AP European History Prompt and Example Responses
Identify the relationship between the Reformation and the intellectual and cultural developments of the Renaissance
Renaissance was all about new knowledge, reformation changed church for the better.
Analyze attitudes toward and evaluate the motivations behind the European acquisition of African colonies in the period 1880 to 1914.
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Analyze the arguments and practices concerning religious toleration from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century.
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Analyze the various responses to the outbreaks of plague from the fifteenth to the eighteenth centuries. Discuss the beliefs and concerns that these responses express.
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Describe and analyze concepts of nobility in France over the period from the late sixteenth century to the late eighteenth century.
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Evaluate whether or not the term "absolute monarchy" accurately describes Louis XIV's rule.
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For the period 1861 to 1914, analyze how various Russians perceived the condition of the Russian peasantry and explain how they proposed to change that condition.
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What consequences flowed from this interaction of Western and non-Western civilizations?
-disease -wars -intense slavery
Analyze the impacts of the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Reformation (Counter Reformation) on the social order of sixteenth-century Europe.
1. new individual understandings of the Bible 2. the Church's smaller income of money 3. (c.r.) strengthened power of church
Analyze the ways in which European monarchs used both the arts and the sciences to enhance state power in the period circa 1500-1800.
By sponsoring the arts of their countries, monarchs were able to influence the minds of their citizens in favor of their reigns. While not all could see the art, not very many, actually, those that did see it were the highly influential, wealthy people that had control over many people below them
Analyze the influence of ideas about gender on the reign of Elizabeth I and explain how Elizabeth responded to these ideas.
Deeply influenced by her time's stereotypes of women, some of which she shared, Elizabeth I worked hard to avoid the mistakes of her female predecessors. Perceiving herself as a king at heart (Doc.12), Elizabeth distanced herself from what were thought to be the innate traits of women. Responding to the commonly held beliefs that women were dangerous and inequitable as rulers, yet weak and subservient by nature, Elizabeth strove to be a fair and loyal leader, played up her feminine traits for political gain, and refused to tolerate any form of dissent. Elizabeth had to labor harder than most monarchs to establish herself as an educated, equitable ruler; many questioned her competence for the sole reason of her gender (Doc.4). After the disastrous rule of Elizabeth's predecessor, Mary I, many were loath to accept another female ruler. Close to the time of Elizabeth's coronation in 1558, John Knox, a religious reformer, wrote that women were not suited to rule, and made unreliable, unjust rulers (Doc. 1). Clearly, this belief was influenced by "Bloody" Mary's regime, during which hundreds of religious dissenters, a group with which Knox would identify, were roasted at the stake. Her extravagant appearance radiated wealth and power. Elizabeth craved power because women were considered weak, demanded obedience to avoid being seen as subservient, and ruled justly to challenge perceptions of disastrous female rulers. While these may sound like the actions of a feminist, Elizabeth certainly was not one; she acted not out of a desire to eliminate female stereotypes, but to prove her own internal masculinity.
Identify what was particularly humanistic about the cultural productions and the attitudes of the Renaissance.
During the Renaissance humanistic attitudes and cultural productions consisted of; the rediscovery of classical sources, freedom of the individual, a new concern for the present instead of the life after death, and the new discovered pleasure of classical literature and books. Religion during the Renaissance was not at all forgotten and instead emphasis was placed on learning classical languages to improve translations of the Bible and studying classical literature for its relation to Christian ideals and life.
