. Science and the industrial arts were exalted, religion and immorality questioned. Intolerance, legal injustice, and out-of-date social institutions were openly criticized. The people writing this general set of books were convinced that greater knowledge would result in greater human happiness, for knowledge was useful and made possible economic, social, and political progress. Summing up the new worldview of the Enlightenment, the set of books was widely read, especially in less-expensive reprint editions, and it was extremely influential. It represented the thought of the Enlightenment.

Philosophes

Who is this: Who: It was a group of French intellectuals who proclaimed that they were bringing the light of knowledge to their fellow humans in the Age of Enlightenment. What: The spread of spirit of inquiry and debate owed a great deal to the work of these people. It is the french word for philosopher and France became of hub of Enlightenment thought because of them. There were at least three reasons for this. First, French was the international language of the educated classes, and France was the wealthiest and most populous country in Europe. Second, the rising unpopularity of King LouisXV and his mistresses generated growing discontent and calls for reform among the educated elite. Third, the French people like these made itchier goal to reach a larger audience of elites, many of whom were joined together in a concept inherited from the Renaissance know as the Republic of Letters—an imaginary transnational realm of the well educated. An example of two of them is baron de Montesquieu and Francois Marie Arouet.

Secret Police (NKVD)

Who is this: Who: It was a joint law enforcement agency of the whole Soviet Union from 1934-1946 that directly executed the will of the All-Union Communist Party, founded by Vladimir Lenin. It conducted mass extrajudicial executions, ran the Gulag system of forced labor camps and suppressed underground resistance, and was responsible for mass deportations of entire nationalities and Kulaks to unpopulated regions of the country. It was closely associated with the Soviet secret police, which at times was part of the agency, and is known for its political repression, the persecution of individuals or groups within society for political reasons in the Soviet Union, during the era of Joseph Stalin. It was headed by Soviet law enforcement officials. It was also called The People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs. What: It contained the regular, public police force of the USSR, including traffic law enforcement, firefighting, border guards and archives. It is best known for the activities of the Gulag and the Main Directorate for State Security, the predecessor of the KGB. It conducted mass extrajudicial executions, ran the Gulag system of forced labor camps and suppressed underground resistance, and was responsible for mass deportations of entire nationalities and Kulaks to unpopulated regions of the country. It was also tasked with protection of Soviet borders and espionage (which included political assassinations abroad), influencing foreign governments and enforcing Stalinist policy within communist movements in other countries.

Modernism

Who is this: Who: It was a label given to the artistic and cultural movements of the late 19th and 20th centuries which were typified by radical experimentation that challenged traditional forms of artistic expression. What: It is a philosophical movement that, along with cultural trends and changes, arose from wide-scale and far-reaching transformations in Western society during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Among the factors that shaped it were the development of contemporary industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to World War I. It also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief. It was in architecture, art, literature, and music and it meant constant experimentation and a search for new kinds of expression.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

Who is this: Who: It was a law passed during the French Revolution in 1790 that subordinated the Roman Catholic Church in France to the French government. What: The National Assembly established a national church with priests chosen by voters with this law. The National Assembly then forced the Catholic clergy to take an oath of loyalty to the new government. The pope formally condemned these measures, and only half of the priests of France swore the oath. Many sincere Christians, especially those in the countryside, were appalled by these changes in the religious order. The attempt to remake the Catholic Church, like the abolition of guilds and workers' associations, sharpened the conflict between the educated classes and the common people that had been emerging in the eighteenth century.

Factory Act of 1833

Who is this: Who: It was a law that was passed in 1833 that limited the workday of child laborers and set minimum hygiene and safety requirements. What: It also installed a system of full-time professional inspectors to enforce the provisions of previous acts. Children between ages nine and thirteen could work a maximum of eight hours per day, not including two hours that must be devoted to education. Teenagers aged fourteen to eighteen could work up to twelve hours, while those under nine were banned from employment. After 1833, the number of children employed in industry declined rapidly.

The Warsaw Uprising

Who is this: Who: It was a major World War II operation by the Polish resistance Home Army to liberate their capital city from German occupation. The Polish underground Home Army ordered a rebellion, so that the Poles might take the city on their own and establish independence from the Soviets. The rebellion was timed to coincide with the Soviet Union's Red Army approaching the eastern suburbs of the city and the retreat of German forces. However, the Soviet advance stopped short, enabling the Germans to regroup and demolish the city while defeating the Polish resistance, which fought for 63 days with little outside support. The rebellion was the largest single military effort taken by any European resistance movement during World War II. What: The Soviets, who had been advancing steadily since July 1943, reached the outskirts of the capital of Poland by August 1944. Anticipating German defeat, the Polish underground Home Army ordered a rebellion, so that the Poles might take the city on their own and establish independence from the Soviets. The rebellion was a tragic miscalculation. Citing military pressure, the Red Army refused to enter the city. Stalin and Soviet leaders thus allowed the Germans to destroy the Polish insurgents, a cynical move that paved the way for the establishment of a postwar Communist regime. Only after the decimated Home Army surrendered did the Red Army continue its advance. The city lay in ruins and between 150,000-200,000 Poles, mostly civilians, lost their lives.

Berlin Conference of 1884-1885

Who is this: Who: It was a meeting of European leaders held in 1884 and 1885 in order to lay down some basic rules for imperialist competition in sub-saharan Africa. It regulated European colonization and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period, and coincided with Germany's sudden emergence as an imperial power. Called for by Portugal and organized by Otto von Bismarck, first Chancellor of Germany, its outcome, the General Act, can be seen as the formalization of the Scramble for Africa. The meeting ushered in a period of heightened colonial activity by European powers, which eliminated or overrode most existing forms of African autonomy and self-governance. What: It established the principle that European claims to African territory had to rest on effective occupation (a strong presence on the ground) to be recognized by other states. This meant that Europeans would push relentlessly into interior regions from all sides and that no single European power would be able to claim the entire continent. It recognized Leopold's personal rule over a neutral Congo Free State and greed to work to stop slavery and the slave trade in Africa. It coincided with Germany's sudden emergence as a imperial power. Prior to about 1880, Bismarck had seen little value in colonies like many other European leaders at the time.

Wannsee Conference

Who is this: Who: It was a meeting of senior government officials of Nazi Germany and Schutzstaffel leaders, held in a certain Berlin suburb on in 1942 for the purpose of ensuring the cooperation of administrative leaders of various government departments in the implementation of the Final Solution to the Jewish question, whereby most of the Jews of German-occupied Europe would be deported to Poland and murdered. It called by the director of the Reich Main Security Office SS-Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich. Attendees included representatives from several government ministries, including state secretaries from the Foreign Office, the justice, interior, and state ministries, and representatives from the SS. In the course of the meeting, Heydrich outlined how European Jews would be rounded up and sent to extermination camps in the General Government (the occupied part of Poland), where they would be killed. What: Soon after the invasion of Poland in September 1939, the persecution of European Jewry was raised to unprecedented levels, but indiscriminate killing of men, women and children began in June 1941 after the onset of Operation Barbarossa against the Soviets. On 31 July 1941 Hermann Göring gave written authorization to Heydrich to prepare and submit a plan for a "total solution of the Jewish question" in territories under German control and to coordinate the participation of all involved government organizations. At a suburb, Heydrich emphasized that once the mass deportation was complete, the SS would take complete charge of the exterminations. A secondary goal was to arrive at a definition of who was formally Jewish and thus determine the scope of the genocide.

Congress of Berlin in 1878

Who is this: Who: It was a meeting of the representatives of the Great Powers of the time, Russia, Great Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Germany and the Ottoman Empire, and four Balkan states Greece, Serbia, Romania and Montenegro, aiming at determining the territories of the states in the Balkan peninsula following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. The meeting came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Berlin, which replaced the preliminary Treaty of San Stefano signed three months earlier between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. What: After the congress, the Ottoman Empire suffered large territorial losses but remained a power in the Balkans. By 1914, Ottoman control had given way to ethnic population groups that flowed across political boundaries, and growing Serbian national aspirations threatened Austria-Hungary.

Suffrage Movement

Who is this: Who: It was a militant movement for women's right to vote led by middle-class British women around the year 1900. What: The movement mounted a militant struggle for the right to vote, particularly in the decade before World War I. Inspired by the slogan "Deeds Not Words," suffragettes marched in public demonstrations, heckled members of Parliament, and slashed paintings in London's National Gallery. Jailed for political activities, they went on highly publicized hunger strikes. Yet conservatives dismissed what they called the shrieking sisterhood and British women received the vote only in 1919.

The Battle of Britain

Who is this: Who: It was a military campaign of the Second World War, when the Royal Air Force defended England against the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) attacks from 1940-1941. It is described as the first major campaign fought entirely by air forces. The English officially recognize its duration as from 10 July until 31 October 1940, which overlaps with the period of large-scale night attacks known as the Blitz, while German historians do not accept this subdivision and regard it as a campaign lasting from July 1940 to June 1941. What: To prepare for an amphibious invasion of England, Germany sought to gain control of the air. In this campaign, which began in 1940, up to a thousand German planes a day attacked English airfields and key factories, dueling with English defenders high in the skies. Losses were heavy on both sides. In 1940, Hitler angrily turned form military objection to indiscriminate bombing of British cities in an attempt to break English morale. English aircraft factories increased production and the heavily bombed people of London defiantly dug in. By October, England was beating Germany three to one in the air war and the military campaign was over. Stymied there, the Nazi war machine invaded and occupied Greece and the Balkans.

Auschwitz and Other Death Camps

Who is this: Who: It was a network of German Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps built and operated by the Third Reich in Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany during World War II. It was first constructed to hold Polish political prisoners, who began to arrive in May 1940. The first extermination of prisoners took place in September 1941, and went on to become a major site of the Nazi Final Solution to the Jewish Question. From early 1942 until late 1944, transport trains delivered Jews to the camp's gas chambers from all over German-occupied Europe, where they were killed with the pesticide Zyklon B. An estimated 1.3 million people were sent to the camp, of whom at least 1.1 million died. What: Upon arrival at this concentration camp in May 1944, Jews from Subcarpathian Rus, a rural district on the border of Czechoslovakia and Ukraine, undergo a selection managed by Nazi officers and prisoners in striped uniforms. Camp guards will send the fittest people to the barracks, where they will probably soon die from forced labor under the most atrocious conditions. The aged, ill, very young, or otherwise infirm will be murdered immediately in the gas chambers. The tower over the main gate to the camp, today opens onto a vast museum complex.

Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

Who is this: Who: It was a neutrality agreement between Germany run by Adolph Hitler and the USSR run by Josef Stalin signed in Moscow in 1939 by foreign ministers Joachim von Ribbentrop and Vyacheslav Molotov, respectively. The agreement delineated the spheres of interest between the two powers, confirmed by the supplementary protocol of the Frontier Treaty amended after the joint invasion of Poland. It remained in force for nearly two years, until the German government of Adolf Hitler ended the agreement by launching an attack on the USSR positions in Eastern Poland during Operation Barbarossa in 1941. What: In August 1939, in an about-face that stunned the world, sworn enemies Hitler and Stalin signed this agreement that paved the road to war. Each dictator promised to remain neutral if the other became involved in open hostilities. An attached secret protocol ruthlessly divided Poland, the Baltic nations, Finland, and a part of Romania into German and USSR spheres of influence. Stalin agreed to it because he remained distrustful of Western intentions and because Hitler offered immediate territorial gain.

The People's Will

Who is this: Who: It was a nineteenth-century revolutionary political organization in the Russian Empire which advocated an indigenous socialism based upon the massive Russian peasantry, a movement known as Populism. Composed primarily of young revolutionary socialist intellectuals believing in the efficacy of terrorism. It is also called Narodnaya Volya. What: Alexander II's political reforms outraged reactionaries but never went far enough for liberals and radicals. In 1881, a member of this political organization, a small anarchist group, assassinated the czar and the era of reform ended. The era of reform eIt was a Russian revolutionary left-wing organization best known for the successful assassination of czar Alexander II. It created a centralized and well-disguised organization. They did this in a time of diverse liberation movements in Russia led by the Executive Committee, which was in charge of a network of local and special groups (composed of workers, students, and members of the military) though the number its member never exceeded 500. This group only had a few thousand followers.

Goya's Third of May

Who is this: Who: It was a painting by a Spanish romantic painter and printmaker that was a passionate and moving indictment of the brutality of war. What: The painting depicts the close-range execution of the Spanish rebels by Napoleon's forces. This painting evoked the bitterness and despair of many Europeans who suffered through the invasions of Napoleon.

Paine's Common Sense

Who is this: Who: It was a pamphlet by an English-American political activist, philosopher, political theorist, and revolutionary that attacked the weight of custom and the evils of government against the natural society of men. What: The author of some of the most influential texts of the American Revolution, was an English corset maker's son who left school at age twelve and carried on his father's trade before emigrating to the colonies. He wrote this pamphlet that attacked the wight of custom and the evils of government against the natural society of men. This text, which sold 120,000 copies in its first months of publication, is a vivicd proof of working people's reception to Enlightenment ideas. His stirring mastery of them was perhaps unique, but his access to them was not.

The Treaty of Lausanne

Who is this: Who: It was a peace agreement signed in Switzerland in 1923. It officially settled the conflict that had originally existed between the Ottoman Empire and the Allied British Empire, French Republic, Kingdom of Italy, Empire of Japan, Kingdom of Greece, and the Kingdom of Romania since the onset of World War I. It was the result of a second attempt at peace after the failed Treaty of Sèvres, which was signed by all previous parties but later rejected by the Turkish national movement who fought against the previous terms and significant loss of territory. This ended the conflict and defined the borders of the modern Turkish Republic. In the treaty, Turkey gave up all claims to the remainder of the Ottoman Empire and in return the Allies recognized Turkish sovereignty within its new borders. What: In 1923, after long negations, the resulting agreement recognized the territorial integrity of Turkey and solemnly abolished the hatred capitulations that the European powers had imposed over the centuries to give their citizens special privileges in the Ottoman Empire.

New Imperialism

Who is this: Who: It was a period of colonial expansion by European powers, the United States of America, and the Empire of Japan during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The period is distinguished by an unprecedented pursuit of overseas territorial acquisitions. At the time, states focused on building their empires with new technological advances and developments, making their territory bigger through conquest, and exploiting their resources. What: The empires of the late 19th century recalled the old European colonial empires of the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries. Because of this renewed push for colonies came after a long pause in European expansionism, contemporaries term it as this. It is the late-nineteenth century drive by European countries to create vast political empires abroad.

The Ruhr Occupation

Who is this: Who: It was a period of military possession of a German valley by France and Belgium between 1923 and 1925 in response to the Weimar Republic's failure to continue its reparation payments in the aftermath of World War I. What: Led by their tough-minded prime minister, Raymond Poincare, France decided that they had to either call Germany's bluff or see the entire peace settlement dissolve to France's great disadvantage. If the Germans refused to pay reparations, France would use possession to paralyze Germany and force it to accept the Treaty of Versailles. So despite the strong British protest, in early January 1923 French and Belgian armies moved out of the Rhineland and began to occupy this district, the heartland of industrial Germany, creating the most serious international crisis of the 1920s. Strengthened by a wave of German patriotism, the German government ordered the people of this district to stop working and offer passive resistance to the occupation. The coal mines and steel mills of the district fell silent, leaving 10% of Germany's population out of work. The French responded by sealing off the district and the Rhineland from the rest of Germany, letting in only enough food to prevent starvation. German opinion was incensed when the French sent over 40,000 colonial troops from North and West Africa to control the territory. German propaganda labeled these troops the "black shame", warning that the African soldiers were savages, eager to brutalize civilians and assault German women. These racist accounts, though entirely unfounded, nonetheless intensified tensions.

Alchemy

Who is this: Who: It was a philosophical and protoscientific tradition. It aimed to purify, mature, and perfect certain objects. It is considered the medieval forerunner of chemistry, based on the supposed transformation of matter. It was concerned particularly with attempts to convert base metals into gold or to find a universal elixir. What: Newton was fascinated by it. He left behind thirty years worth of encoded journals recording experiments to discover the elixir of life and a way to change base metals into gold and silver. He viewed it as one path, alongside mathematics and astronomy, to the truth of God's creation.

The Tennis Court Oath

Who is this: Who: It was a pledge that the members of the French Estates-General for the Third Estate took. These members had begun to call themselves the National Assembly when they took this oath. They vowed "not to separate, and to reassemble wherever circumstances require, until the constitution of the kingdom is established." It was a pivotal event in the early days of the French Revolution. What: The government conceded that the third estate should have as many delegates as the clergy and the nobility combined, but then upheld a system granting one vote per estate instead of one vote per person. This meant that the two privileged estates could always outvote the third. In response, the delegates refused to meet until the king ordered the clergy and nobility to sit with them in a single body. Later, the third estate, which had been joined by a few parish priests, voted to call itself the National Assembly. Later, excluded from their hall because of repairs, the delegates moved a large indoor tennis court where they swore this famous oath. In this oath, they pledged not to disband until they had been recognized as a national assembly and had written a new constitution.

Kristallnacht

Who is this: Who: It was a pogrom against Jews throughout Nazi Germany in 1938, carried out by SA paramilitary (Sturmabteilung) forces and German civilians. Nazi gangs smashed windows and looted over 7,000 Jewish owned shops, destroyed many homes, burned down over 200 synagogues, and killed dozens of Jews. German authorities looked on without intervening. The name of the pogrom comes from the shards of broken glass that littered the streets after the windows of Jewish-owned stores, buildings, and synagogues were smashed. The pogrom is also called the Night of Broken Glass. What: In late 1938, the assault on the Jews accelerated. During a well-organized wave of violence known as the Night of Broken Glass, Nazi gangs smashed windows and looted over 7,000 Jewish owned shops, destroyed many homes, burned down over 200 synagogues, and killed dozens of Jews. German Jews were then rounded up and made pay for the damage. By 1939, some 300,000 of Germany's 500,000 Jews had emigrated, sacrificing almost all their property in order to escape this persecution. Some Germans privately opposed these outrages, but most went along or looked the other way. This lack of opposition expressed anti-Semitism to a degree still debated by historians, but ti certainly revealed the strong popular support for Hitler's government.

The Mountain

Who is this: Who: It was a political group during the French Revolution whose members, called Montagnards, sat on the highest benches in the Assembly. They were the most radical group and opposed the Girondists. What: It was the French National Convention's radical faction, which seized legislative power in 1793. It was led by Robespierre and Danton.

