AP Human Geography AP Exam Review Cards

Brahma

"the creator" god in Hindu religion

Shiva

"the destroyer" god in Hindu religion

Krishna

"the enlightened one" god in Hindu religion

Vishnu

"the preserver" god in Hindu religion

production chain

(*manufacturing*) the process that transforms *raw materials into a finished product*, then *distributes* that product for consumption by households, government, or industries

Crop origins

--Wheat (Middle East) --Rice (China) --Corn/Maize (Mexico) --Potato/tomato (Peru) --Millet and Sorghum (Sub-Saharan Africa)

Prince Henry the Navigator

A Portuguese royal (1394-1460) who contributed to European exploration and geographic discovery by employing cartographers, geographers, and other experts to further Portuguese maritime interests

Alexander von Humboldt

A Prussian explorer and naturalist (1769-1859), who traveled widely, especially in the Americas, categorizing natural objects and writing about the importance of scientific inquiry

Ptolemy

A Roman geographer, mathematician, and astronomer (90-168 AD), who wrote a long geography of the world. Versions of Ptolemy's maps were used for 1,500 years despite serious errors

Gender Inequality Index

A United Nations index, introduced in 2010, which measures a country's loss of achievement due to gender inequality, based on reproductive health, employment, and general empowerment.

electoral college

A certain number of electors from each state proportional to and seemingly representative of that state's population. Each elector chooses a candidate believing they are representing their constituency's choice. The candidate who receives a higher proportion of electoral votes within a state receives all the electoral votes for that state.

Confucianism

A chinese folk religion or philosophy that began about 2,500 years ago and that emphasizes proper social relationships and individual morality

baby boom

A cohort of individuals born in the United States between 1946 and 1964, which was just after World War II in a time of relative peace and prosperity. These conditions allowed for better education and job opportunities, encouraging high rates of both marriage and fertility.

least-cost theory

A concept developed by Alfred Weber to describe the optimal location of a manufacturing establishment in relation to the costs of transport and labor, and the relative advantages of agglomeration or deglomeration. --Assumes an industry will choose its location based on the desire to minimize production costs and maximize profits. --Drawbacks: assumption of an immobile and equal labor force

sustainable development

A development model that does not lead to tremendous gains in income but is effective in improving the well-being of the population. Seeks a more even distribution of *wealth*, providing decent *health care*, adequate *shelter*, and fostering a solid *education*

population geography / geodemography

A division of human geography concerned with spatial variations in distribution, composition, growth, and movements of population.

vertical integration

A form of corporate organization in which one firm controls multiple aspects or phases of a commodity chain.

horizontal integration

A form of corporate organization in which several branches of a company or several commonly owned companies work together to sell their products in different markets.

biotechnology

A form of technology that uses living organisms, usually genes, to modify products, to make or modify plants and animals, or to develop other microorganisms for specific purposes.

ecotourism

A form of tourism, based on the enjoyment of scenic areas or natural wonders, that aims to provide an experience of nature or culture in an environmentally sustainable way.

United Nations

A global supranational organization established at the end of World War II to foster international security and cooperation.

population profile

A graphic that shows the number or percentage of men and women in a population per year group or range of years; sometimes called a *population pyramid*.

race

A group of human beings distinguished by physical traits, blood types, genetic code patterns or genetically inherited characteristics.

Afro-Asiatic

A large language family found primarily in North Africa and Southwest Asia(the Middle East)

plantation

A large, frequently foreign-owned piece of agricultural land devoted to the production of a single export crop.

law of retail gravitation

A law stating that people will be drawn to larger cities to conduct their business since larger cities have a wider influence on the surrounding hinterlands.

reference map

A map type that shows reference information for a particular place, making it useful for finding landmarks and for navigation.

resolution

A map's smallest discernable unit. If, for example, an object has to be one kilometer long in order to show up on a map, that map's resolution is one kilometer.

map projection

A mathematical method that involves transferring Earth's sphere onto a flat surface. This term can also be used to describe the type of map that results from the process of projecting. All of these have distortions in area, direction, distance, or shape.

subjective well-being (SWB)

A measure of a countries overall "*happiness*". *gross national happiness*

net national product

A measure of all goods and services produced by a country in a year, including production from its investments abroad, minus the loss or degradation of natural resource capital as a result of productivity.

relative distance

A measure of distance that Includes the costs of overcoming the friction of absolute distance separating two places.Often describes the amount of social, cultural, or economic connectivity between two places.

core-periphery model

A model of the spatial structure of development in which underdeveloped countries are defined by their dependence on a developed core region.

age-sex distribution

A model used in population geography that describes the ages and number of males and females within a given population; also called a population pyramid.

new urbanism

A movement in urban planning to promote mixed-use commercial and residential development and pedestrian-friendly, community-oriented cities. Reaction to the sprawling, automobile-centered cities of the mid-twentieth century.

quantitative revolution

A period in human geography associated with the widespread adoption of mathematical models and statistical techniques

missionary

A person of a particular faith that travels in order to recruit new members into the faith represented.