Analyze the causes of and the responses to the peasants' revolts in the German states, 1524-1526
Discontent among peasants was a constant source of social tensions during much of the Middle Ages. This discontent often expressed itself in violent protests such as the Great English Peasants' Revolt of 1381. However, the German Peasants' War of 1524-1526 was the most prolonged and destructive of these revolts. Peasant discontent in Germany stemmed from both economic and religious sources. Many peasants had not been touched by the gradual economic improvement in the early sixteenth century. For example, between 1500 and 1520 living standards among the peasants fell by about 1.2 percent per year. At the same time, local lords continued to demand new taxes and time-consuming services. Economic discontent soon became entangled with Martin Luther's religious revolt against the Catholic Church. Inspired by Luther, many peasants chose to revolt against their feudal lords. Economic grievances justified by Protestant religious ideas combined to cause the German Peasants' War. The peasants had a number of economic grievances that are expressed in Documents 2, 3, 6, and 7 (claim). In Twelve Articles of the Swabian Peasants (Document 2), peasant leaders protest the oppressive economic burdens imposed by rapacious lords (evidence). They appeal for popular support by claiming that they "only want what is just and proper." In the Articles of the Peasants of Memmincien (Document 3), the peasants accuse the nobles of turning them into serfs (elaboration). Since they were written by peasant leaders, it is reasonable to assume that Documents 2 and 3 reflect widely held peasant views (analysis with CAPP). The peasants had reason to feel exploited (claim). In fact, they were forced to pay feudal dues, church tithes, and state taxes while the nobles and clergy were exempt from taxation (evidence). The peasants also resented the merchants growing wealth. Lorenz Fries stresses this anger in his secret report to the Archbishop of Wurzburg (Document 6) (elaboration). Because Fries's report is secret it most likely states his candid opinions (analysis with CAPP).Document 7 forcefully describes the peasants' growing outrage towards unjust economic inequality. Written by a noble to a Duke, the letter probably demonstrates an underlying prejudice against the peasantry. The noble nevertheless provides a convincing description of peasant attacks on properties owned by wealthy monks and nobles. This deliberate targeting of wealthy properties reveals how economic disparities inflamed peasant resentment. A potent combination of economic grievances and Protestant religious ideas caused the peasants' revolts in the German states from 1524 to 1526. Endorsed by Martin Luther, the nobility ultimately used their superior military power to defeat the peasants and protect their privileges. Social class played a key role in determining how people responded to the uprisings. Townspeople generally preferred peaceful accommodation while the nobility ultimately used their superior military power to defeat the peasants and protect their privileges.Future historians did not forget the German Peasants' War. The co-founder of Communism, Friedrich Engels wrote a book analyzing the war as a class struggle that prefigured the great 19th century contest between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. Engels lauded Thomas Mintzer has a visionary who was ahead of his time while lambasting Martin Luther as a traitor who betrayed the peasants and his original religious beliefs.
Identify and analyze the challenges to the security, unity, and prosperity of the Dutch Republic, 1650-1713. Take into account both Dutch and foreign opinions.
During the mid 17th century, the Dutch Republic enjoyed a booming economy, dominance in the shipbuilding industry, and European recognition as a dominant nation. They held most trading routes in the Baltic area, and the position to carry most trade goods between countries. However, during the late 17th and early 18th century, the Dutch Republic encountered a stumbling decline which led to their loss in the monopoly in Baltic and Atlantic trade, and many men due to European wars. The Dutch declined due to a series of European wars, internal disunity and conflict, and a loss of trade dominance and economic prosperity. Seeing the Dutch trading monopolies in trade, other European nations went to war with the Dutch and won in a series of decisive victories. In the 3 Anglo-Dutch wars, the English defeated the Dutch and, as seen in Doc 3, seized 2000-2700 ships, compared to the Dutch capture of 500 ships merchant ships. Clearly, these Anglo-Dutch wars damaged the Dutch trade dominance. Many nations besides England wished to take part in the Dutch trade, and used violence to take their share. As the need to "take over part of it for themselves" (Doc 7 ) increased, the urge for war as a means of obtaining Dutch wealth increased as well. The treaty of Dover, which is a published document, and therefore a reflection of the actions and plans of the ruling, showed that this increased interest in the Dutch led to alliances (in this treaty, between England and France) against the Dutch. The "allied sovereigns ...jointly declare war on the Dutch Republic." (Doc 6) These wars exhausted the Dutch resources, so that the provinces would eventually become "overwhelmed or flooded...ruining [Dutch] commerce." (Doc 8) This document, written by the Dutch ambassador, accurately reflects the concerns and reality as seen by the Dutch rulers and nobility. The military that "suffered extremely" (Doc 14) was deteriorating, and the Republic was, due to the combined efforts of the other European nations, especially France and England, was no longer in its prosperous, dominant stage. One reason for the decline of the Dutch Republic was internal disunity between the 7 provinces, due to the power structure and outcomes of the wars. Most of the provinces, with the exception of Holland, are poor and weak individually. Since the republic is a "shattered and divided thing" (Doc 4) the nation cannot function smoothly, and each poor, weak province is isolated, unable to sustain itself successfully. English ambassador sir George Downing, who gave the above statement, reflects correctly the ideas he saw, through his professional title and status. The idea of separate, free provinces had been ingrained in Dutch society, though inefficient and as later seen, ineffective. This situation became a far greater issue when the wars began. The main issue was money. Except for "citizens of Amsterdam," most citizens were too poor to provide funds. How were the poorer provinces to "furnish the money" necessary for war? (Doc 10) The fact that the Dutch Republic was a coalition instead of a nation complicated efforts for unity and attempts to gather funds. Within each province, too, there was conflict over taxation, especially with the merchant class. Many merchants stated that, due to their economic importance; they "must have low taxes, peace and trade as well as protection." They saw it as their right to have low taxes, and their trade is so important that