The Dreyfus Affair

Who is this: Who: It was a political scandal that divided the Third French Republic from 1894 until its resolution in 1906. The affair is often seen as a modern and universal symbol of injustice, and it remains one of the most notable examples of a complex miscarriage of justice. The major role played by the press and public opinion proved influential in the lasting social conflict. What: It was a divisive case in which Alfred, a Jewish captain in the French army, was falsely accused and convicted of treason. The Catholic Church sided with the anti-Semites against him and after he was declared innocent, the French government severed all ties between the state and the church. There were eased tensions between church and state in France until this. In 1894, Alfred, a Jewish captain in the French army, was falsely accused and convicted of treason. His family never doubted his innocence and fought to reopen the case, enlisting the support of prominent republicans and intellectuals, including the novelist Emile Zola. In 1898 and 1899, the case split France apart. On one side was the army, which had manufactured evidence against him, joined by anti-Semites and most of the Catholic establishment. On the other side stood civl libertarians and most of the more radical republicans. He was eventually declared innocent, but the battle revived republican animosity toward the Catholic church. Between 1901 and 1905, the government several all ties between the state and the church. The government stopped paying priests and bishops salaries and placed committees of lay Catholics in control of all churches. Suddenly on their own financially, Catholic schools soon lost a third o f their students, greatly increasing the state school system's reach and thus its power of indoctrination. In France, only the growing socialist movement, with its very different and thoroughly secular ideology stood in opposition to republican nationalism.

Rococo

Who is this: Who: It was a popular style in the eighteenth century, known for its soft pastels, ornate interiors, sentimental portraits, and starry-eyed lovers protected by hovering cupids. What: Elite women exercised great influence on artistic taste. Soft pastels, ornate interiors, sentimental portraits, and starry-eyed lovers protected by hovering cupids were all hallmarks of the style they favored. It has been argued that feminine influence in the drawing room went hand in hand with the emergence of polite society and the general attempt to civilize a rough military nobility.

Methodism

Who is this: Who: It was a protestant revival movement started by John Wesley. It was called what it was because the members of this group were so orderly in their devotion. What: John Wesley served as the catalyst for popular religious revival in England. He came from a long line of ministers and when he went to Oxford University to prepare for the clergy, he mapped out a fanatically earnest scheme of religion. After becoming a teaching fellow at Oxford, he organized this Holy Club for similarly minded students. Like Martin Luther, Wesley remained intensively troubled about his own salvation as an Anglican priest.

Decembrist Revolt in Russia

Who is this: Who: It was a rebellion that took place in Imperial Russia on 26 December 1825. Russian army officers led about 3,000 soldiers in a protest against Nicholas I's assumption of the throne after his elder brother Constantine removed himself from the line of succession. What: It was a political rebellion in Russia led by middle level army officers who advocated reforms. It was eventually put down by Tsar Nicolas I. After the death of Czar Alexander I, his brother Constantine was supposed to take the throne, but instead abdicated and gave the throne to his brother Nicholas I, but this abdication was not made public. The confused people revolted against Nicholas' accession. Forces loyal to Nicholas soon came to crush the revolt and executed its leaders. Nicholas then became a reactionary leader to prevent any other revolts.

July Revolution in France

Who is this: Who: It was a revolution that saw the overthrow of King Charles X, the French Bourbon monarch, and the ascent of his cousin Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans. It marked the shift from one constitutional monarchy, the Bourbon Restoration, to another, the July Monarchy; the transition of power from the House of Bourbon to its cadet branch, the House of Orleans; and the replacement of the principle of hereditary right by popular sovereignty. What: It was a Revolution against Charles X. Louis Philippe became new king and bourgeoisie king. This revolution was a response to Charles X's July Ordinances.. The revolution was led by republican forces. In these forces included workers, students, and intellectuals. This revolution caused Charles X to abdicate. This revolution produced Delacroix's painting Liberty Leading the People.

Christian Social Party in Germany

Who is this: Who: It was a right-wing political party in the German Empire, founded in 1878 by Adolf Stoecker as the Christian Social Workers' Party. The party combined a strong Christian and conservative program with progressive ideas on labour, and tried to provide an alternative for disillusioned Social Democrat voters. Part of the Berlin movement, it increasingly focused on the "Jewish question" with a distinct antisemitic attitude. What: The party never gained mass support, but the founder, Adolf Stoecker, was able to obtain a seat in the Reichstag after an electoral coalition with the Conservative Party. In the parliament, Stoecker advocated the abolition of universal suffrage and intrigued against the policies of chancellor Bismarck.

Reinsurance Treaty

Who is this: Who: It was a secret agreement between Germany and Russia arranged by the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck after the German-Austrian-Russian League of the Three Emperors, collapsed in 1887 because of competition between Austria-Hungary and Russia for spheres of influence in the Balkans. The treaty provided that each party would remain neutral if the other became involved in a war with a third great power, though this would not apply if Germany attacked France or if Russia attacked Austria. What: Bismarck showed the Russian ambassador the text of the German-Austrian alliance of 1879 to drive home the last point. Germany paid for Russian friendship by agreeing to the Russian sphere of influence in Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia and by agreeing to support Russian action to keep the Black Sea as its own preserve. When the treaty was not renewed in 1890, a Franco-Russian alliance rapidly began to take shape.

Triple Alliance

Who is this: Who: It was a secret agreement between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed on 20 May 1882 and renewed periodically until World War I. Germany and Austria-Hungary had been closely allied since 1879. Italy sought support against France shortly after it lost North African ambitions to the French. Each member promised mutual support in the event of an attack by any other great power. The treaty provided that Germany and Austria-Hungary were to assist Italy if it was attacked by France without provocation. In turn, Italy would assist Germany if attacked by France. In the event of a war between Austria-Hungary and Russia, Italy promised to remain neutral. What: The alliance of Austria, Germany, and Italy. Italy left the alliance when the war broke out in 1914 on the grounds that Austria had launched a war of aggression.

The New Deal

Who is this: Who: It was a series of programs, including, most notably, Social Security, that were enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1938. They included both laws passed by Congress as well as presidential executive orders during the first term of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The programs were in response to the Great Depression, and focused on what historians refer to as the "3 Rs", Relief, Recovery, and Reform: relief for the unemployed and poor, recovery of the economy to normal levels, and reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression. What: In these dire circumstances, Franklin Delano Roosevelt won a landslide presidential victory in 1932 with grand but vague promises of something for the forgotten man. Roosevelt's goal was to reform capitalism in order to preserve it. Though Roosevelt rejected socialism and government ownership of industry, he advocated forceful government intervention in the economy and instituted a broad range of government supported social programs designed to stimulate the economy and provide jobs.

The Munich Agreement

Who is this: Who: It was a settlement in 1938 permitting Nazi Germany's annexation of portions of Czechoslovakia along the country's borders mainly inhabited by German speakers, for which a new territorial designation "Sudetenland" was coined. The settlement was signed in the early hours of 30 September 1938 after being negotiated at a conference held in a certain German city among the major powers of Europe, excluding the Soviet Union. Today, it is widely regarded as a failed act of appeasement toward Germany. The purpose of the conference was to discuss the future of the Sudetenland in the face of ethnic demands made by Adolf Hitler. It was signed by Germany, France, the United Kingdom and Italy. Sudetenland was of immense strategic importance to Czechoslovakia, as most of its border defenses, and banks were situated there as well as heavy industrial districts. Part of the borderland was invaded and annexed by Poland. What: Simultaneously, Hitler demanded that territories inhabited mostly by ethnic Germans in western Czechoslovakia, the Sudetenland, be ceded to Nazi Germany. Though democratic Czechoslovakia was allied with France and the Soviet Union and prepared to defend itself, appeasement triumphed again. In negotiations British prime minister Arthur Neville Chamberlain and the French immediately agreed with Hitler that Germany should immediately take over the Sudetenland. Returning to London from the settlement, Chamberlain told cheering crowds that he had secured peace and honor, peace for our time. Sold out by the Western powers, Czechoslovakia gave in.

Spinning Jenny

Who is this: Who: It was a simple, inexpensive, hand-powered spinning machine created by James Hargreaves in 1765. What: In early models from six to twenty-four spindles were mounted on a sliding carriage, and each spindle spun a fine, slender thread. The machines were usually worked by women , who moved the carriage back and forth with one hand and turned a wheel to supply power with the other. Now it was he male weaver who could not keep up with the vastly more efficient female spinner.

Arab Revolt Against the Turks

Who is this: Who: It was a small rebellion in 1916 and was declared by the Sherif Hussein bin Ali with the aim of securing independence from the ruling Ottoman Turks and creating a single unified Arab state spanning from Aleppo in Syria to Aden in Yemen. What: The British encouraged them to revolt against the Ottoman Turks. They promised them an autonomous Arab state if they won, but little did they know that the British would ultimately split the land with France. Sharif Hussein bin Ali was the chief magistrate of Mecca at time and with the encouragement of Britain, he revolted against the Ottoman Turks in 1916. They were aided by British liaison officer T.E. Lawrence, who helped lead Arab soldiers in a successful war against the Turks on the Arab Peninsula. The Arabs never got their kingdom however as, after the Treaty of Versailles, France and England split up the former Ottoman Empire amongst each other, per their silent wartime agreement.

Czechoslovakia

Who is this: Who: It was a sovereign state in Central Europe that existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until its peaceful dissolution into the Czech Republic and Slovak Republic (Slovakia) in 1993. From 1939 to 1945, following its forced division and partial incorporation into Nazi Germany, the state did not de facto exist but its government-in-exile continued to operate. What: Military defeat brought turmoil and revolution to Austria-Hungary. Having started the war to preserve an imperial state, the Austro-Hungarian Empire perished in the attempt and it resulted in the independent states of Austria, Hungary, and this country. This country existed as a sovereign state in central Europe from 1918 (as declared in the Treaty of St. Germain) until its peaceful dissolution into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993. The borders of the country cut through a jumble of ethnic and religious groups that often despised each other, which led to economic weakness and political instability.

Water Frame

Who is this: Who: It was a spinning machine created by Richard Arkwright that had a capacity of several hundred spindles and used waterpower. It therefore required a larger and more specialized mill, a factory. What: It acquired a capacity of several hundred spindles and demanded much more power than a single operator could provide. A solution was found in waterpower. This machine required large specialized mills to take advantage of the rushing currents of streams and rivers.The factories they powered employed as many as one thousand workers from the very beginning. It did not completely replace cottage industry, however, for it could spin only a coarse, strong thread, which was then put out for respinning on hand operated cottage jennies.

Cottage Industry

Who is this: Who: It was a stage of agricultural industry in which rural workers used hand tools in their homes to manufacture goods on a large scale for sale in a market. What: The poor in the countryside increasingly needed to supplement their agricultural earnings with other types of work, and urban capitalists were eager to employ them, often at lower wages than urban workers received. That is why this came about. Peasant communities had always made clothing, processed food, and constructed housing for their own use. But medieval peasants did not produce manufactured goods on a large-scale for sale in a market.

Greek War for Independence

Who is this: Who: It was a successful battle of having control of their own territory waged by the Greek revolutionaries between 1821 and 1832 against the Ottoman Empire. The Greeks were later assisted by the Russian Empire, Great Britain, the Kingdom of France, and several other European powers, while the Ottomans were aided by their vassals: Egypt, Algeria, and Tripolitania. What: In the early 19th century, the general growth of national aspirations inspired a desire for independence. This rising national movement led to the formation of secret societies and then to open revolt in 1821 led by Alexander Ypsilanti, a Greek patriot and a general in the Russian army. At first, the Great Powers, particularly Metternich, opposed the revolution and refused to back Ypsilanti, primarily because they sought a stable Ottoman Empire as a bulwark against Russian interests in southeast Europe. Yet the Greek cause had powerful defenders. Educated Europeans and Americans cherished the culture of classical Greece; Russians admired the piety of their Orthodox brethren. Writers and artists, moved by the romantic impulse, responded enthusiastically to the Greek national struggle. The famous English romantic poet Lord Byron even joined the Greek revolutionaries to fight as he wrote in his famous poem that Greece might yet be free. The Greeks though often quarreling among themselves, battles the Ottomans while hoping for the support of European governments. In 1827, Britain France and Russia yielded to popular demands at home and directed Ottoman leaders to accept and armistice. When they refused, the navies of these three powers trapped the Ottoman fleet at Navarino. Russia then declared another of its periodic wars of expansion against the Ottomans. This led to the establishment of a Russian protectorate over much of present day Romania, which had also been under Ottoman rule. Great Britain, France, and Russia finally declared Greece independent in 1830 and installed a German prince as king of the new country. Despite this imposed regime, which left the Greek people restive, they had won their independence in a heroic war of liberation against a foreign empire.

Anti-Corn Law League

Who is this: Who: It was a successful political movement in Great Britain aimed at the abolition of certain unpopular Laws, which protected landowners' interests by levying taxes on imported wheat, thus raising the price of bread at a time when factory-owners were trying to cut wages. What: While calling for universal male suffrage, many working class people joined with middle-class manufacturers in this political movement. Mass participation made possible a popular crusade led by fighting liberals, who argued that lower food prices and more jobs in industry depended on repeal of these certain laws. Much of the working class agreed. When Ireland's potato crop failed in 1845 and famine prices for food seemed likely in England, Tory prime minister Robert Peel joined with the Whigs and a minority of his own party to repeal these laws and allow free imports of grain. England escaped famine, Thereafter the liberal doctrine of free trade became almost sacred dogma in Great Britain.

Enlightened Absolutism

Who is this: Who: It was a term coined by historians to describe the rule of eighteenth-century monarchs who, without renouncing their own absolute authority, adopted Enlightenment ideals of rationalism, progress, and tolerance. What: In both Catholic and Protestant lands, rulers typically fused Enlightenment principles with religion, drawing support for their innovations from reform-minded religious thinkers. The most influential of the new-style monarchs were in Prussia, Russia, and Austria, and their example illustrates both the achievements and the great limitations of enlightened absolutism. France experienced its own brand of enlightened absolutism in the continuous decades prior to the French Revolution.

Cartesian Dualism

Who is this: Who: It was a view that all of reality could ultimately be reduced to mind and matter. What: A man decided it was necessary to doubt everything, and then, as in geometry, to use deductive reasoning from self-evident truths, which he called "first principles," to ascertain scientific laws. Descartes reasoning ultimately reduced all substances to matter and mind—that is, to the physical and the spiritual. The devout Descartes believed that God had endowed man with reason for a purpose and that rational speculation could provide a path to the truths of reason. His view of the world consisting of two fundamental entities is known as this.

China's Boxer Rebellion

Who is this: Who: It was a violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising that took place in China between 1899 and 1901, towards the end of the Qing dynasty. It was initiated by the Militia United in Righteousness, known in English as the what the uprising is named after, and was motivated by proto-nationalist sentiments and opposition to imperialist expansion and associated Christian missionary activity. What: It was an violent anti foreign reaction swept through China, encouraged by the Qing court and led by a secret society that foreigners called what the uprising is named after; these conservative, patriotic people blamed China's ills on foreigners, charging foreign missionaries with undermining Chinese reverence for their ancestors and thereby threatening the Chinese family and the society as a whole. In the agony of defeat and unwanted reforms, these people and other secret societies struck out at their enemies; however, after these people besieged the embassy quarter in Beijing, foreign government organized an international force of twenty thousand soldiers to rescues their diplomats and punish China harshly. In 1901, China was forced to accept a long list of penalties, including a heavy financial indemnity payable over forty years, and the Qing Dynasty declined further, as a result.

The March on Rome

Who is this: Who: It was a walk in 1922 by which Italian dictator Benito Mussolini's National Fascist Party came to power in the Kingdom of Italy. The march took place in October of 1922. What: Striking a conservative, anticommunist note in his speeches and gaining the support of army leaders, Mussolini demanded the resignation of the existing government. In October 1922, a band of armed Fascists marched on a certain city to threaten the king and force him to appoint Mussolini prime minister of Italy. The threat worked. This king, who himself had no love fore the liberal regime, asked Mussolini to take over the government and form a new cabinet. Thus, after widespread violence and a threat of armed uprising, Mussolini seized power using the legal framework of the Italian constitution.

The Sino-Japanese War of 1894

Who is this: Who: It was a war fought between the Qing Empire of China and the Empire of Japan, primarily over control of Korea. After more than six months of unbroken successes by Japanese land and naval forces and the loss of the Chinese port of Weihaiwei, the Qing government sued for peace in 1895 and Japan won. After Korea was opened to Japanese trade in 1876, it rapidly became an arena for rivalry between the expanding Japanese state and neighboring China. What: The parallel movement toward domestic reform and limited cooperation with the West collapsed under the blows of Japanese imperialism. This war and the subsequent harsh peace treaty revealed China's helpfulness in the face of aggression, triggering a rush by foreign powers for concessions and protectorates. At the high point of this rush in 1898, it appeared that the Europeans powers might actually divide China among themselves, as they had recently divided Africa. Probably only the jealousy each nation felt toward its imperialist competitors saved China from partition. In any event, the temp for foreign encroachment greatly accelerated after 1894.

The War of Austrian Succession

Who is this: Who: It was a war from 1740-1748 that involved most of the powers of Europe over the question of Maria Theresa's succession to the realms of the House of Habsburg. What: The young empress Maria Theresa of Austria inherited the Hapsburg dominions upon the death of her father Charles VI. When this happened, Frederick II pounced. He invaded her rich province of Silesia, defying solemn Prussian promises to respect the Pragmatic Sanction, a diplomatic agreement that had guaranteed Maria Theresa's succession. As other greedy powers vied for her lands in this war, Maria Theresa was forced to cede almost all of Silesia to Prussia. In one stroke, Prussia had doubled its population to six million people. Now Prussia unquestionably stood as a European Great Power.

The Dawes Plan

Who is this: Who: It was a war reparations agreement that reduced Germany's yearly payments, made payment dependent on economic prosperity, and granted large US loans to promote recovery. It was an attempt in 1924 to solve the World War I reparations problem that Germany had to pay, which had bedeviled international politics following World War I and the Treaty of Versailles. What: The occupation of the Ruhr industrial area by France and Belgium contributed to the hyperinflation crisis in Germany, partially because of its disabling effect on the German economy. The plan provided for an end to the Allied occupation, and a staggered payment plan for Germany's payment of war reparations. Because the Plan resolved a serious international crisis, the man who did it shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 1925 for his work. In 1924, an international committee of financial experts headed by an American banker met to reexamine reparations from a broad perspective. This resulting agreement was accepted by France. Germany, and England. Germany's yearly reparations were reduced and linked to the level of German economic output. Germany would also receive large loans from the United States promote economic recovery. In short, Germany would get private loans from the United States in order to pay reparations to France and England, thus enabling those countries to repay the large war debts they owed the United States.

The Spanish Civil War

Who is this: Who: It was a war that took place from 1936-1939 and was fought between the Republicans, who were loyal to the democratic, left-leaning side, versus the Nationalists, a largely aristocratic conservative group led by Francisco Franco. Although the war is often portrayed as a struggle between democracy and fascism, some historians consider it more accurately described as a struggle between leftist revolution and rightist counterrevolution. Ultimately, the Nationalists won, and Franco then ruled Spain for the next 36 years. What: In the war, Germany and Italy's military aid helped Franco's revolutionary fascist movement defeat the democratically elected republican government. Republican Spain's only official aid in the fight against Franco came from the Soviet Union, for public opinion in Britain and especially in France was hopelessly divided on whether to intervene.