Gallatin Plan

A plan, devised by Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin in 1808, that attempted to parallel land and water trafficways along the *Atlantic seaboard*, establish connections between Atlantic streams and *western waters*, connect the *Great Lakes system*, and create a system of *westward roads to the frontiers*

cohort

A population group unified by a specific common characteristic, such as age, and subsequently treated as a statistical unit.

Robinson projection

A projection that attempts to balance several possible projection errors. It does not maintain area, shape, distance, or direction completely accurately, but it minimizes errors in each. Used by the National Geographic Society.

minority

A racial or ethnic group smaller than and differing from the majority race or ethnicity in a particular area or region.

postmodern architecture

A reaction in architectural design to the feeling of sterile alienation that many people get from modern architecture. Uses older, historical styles and a sense of lightheartedness and eclecticism. Buildings combine pleasant-looking forms and playful colors to convey new ideas and to create spaces that are more people-friendly than their modernist predecessors.

manufacturing region

A region in which manufacturing activities have clustered together. The major U.S. industrial region has historically been in the Great Lakes, which includes the states of Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, New York, and Pennsylvania. Industrial regions also exist in southeastern Brazil, central England, around Tokyo, Japan, and elsewhere

rank-size relationship

A relationship that typifies the overall urban hierarchy within a country. It is determined by dividing the population of the largest city in half to determine the size of the second largest city, the second by the third, and so on *Population of Cityr=Population of City1/r *

buffer state

A relatively small country sandwiched between two larger powers. These exist to help prevent dangerous conflicts between powerful countries.

Industrial Revolution

A series of agricultural and technological innovations that transferred European society beginning in Great Britain in the eighteenth century and eventually spread to much of the world. *harnessed steam power*

Global Positioning System (GPS)

A set of satellites used to help determine location anywhere on Earth's surface with a portable electronic device.

compact state

A state that possesses a roughly circular, oval, or rectangular territory in which the distance from the geometric center is relatively equal in all directions. Easy for defense and communications among all areas. Example: Belgium, Poland, Bhutan, Hungary

Theocracy

A state whose government is either believed to be divinely guided or a state under the control of a group of religious leaders.

Perforated state

A state whose territory completely surrounds that of another state. Example: South Africa surrounds Lesotho; Italy surrounds Vatican City and San Marino

physiologic density

A statistic of population density calculated by dividing a country's population by its area of arable land. In other words, it is the number of people square mile or kilometer of farmable land.

doubling time

A statistic that shows how many years it will take for a population to double (70 years/ RNI%)

humanistic geography

A sub-branch of human geography that grew out of behavioral geography but put less emphasis on explaining the world and more focus on the meaning that humans place on the environment and their surroundings, as well as how people perceive the world around them.

federalism

A system of government in which power is distributed among certain geographical territories rather than concentrated within a central government.

earth system science

A systematic approach to physical geography that looks at the interaction between Earth's physical systems and processes on a global scale.

Generation X

A term coined by artist and author Douglas Coupland to describe people born in the United States between the years 1965 and 1980. This post-baby-boom generation will have to support the baby boom cohort as they head into their retirement years.

Borchert's Model of Urban Evolution

According to the geographer John R. Borchert (1960s), American cities have undergone five major epochs, or periods, of development shaped by the dominant forms of transportation and communication at the time. These include sail-wagon epoch (1790- 1830), iron horse epoch (1830- 1870), steel rail epoch (1870-1920), auto-air-amenity epoch (1920- 1970), and satellite-electronic-jet propulsion and high-technology epoch (1970- present).

dairying

An agricultural activity involving the raising of livestock, most commonly cows and goats, for dairy products such as milk, cheese, and butter.

planned agricultural economy

An agricultural economy found in communist nations in which the government controls both agricultural production and distribution.