they could demand peace and protection; impossible demands at the current republic's state, what with constant war and internal disunity. This disunity not only led to an inability to fund the war, but also an inability to find a general to rule the national army. After William III's death, "mutual distrust among Dutch provinces hindered" any chance at electing a military commander. This is stated in a government report and is therefore reliable in its official nature. This indicates that internal conflict led to failure to lead, fund, and provide an army for a besieged Dutch Republic, allowing it to succumb to the wills of other European nations. Though the Dutch had previously controlled most European trade and held enormous wealth, their economic decline choked the nation, leading to its decline. As seen in Doc 1, the Dutch focused their economy primarily on trade, through various routes. During the mid 17th century, the Dutch Republic enjoyed a monopoly on the Baltic Sea trade. However, with their loss to Russia in the Great Northern War, they lost this trade monopoly, which severely shortened their trade capabilities. Due to this, their Baltic Sea Trade, displayed in Doc 2, declined, from a little under 80% of trade in 1645 to just 30% in 1695. In just 50 years, the Dutch lost 50% of trade rights in the Baltic. This damaged their economy, as it was based primarily on trade. Also, as seen in Doc 1, they encountered conflict with England over many trade rights in the Anglo-Dutch wars. Other factors besides wars also led to the decline of the Dutch economy. Previously, the Dutch had superior shipbuilding technologies, but as the century turned to a close, the English stole this technology, leading to competitive shipbuilding and less of a monopoly on trade routes for the Dutch. Eventually, all major European nations came into the running for overseas trade, with new and stolen technologies. Soon, the Dutch East Indies company's profits "turned to losses" due to the "commercial competition from the English, French, Portuguese, Chinese, and Muslims in Asia." (Doc 13) Being written by a colonial administrator to the Dutch East India Company, this report is honest in the spirit of improving the company. Eventually, due to this economic competition in overseas trade, and loss of monopolies in Baltic and Atlantic trade, the Dutch economy declined, as the debt increased from 30,000,000 to 148,000,000 from 1688 to 1713. (Doc 2) This illustrates the economic crisis evident in the republic at the time. This economic slump led to a general decline of the once prosperous nation. At one time, the Dutch Republic was a powerful, economically stable nation. However, there were inherent flaws in this republic, as seen by the internal divisions and competition between the provinces. Though the economy was thriving, it was based primarily on a short term advantage: their technology in shipbuilding. It would only take time for the other nations to advance and crumble this economy. These flaws were catalyzed by war. War brought the need for unity which as not there, leaving a weakness in the Republic. War allowed the other nations to force out the Dutch trade. War sped up a process which was already in the making in the Dutch Republic.
Analyze attitudes toward and responses to "the poor" in Europe between approximately 1450 and 1700.
From 1450-1700, almost 50 percent of Europe's population was living at a subsistence level. As a result of living in times of economically depressing war and famine, poverty was extremely prominent. Up to 80 percent of the population in some regions were susceptible to starvation. As far as perception of assisting the poor, religious and lower classes advocated for helping the poor, middle classes and merchants viewed them as lazy and carefree, and major leaders viewed them as unworthy of assistance. Religious leaders have always advocated for helping the poor, and this time frame was no different. All religious members wouldn't turn away the poor. In a French Catholic priest's sermon, he said, "whoever gives a penny to the poor for God while in good healthy, it will be worth 240 pennies after [his or her] death... to bequeath money after death, that is worth a leaden penny, because there is no great value in giving what one cannot hold on to". To priests, they truly believe that giving to the poor is of the most value because Catholics don't believe in materialism, and helping those in need is the way to reach salvation. Vincent de Paul, a Catholic priest, spoke about the importance of teaching people to give to the poor: "I have heart it said that what enabled bishops to become saints was their alms-giving." De Paul, having founded a religious order that ministered to the poor, also would believe in helping the poor because it helps those reach salvation. Smaller towns also found importance in helping the poor. At a town council in Dijon, France, the councilmen agreed to help the poor by renting a barn for shelter in order to maintain peace. Groups who were less concerned with materialism generally were more sympathetic and willing to donate to the poor. Middle classes and wealthier groups were undecided on the matter. For some of them, they're sympathy or disgust for the poor depended on how willing a poor person looked to find work or fix their situation. At a city meeting in Rouen, France, the group decided that if the poor did not look willing to find work, they would be expelled from the city, but if they looked willing but were simply unable to find a job, they would be treated nicer. William Turner, an English doctor, wrote about his medicine practice, and how, beggars would come to ask for alms, but wouldn't accept his offer to heal them. He, as someone who had worked hard for his education and salary, resented the lower, lazy classes who were completely unmotivated to fix their situation. Jean Maillefer, a wealthy merchant, wrote in a letter to his children that he overheard the poor talking in his city about growing accustomed to being poor and not really caring. He approached the poor acceptingly, as long as they weren't causing disruption. The middle classes were generally less understanding than religious leaders, as they couldn't understand their work ethics. Finally, when major political leaders spoke of the poor, they talked of them as being lazy and detrimental to their countries. For example, Emperor Charles V, believed that "experience shows that if begging for alms is permitted to everyone indiscriminately, many errors and abuses will result, for they will fall into idleness, which is the beginning of all evils." As the Emperor of a major territory, he had very little tolerance with the lower classes that would bring down the reputation and productiveness of his area. People in general felt like if the poor were not willing to be productive and were ultimately hurting the development of the country, then there was no reason to try and support or help them into being in better lives. From 1450-1700, outlooks on the poor ranged from consistent Catholic sympathy, undecided middle class and political leaders who generally examined their productivity first.