The Boer War

Who is this: Who: It was a war where Great Britain defeated the two nations of Afrikaners in South Africa: the South African Republic and the Orange Free State. The Afrikaners were descendants of the Dutch settlers in the Cape Colony in Southern Africa. Britain was aided by its Cape Colony, Colony of Natal and some native African allies. The British war effort was further supported by volunteers from the British Empire, including Southern Africa, the Australian colonies, Canada, India, and New Zealand. What: It was a conflict, lasting from 1899 to 1902, in which the Afrikaners (Dutch) and the British fought for control of territory in South Africa. Britain wanted gold, diamonds, and power from South Africa. Britain won and allowed the Afrikaners to stay in South Africa, but Britain had control over it.

The Seven Years' War

Who is this: Who: It was a war with Maria Theresa, who formed an alliance with the leaders of France and Russia, seeking to regain Silesia. The aim of the alliance was to conquer Prussia and to divine up its territory. What: Despite invasions from all sides, Frederick fought on with stoic courage. In the end he was miraculously saved: Peter III came to the Russian throne and called off the attack against Frederick, whom he greatly admired. The terrible struggle of this war tempered Frederick's interest in territorial expansion and brought him to consider how more humane policies for his subjects might also strengthen the state. Frederick went beyond a superficial commitment to Enlightenment culture for himself and his circle. He allowed his subjects to believe as they wished in religious and philosophical matters. He promoted the advancement of knowledge, improving his country's schools and permitting scholars to publish their findings. Fredrick tried to improve the lives of his subjects more directly

The Pale of Settlement

Who is this: Who: It was a western region of Imperial Russia with varying borders, in which permanent residency by Jews was allowed and beyond which Jewish permanent residency was generally prohibited. What: Catherine the Great, who acquired most of Poland's large Jewish population when she annexed part of that country in the late eighteenth century, similarly refused emancipation for the Jews. She established this, a territory including parts of Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, and Belarus, in which most Jews were required to live. Jewish habitation was restricted to this area until the Russian Revolution.

Wet Nursing

Who is this: Who: It was a widespread and flourishing business in which women were paid to breast-feed other women's babies. What: It was conducted within the framework of the putting out system. The traffic was in babies rather than in yarn or cloth, and two or three years often passed before the worker in the countryside finished her task.

The Great Depression

Who is this: Who: It was a worldwide economic recession from 1929-1939, unique in its severity and duration with slow and uneven recovery. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4, 1929, and became worldwide news with the stock market crash of October 29, 1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s. However, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. What: Beginning in 1929, a massive economic downturn struck the entire world with ever greater intensity. Recovery was slow and uneven, and contemporaries labeled the economic crisis this, to emphasize the severity and duration. Only with the Second World War did the recession disappear in much of the world. The social and political consequences of it were enormous. Mass unemployment and failing farms made insecurity and unemployment a reality for millions of people. In Europe and the United States, governments instituted a variety of sisal welfare programs intended to manage the criss. Yet the prolonged economic collapse shattered the fragile political stability of the mid-1920s and encouraged the growth of extremists on both ends of the political spectrum. Democratic government faltered, and authority fascist parties gained power across Europe.

The Condition of the Working Class in England

Who is this: Who: It was an 1845 book by the German philosopher Friedrich Engels, a study of the industrial working class in Victorian England. What: It was a blistering indictment of the capitalist classes. He wrote that at the bar of world opinion, I charge the English middle classes with mass murder, wholesale robbery, and all the other crimes in the calendar. The new poverty of industrial workers was worse than the old poverty of cottage workers and agricultural laborers, according to Engels. The culprit was industrial capitalism, with its relentless competition and constant technical change. Engels's extremely influential charge of capitalist exploitation and increasing worker poverty was embellished by Marx and later socialists.

Mines Act of 1842

Who is this: Who: It was an English law prohibiting underground work for all women and girls as well as for boys under ten. What: It prohibited underground work for all women and girls as well as for boys under ten. Some women who had to support themselves protested against being excluded from coal mining, which paid higher wager than most other jobs open to working-class women. But provided they were part of families that could manage economically, the girls and the women who had worked underground were generally pleased with the law.

Remilitarization of the Rhineland

Who is this: Who: It was an action in March 1936 when the German Army and military forces sent by Hitler entered the area where the Treaty of Versailles stated that no armies were allowed. This was significant because it violated the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Treaties, marking the first time since the end of World War I that German troops had been in this region. It changed the balance of power in Europe from France towards Germany, and made it possible for Germany to pursue a policy of aggression in Eastern Europe that the no army status of the area had blocked until then. What: In 1936, Hitler suddenly marched his armies into the the area, brazenly violating the treaties of Versailles and Locarno, Britain refused to act. France could do little without British support. Emboldened, Hitler moved ever more aggressively, enlisting powerful allies in international affairs. Italy and Germany established the so-called Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936. Japan, also under the rule of a Fascist dictatorship, joined the Axis alliance that same year.

Concordat of 1801

Who is this: Who: It was an agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII in Paris. It sought national reconciliation between revolutionaries and Catholics and solidified the Roman Catholic Church as the majority church of France, with most of its civil status restored. What: After arduous negotiations, Napoleon and Pope Pius VII signed this document. The pope obtained the right for French Catholics to practice their religion freely, but Napoleon gained political power: his government now nominated bishops, paid the clergy, and exerted great influence over the church.

The Locarno Pact

Who is this: Who: It was an agreement in 1925 in which World War I Western European Allied powers and the new states of Central and Eastern Europe sought to secure the post-war territorial settlement, and return normalizing relations with defeated Germany. Ratifications for the agreement were exchanged in Geneva and on the same day they became effective. The agreement was also registered in the League of Nations Treaty Series on the same day. It also stated that Germany would never go to war with the other countries. What: In 1925, the leaders of Europe signed this in a certain city in Switzerland. Germany and France solemnly pledged to accept their common border, and both Britain and Italy agreed to fight either France or Germany if one invaded the other. Stresemann reluctantly agreed to settle boundary disputes with Poland and Czechoslovakia by peaceful means, although he did not agree on permanent borders to Germany's east. In response, France reaffirmed its pledge of military aid to those countries if Germany attacked them. The refusal to settle Germany's eastern borders angered the Poles and through the spirit of the agreement sent some hope to those seeking international stability, political tensions depend in central Europe.

Three Emperor's League

Who is this: Who: It was an alliance between the German Empire, the Russian Empire and Austria-Hungary, from 1873 to 1887. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck took full charge of German foreign policy from 1870 until 1890. His goal was a peaceful Europe, based on the balance of power. Bismarck feared that a hostile combination of Austria, France and Russia would crush Germany. If two of them were allied, then the third would ally with Germany only if Germany conceded excessive demands. The solution was to ally with two of the three. In 1873 he formed this an alliance of the Kaiser of Germany, the czar of Russia, and the kaiser of Austria-Hungary. Together they would control Eastern Europe, making sure that restive ethnic groups such as the Poles were kept in control. It aimed at neutralizing the rivalry between Germany's two neighbors by an agreement over their respective spheres of influence in the Balkans and at isolating Germany's enemy, France. What: It was part of the diplomatic web created by Otto Bismarck to keep France isolated. An initial agreement between Alexander II of Russia, William I of Prussia, and Franz-Joseph of Austria-Hungary was reached in September 1873. The agreement was renewed in June 1881, with the same signatories for Prussia and Austria-Hungary, but with the new tsar, Alexander III, representing Russia. The dual goals of the league were to prevent intervention by Austria-Hungary or Russia in the event of an outbreak of hostilities between France and Germany and to prevent friction between Austria-Hungary and Russia over territorial claims in the Balkans.

The Holy Alliance

Who is this: Who: It was an alliance formed by the conservative rulers of Austria, Prussia, and Russia in September 1815 that became a symbol of the repression of liberal and revolutionary movements all over Europe. What: It was a coalition created by the monarchist great powers of Russia, Austria and Prussia. It was created after the ultimate defeat of Napoleon at the behest of Tsar Alexander I of Russia and signed in Paris in 1815. The intention of the alliance was to restrain republicanism and secularism in Europe in the wake of the devastating French Revolutionary Wars, and the alliance nominally succeeded in this until the Crimean War.

The Little Entente

Who is this: Who: It was an alliance formed in 1920 and 1921 by Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia with the purpose of common defense against Hungarian revision and the prevention of a Habsburg restoration. France supported the alliance by signing treaties with each member country. What: In 1921, France signed a mutual defense pact with Poland and associated itself closely with this alliance that joined Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia against defeated and bitter Hungary. The alliance was also directed against German and Hungarian domination in the Danube River basin and toward the protection of the members' territorial integrity and political independence.

Dadaism

Who is this: Who: It was an art movement of the European avant-garde in the early 20th century, with early centers in Zürich, Switzerland at the Cabaret Voltaire and in New York. Developed in reaction to World War I, the movement consisted of artists who rejected the logic, reason, and aestheticism of modern capitalist society, instead expressing nonsense, irrationality, and anti-bourgeois protest in their works. The art of the movement spanned visual, literary, and sound media, including collage, sound poetry, cut-up writing, and sculpture. These artists expressed their discontent with violence, war, and nationalism, and maintained political affinities with the radical left. What: The shock of World War I encouraged further radicalization. In 1916, a group of artists and intellectuals in exile in Zurich Switzerland, championed an ew movement, which attacked all the familiar standards of art and delighting in outrageous behavior. The war had shown once and for all that life was meaningless, the artists of this movement argues, so art should be meaningless as well. These artists tried to shock their audiences with what they called anti-art, works and public performances that were insulting and entirely nonsensical. A well known example is a repercussion of the Mona Lisa in which the masterpiece is ridiculed with the addition of a hand-drawn mustache and an obscene inscription. Lit futurists, theses artist embraced the modern age and grappled wit the horrors of modern war. Art in its execution and direction is dependent on the time in which it lives and artists are creatures of their epic wrote Richard Huelsenbeck one of the movement's founders. The highest art will be that which in its conscious content presents with thousand fold problems of the day, the art which has been visibly shattered by the explosions of last week which is forever trying to collect its limbs after yesterday's crash. After the war, it became an international movement spreading to tParis, New York and Berlin in the 1920s.

Ten Hours Act of 1847

Who is this: Who: It was an law passed that limited the workday for women and young people in factories to ten hours. What: The Tories passed this law designed to help working classes. This law limited the workday for women and young people in factories to ten hours. In competition with the middle class for the support of the working class, Tory legislators continued to support legislation regulating factory conditions. This competition between a still-powerful aristocracy and a strong middle class was a crucial factor in Great Britain's peaceful political evolution. The working classes could make temporary alliances with either competitor to better their own conditions.

India's Sepoy Mutiny

Who is this: Who: It was an open revolt of Indian soldiers of the East India Company's army in 1857 and soon escalated into other revolts and civilian rebellions largely in the upper Gangetic plain and central India. This is how the Indian Rebellion of 1857 started. It is an example of how non-Europeans responded to European Imperialism through nationalist movements and/or by modernizing their own economies and societies. What: The Indian soldiers refused to use shell casings that were rumored to include pig or cow fat in their production. They all revolted against the army and it led to the dissolution of the East India Company.

The Committee of Public Safety

Who is this: Who: It was created by the National Convention and was later restructured. It formed the de facto executive government in France during the Reign of Terror which was a stage of the French Revolution. It succeeded the previous Committee of General Defence and assumed its role of protecting the newly established republic against foreign attacks and internal rebellion. What: It was created by the National Convention to deal with threats from within and outside France. The committee, which was led by Robespierre, held dictatorial power, allowing it to use whatever force necessary to defend the Revolution. Moderates in leading provincial cities revolted against the committee's power and demanded a decentralized government. Counter-Revolutionary forces in the Vendee won significant victories, and the republic's armies were driven back on all fronts. Later, only the areas around Paris and on the eastern frontier were firmly held by the central government. Defeat seemed imminent. The Republic was not defeated and the success of the French Armies led Robespierre and this committee to relax the economic controls, but they extended the political Reign of Terror.

Rousseau's Emile (or On Education)

Who is this: Who: It was one of the century's most influential works on child rearing and was written by an Enlightenment man. What: This Enlightenment man argued that boys' education should include plenty of fresh air and exercise and that they should be taught practical craft skills in addition to rote book learning. Reacting to what he perceived as the vanity and frivolity of upper class Parisian women, he insisted that girl's education focus on their future domestic responsibilities. For him, women's nature destined them solely for a life of marriage and child rearing. The ideas of him and other reformers were enthusiastically adopted by elite women, some of whom began to nurse their own children. He also reveals the occasional hypocrisy of Enlightenment thinkers. Although a passionate advocate for children's education, he abandoned the five children he fathered with this common law wife in foundling hospitals despite their mothers protests. None are known to have survived. For him, popularizing the ida of creating a natural man was more important than raising real children.

King Cholera

Who is this: Who: It was one of the most feared infectious diseases of the Industrial age. Indeed, it is still a major killer in the Third World and in areas where sanitation is poor. It is spread mostly by unsafe water and unsafe food that has been contaminated with human feces containing the bacteria. Undercooked seafood is a common source. Humans are the only animal affected. Risk factors for the disease include poor sanitation, not enough clean drinking water, and poverty. There are concerns that rising sea levels will increase rates of disease. What: There is a 1852 drawing from Punch that tells volumes about the unhealthy living conditions of the urban poor. In the foreground children play with a dead rat and a woman scavenges a dung heap. Cheap rooming houses provide shelter for the frightfully overcrowded population. Such conditions and contaminated water spread deadly epidemics of this disease throughout Europe in 1800s. It is an infection of the small intestine by some strains of the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. Symptoms may range from none, to mild, to severe. The classic symptom is large amounts of watery diarrhea that lasts a few days. Vomiting and muscle cramps may also occur.

The Civil Code

Who is this: Who: It was the French Napoleonic Code established under Napoleon. What: It reasserted the principles of the equality of all male citizens before the law and the absolute security of wealth and private property, as well as restricting rights accorded to women by previous revolutionary laws.

Armenian Genocide

Who is this: Who: It was the Ottoman government's systematic extermination of 1.5 million people of a certain ethnicity, mostly Ottoman citizens within the Ottoman Empire and its successor state, the Republic of Turkey. The starting date is conventionally held to be 24 April 1915, the day that Ottoman authorities rounded up, arrested, and deported 235 to 270 certain intellectuals and community leaders from Constantinople to the region of Ankara, the majority of whom were eventually murdered. The killing was carried out during and after World War I and implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly, and the infirm on death marches leading to the Syrian desert. Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and massacre. Other indigenous and Christian ethnic groups such as the Assyrians and the Ottoman Greeks were similarly targeted for extermination by the Ottoman government in the Assyrian genocide and the Greek genocide, and their treatment is considered by some historians to be part of the same genocidal policy. What: In 1915, when some Armenians welcomed Russian armies as liberators after years of persecutions, the Ottoman government ordered a genocidal mass deportation of its Armenian citizens from their homeland in the empire's eastern provinces. Turkish guards marched Armenian men off to prison where they were tortured to death. About 1 million Armenians died from murder, starvation, and disease during World War 1.

Gosplan

Who is this: Who: It was the agency responsible for central economic planning in the Soviet Union by setting production goals and controlling deliveries of raw and finished materials. Established in 1921 and remaining in existence until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, it had as its main task the creation and administration of a series of five-year plans governing the economy of the USSR. What: The rapid industrialization mandated by the five year plans was more successful, indeed, it was quite spectacular. A huge state planning commission, it was created to set production goals and control deliveries of raw and unfinished materials. This was a complex and difficult task and production bottlenecks and slowdowns often resulted. In addition, Stalinist planning favored heavy industry over the production of consumer goods, which led to shortages of basic necessities. Despite such problems, Soviet industry produced about four times as much in 1937 as it had in 1928. No other major country had ever achieved such rapid industrial growth.

War Communism

Who is this: Who: It was the application of centralized state control during the Russian civil war, in which the Bolsheviks seized grain from peasants, introduced rationing, nationalized all banks and industry, and required everyone to work. What: It was the economic and political system that existed in Soviet Russia during the Russian Civil War, from 1918 to 1921. According to Soviet historiography, this policy was adopted by the Bolsheviks with the goal of keeping towns and the Red Army stocked with food and weapons. The system had to be used because the ongoing war disrupted normal economic mechanisms and relations. It was enforced by the Supreme Economic Council, known as the Vesenkha. It ended in 1921, with the beginning of the New Economic Policy, which lasted until 1928.

Petrograd Soviet

Who is this: Who: It was the city council of a certain city, the capital of the Russian Empire at the time. During the revolutionary days, the council tried to extend its jurisdiction nationwide as a rival power center to the Provisional Government, creating what in historiography is known as the Dual power. Its committees were key components during the Russian Revolution and some of them led the armed revolt of October Revolution. The soviet was established in March 1917 after the February Revolution as a representative body of the city's workers and soldiers, while the city already had its well established city council, the Saint Petersburg City Duma. What: It was a huge, fluctuating mass meeting of two to three thousand workers, soldiers, and socialist intellectuals modeled on the revolutionary soviets of 1905. Seeing itself as a true grass-roots product of revolutionary democracy it acted as a parallel government. It issued its own radical orders weakening the authority of the provisional government. The most famous edict of it was Army Order No. 1 issued in 191, which stripped officers of their authority and place power in the hands of elected committees of common soldiers. Designed tot protect the revolution from resistance by the aristocratic officer corps, the order led to a collapse of army discipline. In 1917, the provisional government ordered a poorly considered summer offensive against the Germans. The campaign was a miserable failure and desertions mounted as peasant soldiers returned home to help their families get a share of the land, which peasants were seizing in a grassroots agrarians upheaval. By 1917, Russia was descending into anarchy It was unparalleled opportunity for the most radical and talented of Russia's many revolutionary leaders Vladimir Lenin.

The Fashoda Crisis

Who is this: Who: It was the climax of imperial territorial disputes between Britain and France in Eastern Africa, occurring in 1898. A French expedition to this village on the White Nile river sought to gain control of the Upper Nile river basin and thereby exclude Britain from the Sudan. The French party and a British detachment met on friendly terms, but back in Europe, it became a war scare. The British held firm as both nations stood on the verge of war with heated rhetoric on both sides. Under heavy pressure the French withdrew, securing Anglo-Egyptian control over the area. The status quo was recognized by an agreement between the two states acknowledging British control over Egypt, while France became the dominant power in Morocco. France had failed in its main goals. What: Continuing up the Nile after the Battle of Omdurman, Kitchener's armies found that a small French force had already occupied this village. Locked in imperial competition with Britain ever since the British occupation of Egypt, France had tried to be first t read one of Africa;s last unclaimed areas, the upper reaches of the Nile. The result was a serious diplomatic crisis and he threat of war between two Great Powers. Wracked by the Dreyfus Affair, and unwilling to fight, France eventually backed down and withdrew its forces, allowing the British to take over.