International organization

An alliance of two or more countries seeking cooperation with each other without giving up either's autonomy or self-determination.

Proportional symbols map

A thematic map in which the size of a chosen symbol— such as a circle or triangle—indicates the relative magnitude of some statistical value for a given geographic region.

Theory #2 of adoption of agriculture

A time of *environmental stress*, perhaps global warming, led humans to search for new food sources because areas had reached their *carrying capacity*. *V. Gordon Childe*

Great Migration

An early 20th-century mass movement of African Americans from the Deep South to the industrial North, particularly Chicago.

Mercator projection

A true conformal cylindrical map projection useful for navigation since it maintains accurate direction. Famous for its distortion in area that makes landmasses at the poles appear oversized. Alaska, Greenland, and Antarctica are all oversized and stretched out.

Fuller Projection

A type of map projection that maintains the accurate size and shape of landmasses but completely rearranges direction such that the four cardinal directions— north, south, east, and west— no longer have any meaning.

cartograms

A type of thematic map that transforms space such that the political unit with the greatest value for some type of data is represented by the largest relative area.

overpopulation

A value judgment based on the notion that the resources of a particular area are not great enough to support that area's current population.

scurvy

A vitamin C-deficiency disease common among sailors in pre-modern times

urbanization curve

A way to describe the process by which a society becomes more *urban*. The curve is a general *model* of change based on *time*. *S-curve*

Demographic accounting equation

An equation that summarizes the amount of growth or decline in a population within a country during a particular time period taking into account both natural increase and net migration.

livestock ranching

An extensive commercial agricultural activity that involves the raising of livestock over vast geographic spaces typically located in semi-arid climates like the American West.

conspicuous consumption

An idea by Thorstein Veblen that people feel the need to display their status by ostentatiously consuming goods and services. *Materialism and Affluenza*

cognitive map

An image of a portion of Earth's surface that an individual creates in his or her mind. Cognitive maps can include knowledge of actual locations and relationships among locations as well as personal perceptions and preferences of particular places.

cottage industry

An industry in which the production of goods and serves is based in homes, as opposed to factories

environmental justice

According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies." *Industrial Pollution- Minamata Disease (Japan)*

Islamic cities

Cities in Muslim countries that owe their structure to their religious beliefs. Contain mosques at their center and walls guarding their perimeter. Open-air markets, courtyards surrounded by high walls, and dead-end streets, which limit foot traffic in residential neighborhoods.

urban network

Cities that are *tied* together in some meaningful way, which geographers and other urban researchers may describe as *functional linkages*. Example: *Trade Networks*

world cities

Cities that are at the top of the global hierarchy; can be defined in terms of attributes or level of interaction and are usually highly populated. They are centers of economic, cultural, and political activity that are strongly interconnected and together control the global systems of finance and commerce. *Examples: New York, London, and Tokyo*

feudal city

Cities that arose during the Middle Ages and that actually represent a time of relative stagnation in urban growth. This system fostered a dependent relationship between wealthy landowners and peasants who worked their land, providing very little alternative economic opportunities.

medieval cities

Cities that developed in Europe during the Medieval Period and that contain such unique features as extreme density of development with narrow buildings and winding streets, an ornate church that prominently marks the city center, and high walls surrounding the city center that provided defense against attack.

megacities

Cities, mostly characteristic of the developing world, where high population growth and migration have caused them to explode in population since World War II. All megacities are plagued by chaotic and unplanned growth, terrible pollution, and widespread poverty.

epidemiologic transition model

Disease vulnerability shifts in patterns similar to the DTM. Explains the causes of death in countries in each stage of the DTM. In the early stages (Stage 1), plague, famine, droughts, and pestilence spread as a result of poor medical technology. As industrialization proceeds (Stage 2), diseases related to urban life spread. The primary cause of death will be diseases associated with overcrowding and urbanization. In later stages (Stage 5), diseases once thought eradicated reappear as more-developed societies come into easier contact with less-developed regions struggling with the more primitive diseases, such as smallpox and the bubonic plague. Leading causes of death in later stages (Stage 3 & 4) are related to diseases associated with aging, such as heart disease.