Evaluate whether or not the Catholic Church in the 1600s was opposed to new ideas in science.
In response to the crisis created by the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church organized the Council of Trent, which affirmed Catholic doctrine but showed an openness to reforming church practices. The Council of Trent also authorized the creation of new religious orders, such as the Jesuits, founded by Ignatius of Loyola, which had the dual mission of combatting heresy and promoting education. This dual mission became a balancing act when the Scientific Revolution began to alter ways in which European intellectuals defined knowledge and truth. Empiricism - the belief that knowledge is rooted in sensory experience - began to hold more water than appeals to traditional church teaching. As new scientific discoveries came to light, Catholic clergy had to figure out to what extent they should be embraced or rejected. The result was a mess - at least in the seventeenth century. Although Catholic leaders publicly condemned new ideas in science, some Catholic leaders were open to discussing these ideas in private and the intellectual Jesuits were often directly involved in experiments that confirmed new scientific discoveries. holic clergy were quick to publicly condemn discoveries that posed a threat to Catholic doctrine and traditional understandings of the Bible. The most famous example of this is the Catholic Church's condemnation of Galileo forpromoting Copernican heliocentric theory. Galileo noted in a letter that the Bible makes a reference to the sun moving, but he goes on to write that the Bible is not always clear in its "true meaning" (Doc 4). It was not just Galileo's activities that were condemned by the Church. Vesalius, an anatomist, dissected human corpses contrary to standard rules of human decency at the time. The Catholic Church certainly was not in favor of this kind of behavior, either, although Vesalius made discoveries about human anatomy that would not have been possible if he'd stayed within theboundaries set by the Church and cultural norms. ile the Church was quick to publicly condemn scientific discoveries that threatened its doctrines, there were clergy that were open to discussing advances in science - especially in private. Paolo Foscarini, a Catholic monk and scientist, expressed dissatisfaction with Ptolemy's geocentric theory and was open to empirical discoveries that disprovedPtolemy's theory (Doc 1). As a monk, Foscarini did not occupy a position of authority within the Church and would not have been in a position to speak for the Church, as a whole. Cardinal Bellermine, in response to Foscarini, lauded the monk's work as something of intellectual merit, while also acknowledging the potential problems that the ideas presented to traditional Catholic doctrine (Doc 2). As a cardinal, Bellarmine could speak for the Church hierarchy and it is evident that while he was skeptical, he was open to seeing more empirical evidence. This shows that even Catholic hierarchs were open on some level to empiricism as a standard for knowledge. According to Galileo's daughter, even the pope thought highly of Galileo in private (Doc 5). However, since she was describing the content of letters unavailable to this writer, she could possibly be exaggerating their level of praise of Galileo because she loved her father so much and wanted toencourage him (because let's face it - he was having a hard time). tually, the goals of the Jesuit Order to promote education would bring that order, and the Catholic Church as a whole, to embrace new ideas in science. Christoph Grienberger, a Jesuit mathematics professor, argued for more academic freedom and asserted that new scientific discoveries did not threaten the fundamental truths of Christianity (Doc 3). As a mathematics professor and a Jesuit, Grienberger likely was hoping to live in a world where he did not have to choose between his two callings. He might have had discoveries that he wanted to publish but he did not want to end up like Galileo. An illustration in a text on sunspots from the seventeenth century shows Jesuits playing with telescopes and other tools, using empirical methods to better understand astronomy (Doc 6) This doesn't mean that the whole Jesuit Order was on board, however. The Jesuits of Clermont College SAVAGED Descartes, calling his reasoning "distasteful to mathematics, philosophy, and theology" (Doc 7). One of their reasons was because they believed that his ideas threatened the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation and would not allow Christ to be physically present in the bread and wine during communion. Eventually, the Catholic Church would drop its opposition to science, even going so far in the twentieth century as to assert that there is no inherent conflict between Catholic doctrine and Darwinian evolution, even though it conflicts with the creation narrative in the Book of Genesis. So even though Catholic officials publicly condemned some scientific advancements in the seventeenth century, some of them were willing to have an open mind in private and Jesuits took a leading role in advancing science due to their emphasis on education. In the end, the Catholic Church was more supportive of science than not.
Why might mercantilist ideas be particularly appealing to 17th Century monarchs?