Vichy Regime

Who is this: Who: It was the common name of the French government from 1940-1944 headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II, that adopted many aspects of National Socialist ideology and willingly placed French Jews in the hands of the Nazis. In particular, it represents the southern, unoccupied "Free Zone" that governed the southern part of the country. What: The German army occupied the north, including Paris. The southeast remained nominally independent. There the aging First World War general Marshal Henri-Philippe Pétain formed a new French government that adopted many aspects for National Socialist ideology and willingly place French Jews in the hands of the Nazis.

The Grand Empire

Who is this: Who: It was the empire over which Napoleon and his allies ruled, encompassing virtually all of Europe except Great Britain and Russia. What: His empire had three parts. Part one was an ever-expanding France, which included today's Belgium and the Netherlands, parts of northern-Italy, and German territories on the east bank of the Rhine. The second part consisted of a number of dependent satellite kingdoms, on the thrones of which Napoleon placed members of his large family. The third part comprised the independent but allied states of Austria, Prussia, and Russia.

The Frankfurt Parliament of 1848

Who is this: Who: It was the first freely elected parliament for all of Germany. It convened as a result of the liberal revolution that swept the German states. After long and controversial debates, the assembly produced the so-called Frankfurt Constitution which proclaimed a German Empire based on the principles of parliamentary democracy. This constitution fulfilled the main demands of the liberal and nationalist movements of the Vormärz and provided a foundation of basic rights, both of which stood in opposition to Metternich's system of Restoration. The parliament also proposed a constitutional monarchy headed by a hereditary emperor. What: Elections were held across the German Confederation for a national parliament, which convened to write a federal constitution that would lead to national unification. When they met in Frankfurt that May, the state officials and other people elected to parliament represented the interests of the social elite. Their calls for constitutional monarchy, free speech, religious toleration, and abolition of aristocratic privilege were typical of moderate national liberalism. The deputies essentially ignored calls for more radical action. In October 1848, the parliament turned to the question of national unification and borders. At first, the deputies proposed unification around a Greater Germany that would include the German speaking lands of the Austrian Empire, but not non-German territories. This proposal foundered on Austrian determination to maintain its empire, and some parliamentarians advocated a Lesser Germany that would unify Prussia and other German states without Austria. Even as the deputies debated Germany's future in the autumn of 1848, the forces of counter-revolution pushed back reformists and revolutionaries in Prussia and other German states.

Bessemer Process

Who is this: Who: It was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron before the development of the open hearth furnace. What: It was named after the inventor, Englishman Henry Bessemer. It was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron prior to the open-hearth furnace. The key principle is removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation with air being blown through the molten iron.

The February / March Rebellion

Who is this: Who: It was the first of two Russian revolutions in 1917. It was centered on Petrograd then the Russian capital on Women's Day in March (23 February in the Gregorian calendar). It involved mass demonstrations and armed clashes with police and gendarmes, the last loyal forces of the Russian monarchy. The result was the abdication of czar Nicholas II, the end of the Romanov dynasty. Tsarism was replaced by a Russian Provisional Government. What: It was a series of unplanned uprisings accompanied by violent street demonstrations that began in March 1917 in Petrograd, Russia, and led to the abdication of czar Nicholas II and the establishment of a provisional government. It was an uprising of hungry, angry people in the capital, but it was eagerly accepted throughout the country. The patriotic upper and middle classes embraced the prospect of a more determined war effort, while workers anticipated better wages and more food. After generations of autocracy, the provisional government established equally before the law, freedom of religion, speech, and assembly, and the right of unions to organize and strike. Yet both liberals and moderate socialist leaders rejected theses broad political reforms. Though the Russian people were sick of fighting, the new leaders would not take Russia out of the war. A new government formed in 1917 included the fiery agrarian socialist Alexander Kerensky who became prime minister in July. He reused to confiscate large land holding sand give them to peasants, fearing that such drastic action would complete the disintegration of Russia's peasant army. For the patriotic Kerensky, as for other moderate socialists, the continuation of war was still a nation al duty. Human suffering and weariness grew, testing the limited strength of the provisional government.

Collectivization

Who is this: Who: It was the forcible consolidation of individual peasant farms into state-controlled enterprises in the Soviet union under Josef Stalin from 1929-1933. Peasants across the Soviet Union were compelled to move off their small plots onto large state-run farms, where their tools, livestock, and produce would be held in common and central planners could control all work. What: The increasingly repressive measures instituted by the state first focused on the kulaks, the class of well-off peasants who had benefited the most from the NEP. The kulaks were small in number, but they were held up as a great enemy of progress, and Stalin called for they liquidation and seizure of their land. Stripped of land and livestock, many starved or were deported to forced-labor camps for re-education.

Consumer Revolution

Who is this: Who: It was the growth in consumption in the 1700s and new attitudes toward consumer goods that emerged in Europe. What: The result of this was the birth of a new type of society in which the people derived their self-identity as much from their consuming practices as from their working lives and place in the production process. As people gained the opportunity to pick and choose among a new variety of consumer goods, new notions of individuality and self expressions developed.

The Agricultural Revolution

Who is this: Who: It was the increase in countryside production in Britain due to increases in labour and land productivity. Countryside output grew faster than the population, and thereafter productivity remained among the highest in the world. This increase in the food supply contributed to the rapid growth of population in England. What: During this time, many advancements were pioneered in farming though the innovations of enclosed fields, continuous crop rotation, heavy manuring, and the wide variety of crops that were present. This continued to progress due to Jethro Tull's ideas to use horses for plowing and implement seed drilling, selective breeding of ordinary livestock, and enclosure of open fields and commons. These things were celebrated by Arthur Young, who was another experimentalist in farming.

Growing Influence of Serbia

Who is this: Who: It was the increase of the effect of a certain country on Europe. What: Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated on June 28, 1914 by Nationalists of this country. Assassin, Gavrilo Princip, was a fanatical member of the Yugoslav nationalism group called the Black Hand. He was caught and was a big advocate of Yugoslavian freedom. He led Europe into war without Princip's deed, and ultimately the nationalism movement of this country. World War I would have occurred later or not at all without him. Austria Declared war on Serbia in July of 1914, with the support of the Germans. There was the first Balkan War and Serbia joined Greece and Bulgaria to attack the Ottomans. Then the Serbs tried to create a full state of all ethnic slavs but were blocked by the Austro-Hungarian empire and Ottoman Empire.

The Normandy Invasion (D-Day)

Who is this: Who: It was the largest amphibious capture of land in history launched by the Western Allies of World War II when they assaulted a certain French province, located on the northern coast of France, in 1944. The invaders were able to establish a beachhead as part of Operation Overlord after a successful day, which was the first day of the invasion. What: On June 6, 1944, American and British forces under General Dwight Eisenhower landed on the beaches of a certain city in France, in history's greatest naval capture of land. In a hundred dramatic days, more than 2 million men and almost half a million vehicles broke through the German lines and pushed inland. Rejecting proposals to strike straight at Berlin in a massive attack, Eisenhower moved forward cautiously on a broad front. Not until March 1945 did American troops cross the Rhine and enter Germany. By spring of 1945, the Allies had finally forced the Germans out of the Italian peninsula. That April, Mussolini was captured in northern Italy by Communist partisans and executed, along with his mistress and other Fascist leaders.

British Women's Social and Political Union

Who is this: Who: It was the leading militant organization campaigning for Women's suffrage in England. Its membership and policies were tightly controlled by Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters Christabel and Sylvia. It was best known for hunger strikes, for breaking windows in prominent buildings, and for night-time setting fire to unoccupied houses and churches. What: In Britain there was a women's suffrage movement. It was a militant movement for women's right to vote led by middle-class British women. The women's suffrage movement mounted a militant struggle for the right to vote, particularly in the decade before World War I. Inspired by the slogan "Deeds Not Words," suffragettes marched in public demonstrations, heckled members of Parliament, and slashed paintings in London's National Gallery. Jailed for political activities, they went on highly publicized hunger strikes. Yet conservatives dismissed what they called the shrieking sisterhood and British women received the vote only in 1919.

The Crystal Palace at the Great Exhibition of 1851

Who is this: Who: It was the location of the Great Exhibition in 1851 in London. It was an architectural masterpiece mad entire of glass and iron. What: In 1851, London hosted an industrial fair called the Great Exhibition in this newly built place. More than six million visitors from all over Europe marveled at the gigantic new exhibition hall set in the middle of a large, centrally located park. The building was made entirely of glass and iron, both of which were cheap and abundant. Sponsored by the British royal family, the exhibition celebrated the new era of industrial technology and the kingdom's role as world economic leader.

The Rocket

Who is this: Who: It was the name given to George Stephenson's effective locomotive that was first tested in 1829 on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway at 24 miles per hour. What: The line from Liverpool to Manchester was a financial as well as a technical success, and many private companies quickly emerged to build for rail lines. Within twenty years they had completed the main trunk lines of Great Britain.

Separate Spheres

Who is this: Who: It was the nineteenth-century gendered division of labor and lifestyles that cast men as breadwinners and women as homemakers. What: It is an ideology that defines and prescribes the division between women and men. It emerged as a distinct ideology during the Industrial Revolution, although the basic idea of gendered division is much older.This notion dictates that men, based primarily on their biological makeup as well as the will of God, inhabit the public sphere - the world of politics, economy, commerce, and law. Women's "proper sphere", according to the ideology, is the private realm of domestic life, child-rearing, housekeeping, and religious education.

The Guild System

Who is this: Who: It was the organization of artisanal production into trade-based associations, each of which received a monopoly over its trade and the right to train apprentices and hire workers. What: Guilds continued to dominate production in towns and cities, providing their masters with economic privileges as well as a proud social identity, but they increasingly struggled against competition from rural workers. Critics also attacked the guilds as outmoded institutions that obstructed technical progress and innovation. An ongoing reassessment of guilds now emphasized their ability to adapt to changing economic conditions.

Chartists

Who is this: Who: It was the people of a working-class movement for political reform in Britain which existed from 1838 to 1857. What: These people inspired British elites for yet more radical reform. Inspired by the economic distress of the working class in the 1830s and 1840s, these people demanded universal male suffrage. They saw complete political democracy and rule by the common people, the great majority of the population, as the means to a good and just society. Hundreds of thousands of people signed gigantic petitions calling on Parliament to grant all men the right to vote. Parliament rejected all three petitions. In the short run, the working poor failed with their demands, but they learned a valuable lesson in mass politics.

Mandate System

Who is this: Who: It was the plan to allow Britain and France to administer former Ottoman territories, put into place after the end of World War I. France would receive an order to govern Lebanon and Syria and much of southern Turkey, and Britain would control Palestine, Transjordan, and Iraq. Though the official goal of it was to eventually grant these regions national independence. it quickly became clear that the allies never intended to do so. What: It was a legal status for certain territories transferred from the control of one country to another following World War I, or the legal instruments that contained the internationally agreed-upon terms for administering the territory on behalf of the League of Nations. These were of the nature of both a treaty and a constitution, which contained minority rights clauses that provided for the rights of petition and adjudication by the International Court. It was established under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations. With the dissolution of the League of Nations after World War II, it was stipulated at the Yalta Conference that the remaining Mandates should be placed under the trusteeship of the United Nations, subject to future discussions and formal agreements. Most of the remaining orders of the League of Nations thus eventually became United Nations Trust Territories. The core of the system was being non-annexation of the territory and its administration as a "sacred trust of civilization" to develop the territory for the benefit of its native people.

The Thermidorian Reaction

Who is this: Who: It was the reaction to the violence of the Reign of Terror, resulting in the execution of Robespierre and the loosening of economic controls. What: This period hearkened back to the beginnings of the Revolution; the middle class rejected the radicalism of the sans culottes in favor of moderate policies that favored property owners. The National Convention abolished many economic controls, let prices rise sharply, and severely restricted the local political organizations through which the sans culottes exerted their strength.

Illegitimacy Explosion

Who is this: Who: It was the sharp increase in out-of-wedlock births that was caused by low wages and the breakdown of community controls. What: One reason that the number of illegitimate births sky-rocketed was the rise in sexual activity among young people. The loosened social controls that gave young people more choice in marriage also provided them with more opportunities to yield the attraction of the opposite sex.

Constitution of 1791

Who is this: Who: It was the short-lived first written constitution in France, created after the collapse of the Absolute Monarchy of the Ancien Régime. One of the basic precepts of the revolution was adopting constitutionality and establishing popular sovereignty. What: It broadened women's rights to seek divorce, to inherit property, and to obtain financial support for illegitimate children from fathers, but excluded women from political office and voting. It effectively enshrined a constitutional monarchy. The king remained the head of the state, but all lawmaking power now resided in the National Assembly, elected by the wealthiest half of French males.

The Industrial Revolution

Who is this: Who: It was the transition to new manufacturing processes. It was a term first coined in 1799 to describe the burst of major inventions and economic expansion that began in Britain in the late 18th century. What: It included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, improved efficiency of water power, the increasing use of steam power, the development of machine tools and the rise of the factory system. Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested; the textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods.

The Treaty of Paris (1763)

Who is this: Who: It was the treaty that ended the Seven Years' War in Europe and the colonies. It also ratified the British victory on all colonial fronts. What: France aided Austria's Maria Theresa in her quest to win back Silesia from the Prussians who had formed an alliance with England. In North America, French and British settlers engaged in territorial skirmishes that eventually resulted in all out war that drew in Native American allies on both sides of the conflict. Prussia had held off the Austrians, and British victory on all colonial fronts and was ratified in this treaty.

Companionate Marriage

Who is this: Who: Marriage based on romantic love and middle class family values that became increasingly dominant in the second half of the nineteenth century. What: The growing popularity among all class toward the end of the nineteenth century of what historians call this, underscores the way historical contexts influence human emotions and behaviors. Strict rules for courtship and engagement enshrined in the concept of falling in love ensured that middle class individuals would make an appropriate match. Parents, chaperones, and the general public closely guarded the boundary between courtship and sex, between the proper and the improper. Young couples were seldom seen alone before they became engaged and people really parked off with someone from an inappropriate class background. Premarital sex was too for women, though men might experiment, a double standard that expressed middle-class assumptions about sexual morality and especially women's virginity before marriage.

Market-Driven Wages and Prices

Who is this: Who: Salaries and fees that were no longer dictated by the governments and corporate entities. Proof that labor and trade in commodities were increasingly freed from traditional restrictions. What: Capitalist merchants concluded that high wages provided little incentive for people to work, and they insisted on maintaining the lowest possible salaries to force the poor into productive labor. These salaries and fees refer to Adam Smith's law of supply and demand, which says that both the quantity of goods and the amount of public interest dictates the cost of products.

Emmeline Pankhurst

Who is this: Who: She was a British political activist and leader of the British suffragette movement, which helped women win the right to vote. She was widely criticized for her militant tactics, and historians disagree about their effectiveness, but her work is recognized as a crucial element in achieving women's suffrage in Britain. What: She founded the Women's Social and Political Union, which used militant tactics to fight for women's suffrage. She was a feminist who started a feminist movement and pressed for legal, economic, and political rights for women as well as improved working conditions for the people of the female gender.

Olympe de Gouges

Who is this: Who: She was a French playwright and political activist whose feminist and abolitionist writings reached a large audience. What: She was a self taught writer and woman of the people, who protested the evils of slavery as well as the injustices done to women. She published her Declarations of the Rights of Women. This pamphlet echoed its famous predecessor, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, proclaiming, "Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights." Her position found little sympathy among leaders of the Revolution however.

Leni Riefenstahl

Who is this: Who: She was a German film director, producer, screenwriter, editor, photographer, actress, dancer and propagandist for the Nazis. What: In Nazi Germany, a young and immensely talented woman film maker directed a masterpiece of documentary propaganda, Triumph of the Will, based on the 1934 Nazi Party rally at Nuremberg. She combined stunning aerial photography with mass precessions of you Nazi fanatics and images of joyful crowds welcoming Adolf Hitler. Her film, released in 1935, was a brilliant yet calling documentary of the rise of Nazism.

Maria Theresa of Austria

Who is this: Who: She was a female monarch of Austria, who set out to reform her nation, although traditional power politics was a more important motivation for her than Enlightenment teachings. She was a devoutly Catholic mother and wife who inherited power from her father, Charles VI. She was a remarkable but old-fashioned absolutist. What: Emerging from the long War of the Austrian Succession with the serious loss of Silesia, she was determined to introduce reforms that would make the state stronger and more efficient. First, she initiated church reform, with measures aimed at limiting the papacy's influence, eliminating many religious holidays, and reducing the number of monasteries. Second, a whole series of administrative renovations strengthened the central bureaucracy, smoothed out some provincial differences, and revamped the tax system, taking even the lands of nobles, previously exempt from taxation. Third, the government sought to improve the lot of the agricultural population, cautiously reducing the power of lords over their hereditary serfs and their partially free peasant tenants.

Madame du Chatelet

Who is this: Who: She was a french noblewoman with a passion for science. What: She invited Voltaire to live in her country house and became his long-time companion. She studied physics and mathematics and published scientific articles and translations, including the first—and only—translation of Newton's Principe into French. Excluded from the Royal Academy of Sciences because she was a woman, she had no doubt that women's limited role in science was due to their unequal education. Discussing what she would do if she were a ruler, she wrote, "I would reform an abuse which cuts off, so to speak, half the human race. I would make women participate in all the rights of humankind, and above all in those of the intellect."

Madame de Pompadour

Who is this: Who: She was a member of the French court and was the official chief mistress of Louis XV. She became and remained a close friend and confidant to the king until her death. She took charge of the king's schedule and was a valued aide and advisor to him despite her frail health and many political enemies. She secured titles of nobility for herself and her relatives, and built a network of clients and supporters. What: Louis XV broke the pattern of having mistresses who were invariably chosen from the court nobility with this woman. As the king's favorite mistress, she exercised tremendous influence that continued even after their love affair ended. She played a key role in bringing about France's break with Prussia and its new alliance with Austria. Her low birth and political influence generated a stream of libelous pamphleteering. The king was being stripped of the sacred aura of God's anointed on earth and was being reinvented in the popular imagination as a degenerate. Maneuverings among political factions at court further distracted the king and prevented deceive action from his government.

Virginia Woolf

Who is this: Who: She was an English writer and one of the foremost modernists of the twentieth century. She used the stream-of-consciousness technique, relying on internal monologues to explore the human psyche. During the interwar period, she was a significant figure in London literary society and a central figure in the influential Bloomsbury Group of intellectuals. Her best-known works include the novels Mrs Dalloway, To the Lighthouse and Orlando, and the book-length essay A Room of One's Own, with its dictum, "A woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction." What: She used the stream-of-consciousness technique, relying on internal monologues to explore the human psyche. It is a literary technique found in works by this woman and James Joyce, that uses interior monologue, a character's thoughts and feelings as they occur, to explore the human psyche. In Jacob's Room, this english author created a novel me up of a series of such monologues in which she tried to capture the inner voice in prose. In this and other stories, she portrayed characters whose ideas and emotions from different periods of their lives bubble up as randomly as from a protein t on a psychoanalyst's couch.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Who is this: Who: She was an English writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights. During her brief career, she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book. What: She wrote a passionate rebuttal to Burke's book, in which he defended inherited privileges. Incensed by Burke's book, she wrote a blistering attack, A Vindication of the Rights of Man. Two years later, she published her masterpiece, A Vindication on the Rights of Woman. Like de Gouges in France, she demanded equal rights of women. She also advocated coeducation out of the belief that it would make women better wives and mothers, good citizens, and economically independent. Considered very radical for the time, the book became a founding text of the feminist movement.

Catherine de' Medici

Who is this: Who: She was the wife of King Henry II and the mother of Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III. What: She dominated the reigns of Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III, who were weak and could not provide the necessary leadership.

The Stadtholder

Who is this: Who: The executive officer in each of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, a position often held by the princes of Orange. What: He or she carried out ceremonial functions and was responsible for military defense. Although in theory freely chosen by the estates and answerable to them, in practice the strong and influential house of Orange usually held the office of stadtholder in several of the seven provinces of the republic. This meant that the tensions always lingered between the supporters of the House of Orange and those of the staunchly republican states, who suspected that the princes of Orange harboured monarchical ambitions.

boyars

Who is this: Who: The highest ranking members of the Russian nobility. What: Ivan III was strong enough to defy mongol control and declare the autonomy of Moscow. To legitimize their new position, the princes of Moscow modelled themselves on the mongol khans. Like the khans, the Muscovite state forced weaker Slavic principalities to render tribute previously paid to Mongols and borrowed Mongol institutions such as the tax system, postal routes, and census. These people were loyal to the muscovite princes and this helped the princes consolidate their power.

Philip IV

Who is this: Who: The king of Spain during the revolts in Catalonia, the economic center of his realm. What: He faced revolt in Catalonia, the economic center of his realm. At the same time he struggled to put down uprisings in Portugal and in the northern provinces of the Netherlands. He left the management of his several kingdoms to Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares.

Cardinal Richelieu

Who is this: Who: The leader of the French during the thirty years' war. What: This French chief minister subsidised the Swedes, hoping to weaken Hapsburg power in Europe. Adolphus won two important battles but was fatally wounded in combat. The final, or French, phase of the war was prompted by Richelieu's concern that the Hapsburgs would rebound after the death of Gustavus Adolphus. He declared war on Spain and sent military as well as financial assistance. He was a political genus. He established an amazing administrative system to strengthen royal control. He extended the use of intendants, commissioners for each of France's thirty-two districts who were appointed directly by the monarch. They did a lot of work.

Enclosure Movement

Who is this: Who: The movement to fence in fields in order to farm more effectively, at the expense of the poor peasants who relied on common fields for farming and pasture. What: Advocates of this movement argued that innovating agriculturalists needed to enclose and consolidate their scattered holdings into compact. fenced-in fields in order to farm more effectively. According to the proponents of this movement, the upheaval of village life was the necessary price of technical progress.

The Dual Monarchy of 1867

Who is this: Who: The name of the combined two separate kingdoms that were ruled by the same sovereign head of state in Europe in 1867. What: The dilemma of conflicting nationalism in Ireland helps one appreciate how desperate the situation in this place had become by the early twentieth century as well. In 1848, Magyar nationalism had driven Hungarian patriots to declare an independent Hungarian republic, which Russian and Austrian armies savagely screeches in the summer of 1849. Throughout the 1850s, Hungary was ruled as a conquered territory, and emperor Francis Joseph and his bureaucracy tried hard to centralize the state and Germanized the language and culture of the different ethnic groups there. Then in the wake of its defeat by Prussia in 1866 and loss of northern Italy, a weakened Austria agreed to a compromise and in 1867 established this. The Austrian Empire was divided in two and the Magyars gained virtual independence for Hungary. Each half of the empire dealt with its own ethnic minorities. The two states still shared the same monarch and common ministries for finance, defense, and foreign affairs. This empire was progressively weakened by nationalism in the states.

junkers

Who is this: Who: The nobility of Brandenburg and Prussia. They were reluctant allies of Frederick William in his consolidation of the Prussian state. What: Frederick William persuaded these people in the estates to accept taxation without consent in order to fund an army. They agreed to do so in exchange for reconfirmation of their own privileges, including authority over the serfs.

Zulu Resistance

Who is this: Who: The refusal of a tribe to let England expand their empire in the tribe's land. It is an example of how non-Europeans responded to European Imperialism through nationalist movements and/or by modernizing their own economies and societies. What: In the 1830's the Boers, migrated to the interior of Southern Africa and began to engage in conflicts with this tribe. The battles continued but did not truly threaten the sovereignty of this tribe. This tribe was a South African tribe that placed an emphasis on military organization and skill, established by their Shaka. Under the rule of Shaka, the tribe broadened their land claims throughout Southern Africa. Eventually the tribe came in conflict with the British army because the British invaded their homeland in order to expand their control over South Africa. The technology and resources of the British eventually defeated them and all of Southern Africa had become under British control.

Putting Out System

Who is this: Who: The system of rural industry in which a merchant loaned raw materials to cottage workers, who processed them and returned the finished products to the merchant. What: The two main participants in this system were the merchant capitalist and the rural worker. The merchant loaned raw materials to cottage workers who processed the raw materials in their own homes and returned the finished products to the merchant. Sometimes rural workers bought their own raw materials and worked as independent producers before they sold to the merchant. Sometimes whole families were involved in domestic industry. This system grew because it had competitive advantages. Underemployed labor was abundant and poor peasants would work for low wages.

The Combination Acts and Their Repeal

Who is this: Who: They were British laws passed in 1799 that outlawed unions and strikes, favoring capitalist business people over skilled artisans. Bitterly resented and widely disregarded by many craft guilds, the acts were repealed by Parliament in 1824. What: In 1799, Parliament passed these laws which outlawed unions and strikes. In 1813 and 1814, Parliament repealed the old and often disregarded law of 1563 regulating the wages of artisans and the conditions of apprenticeship. As a result of these and other measures, certain skilled artisan workers, such as bootmakers and tailors, found aggressive capitalists ignoring traditional work rules and trying to flood their trades with unorganized women workers and children to beat down wages. The capitalist attack on artisan guilds and work rules was bitterly resented by many craftworkers, who subsequently played an important part in Great Britain and in other countries in gradually building a modern labor movement. These laws were widely disregarded by workers. Printers, papermakers, carpenters, tailors, and other such craftsmen continued to take collective action, and societies of skilled factory workers also organized unions in defiance of the law. Unions sought to control the number of skilled workers, to limit apprenticeship to members' own children, and to bargain with owners over wages. In face of such widespread union activity, Parliament repealed these laws in 1824. Unions were subsequently tolerate, though they were not legal until 1867. The government also kept the army in readiness to put down any worker protests deemed too unruly or threatening.

Physiocrats

Who is this: Who: They were French economists who believed that agriculture was the source of all wealth and the agricultural products should be highly priced. What: They wholly believed that the wealth of nations was derived solely from the value of "land agriculture" and "land development" and that agricultural products should be highly priced.

Marie and Pierre Curie

Who is this: Who: They were French physicists and chemists who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. What: These physicists discovered that radium constantly emits subatomic particles and thus does not have a constant atomic weight. They are both buried in the Pantheon in Paris, France. In 1903 they received the Nobel Prize in Physics "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel".

The Grimm brothers

Who is this: Who: They were German academics, philologists, cultural researchers, lexicographers and authors who together specialized in collecting and publishing folklore during the 19th century. They were among the best-known storytellers of folk tales, and popularized stories such as Cinderella, The Frog Prince, Hansel and Gretel, Rapunzel, Rumpelstiltskin, Sleeping Beauty, and Snow White. What: Their names were Jacob and Wilhelm and they were particularly successful at rescuing German fairy tales from oblivion.

Contagious Diseases Acts

Who is this: Who: They were acts that were originally passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom in 1864, with alterations and editions made in 1866 and 1869. In 1862, a committee was established to inquire into venereal illness in the armed forces. On its recommendation these acts were passed. The legislation allowed police officers to arrest women suspected of being prostitutes in certain ports and army towns. The women were then subjected to compulsory checks for venereal illness. If a woman was declared to be infected, she would be confined in what was known as a lock hospital until she recovered or her sentence finished. The original act only applied to a few selected naval ports and army towns, but by 1869 the acts had been extended to cover eighteen "subjected districts". What: As general concerns with public health gained publicity, state and city authorities across Europe subjected prostitutes, in their eyes the vector of venereal sickness, to increased surveillance. These acts, in force between 1864 and 1886, exemplified this trend. Under these acts, special plain-clothes policemen required women identified as common prostitutes to undergo biweekly medical exams. If they showed signs of venereal illness, they were interned in a lock hospital and forced to undergo treatment; when the outward signs of illness went away, they were released. These acts were controversial from the start. A determined middle-class feminist campaign against the policy, led by Josephine Butler and the Ladies National Association, loudly proclaimed the the acts physically abused poor women, violated their constitutional rights, and legitimized male vice. Under pressure, Parliament repealed the law in 1886. Yet heavy handed government had devastated the informality of working class prostitution. Prostitutes were now seen as outsiders.

Nuremberg Laws

Who is this: Who: They were antisemitic regulations in Nazi Germany. They were introduced in 1935 by the Reichstag at a special meeting convened at a certain annual rally of the Nazi Party. The two regulations were the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour, which forbade marriages and extramarital intercourse between Jews and Germans and the employment of German females under 45 in Jewish households, and the Reich Citizenship Law, which declared that only those of German or related blood were eligible to be Reich citizens; the remainder were classed as state subjects, without citizenship rights. A supplementary decree outlining the definition of who was Jewish was passed on 14 November, and the Reich Citizenship Law officially came into force on that date. The regulations were expanded on in 1935 to include Romani people and Afro-Germans. This supplementary decree defined Gypsies as "enemies of the race-based state", the same category as Jews. What: From the beginning, German Jews were a special target of Nazi persecution. By the end of 1934, most Jewish lawyers, doctors, professors, civil servants, and musicians had been banned from their professions. In 1935, these infamous regulations classified as Jewish anyone having three or more Jewish grandparents, outlawed marriage and sexual relations between Jews and those defined as German, and deprived Jews of all rights of citizenship. Conversion to Christianity and abandonment of the Jewish faith made no difference. In their commentary on these regulations, the two leading legal scholars attacked German Jews and championed the close connections between blood and nation that defined citizenship in the racial state.

Great Purges

Who is this: Who: They were campaigns of political repression, the persecution of individuals or groups within society for political reasons in the Soviet Union, which occurred from 1936 to 1938. It was a series of spectacular public show trials in which false evidence, often gathered using torture, was used to incriminate party administrators and Red Army leaders. It involved a large-scale cleanse of the Communist Party and government officials, repression of peasants and the Red Army leadership, and widespread police surveillance, suspicion of "saboteurs", imprisonment, and arbitrary executions. Stalin killed many who had popularity in the Communist party and threatened his consolidation of power. In Russian historiography, the period of the most intense cleanse, 1937-1938, is called Yezhovshchina, after Nikolai Yezhov, the head of the Soviet secret police, NKVD. It has been estimated between 600,000 and 3 million people died at the hands of the Soviet government during the Purge. What: These campaigns of political repression, the persecution of individuals or groups within society, that weakened the Soviet Union in economic, intellectual, and military terms. But they left Stalin in command of a vast new state apparatus, staffed by the 1.5 million new party members enlisted to replace the victims. Thus more than half of all Communist Party members in 1941 had joined since these campaigns, and they experienced rapid social advance. Often the children of workers, they had usually studied in the new technical schools and they soon proved capable of managing the government and large scale production. Despite their human costs, these campaigns thus brought substantial practical rewards to this generation of committed Communists. They would serve Stalin effectively until his death in 1953, and they would d govern the Soviet Union until the early 1980s.

Blood Sports

Who is this: Who: They were events such as bullbaiting and cockfighting that involved inflicting violence and bloodshed on animals and that were popular with that eighteenth-century European masses. What: In bullbaiting, the bull, usually staked on a chain in the courtyard of an inn, was attacked by ferocious dogs for the amusement of the innkeeper's clients. Eventually, the maimed and tortured animal was slaughtered by a butcher and sold as meat. In cockfighting, two roosters, carefully trained by their owners and armed with steel spurs, slashed and clawed at each other in a small ring until the victor won and the loser died.

The Young Turks

Who is this: Who: They were fervent patriots who seized power in a 1908 coup in the Ottoman Empire, forcing the conservative sultan to implement reforms. What: Abdülhamid II's government failed to halt foreign efforts to fragment and ultimately take control over key Ottoman territories. By the 1890s, the government's failures had encouraged a powerful resurgence of the modernizing impulse under the banner of the Committee of Union and Progress, and umbrella organization that united multiethnic reformist groups from across the empire. These fervent patriots, seized power in a 1908 coup and forced the sultan to implement reforms. Although they failed to stop the rising tide of anti-Ottoman nationalism in the Balkans, they helped prepare the way for the birth of modern secular Turkey after the defeat and collapse of the Ottoman Empire in World War I.

Creoles

Who is this: Who: They were individuals of French or European descent that were born in the colonies. What: Over time these people had developed their own interests, at times distinct from those of metropolitan France.

Ferdinand and Isabella

Who is this: Who: They were king and queen of Spain. What: They curbed aristocratic power by excluding high nobles from the royal council, which had full executive, judicial, and legislative powers under the monarchy, instead appointing lesser land-owners. They secured Pope Alexander VI the right to appoint bishops in Spain and in the hispanic territories, enabling them to establish the equivalent of a national church. They successfully reconquested Granada and conquered Navarre afterward. They received permission from Pope Sixtus IV to search out and punish converts from Judaism who had transgressed against Christianity by secretly adhering to Jewish beliefs and performing the rites of the Jews. They issued an edict expelling all practicing Jews from Spain.

Pan-Slavists

Who is this: Who: They were people of a movement that crystallized in the mid-1800s. They were concerned with the political ideology concerned with the advancement of integrity and unity for the people who lived in the Czech Republic, Bosnia, Serbia, Poland, Slovakia, Belarus, Russia, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Croatia, Slovenia and Montenegro. What: They were people of a movement aimed at unifying all of the these people. Its main impact occurred in the Balkans, where non-Slavic empires (Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Venice) had ruled the South Slavs for centuries. They grew from the sense of unity and nationalism experienced within ethnic groups after the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars. The First congress helped as well in 1848 during the revolutionary movement of that year.

Puritans

Who is this: Who: They were people who wanted to cleanse the catholic church in England. What: The held protestant beliefs and wanted England to be cleansed of the catholic faith.

Conservatives and Socialists in France

Who is this: Who: They were people who were averse to change and held to traditional values and people who advocated socialism in France. It was a mass-based political party that emerged as a sophisticated vehicle for social, economic, and political reform. What: When the next national elections sent a large majority of these people to the National Assembly and France's new leaders decided they had no choice but to surrender Alsace and Lorraine to Germany, the traumatized Parisians exploded in patriotic frustration and proclaimed the Paris Commune in March 1871. Vaguely radical, the leaders of the Commune wanted to govern Paris without interference from the conservative French countryside. The National Assembly, led by gains politician Adolphe Thiers, ordered the French army into Paris and brutally crushed the Commune. As in June 1848, it was Paris against the provinces, French against French. Out of this tragedy, France slowly formed a new national unity, achieving considerable stability before 1914. Until 1875, the monarchists in the ostensibly republican National Assembly had a majority but could not agree on who should be king. The compromise Bourbon candidate refused to rule except under the white flag of his absolutist ancestors, a completely unacceptable condition for many supporters of a constitutional monarchy. In the meantime, Thiers's destruction of the radical Commune and his other firm measures showed the fearful provinces and the middle classes that the Third Republic could be politically moderate and socially conservative. France therefore reluctantly retained republican government. As president Thiers cautiously said, " the government which divides us least."

Sweated Industries

Who is this: Who: They were poorly paid handicraft production, often carried out by married women paid by the piece and working at home. What: Many young domestics made the successful transition to working class wife and mother. Yet with an unskilled or unemployed husband, a growing family, and limited household income, many working class wives had to join the broad ranks of working women in these. These industries expanded rapidly after 1850 and resembled the old putting-out and cottage industries of earlier times. The women normally worked at home and were paid by the piece not by the hour. They and their young children who helped them earned pitiful wages and lacked any job security. Women decorated dished or embroidered linens, took in laundry for washing and ironing, or made clothing, especially after the advent of the sewing machine. An army of poor women, usually working at home, accounted for many of the inexpensive ready-made clothes dispelled on department store racks and in tiny shops.

Government Financial Awards to Inventors

Who is this: Who: They were prizes given to innovators by the British Royal Society for their creativity and distribution of useful knowledge. What: The British Royal Society of Arts sponsored prizes for innovations in machinery and agriculture and played a pivotal part in the circulation of useful knowledge. England's vibrant scientific and Enlightenment culture allowed British industrialists to exploit the latest findings of scientists and technicians from other countries.

Five Year Plans

Who is this: Who: They were procedures launched by Josef Stalin between 1928-1932, and termed the revolution from above, aimed at modernizing the Soviet Union and creating a new Communist society with new attitudes, loyalties, and a new socialist humanity. They were radical attempts to transform Soviet society into a Communist state. The means were constant propaganda, enormous sacrifice by the people, harsh repression that included purges and executions, and rewards for those who followed the party line. Thus the Soviet Union in the 1930s became a dynamic modern totalitarian state. What: They were a list of economic goals, created by General Secretary Joseph Stalin and based on his policy of Socialism in One Country. It was implemented between 1928 and 1932 in the USSR. In 1929, Stalin edited the procedure to include the creation of "kolkhoz" collective farming systems that stretched over thousands of acres of land and had hundreds of peasants working on them. The creation of collective farms essentially destroyed the kulaks as a class, and also brought about the slaughter of millions of farm animals that these peasants would rather kill than give up to the gigantic farms. This disruption led to a famine in Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan as well as areas of the Northern Caucasus. Despite the ruinous loss of life, the introduction of collective farms allowed peasants to use tractors to farm the land, unlike before when most had been too poor to own a tractor. Public machine and tractor stations were set up throughout the USSR, and peasants were allowed to use these public tractors to farm the land, increasing the food output per peasant. Peasants were allowed to sell any surplus food from the land. However, the government planners failed to take notice of local situations.