Mercantilism was an idea that a nation should export more than it imports, and should try to be as self-sufficient as possible, and have a thriving trade industry. Mercantilism fostered a sense of national identity because it made the nation's economy based on their own goods, so it would be appealing to absolute monarchs.
Analyze various ways in which the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) represented a turning point in European history.
The Thirty Years' War, from 1618-1648, represented a major turning point in European history due to the consequences of the war which include the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia, the destruction of Germany, and France becoming the dominant power in Europe.
Analyze how political, religious, and social factors affected the work of scientists in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
The Scientific Revolution flourished during the 16th and 17th centuries and had many supporters as well as many opponents. Religious controversy hindered the work of scientists by creating barriers to the spread of scientific ideas. Leaders supported science for their own political purposes, helping in its advance. Although there was widespread support for science, the norms of society crippled the strength and effectiveness of those who hoped to further and embrace scientific ideas. To begin, many people did not support the new scientific discoveries because it would contradict religious doctrine. John Calvin, a French Protestant theologian, believed that science was only useful if it was used to glorify God (Doc 2). For many people, God was held higher than science and they took offense at the radical idea of the opposite, that science was higher than God. In fact, Giovanni Ciampoli, an Italian monk, wrote to Galileo telling him that he understood his ideas but that he should not share them publicly because he is not a clergyman, therefore people would not listen to him (Doc 3). Being a monk himself, Ciampoli's statement is very credibly since he is a prominent figure in religious work and he is very closely acquainted with other very religious people (POV). As a prominent figure in religious circles of the time, Ciampoli's statement was effective in speaking for the opinions of other religious people. With revolution in scientific thought and discovery just starting to emerge, many people might have agreed with the positions of scientists but were still most faithful to God. Nicolas Copernicus, in his letter to Pope Paul III, said he dedicated his studies to his holiness because he is the most eminent virtue (Doc 1). Copernicus being both a priest, and an astronomer, would then find importance in both religion and science, yet see religion as the most important figure with which to ally his thinking (POV). Since Copernicus's letter was written with the Pope, the most important holy figure in the state, as recipient, his writing was most likely selected in pandering to the Pope's views. Aside from the barring of objectiveness, he still demonstrated that his devotion to his faith outweighed his devotion to science, which demonstrated the heart of most religious arguments in opposition to spread science and its newfound discoveries. In continuation of incentivizing scientific discovery, support from political leaders aided the work of scientists, even though politicians were doing it for their own benefit. Visiting the French Royal Academy, Louis XIV displays support for science (Doc 10). Being the monarch of the French State, he had to show he was still in power and used support of science as a way to do so (POV). This was the case for Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Louis XIV's finance minister, as well. He believed that art and science should flourish, but believed this solely for the respect and advancement of his country (Doc 11). His personal reputation and high ranking position attributed to his decision to support scientific work (POV). Thomas Hobbes, the author of Leviathan, claimed that people supported geometry because it didn't jeopardize their political position, but when scientific discoveries threatened religious beliefs, everyone criticized it (Doc 7). The previously stated people, whether supporting science for personal advancement, political advancement, or just in the belief of its legitimacy helped advance the work of scientists with their support. Lastly, social norms prevented people from supporting science. In his letter to Galileo, Giovanni Ciampoli said people would think he was crazy if he went public with his discoveries (Doc 3). This norm of God and religion being the central figure in a persons life prevented science from breaking through into the community. The religious and uneducated people had no reason to believe or listen to ideas that blatantly contradict their faith, therefore they abstained. Holden Oldenbury also advocated that if education spread without partisan reservations, philosophy would excel, which would ultimately better the world (Doc 6). Since many people weren't educated at this time, it hindered the ability of many thinkers to preach new, controversial ideas to people who didn't have any idea what was going on. Only those who could afford education were educated and this was the social norm. The rich, however, were below monarchs and religious figures according to the social hierarchy. There was a very narrow scope of people who were involved in science, which were wealthy white men. This is what made Margaret Cavendish, an English natural philosopher, angry because she would embrace science but because she was a woman who expresses interest in a male's field of occupation, she would be kicked out (Doc 9). Divisions based on class and gender greatly hindered the capacity for support of scientists work. A prime example of this is Margaret Cavendish, being a female who strongly expressed interest in the field of science and then denied because of her gender, it is logical that she would have a bitter outlook on the narrow minded nature of society (POV). Women, religious figures, and the poor may have wanted to support science, but doing so would cripplingly ravage the social norms that were present at this time. If the accepted standards of public belief had not been as strict, support for science would have burgeoned. Finally, the work of scientists was both helped and hindered by social, political, and religious forces. Religion remained central in many peoples lives causing conflicts about the morality of science, and prohibiting the acceptance of scientific practices. Science was supported by important people for political advance, while the social norms hindered scientific advancement by preventing most people from embracing science.