Public Health Projects

Who is this: Who: They were programs in Europe during the 19th century, whose main goals were to improve the wellness of the people who lived there. What: They improved the wellness of the people in Europe with the public health act of 1848 in England. This allowed for medical officers and building inspectors to enter homes and businesses in the name of public health. Private property could now be condemned due to not passing the standards of public health. New building regulations were a result of this.

Neo-Europes

Who is this: Who: They were settler colonies with established populations of Europeans, such as North America, Australia, New Zealand, and Latin America, where Europe found outlets for population growth and its most profitably investment opportunities in the nineteenth century. What: Most of the capital exported did not go to European colonies or protectorates in Asia and Africa. About three quarters of total European investment went to other European countries, or to settler colonies or these. It is a term coined by historian Alfred Crosby to describe regions that already had significant populations of ethnic Europeans, including the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Latin America, and Siberia. Europe found its most profitable opportunities for investment in construction of the railroads, ports, and utilities that were necessary to settle and develop the lands in such places and Australia and the Americas. By lending money to construct foreign railroads, Europeans enabled white settlers to buy Europeans rails and locomotives and to develop sources of cheap food and raw materials.

Kulaks

Who is this: Who: They were the better-off peasants who were stripped of land and livestock from 1929-1933 under Stalin and were generally not permitted to join collective farms; many of them starved or were deported to forced-labor camps for re-education. They were affluent peasants in the later Russian Empire, Soviet Russia, and the early Soviet Union. What: The increasingly repressive measures of the collectivization of agriculture instituted by the state of Russia first focused on these peasants, the class of well-off peasants who had benefited the most from the New Economic Policy. They were small in number, but they were held up as a great enemy of progress and Stalin called for their liquidation and seizure of their land. Stripped of land and livestock, many starved or were deported to forced-labor camps for re-education.

Sans Culottes

Who is this: Who: They were the common people of the lower classes in late 18th century France, a great many of whom became radical and militant partisans of the French Revolution in response to their poor quality of life under the Ancien Régime. What: They were the laboring poor of Paris, so called because the men wore trousers instead of the knee breeches of the aristocracy and middle class; the word came to refer to the militant radicals of the city. They demanded radical political action to defend the Revolution. The Mountain, sensing an opportunity to outmaneuver the Girondists, joined with these people to engineer a popular uprising. Later, armed these people invaded the Convention and forced its deputies to arrest twenty-nine Girondist deputies for treason. All power passed to the Mountain.

Gulags

Who is this: Who: They were the government agencies that administered and controlled the Soviet forced-labor camps system during Joseph Stalin's rule from the 1930s up until the 1950s. The term is also commonly used to reference any forced-labor camp in the Soviet Union. What: The camps housed a wide range of convicts, from petty criminals to political prisoners. Large numbers were convicted by simplified procedures, such as NKVD troikas (secret police) and other instruments of extrajudicial punishment. The camps are recognized as a major instrument of political repression in the Soviet Union.

The Opium Wars

Who is this: Who: They were two-nineteenth century conflicts between China and Great Britain over the British trade in a drug, which was designed to open China to European free trade. In defeat, China gave European traders and missionaries increased protection and concessions. What: Using troops from India and taking advantage of its control of the seas, Britain occupied several coastal cities and in the first of these two conflicts, forced China to give in to British demands. In the Treaty of Nanking in 1842, the imperial government was required to cede the island of Hong Kong to Britain forever, pay and indemnity of 100 million dollars, and open up four large cities to unlimited foreign trade with low tariffs. With Britain's new power over Chinese commerce, the trade in this drug flourished, and Hong Kong developed rapidly as an Anglo-Chinese enclave. But disputes over trade between China and the Western powers continued. Finally, the second war culminated in the occupation of Beijing by seventeen thousand British and French troops, who intentionally burned down the emperor's summer place. Another round of one-sided traits gave European merchants and missionaries greater privileges and protection and forced the Chinese to accept trade and investment on unfavorable terms in several more cities. Thus did Europeans use this drug addiction and military aggression to blow a hole in the wall of Chine seclusion and ope the country to foreign trade and foreign ideas.

The Compositions of Igor Stravinsky

Who is this: Who: They were works by a Russian-born composer, pianist, and conductor. He is widely considered one of the most important and influential composers of the 20th century. What: Development in modern music paralleled those in parenting and fiction. Composers and performers expressed the emotional intensity and shock of the age in radically experimental forms. The ballet The Rite of Spring by this Russian composer, practically caused a riot when it was first performed in Paris in 1913. The combination of pulsating rhythms and dissonant sounds from the orchestra pit with earthly representations of lovemaking by the strangely dressed dancers on the stage shocked audiences accustomed to traditional ballet.

The Compositions of Arnold Schoenberg

Who is this: Who: They were works by an Austrian composer, music theorist, and painter. He was associated with the expressionist movement in German poetry and art, and leader of the Second Viennese School. By 1938, with the rise of the Nazi Party, his works were labeled degenerate music, because he was Jewish. What: Some composers turned their backs on long established musical conventions, Just as abstract painters arranged lines and color but did not draw indefinable objects, so modern composers arranged sounds without creating recognizable harmonies. Led by this Viennese composer, they abandoned traditional harmony and tonality. The musical notes in a given piece were no longer united and organized by a key, instead they were independent and unrelated. His twelve tone music of the 1920s arranged all twelve notes of the scale in an abstract mathematical pattern or tone row. This pattern sounded like not pattern at all to the ordinary listen and could be detected only by highly trained eye studying the musical score. Accustomed to the harmonies of classical and romantic music, audiences generally resisted atonal music. Only after World War II did it begin to win acceptance.

Baldassarre Castiglione

Who is this: Who: He was a courtier who served several different rulers. What: He wrote a book that had a very broad influence on education. It was called The Courtier. In the book, he said that the educated man should have a broad background in many academic subjects, and should train his spiritual and physical faculties as well as intellect. He envisioned a man who could compose a sonnet, wrestle, sing a song while accompanying himself on an instrument, ride expertly, solve difficult math problems, and speak and write eloquently. He said that women should be well educated, be able to play a musical instrument, be able to paint, and be able to dance. Physical beauty, delicacy, affability, and modesty were also important qualities of women.

Gian Bernini

Who is this: He was an Italian baroque sculptor and architect. As one scholar has commented, "What Shakespeare is to drama, this man may be to sculpture." While a major figure in the world of architecture, he was the leading sculptor of his age, credited with creating the Baroque style of sculpture. What: As one scholar has commented, "What Shakespeare is to drama, this man may be to sculpture: the first pan-European sculptor whose name is instantaneously identifiable with a particular manner and vision, and whose influence was inordinately powerful" In addition, he was a painter and a man of the theater: he wrote, directed and acted in plays, also designing stage sets and theatrical machinery, as well as a wide variety of decorative art objects including lamps, tables, mirrors, and even coaches. As architect and city planner, he designed both secular buildings and churches and chapels, as well as massive works combining both architecture and sculpture, especially elaborate public fountains and funerary monuments and a whole series of temporary structures for funerals and festivals.

John Cabot

Who is this: Who: A Genoese merchant who lived in London. He undertook a voyage to Brazil, but discovered Newfoundland instead. What: He undertook a voyage to Brazil, but discovered Newfoundland instead. The next year he returned and reconnoitered the New England coast. These forays proved futile, and the English established no permanent colonies in the territories they explored.

The Bank of Amsterdam

Who is this: Who: A bank that had innovations in banking and finance that promoted the growth of urban financial centers and a money economy. What: It created new ways of banking and this led to the growth of more banks across the state. It also led to the country creating a money economy.

Calvin's Geneva

Who is this: Who: A city that became the model of a christian community for many protestant reformers. What: A religious man transformed this city into a community based on his religious principles. The most powerful organization in the city became the Consistory, a group of laymen and pastors charged with investigating and disciplining deviations from proper doctrine and conduct. Serious crimes and heresy were handled by civil authorities, which, with the consistory's approval, sometimes used torture to extract confessions. Seventy six people were banished from Geneva, and fifty eight were executed for heresy, adultery, blasphemy, and witchcraft. Among them was the Spanish humanist and refugee Michael Servetus, who was burned at the stake for denying the scriptural basis for the Trinity, rejecting child baptism, and insisting that a person under twenty cannot commit a mortal sin, all of which were viewed as a threat to society. Geneva became the model of a christian community for many protestant reformers.

The Netherlands

Who is this: Who: A country that had corruption in the Roman Catholic Church and the critical spirit of the Renaissance provoked pressure for reform, and Lutheran ideas took root. Charles V had grown up in the country, however, and he was able to limit their impact. But Charles V abdicated and transferred over the country to his son Philip II, who had gown up in Spain. Protestant ideas spread. What: Philip II sent twenty thousand Spanish troops under the duke of Alva to pacify the low countries. Alva interpreted pacification to mean ruthless extermination of religious and political dissidents. Alva also opened his own tribunal called the council of blood. Fifteen hundred men were executed. To calvinists, this was a clear indication that Spanish rule was ungodly and should be overthrown. Civil war raged between Catholics and Protestants. The ten southern provinces came under control of Spanish Hapsburg forces and seven northern provinces formed the Union of Utrecht. It was the alliance that declared its independence from Spain and formed the united provinces of the country. Philip did not accept this and war continued. England was even drawn into the conflict, supplying money and troops to the northern United Provinces, Hostilities ended when Spain agreed to a truce that recognized the independence of the United Provinces.

catholic spain

Who is this: Who: A country that was controlled by the Hapsburgs, whose advantageous marriages stretched across generations. What: The Hapsburg dynasty started with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III, who was the ruler of most of Austria, but only had a small amount of territory and a great deal of money. Frederick III married Princess Eleonore of Portugal. Then Frederick III and Princess Eleonore arranged for their son, Maximilian, to marry Europe's most prominent heiress, Mary of Burgundy. Mary of Burgundy inherited the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and the County of Burgundy in what is now eastern France. Through this union with the rich and powerful duchy of Burgundy, the Austrian house of Hapsburg, what was already the strongest ruling family in the empire, became an international power. The marriage of Maximilian and Mary angered the French, who considered Burgundy French territory, and inaugurated centuries of conflict between the Austrian house of Hapsburg and the kings of France. Maximilian married his son and daughter to the children of Ferdinand and Isabella, the rulers of Spain, much of southern Italy, and eventually the Spanish New World Empire. Maximilian's grandson fell heir to a vast collection of states and peoples, each governed in a different manner and held together only by the person of the emperor.

Spain Under The Hapsburgs

Who is this: Who: A country that was controlled by the catholic family, whose advantageous marriages stretched across generations. What: The family dynasty started with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III, who was the ruler of most of Austria, but only had a small amount of territory and a great deal of money. Frederick III married Princess Eleonore of Portugal. Then Frederick III and Princess Eleonore arranged for their son, Maximilian, to marry Europe's most prominent heiress, Mary of Burgundy. Mary of Burgundy inherited the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and the County of Burgundy in what is now eastern France. Through this union with the rich and powerful duchy of Burgundy, the Austrian house of this family, what was already the strongest ruling family in the empire, became an international power. The marriage of Maximilian and Mary angered the French, who considered Burgundy French territory, and inaugurated centuries of conflict between the Austrian house of this family and the kings of France. Maximilian married his son and daughter to the children of Ferdinand and Isabella, the rulers of Spain, much of southern Italy, and eventually the Spanish New World Empire. Maximilian's grandson fell heir to a vast collection of states and peoples, each governed in a different manner and held together only by the person of the emperor.

edict of nantes

Who is this: Who: A document issued by Henry IV that granted liberty of conscience and liberty of public worship to Huguenots in France. What: It saved France by restoring inner peace. Before the Edict of Nantes, Armed clashed between Catholic royalist lords and Calvinist anitmonarchical lords occurred in many parts of France. Both Calvinists and Catholics believed that the others' books, services, and ministers polluted the community. Preachers incited violence and religious ceremonies such as baptisms, marriages, and funerals triggered it. Calvinist teachings called the power of sacred images into question, and mobs in many cities took down and smashed statues, stained glass windows, and paintings, viewing this as a way to purify the church. Catholic mobs responded by defending images, and crowds on both sides killed their opponents. Then on Saint Bartholomew's Day, Huguenots were massacred and other Protestants were slaughtered by mobs. That day led to a civil war that dragged on for fifteen years. The Edict of Nantes ended all of this.

Michel de Montaigne

Who is this: Who: A man who developed a new literary genre, known as the essay. What: Skepticism is a school of thought founded on doubt that total certainty or definitive knowledge is ever attainable. Cultural relativism suggests that one culture is not necessarily superior to another, just different. Both notions found expression in the work of him. He developed a new literary genre, the essay to express his ideas. His Essays consisted of short reflections drawing on his extensive reading of ancient texts, his experience as a government official, and his own moral judgement. He wrote in French rather than Latin. He wrote an essay "Of Cannibals," which revealed the impact of overseas discoveries on one thoughtful European. Not many people believed in what he wrote, but his popular essays contributed to a basic shift in attitudes.

Peter the Great of Russia

Who is this: Who: A man who made many reforms in Russia that were very unpopular, but they paved the way for Russia to move somewhat closer to the European mainstream in its thought and institutions during the Enlightenment, especially under Catherine the Great. What: He was very tall. He was determined to build the army and continue Russian territorial expansion. He led a group of 250 Russian officials and young nobles on an eighteen month tour of western European capitals. He entered into a secret alliance with Denmark and Poland to wage a sudden war of aggression against Sweden with the goal of securing access to the Baltic Sea and opportunities for westward expansion. Peter believed that he would win easily because Sweden had an inexperienced king. The Swedish King surprised him and defeated Denmark and then turned on Russia. The Swedish King had his army attack Russians besieging a Swedish fortress. That was the beginning to the Great Northern War. Peter responded to this defeat with measured designed to increase state power, strengthen his armies, and gain victory. He required all nobles to serve in the army for life. He created new schools. He established a military-civilian bureaucracy with fourteen ranks. This allowed non-nobles to rise up in the hierarchy. He established a standing army. He taxed peasants heavily. His new war machine was able to crush the small army of Sweden. The government drafted 25,000 to 40,000 men each summer to labor in St. Petersburg. Nobles were required to build costly palaces and live there most of the year. Merchants and artisans were required to settle and build in the new capital. Modernization meant Westernisation as Westerners and western ideas flowed into Russia. He required nobles to shave their beards and wear Western clothing. He also required them to attend parties where young men and women would mix and freely choose their spouses. A new elite class of western-oriented Russians began to emerge. Many nobles did not like the imposition of unigeniture, inheritance of land by one son alone, cutting sons and daughters from family property.

baroque

Who is this: Who: A period of artistic style that used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, architecture, literature, dance, theater, and music. It was encouraged by the catholic church. What: The term may have come from the Portuguese word for an odd-shaped, imperfect pearl and was commonly used by late-eighteenth century art critics as an expression of scorn for what they considered overblown, unbalanced style. Specialists now agree that the style marked one of the high points in the history of western culture. Rome and the revitalised catholic church spurred the early development of it. Taking definite shape in Italy, the baroque style in the visual arts developed with exceptional vigor in Catholic countries. Protestants accounted for some of the finest examples of baroque style, especially in music. The art spread because its tension and bombast spoke to an agitated age that was experiencing great violence and controversy in politics and religion.

The Peace of Utrecht

Who is this: Who: A series of treaties that ended the war of Spanish succession, ended French expansion in Europe, and marked the rise of the British empire. What: The treaty allowed Louis's grandson to remain king of Spain on the understanding that the French and Spanish crowns would never be united. France surrendered Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and the Hudson Bay territory to England, which also acquired Gibraltar, Minorca, and control of the African slave trade from Spain.

The Fronde in France

Who is this: Who: A series of violent uprisings during the early reign of Louis XIV triggered by growing royal control and increased taxation. What: Magistrates of the Parliament of Paris, the nation's most important court, were outraged by the Crown's autocratic measures. These so-called robe nobles encouraged violent protest by the common people. During the first of several riots, the queen mother fled Paris with Louis XIV. As rebellion spread outside Paris and the sword nobles, civil order broke down completely. Anne's regency ended with the declaration of Louis as king in his own right. Much of the rebellion died away, and its leaders came to terms with the government. The violence of the Fronde had significant results for the future. The twin evils of noble rebellion and popular riots left the French wishing for peace and for a strong monarch to reimpose order.

Encomienda System

Who is this: Who: A system established by the Spanish, in which the Crown granted the conquerors the right to employ groups of Native Americans as laborers or to demand tribute from them in exchange for providing food and shelter. What: The Spanish crown established the thing in which the Crown granted the conquerors the right to employ groups of Native Americans as laborers or to demand tribute from them in exchange for providing food and shelter. The Spanish were supposed to care for the indigenous people under their command and teach them Christianity; in actuality, the system was a brutal form of exploitation only one level removed from slavery.

Double Entry Bookkeeping

Who is this: Who: A system of doing something named something because every entry to an account requires a corresponding and opposite entry to a different account. What: In deciding which account has to be debited and which account has to be credited, the golden rules of accounting are used. This is also accomplished using the accounting equation. Equity = Assets - Liabilities. The accounting equation serves as an error detection tool. If at any point the sum of debits for all accounts does not equal the corresponding sum of credits for all accounts, an error has occurred. It follows that the sum of debits and the sum of the credits must be equal in value.

Mercantilism

Who is this: Who: A system of economic regulations aimed at increasing the power of the state based on the belief that a nation's international power was based on wealth, specifically its supply of gold and silver. What: A system that tied the colonies with the mother countries. The colonies exist for the exclusive welfare of the mother country. The mother country was to have favorable trade. Colonies were not permitted to trade with anyone but the mother country. Colonies were not permitted to produce anything but what was permitted by the mother country. The colonists were considered second class citizens.

potosí

Who is this: Who: A territory in present day Bolivia that was conquered from the Inca Empire. What: In this place, at an altitude of fifteen thousand feet, the Spanish discovered an extraordinary source of silver. The frigid place where nothing grew had been unsettled. A half century later, 160,000 people lived there, making it about as populous as the city of London. By 1550, this place yielded about 60 percent of all the silver mined in the world.

peace of Augsburg

Who is this: Who: A treaty issued by Charles V that officially recognized Lutheranism in the holy roman empire in order to bring peace. What: The treaty let the political authority of each territory decide whether the territory would be Catholic or Lutheran. The treaty also let other territories enjoy their religious beliefs, liturgy, and ceremonies as well as their estates in peace. Most northern and central Germany became Lutheran, while the south remained Roman Catholic. There was no freedom of religion within the territories, however. Princes or town councils established state churches to which all subjects of the area had to belong. Dissidents had to convert or leave, although the treaty did order that they shall neither be hindered in the sale of their estates after due payment of the local taxes nor injured in their honor. Religious refugees became a common feature on the roads of the empire, although rulers did not always let their subjects leave as easily as the treaty stipulated.

Treaty of Tordesillas

Who is this: Who: A treaty made by Pope Alexander VI, between Spain and Portugal. What: The agreement gave Spain everything west of an imaginary line drawn down the Atlantic and gave Portugal everything to the East. This worked in Portugal's favor when an expedition by Cabral landed on the coast of Brazil, which he claimed as Portuguese territory.

The Dutch East India Company

Who is this: Who: A voyage that brought 600,000 pounds of pepper and 250,000 pounds of cloves and nutmeg led to the establishment of this company. It was a company from 1602-1799, that took control of the Portuguese spice trade in the Indian Ocean, with the port of Batavia as its center of operations. It is often considered to be the world's first truly transnational corporation and the first company in history to actually issue bonds and shares of stock to the general public. In other words, it was officially the first publicly traded company of the world, because it was the first company to be ever actually listed on an official stock exchange. As the first historical model of the quasi-fictional concept of mega-corporations, it possessed quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, imprison and execute convicts, negotiate treaties, strike its own coins, and establish colonies. What: It had expelled the Portuguese from trading in Ceylon and other East Indian Islands.

the Dutch War

Who is this: Who: A war of Louis XIV, whose chief aim in the conflict was to establish French possession of the Spanish Netherlands after having forced the Dutch Republic's acquiescence. What: After having signed the secret Treaty of Dover with England against the Dutch, Louis mounted an invasion of the Dutch Republic that was supported by the British navy. The French were able to quickly occupy three of the seven Dutch provinces, but then the Dutch opened the dikes around Amsterdam, flooding a large area, and their army, under William III of Orange, rallied behind this "Water Line." By autumn William had begun land operations against the French invaders. Meanwhile, the Dutch navy managed to stave off attacking English, each time frustrating an invasion of the republic. England then made peace with the Dutch in the Treaty of Westminster. In Spain, the Holy Roman emperor, and Lorraine took the side of the Dutch against France, and so the French had been driven out of the Dutch Republic. But the French armies, with Sweden as their only effective ally, managed to advance steadily in the southern Netherlands and along the Rhine, defeating the badly coordinated forces of the Grand Alliance with regularity. Eventually the heavy financial burdens of the war, along with the imminent prospect of England's reentry into the conflict on the side of the Dutch, convinced Louis to make peace despite his advantageous military

Mulatto

Who is this: Who: A word used to describe certain people of mixed African and European origin. What: In Spanish America, the blanket terms what and "people of color" were used for those of mixed African and European origin. With its immense slave-based plantation system, large indigenous population, and relatively low Portuguese immigration, Brazil developed a particularly complex racial and ethnic mosaic.

mestizo

Who is this: Who: A word used to describe certain people of mixed Native American and European descent. What: In Spanish America, this word, described people of mixed Native American and European descent. With its immense slave-based plantation system, large indigenous population, and relatively low Portuguese immigration, Brazil developed a particularly complex racial and ethnic mosaic.

Robert Walpole

Who is this: Who: An english royal minister from 1721-1742 who led the cabinet. During his reign, the idea developed that the cabinet was responsible to the House of Commons. What: He is generally regarded as the de facto first Prime Minister of Great Britain. He dominated the Townshend Ministry and holds the record as the longest serving Prime Minister in British history. Critics called his system the Robinocracy. Speck says that his uninterrupted run of 20 years as Prime Minister, "is rightly regarded as one of the major feats of British political history." Explanations are usually offered in terms of his expert handling of the political system and his unique blending of the surviving powers of the crown with the increasing influence of the Commons.

Jacques Cartier

Who is this: Who: An explorer from France, who explored the Saint Lawrence region of Canada, searching for a passage to the wealth of Asia. What: He made several voyages and explored the Saint Lawrence region of Canada, searching for a passage to the wealth of Asia. His exploration of the Saint Lawrence was halted at the great rapids west of the present day Island of Montreal. He named the rapids La Chine, in the optimistic belief that China lay just beyond. When this hope proved vain, the French turned to a new source of profit within Canada itself: trade in beavers and other furs.

The Spain Inquisition

Who is this: Who: An thing is a period of prolonged and intensive questioning. It was an inquisition done primarily to ensure the orthodoxy of those who converted from Judaism and Islam to Christianity. What: King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile established the thing in 1478. It primarily targeted forced converts from Islam and from Judaism. Both groups still resided in Spain, and they came under suspicion of either continuing to adhere to their old religion or of having fallen back into it.

Nobles in Poland

Who is this: Who: Calvinist people of power who felt that the reformed tradition of John Calvin was appealing, with its stress on the power of church elders. What: Luther's ideas took root in germanized towns but were opposed by King Sigismund I as well as by ordinary people of this country, who held a strong anti-German feeling. The reformed tradition of John Calvin, with its stress on the power of church elders, appealed to the Polish nobility, however. The fact that Calvinism originated in France, not in Germany, also made it more attractive that Lutheranism. But doctrinal differences among Calvinists, Lutherans, and other groups prevented united opposition to Catholicism, and a counter-reformation gained momentum. By 1650, due largely to the efforts of the Jesuits, it was agains staunchly Roman Catholic.

plantation economies

Who is this: Who: Economies based on agricultural mass production, usually of a few commodity crops grown on large farms called plantations. What: Enslaved Africans were brought from Africa by the English and other European powers, for their Western Hemisphere colonies. They were shipped from ports in West Africa to the New World. The journey from Africa across the Atlantic Ocean was called the middle passage, and was one of the three legs which comprised the triangular trade among the continents of Europe, the Americas, and Africa. As the plantation economy expanded, the slave trade grew to meet the growing demand for labor.

France, Sweden, and Denmark in the 30 Years' War

Who is this: Who: France was led by Cardinal Richelieu, Sweden was led by Gustavus Adolphus, and Denmark was led by Christian IV during the 30 years' war. What: Each country fought for what they believed in the war. France fought because they were afraid that the Hapsburgs would get too powerful. Sweden fought because they felt that the calvinists should get to practice their religion. Denmark fought because they felt that the calvinists should get to practice their religion.

Oliver Cromwell

Who is this: Who: He led the parliament group called the roundheads against the fighters for the crown called the cavaliers in the english civil war. What: He won the civil war and became lord protector of England. He ruled with even more of an iron fist than the preceding Stuart Kings. He died and he named his son his successor.

Jean Baptiste Colbert

Who is this: Who: He was Louis XIV's controller general, who proved to be a financial genius. His central principle was that the wealth and the economy of France should serve the state. Colbert rigorously applied mercantilist policies to France. What: To decrease the purchase of goods outside France, he insisted that French industry should produce everything needed by the French people. To increase exports, Colbert supported old industries and created new ones, focusing especially on textiles, which were the most important sector of the economy. He enacted new production regulations, created guilds to boost quality standards, and encouraged foreign craftsmen to immigrate to France. He abolished many domestic tariffs and raised tariffs on foreign products. He founded the company of the East Indies, with hopes of competing with the Dutch for Asian trade. He also tried to make Canada part of a vast French empire. He was able to pursue his goals without massive tax increases and without creating a stream of new offices. The constant pressure of warfare after Colbert's death, undid many of his economic achievements.

Girolamo Savonarola

Who is this: Who: He was a Dominican friar, who preached in Florence a number of fiery sermons attended by large crowds predicting that God would punish Italy for its moral vice and corrupt leadership. What: He preached in Florence a number of fiery sermons attended by large crowds predicting that God would punish Italy for its moral vice and corrupt leadership. Florentines interpreted the French invasion as the fulfilment of this prophecy and expelled the Medici dynasty. He became the political and religious leader of a new Florentine republic and promised Florentines even greater glory in the future if they would reform their ways. He reorganised the government; convinced it to pass laws against same-sex relations, adultery, and drunkenness; and organized groups of young men to patrol the streets looking for immoral dress and behavior. He held religious processions and what became known as "bonfires of the vanities," huge fires on the main square of Florence in which fancy clothing, cosmetics, pagan books, musical instruments, paintings, and poetry that celebrated human beauty were gathered together and burned. Eventually, people grew tired of his moral denunciations. He was excommunicated by the pope, tortured, and burned at the very spot where he had overseen the bonfires.

Peter Paul Rubens

Who is this: Who: He was a Flemish/Netherlandish draughtsman and baroque painter. He is widely considered as the most notable artist of Flemish Baroque art school. A proponent of an extravagant Baroque style that emphasized movement, colour, and sensuality, he is well known for his Counter-Reformation altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects. Baroque reached maturity early with this man. He was the most outstanding and most representative of baroque painters. What: He studied in Flanders and he was influenced by masters of the High Renaissance like Michelangelo. He developed his own rich, sensuous, colorful style, which was characterized by animated figures, melodramatic contrasts, and monumental size. He excelled in glorifying monarchs like Marie de' Medici of France. He was also a devout catholic; nearly half of his pictures treat Christian subjects. One of his trademarks was fleshy, sensual nudes who populate his canvases as Roman goddesses, water nymphs, and remarkably voluptuous saints and angels.

Johann Sebastian Bach

Who is this: Who: He was a German baroque composer and musician. The baroque style reached its culmination in the dynamic, soaring lines of this endlessly inventive man. He enriched established German styles through his skill in counterpoint, harmonic and motivic organisation, and the adaptation of rhythms, forms, and textures from abroad, particularly from Italy and France. His compositions include the Brandenburg Concertos, the Goldberg Variations, the Mass in B minor, two Passions, and over three hundred cantatas of which around two hundred survive. His music is revered for its technical command, artistic beauty, and intellectual depth. What: He was an organist and choirmaster of several Lutheran churches across Germany. He was equally at home writing secular concertos and sublime religious cantatas. His organ music combined the baroque spirit of invention, tension, and emotion in an unforgettable striving toward the infinite. Unlike Rubens, he was not fully appreciated in his lifetime, but since the early nineteenth century his reputation has grown steadily.

Johannes Kepler

Who is this: Who: He was a German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer. A key figure in the 17th-century scientific revolution, he is best known for his laws of planetary motion. A German man who was Tycho Brahe's young assistant. He was left to rework Brahe's mountain of observations. What: He suffered a bout of smallpox as a small child, leaving him with permanently damaged hands and eye-sight. He was a brilliant mathematician and was inspired by his belief that the universe was built on mystical mathematical relationships a musical harmony of the heavenly bodies. His examination of his predecessor's meticulously recorder finding convinced him that Ptolemy's astronomy could not explain them. He developed three new and revolutionary laws of planetary motion. First, he demonstrated tat the orbits of the planets around the sun are elliptical rather than circular. Second, he demonstrated that the planets do not move at a uniform speed in their orbits. When a planet is close to the sun, it moves more rapidly, and it slows as it moves farther away from the sun. He published the first two laws in his book, The New Astronomy, which heralded the arrival of an entirely new theory of the cosmos. Then he put out his third law, the time a planet takes to make its complete orbit is precisely related to its distance from the sun. He united the theoretical cosmology of natural philosophy with mathematics. With his third law, he came close to formulating the idea of universal gravitation. He fulfilled Brahe's pledge by completing the Rudolphine Tables begun so many years earlier. He pioneered the field of optics. He wrote a fictional account of a travel to the moon, which caused controversy and led to the arrest and trial of his mother as a witch. he also suffered deeply as a result of his unorthodox branch of Lutheranism.

George Frideric Handel

Who is this: Who: He was a German, later British baroque composer, who spent the bulk of his career in London. He became well known for his operas, oratorios, anthems, and organ concertos. What: He received important training in Halle and worked as a composer in Hamburg and Italy before settling in London in 1712; he became a naturalised British subject in 1727. He was strongly influenced both by the great composers of the Italian Baroque and by the middle-German polyphonic choral tradition.

Pico Della Mirandola

Who is this: Who: He was a brilliant student who developed 900 theses regarding philosophical and religious subjects. He was also most gifted student of Marsilio Ficino and was a friend of Lorenzo Medici. What: He enunciated the definition of Renaissance individualism by saying that the universe was a hierarchy of beings from God, through spiritual beings, to material beings with humanity being in the middle. Humans had both spiritual and material natures. He also created syncretism by synthesising christian and Platonic teachings.

Desiderius Erasmus

Who is this: Who: He was a dutch humanist, catholic priest, social critic, teacher, and theologian whose fame rested on both scholarly editions and translations and popular works. What: He wrote The Education of a Christian Prince, a book combining idealistic and practical suggestions for the formation of a ruler's character through the careful study of the Bible and classical authors. He wrote the Praise of Folly, a witty satire poking fun at political, social, and religious institutions. He also wrote a new Latin translation of the New Testament along with the first printed edition of the Greek text. In the preface of the new testament, he wrote "I wish that even the weakest woman should read the Gospel—should read epistles of Paul. And I wish these were translated into all languages, so that they might be read and understood, not only by Scots and Irishmen, but also by Turks and Saracens." The two fundamental themes that run through all of his work is that education in the Bible and the classics is the means to reform and that renewal should be based on what he termed "the philosophy of Christ." He called for a renaissance of the ideals of the early church to accompany the renaissance in classical education. He criticised the church for having strayed from these ideals.

Leonardo Bruni

Who is this: Who: He was a humanist historian and Florentine city official. He was an Italian humanist, historian and statesman, often recognized as the most important humanist historian of the early Renaissance. He has been called the first modern historian as he was the earliest person to write using the three-period view of history: Antiquity, Middle Ages, and Modern. What: He linked the decline of the Latin language after the death of Cicero to the decline of the Roman Republic. Bruni also was the first to divide history into three eras: ancient, medieval, and modern.

Henry VII

Who is this: Who: He was a man of the Welsh house of the Tudors. He won the throne when his forces defeated King Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field, the culmination of the Wars of the Roses. He was the last king of England to win his throne on the field of battle. He cemented his claim by marrying Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV and niece of Richard III. He was successful in restoring the power and stability of the English monarchy after the civil war, and after a reign of nearly 24 years, he was peacefully succeeded by his son. What: He killed the Richard III king of York. He married Elizabeth of York. He was of the house of Lancaster. He worked to restore royal prestige, to crush the power of the nobility, and to establish order and law at the local level. He used ruthlessness, efficiency and secrecy. He also conducted foreign policy on the basis of diplomacy, avoiding expensive wars. The English monarchy then did not have to depend on Parliament for money, and the crown undercut that source of aristocratic influence. Later, he summoned several meetings of Parliament to confirm laws, but the center of the royal authority was the royal council, which governed at the national level. In his reign, he revealed his distrust of the nobility and very few great lords were among the king's closest advisors. Instead, he chose men from the smaller land owners and urban residents trained in law to be a part of the royal council. He left a country at peace both domestically and internationally, a substantially augmented treasury, and expanding wool trade, and a crown with its dignity and role much enhanced. He was greatly missed by all of his subjects who had been able to live their lives peaceably, far removed from the assaults and evildoings of scoundrels.

John Knox

Who is this: Who: He was a man who studied and worked with John Calvin. What: He was determined to structure the Scottish church after the model of Geneva, where he had studied and worked with Calvin. In 1560, Knox persuaded the Scottish parliament, which has dominated by reform-minded barons, to end papal authority and rule by bishops, substituting governance by presbyters, or councils of ministers. The presbyterian church of Scotland was strictly Calvinist in doctrine, adopted a simple and dignified service of worship, and laid great emphasis on preaching.

Leon Battista Alberti

Who is this: Who: He was a man who thought he had achieved some level of excellence and can be referred to as a Renaissance man. He was an Italian humanist author, artist, architect, poet, priest, linguist, philosopher and cryptographer; he epitomised the Renaissance Man. Although he is often characterized exclusively as an architect. What: He wrote novels, plays, legal treatises, a study of the family, and the first scientific analysis of perspective; he designed churches, palaces, and fortifications effective against cannon He invented codes for sending messages secretly and a machine that could cipher and decipher them. He also wrote an autobiography in the third person, in which he referred to himself as he. Later in his life, he stressed that a wife's role should be restricted to the orderliness of the house, food preparation and the serving of meals, the education of children, and the supervision of servants.

Frederick William I "The Great Elector" of Prussia

Who is this: Who: He was a man who when he came to power, he was determined to unify his three provinces and enlarge his holdings in Brandenburg; Prussia, and his scattered territories along the Rhine. He was a staunch pillar of the Calvinist faith, associated with the rising commercial class. He saw the importance of trade and promoted it vigorously. His shrewd domestic reforms gave Prussia a strong position in the post-Westphalian political order of north-central Europe, setting Prussia up for elevation from duchy to kingdom, achieved under his son and successor. What: He was determined to unify the provinces of Brandenburg; Prussia, and scattered territories along the Rhine. Each was inhabited by German speakers, but each had its own estates. Although the estates had not met regularly during the Thirty Years's War, taxes could not be levied without their consent. The estates of brandenburg and Prussia were dominated by the nobility and the landowning classes, known as the Junkers. He profited from the ongoing European war and the threat of invasion from Russia when he argued for the need for a permanent standing army. He persuaded Junkers in the estates to accept taxation without consent in order to fund an army. They agreed to do so in exchange for reconfirmation of their own privileges, including their authority over the serfs. Having won over the Junkers, the king crushed potential opposition to his power from the towns. One by one, Prussian cities were eliminated from the estates and subjected to new taxes on goods and services. The estates power declined rapidly, for he had both financial independence and superior force. He tripled state revenue during his reign and expanded the army drastically.

Pieter Bruegel the Elder

Who is this: Who: He was a painter and designer for engravings. What: He used landscape amazingly. He achieved a contemporary and palpable vision of the natural world.

Charles V

Who is this: Who: He was a person who fell heir to a vast and incredibly diverse collection of states and peoples in 1519, each governed in a different manner and held together only by the person of the emperor. His Italian advisor, the grand chancellor Gattinara, told the young ruler, "God has set you on the path toward world monarchy." He, a Catholic, not only believed this but also was convinced that it was his duty to maintain the political and religious unity of Western Christendom. His domains spanned nearly four million square kilometers and were the first to be described as "the empire on which the sun never sets". What: He was a vigorous defender of Catholicism, so it is not surprising that the reformation led to religious wars. The first battleground was Switzerland, which was officially part of the Holy Roman Empire, though it was a loose confederation of thirteen largely autonomous territories called cantons. Some cantons remained catholic, and some became protestant, and in the late 1520s the two sides went to war. Zwingli was killed on the battlefield and both sides quickly decided that a treaty was preferable to further fighting. Then, trying to halt the spread or religious division, he called an imperial diet, to meet at Augsburg. The Lutherans developed a statement of faith, later called the Augsburg confession, and the protestant princes presented this to the emperor. He refused to accept it and ordered all Protestants to return to the Catholic Church and give up any confiscated church property. This demand backfired and Protestant territories formed a military alliance. The emperor could not respond because he was in the midst of the Hapsburg-Valois wars. Fighting began and at first the emperor was very successful. This success alarmed both France and the pope, who did not want him to become even more powerful. The pope withdrew papal troops and the Catholic king of France sent money and troops to Lutheran princes. Finally, he agreed to the Peace of Augsburg. His hope of uniting his empire under a single church dashed, he abdicated and moved to a monastery, transferring his power and holdings in Spain and the Netherlands to Philip II and imperial power to his brother Ferdinand.