Explain the reasons for the adoption of a new calendar in revolutionary France and analyze reactions to it in the period 1789 to 1806.
There were many secular-slanted ideas that were adopted into the new calendar during revolutionary france. In 1789, the Cahier de doleances (report of grievances), from the Third Estate of Chateau-Thierry, said that they asked for the number of religious holidays be reduced because each of them enchains the activity of a great people, being of considerable detriment to the state and the numerous disadvantages of idleness. This shows that the new calendar was more secular because of the decrease in the amount of religious holidays (Document 1). The illustrations of newly named months also show that the new calendar shows more secular-slanted ideas. The new months are named for prosperity and things they are known for. For example, the month of Fructidor which is the month of harvest is between August 18 and September 16, which harvest time. This shows a more secular calendar because the months are associate France with French stuff, instead of the old months being named after religious people (Document 4). In a letter to the National Convention from a peasant from Etampes, it says that with nine long, hard days of labor, the simple citizens want small distractions on their day of rest. During the use of the new calendar in France, people went to church a lot less because with the new calendar they would only go every tenth day, instead of going on Sundays during the Gregorian calendar (Document 7). Government officials in the French town of Steenwerck, Picardy, said that people spend less time in the temple celebrating the tenth day and revolutionary festivals as an affront to republicans. This shows that the new calendar was more secular because with the new calendar people began to go to church less (Document 10). The new calendar in revolutionary France, showed how France started to move towards a more secular world. A lot of people agreed with the adoption of the new calendar by revolutionary France for many reasons. Gilbert Romme, head of the calendar reform committee, believed that the church calendar was born among ignorant people. He said "Time opens a new book for history, and it must use a new pen to record the annals of a regenerated France. What Romme means by this is that since France is going through new times, they need to change the calendar to fit it (Document 2). In "Instruction Concerning the Era of the Republic and the Division of the Year" which was a decree of the National Convention, it said that the new calendar will eliminate incoherence and inexactitude. This means that with the new calendar people will be more exact and orderly because of more work days. It also states that the new calendar will show the character of our revolution (Document 5). In the letter to the National Convention from the village of St. Quirin, it says how the people spend their day of rest. In the letter it says that they honor the memory of the generals who have become martyrs and they read aloud the republican accomplishments. The people of the village of Quirin supported the new calendar because they got the tenth day off (Document 6). Many people agreed with the change to the new calendar in revolutionary France because, they thought it was needed since france was going through new times, they also thought the more work days will make people work better, and because some people thought that the tenth day was great. Until the new calendar was abolished by Napoleon I in 1806, it received a lot of criticism. Pierre-Joseph Denis, a former Girondin imprisoned during the Terror and then recalled to the National Convention, wrote in Opinion on the Decades that the new calendar was an act of despotism forced on the people, and the festivals based on it were detestable. Denis is criticizing the new calendar because he thinks that it was unfair that the new calendar was forced upon them (Document 8). Francois-Sebastien Letourneux, Minister of Interior, criticized the new calendar because he thinks that the interval between days of rest is too long. Letourneux said that the artisan and farmer can not work nine days in a row (Document 9). In an article in Gazette de France, it talks about the return to the Gregorian calendar. It says that the new calendar was so weak that when it fell, it didn't even offer us an opportunity to exclaim about the fragility of human things. The article also says that it was sad that the names of the festivals were not not devoted to the benefactors of humanity, but were devoted to the cabbages, the turnips, and the artichoke (Document 11). Abbe Sieyes wrote in response to the Committee of Public Instruction's proposal for a new calendar, that it is not needed. Sieyes believed that there was no reason to differentiate ourselves from everyone else (Document 3). Many people didn't agree with the idea of the new calendar, which was the reason it only lasted until 1806. The new calendar was adopted in France for many reasons including to have more work days and to get rid of some of the holidays. Some people agreed with the new calendar because they thought that it was needed since France was changing and others agreed with it because they thought that with more work days, people will be more exact and will get more work done. Some people criticized it because they thought that nine straight days of work a week was bad for the farmers and artisans and because the new calendar wasn't needed.
Identify the ways that the Renaissance was a new development that was strikingly different from the Middle Ages.
While subjects for art were still dominated by religious themes, the depictions were less stylized. Art became very homelike, real and relatable.
the theory of mercantilism and its advantages and disadvantages
advantages: -economic growth -more jobs dis: -colonialism -taxes which led to rebellions
contrast Renaissance Florence with Reformation Geneva with respect to religion, government, and everyday life.
Religion: Geneva: religion controlled city, Calvin lived his days out there making sure perfect morals, taught all "elect" should be morally higher. Florence: religion was personal choice, felt church was tyrannous and corrupt, Martin Luther led breakaway, more simple faithbased religions. Government: Geneva : theocracy, the law of the bible. Institutes of christian religion. geneva catechism. Florence independent italian citystate, run by wealthy families, medicis, . Everyday life: Geneva intense religion, ambition to be morally perfect, strict discipline, womens paradise. Florence: less strict
Analyze the reasons for the decline of the Holy Roman Empire as a force in European politics in the period 1517 to 1648.
-fighting with the Ottoman Empire, who was trying to expand their territory -fighting with the French Francais I, who had an alliance with the Papacy, disputed with France over territories -Holy Roman Empire was split into many countries, there was no centralized power, the princes were all split up. -Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation weakened the empire because the nobles divided even more by choosing different religions, German nobles gained more power by enforcing different religion than emperor -the religious wars were ended by the Peace of Augsburg; because the nobles got more power by forcing Charles to sign the treaty thing and this weakened the emperor, Charles -peace of Westphalia- split Germany into many different states and weakened emperor, no political unity. german princes (360+) had to agree on any decree of the emperor, no central power
the economic opportunities created by the Columbian Exchange
-more jobs
Analyze the methods and degrees of success of Russian political and social reform from the period of Peter the Great (1689-1725) through Catherine the Great (1762-1796).
During the reign in Russia of Peter the Great, 1689 to 1725, and Catherine the Great, 1762 to 1796, they both instituted many reforms focusing on improving the country to a more powerful level by modernizing it in ways such as Peter creating the city of St. Petersburg, strengthening the military, and implementing stately manners for people of the court while Catherine focused much of her attention on expanding the empire.
Describe the challenges to royal authority in Eastern Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and evaluate the effectiveness of those challenges.
First Paragraph Ivan the Terrible attempts to create an obedient class of nobility by suppression of the middle class and peasants Peter the Great finds himself in a backwards Russia unable to compete with the West - policy of Westernization to consolidate power and royal authority 1600s - Time of Troubles: Cossacks led by Stenka Razin are angry at royal authority, which to improve social status eventually failed with no changes Reign of Catherine the Great Pugachev Rebellion - attempt to save serfs from a dire social situation failed despite appeal to enlightened absolutism Charter to the Nobility - appeases Russian nobles in order to consolidate power; however, it gives increased power to the lords over their serfs Paragraph 2: Challenges to royal authority in Prussia absolute rulers attempt to strengthen power at the expense of other social classes centralized authority Junkers - Prussian nobility, are forced to serve the ruler forced to relinquish former land must work in office or army to receive land from the ruler Frederick William I - Junkers resist authority centralized bureaucracy - creation of a Directory General: removed officials from power and ensured their loyalty reinforced royal authority over the social classes
How might the "newness" of these developments (in the renaissance) be reinterpreted as an evolutionary continuation of the Middle Ages?
For many centuries the corporeal part of humanity was considered flawed and bent on evil. Even such normal impulses and functions as eating and procreating were looked at askance, because such things would, it was felt, automatically lead to excessive indulgence in them. When people began to realize that moderation was the key and they need not not deny themselves these things, it opened up a new way of thinking.
Assess the ways in which women participated in and influenced The Renaissance.
In the Renaissance, aside from a few nobles, the majority of women had a very limited impact due to misogynistic barriers and were only being able to partake in the minor arts.
Identify the conditions that facilitated the development of monarchical absolutism in the 17th Century and what policies were by kings to this end.
Nobles were threatening monarchs' power. Monarchs lessened the nobles' powers. Frederick William of Prussia made new taxes, created a new bureaucracy and chose its members, and asserted his authority over other nobles in order to increase his political power. Louis XIV of France had many nobles stay at Versailles with him. The nobles would assist in dressing him and do other services for him, and having these duties was considered a great honor. Thus, the nobles were more focused on trying to get the honorable positions, and less focused on revolting or trying to undermine the king's authority.
Assess the differences between the Italian and Northern Renaissance.
Northern Artistic Renaissance focused more on empirical observation and accurately paying attention to details of visual reality. The Italian Artistic Renaissance, however, accurately portrayed visual reality through proportion, perspective, and human anatomy. Italian artists portrayed mostly classical mythology, while Northern artists portrayed mostly domestic interiors and portraits. Italian literacy believed that the concepts of Christianity ought to be philosophies for individual everyday life, rather than following in the corruption of the church heresy/papacy. Northern humanists sought cooperation and reason over power and fame. While Italian humanism focused on the upper-middle class, Christian humanism focused more on the majority of the population, or the lower class. Italian humanism prioritized improving the intellect and his own metaethics, but Christian humanism focused more on the religious simplicity of daily life and the necessity for self-improvement.
Identify the most important differences between Catholic and Protestant beliefs.