Francisco Petrarch

Who is this: Who: He was a poet and scholar who felt that something was being reborn. What: He proposed a new kind of education where young men would use the works of ancient Roman authors as models of how to write, argue, and speak. The new learning was called liberal studies/arts and people who advocated it were known as humanists. Their program was humanism.

Sir Thomas More

Who is this: Who: He was an English humanist who began life as a lawyer, studied the classics, and entered government service. What: He had time to write between his official duties and became famous for his controversial dialogue Utopia, a word that means "nowhere" in Greek. Utopia describes a community on an island somewhere beyond Europe where all children receive good education in the Greco-Roman classics, and adults divide their days between manual labor or business pursuits and intellectual activities. The problems that plagued his fellow citizens, like poverty and hunger, had been solved by a beneficent government. Also, Utopia banned private property. In Utopia, there is religious toleration, and order and reason prevail. However, because Utopian institutions are perfect, dissent and disagreement are not acceptable. Some people view Utopia as a revolutionary critique of his own hierarchical society, some as a call for an even firmer hierarchy, and others as part of the humanist tradition of satire.

Sir Isaac Newton

Who is this: Who: He was an English scientist. What: He took the challenge of explaining what forces controlled the movement of the planets and objects on Earth. He was born in the lower English gentry and enrolled in Cambridge University. He was a genius who united the experimental and theoretical-mathematical sides of modern science. He was non-orthodox christian, who privately rejected the Trinity. He was fascinated by alchemy. He left behind thirty years worth of encoded journals recording experiments to discover the elixir of life and a way to change base metals into gold and silver. He studied the natural world to understand the divine plan. He arrived at some of his most basic ideas about physics during a break from studies at Cambridge caused by an outbreak of plague. During that period, he claimed that he discovered his law of universal gravitation as well as the concepts of centripetal force and acceleration. He did not publish any of them and took up the study of optics. He published his ideas after going back to physics in Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. The key feature of the synthesis was the law of universal gravitation. Every body in the universe attracts every other body in the universe in a precise mathematical relationship.

El Greco

Who is this: Who: He was an artist who was influenced by mystics and painted the spiritual aspiration of Spain. What: He painted people with elongation and twisted anatomy. He also used wavy lines. He painted View of Toledo and the Burial of the Count of Orgaz.

Leonardo Da Vinci

Who is this: Who: He was an individual whom the Renaissance label "genius" was designed to describe. He was also thought of as the first Renaissance man. What: He created the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. His reputation does not rest on his paintings, however, but on the breadth of his abilities and interests. He drew everything he saw that was around him. He studied live and dead human bodies. He carefully analyzed the effects of light, and he experimented with perspective. He drew plans for hundreds of inventions, many of which would be created centuries in the future. He was hired by Sforza of Milan and was told to design weapons, fortresses, water systems, and works of art. In the last years of his life, he painted, drew, and designed for the pope and French king. He planned to write books on many subjects but never finished any of them.

Louis XIII

Who is this: Who: He was the child-king of France, who was ministered by Cardinal Richelieu. What: He personally supervised the siege of La Rochelle, an important port city and a major commercial center with strong ties to protestant Holland and England. After the city fell, its municipal government was suppressed. Protestants retained the right of public worship, but the Catholic liturgy was restored. The fall of La Rochelle was one step in the removal of Protestantism asa strong force in French life.

James I

Who is this: Who: He was the first king in the Stuart dynasty and was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots. What: He ruled according to the divine right of kings. He was accused of popery due to attempting to marry his son off to Spanish Infanta, not joining the 30 Years' War, and forming a truce with Spain. He disappointed Puritans by maintaining Elizabeth's religious compromise. He sponsored the voyages to Jamestown and the James River. The King James Translation of the bible was produced under his reign.

Niccolo Machiavelli

Who is this: Who: He was the most famous civic humanist, and the best-known political theorist of his era. After the Medici family came out of power, he was the secretary to one of the governing bodies in the city of Florence and was responsible for diplomatic missions and organizing a citizens army. What: After he was released, he spent the rest of his life writing political theory, poetry, prose works, plays, a multivolume history of Florence, and making attempts to regain employment. His most famous work was The Prince, which uses the examples of classical and contemporary rulers to argue that the function of a ruler is to preserve order and security. he also said that a ruler can use any means to preserve a state, which includes lying, brutality, and manipulation. However, a ruler must not make the populace turn against him. He said "It is much safer for the prince to be feared than loved, but he ought to avoid making himself hated." He felt that good leaders exhibited the quality of virtù. He used Cesare Borgia as an example of a good ruler. He believed in fortuna, which meant fate and was portrayed as a goddess.

Philip II

Who is this: Who: He was the son of Charles V and the husband of Mary Tudor. He was the king who sent the Spanish Armada. What: Mary Queen of Scots became implicated in a plot to assassinate Elizabeth, a conspiracy that had his full backing. When the English executed Mary Queen of Scots, the Catholic pope urged him to retaliate. He prepared a vast fleet to sail from Lisbon to Flanders, where a large army of Spanish troops was stationed because of religious wars in the Netherlands. The Spanish ships were to escort barges carrying some of the troops across the English channel to attack England. Then the most fortunate fleet, as it was ironically called in official documents, composed of more than 130 vessels sailed from Lisbon harbor. The Spanish Armada met an english fleet in the channel before it reached Flanders. The English ships were smaller, faster, and more manoeuvrable, and many of them had greater firing power than their Spanish counterparts. A combination of storms and squalls, spoiled food and rank water, inadequate Spanish ammunition and English fire ships that caused the Spanish to scatter gave England the victory. The defeat of the Spanish Armada prevented him from reimposing catholicism on England by force. Then in the Netherlands, he sent twenty thousand Spanish troops under the duke of Alva to pacify the low countries. Alva interpreted pacification to mean ruthless extermination of religious and political dissidents. Alva also opened his own tribunal called the council of blood. Fifteen hundred men were executed. To calvinists, this was a clear indication that Spanish rule was ungodly and should be overthrown. Civil war raged between Catholics and Protestants. The ten southern provinces came under control of Spanish Hapsburg forces and seven northern provinces formed the Union of Utrecht. It was the alliance that declared its independence from Spain and formed the united provinces of the Netherlands. He did not accept this and war continued. England was even drawn into the conflict, supplying money and troops to the northern United Provinces, Hostilities ended when Spain agreed to a truce that recognized the independence of the United Provinces.

The Index of Forbidden Books

Who is this: Who: It is a catalogue of forbidden reading that included works by christian humanists such as Erasmus as well as by Protestants. It was published by the supreme sacred congregation of the roman and universal inquisition, often called the holy office. What: It listed the books that go against the teachings of the church. The books were by the authors that were Erasmus, More, Luther, Zwingli, Calvin, Knox.

English Bill of Rights

Who is this: Who: It is an act of the Parliament of England that deals with constitutional matters and sets out certain basic privileges. It was passed during the glorious revolution. What: It is a restatement of The Declaration of Rights presented by the Convention Parliament to William and Mary in February 1689, inviting them to become joint sovereigns of England. This act lays down limits on the powers of the monarch and sets out the rights of Parliament, including the requirement for regular parliaments, free elections, and freedom of speech in Parliament. It sets out certain rights of individuals including the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment and reestablished the liberty of Protestants to have arms for their defence within the rule of law. Furthermore, the Bill of Rights described and condemned several misdeeds of James II of England. It also established dual sovereignty when William signed it.

The Book of Common Prayer

Who is this: Who: It was a book that included the order for all services and prayers of the church of England and was prepared by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer of Canterbury. What: It was prepared during the short reign of Henry VIII's sickly son, Edward VI, when Protestant ideas exerted a significant influence on the religious life of the country.

The Court of Star Chamber

Who is this: Who: It was a judicial offshoot through which the royal council dealt with real or potential aristocratic threats. It was called what it was because of the celestial bodies painted on the ceiling of the room. It was used from 1487-1509, which was during King Henry VII's rule of England. What: It applied methods to aristocrats that were sometimes terrifying: accused persons were not entitled to see evidence against them; sessions were secret; juries were not called; and torture could be applied to extract confessions. These procedures ran directly counter to English common-law precedents, but they effectively reduced aristocratic troublemaking.

The Nine Years' War

Who is this: Who: It was a war between Louis XIV of France and a European-wide coalition of Austria and the Holy Roman Empire, the Dutch Republic, Spain, Britain, and Savoy. What: It was fought on the European continent and the surrounding seas, Ireland, and in North America. Louis XIV set about extending his gains to stabilize and strengthen France's frontiers.The fighting generally favoured Louis XIV's armies, but by 1696 his country was in the grip of an economic crisis. The Maritime Powers (England and the Dutch Republic) were also financially exhausted, and when Savoy defected from the Alliance all parties were keen for a negotiated settlement. By the terms of the Treaty of Ryswick, Louis XIV retained the whole of Alsace, but he was forced to return Lorraine to its ruler and give up any gains on the right bank of the Rhine. Louis XIV also accepted William III as the rightful King of England, while the Dutch acquired their Barrier fortress system in the Spanish Netherlands to help secure their own borders. However, with the ailing and childless Charles II of Spain approaching his end, a new conflict over the inheritance of the Spanish Empire would soon embroil Louis XIV and the Grand Alliance in a final war - the War of the Spanish Succession. The war ends with the treaty of Ryswick, Louis XIV recognizing William III as King of England, Scotland, and Ireland.

The British East India Company

Who is this: Who: It was an English and later British joint-stock company from 1600-1874, which was formed to pursue trade with the East Indies but ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent and Qing China. What: The company relied on trade concessions from the powerful Mughal emperor, who granted only piecemeal access to the subcontinent.

Stern-Post Rudder

Who is this: Who: It was invented by Chinese inventors. What: It allowed the caravel to be a much more manoeuvrable vessel.

the union of Utrecht

Who is this: Who: It was the alliance of seven northern provinces, led by Holland, that declared its independence from Spain and formed the United Provinces of the Netherlands. What: The seven northern provinces became Calvinist as they declared their independence from Spain.

Henry IV

Who is this: Who: King of France whose willingness to sacrifice religious principles to political necessity saved France. He converted to Catholicism and issued the Edict of Nantes, which brought liberty of conscience and liberty of public worship to Calvinists. What: He married Margaret of Valois on Saint Bartholomew's day. The death of Catherine Medici and Henry III paved the way for the accession of Henry IV, who was a politique. A politique was a catholic and protestant moderate who holds that only a strong monarchy could save france from total collapse. Henry IV's willingness to sacrifice religious principles to political necessity saved France. He converted to Catholicism and issued the Edict of Nantes, which brought liberty of conscience and liberty of public worship to Calvinists. His reign and the Edict of Nantes prepared the way for French absolutism in the seventeenth century by helping restore internal peace in France.

corregidores

Who is this: Who: Officials who held judicial and administrative powers at the local level. What: Within each territory, the viceroy, or imperial governor, exercised broad military and civil authority as the direct representative of Spain. The viceroy presided over the audiencia, a board of twelve to fifteen judges that served as the viceroy's advisory council and court of appeal. At the local level, officials called these things held judicial and administrative powers.

politique

Who is this: Who: People who were catholic and protestant moderates who held that only a strong monarchy could save France from total collapse. What: Henry IV was a thing and instituted a strong monarchy and made the Edict of Nantes so that he saved France from total collapse.

The Catalan Revolts in Spain

Who is this: Who: Revolts by certain people against the monarchy of Spain. What: It was a social revolution pitting rich against poor and a political revolt pitting these people against Castilians. As the poor turned against the rich, the elites turned to France rather than seek common cause with their neighbors, Valencia and Aragon, with whom they shared a language and many traditions. In allying with France, however, this territory exchanged one master for another. The combined military forces of France and this territory defeated the Castilian army. No leader stepped forward to unite the Catalans. In 1648, the Fronde broke out, forcing the French to withdraw from this territory, leaving the rebels to fight alone. By then, many of the leading this country's aristocrats had reconciled with the Spanish crown, vastly preferring their Castilian peers to the this country rabble. In 1651, there was a siege of Barcelona and the city was starved into surrender.

Saint Teresa of Ávila

Who is this: Who: She was a Carmelite nun who founded new convents and reformed her Carmelite order to bring it back to stricter standards of asceticism and poverty. What: She reformed the monasteries and convents of many existing religious orders so that they followed more rigorous standards. She felt that founding new convents and reforming her Carmelite order to bring it back to stricter standards of asceticism and poverty, was a task she understood God had set for her in mystical visions. Some officials in the Spanish Church thought the life she proposed was too strict for women , and at one point she was even investigated by the Spanish Inquisition in an effort to make sure her inspiration came from God and no the devil. The process was dropped and she founded many new convents, which she saw as answers to the protestant takeover of Catholic churches elsewhere in Europe.

Christine de Pizan

Who is this: Who: She was the daughter and wife of highly educated men who held positions at the court of the king of France and lived from 1364-1430. What: She decided to support her family through writing, an unusual choice for anyone in this era and unheard of for a woman. She wrote prose works and poetry, and gained commissions to write a biography of the French king Charles V, several histories, a long poem celebrating Joan of Arc's victory, and a book of military tactics. She became the first woman in Europe to make her living as a writer. She wrote several works about women's nature and proper role in society, a topic of debate since ancient times. Among these works was The Treasure of the City of Ladies. It provided moral suggestions and practical advice on behavior and household management for women of all social classes. Most of the book was directed to princesses and court ladies, but there are shorter sections for more ordinary women.

audiencias

Who is this: Who: Spanish law courts erected by the Crown in her New World colonies. A board of twelve to fifteen judges that served as the viceroy's advisory council and court of appeal. What: Within each territory, the viceroy, or imperial governor, exercised broad military and civil authority as the direct representative of Spain. The viceroy presided over the thing, a board of twelve to fifteen judges that served as the viceroy's advisory council and court of appeal.

Sweden Under Gustavus Adolphus

Who is this: Who: The Lutheran King of Sweden during the Thirty Years' War. What: The third, or Swedish, phase of the war began with the arrival in Germany of this Swedish king and his army. The ablest administrator of his day and a devout Lutheran, he intervened to support the empire's protestants. The French chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu, subsidised the Swedes, hoping to weaken Hapsburg power in Europe. Adolphus won two important battles but was fatally wounded in combat.

The Bank of England

Who is this: Who: The development of the market economy led to this new financial institution, which was created by William II of England. What: The country's crushing defeat by France, the dominant naval power, in naval engagements culminating in the 1690 Battle of Beachy Head, became the catalyst for the country's rebuilding itself as a global power. It had no choice but to build a powerful navy. No public funds were available, and the credit of William III's government was so low in London that it was impossible for it to borrow the £1,200,000 that the government wanted. To induce subscription to the loan, the subscribers were to be incorporated by the name of the Governor and Company of the financial institution. The financial institution was given exclusive possession of the government's balances, and was the only limited-liability corporation allowed to issue bank notes. The lenders would give the government cash and issue notes against the government bonds, which can be lent again. The £1.2m was raised in 12 days; half of this was used to rebuild the navy. As a side effect, the huge industrial effort needed, including establishing ironworks to make more nails and advances in agriculture feeding the quadrupled strength of the navy, started to transform the economy. This helped the new Kingdom of Great Britain - England and Scotland were formally united in 1707 - to become powerful. The power of the navy made Britain the dominant world power in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

Jamestown

Who is this: Who: The home of a private company of investors who founded the colony of Virginia. What: The colony of Virginia struggled in its first few years and relied on food from the Powhatan Confederacy. Over time, the colony gained a steady hold by producing tobacco for a growing European market.

Frederick II of Prussia

Who is this: Who: The leader of Prussia during the war of the Austrian succession. What: He embraced culture and literature in his youth. He was determined to use the splendid army that he had inherited. When Maria Theresa of Austria inherited the Hapsburg dominions upon the death of her Father Charles VI, Frederick pounced. He invaded her rich province of Silesia. Maria Theresa was forced to cede almost all of Silesia to Prussia. Prussia had doubled its population to 6 million people. Now Prussia stood as a European Great Power. He was a member in the Seven Years War, where Maria Theresa formed an alliance with the leaders of France and Russia to regain Silesia. Peter III came to the throne in Russia and called off the attack. He tolerantly allowed his subjects to believe as they wished in religious and philosophical matters. He promoted the advancement of knowledge, improving schools and such. He worked hard and lived modestly. He claimed that he was only the first servant of the state. He accepted and extended the privileges of the nobility, who remained the backbone of the army and the entire Prussian state. He drew on the principles of cameralism. The view that monarchy was the best form of government.

huguenots

Who is this: Who: They were french calvinists. What: By the time King Henry II was accidentally shot in the face at a tournament celebrating the Treaty of Cateau Cambrésis, one tenth of the population had become Calvinist. The feebleness of the French monarchy was the seed from which the weeds of civil violence sprang. The three weak sons of Henry II could not provide the necessary leadership, and they were often dominated by their mother, Catherine Medici. The French nobility took advantage of this monarchical weakness. French nobles frequently adopted protestantism as a religious cloak for their independence. Armed clashes between Catholic royalist lords and calvinist antimonarchical lords occurred in many parts of France. Both Calvinists and Catholics believed that the others' books, services, and ministers polluted the community. Preachers incited violence and religious ceremonies such as baptisms, marriages, and funerals triggered it. Calvinist teachings called the power of sacred images into question, and mobs in many cities took down and smashed statues, stained glass windows, and paintings, viewing this as a way to purify the church. Catholic mobs responded by defending images, and crowds on both sides killed their opponents. Then on Saint Bartholomew's Day, they were massacred and other Protestants were slaughtered by mobs. That day led to a civil war that dragged on for fifteen years. The Edict of Nantes ended all of this. It granted liberty of conscience and public worship to them, which helped restore peace in France.

Caballeros and Hidalgos in Spain

Who is this: Who: They were members of the Spanish nobility. What: They became economic elites due to the growth of commerce.

Ursulines

Who is this: Who: This, founded by Angela Merici, focused on the education of women. What: Angela Merici worked for many years among the poor, sick and uneducated around her native Brescia in northern Italy. She established the first women's religious order concentrating exclusively on teaching young girls, with the goal of re-Christianizing society by training future wives and mothers. After receiving papal approval in 1565, the group rapidly spread to France and the New World.