Protestants base all their beliefs on the book, but Catholics are bound by the traditions of the Holy Roman Empire. Protestants are not open to papal primacy. Eucharist; Catholics believe in turns into Jesus' flesh and blood. Protestants believe it commemorates Jesus' death and resurrection. -sacraments
Identify the issues raised by the growth of Manchester and analyze the various reactions to those issues over the course of the nineteenth century.
The early to mid 1800s in Manchester was a time of what could be seen as prosperous growth. Between 1750 and 1850 Manchester nearly quadrupled in size (DOC 1). The radical changes that occurred in this 100 year time span brought forth different responses from the social, economic, and political stand points. Robert Southey says that he could not imagine a more destitute city (DOC 2). He probably saw the same plumes of smoke that were depicted in The Graphic's magazine picture of the Irwell River (DOC 11) The factories at this time, as one could expect, were putting forth pollution, and in a sense, laying a black cloud over Manchester. According to the French visitor Tocqueville, the city was leaving the civilized side of man and turning him savage (DOC 5). Yet, this same city that was looked upon by so many, was actually giving forth good for the rest of the world. At the expense of all this good, were men's lives. The lowest life expectancy, according to the medical reformer Thomas Wakley, was at its lowest in Manchester and other Industrial districts (DOC 8). The life expectancy difference between the Industrial Manchester and the Rural Rutland was on average twenty years. Frances Anne Kemble who was an actress, poet and dramatist actually visited Manchester and turned out disgusted. The workers were protesting to the lead officials, but they didn't care, because the money flowing from the factories landed in their pockets (DOC 4). In a preface to the business directory, the Wheelan Company, who was one of those receiving the money, saw Manchester as alive and busy. This "workshop of the world" was a glamorous place to be (DOC 9). Obviously, the corporations and people receiving the money would automatically like Manchester. Perhaps the wonderful money signs in their eyes were filtering out the black gloom. The liberal Member of Parliament and historian, Thomas Macaulay, tries to say that working in factories is better than working on a pretty cottage, which, "peasants wouldn't have anyways" (DOC 3). The factory could actually be prettier than the cottage life because peasant life wasn't. According to Flora Tristan, French socialist and women's rights advocate, progress was being accomplished at the price of men's lives (DOC 7). The factory owners did not take care of their workers, the workers were paid, and that was that. According to a public health reformer, the factory life killed more than the wars did (DOC 6). He seems to be asking that if there isn't a war, why are there men dying when they don't have to. The English journalist and historian, William Abram noted that there was no discontent among the workers, and that because of the social reforms life was better (DOC 10). It was true that factory life had improved, but neither did that mean people were happy or life pleasant. From different viewpoints came different interpretations. If two kids get in a fight each is going to tell a different story as to how it happened, and if they had a good reason. The same thing goes for that of the time. The social reformers thought Manchester was a horrible sight, as did the visitors. The owners and government officials usually said that they saw Manchester as a good place because they were making the money. From the workers stand point - they had a job - they didn't like it, but they had one.
What factors best explain the West's overseas expansion?
The main factors that encouraged these voyages were: 1. Trade with the east (bc of crusades) 2. European curiosity about the Asia- 3. Wealth and ambition of new national states- 4. Scientific progress
Analyze various ways in which technological developments contributed to the expansion of state power in the period 1450 to 1600.
These developments brought a number of changes to Europe. One result of all of the technological developments was that they helped monarchs work towards what is now known as absolutism. Technological developments contributed to the expansion of state power by increasing the state's military, cultural, and colonial power. 1. One of the ways technology increased state power is by increasing the state's military power.With greater military power, governments could exercise more power over their people, and over other nations. 2. culturally. Once a government could use a significant amount of printing presses, it could promote its messages at a rate like never before. 3. Colonialism and new ships. The new ships and navigational technologies allowed nations to expand their territorial holdings to the new world. Regardless of what they did with their colonies, nearly every nation made a profit with them. With the increase in money came an increase in power, as well.
Analyze the similarities in the methods that various absolute monarchs used in the 1600s and 1700s to consolidate and increase their power.
Throughout the 1600s and 1700s, several absolutist monarchs came to power throughout Europe. These rulers all believed that they were the only people capable of leading their empire, often citing God as the reason they were put on the throne. Although all of the absolute monarchs controlled different empires, their methods of increasing in power by decreasing the power of the aristocracy, as well as using religion as a way to justify their actions.
Analyze the various effects of the expansion of the Atlantic trade on the economy of Western Europe in the period circa 1450-1700.
Western Europe's expansion of Atlantic trade, through exploration and colonization, not only improved their own economy, but also the economy of America, through sharing new trade products and crops as well as beginning the slave trade.
(globalization) These global contacts created new forms of cultural exchange, assimilation, and resistance.
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The process of the Reformation in England went from politics to religion.
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The process of the Reformation on the continent went from religion to politics
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