pull factors

Attractions that draw migrants to a certain place Examples: jobs, better life,political or religious freedom, education, safety, climate, affordable real estate, clean parks

qualitative data

Data associated with a more humanistic approach to geography, often collected through interviews, empirical observations, or the interpretation of texts, artwork, old maps, and other archives. Associated with cultural or regional geography because they tend to be more unique to and descriptive of particular places and processes

quantitative data

Data associated with mathematical models and statistical techniques used to analyze spatial location and association. Important in economic, political, population, and physical geography where numerical data abounds

multiple nuclei model

Developed in the 1950s by Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman, this model explains the changing growth pattern of urban spaces based on the assumption that growth occurred independently around several major foci (or nodes), many of which are far away from the central business district and only marginally connected to it.Type of urban form wherein cities have numerous centers of business and cultural activity instead of one central place. Example: *Los Angeles*

agglomeration economies

Different economic activities tend to locate next to each other and act as powerful magnet, attracting other activities. "cluster"

congregation

Different ethnic groups often group in specific parts of the city

pesticides

Chemicals used on plants that do not harm the plants, but kill pests and have negative repercussions on other species who ingest the chemicals.

city beautiful movement

Movement in environmental design that drew directly from the beaux arts school. Architects from this movement strove to impart order on hectic, industrial centers by creating urban spaces that conveyed a sense of morality and civic pride, which many feared was absent from the frenzied new industrial world.

voluntary migration

Movement of an individual who consciously and voluntarily decides to locate to a new area—the opposite of forced migration.

Swidden

Land that is prepared for agriculture by using the slash-and-burn method.

ethnic provinces

Large areas associated with a particular ethnic group, such as French-speaking Quebec and Southwestern part of the US

Ring of Fire

Large areas of the Pacific Rim that are subject to volcanoes and earthquakes because of tectonic activity and their location along major crustal plate boundaries

gravity model of spatial interaction

Larger places attract more migrants than do smaller places. Destinations that are more distant have a weaker pull effect than do closer opportunities of the same caliber.

Law of the sea

Law establishing states' rights and responsibilities concerning the ownership and use of the earth's seas and oceans and their resources.

footloose firms

Manufacturing activities in which cost of transporting both raw materials and finished product is not important for determining the location of the firm.

sense of place

Feelings evoked by people as a result of certain experiences and memories associated with a particular place.

Carl Sauer

Geographer from the University of California at Berkley who defined the concept of cultural landscape as the fundamental unit of geographical analysis. This landscape results from the interaction between humans and the physical environment. Sauer argued that virtually no landscape has escaped alteration by human activities.

East/west divide

Geographic separation between the largely democratic and free-market countries of Western Europe and the Americas from the communist and socialist countries of Eastern Europe and Asia.

urban growth boundary

Geographical boundaries placed around a city to limit suburban growth within that city

Isoglosses

Geographical boundary lines where different linguistic features meet

dialect

Geographically distinct versions of a single language that vary somewhat from the parent form.

Sauer's Morphology of Landscape

He believed that the physical landscape is modified by culture to create a *cultural landscape*.

W.D. Pattison

He claimed that geography drew from four distinct traditions: the Earth-science tradition, the culture-environment tradition, the locational tradition, and the area-analysis tradition. ○ Earth-science tradition =physical geography ○ Culture-environment tradition=environmental geography ○ Locational tradition= analysis of spatial data through cartography ○ Area-analysis tradition = regional geography

service-based economies

Highly developed economies that focus on research and development, marketing, tourism, sales, and telecommunications.

fertility

How many people are born in a given time period.

anthropocentric

Human-centered; in sustainable development, anthropocentric refers to ideas that focus solely on the needs of people without considering the creatures with whom we share the planet or the ecosystems upon which we depend.

infrastructure

In social theory, such as in structuralism, the hidden ideas and theories that help create the visible world around us

regional geography

In the 1930's there is a shift towards the idea that focuses on the region as the main way to classify and understand the world. *Broad Holistic Descriptions of Regions*

Anglo-American Manufacturing Belt

In the late 19th century, the region that included, *Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, and Wisconsin* and represented different major industries located in these areas

nonrenewable resources

Natural resources, such as fossil fuels, that do not replenish themselves in a timeframe that is relevant for human consumption.

supranational organization

Organization of three or more states to promote shared objectives.

ghettos

Originally an Italian term for areas of cities where Jews were forced to live; more broadly, poor urban neighborhoods where minorities are concentrated. (segregated) Example: Chicago's Southside or London's East End

surpluses

Overabundances of food, often grain, resulting from organized agriculture and allowed for *distributions*, *trade*, and *taxation*. *More food = more people*

Zelinsky Model of Migration Transition

People become increasingly mobile as industrialization develops. More international migration is seen in stage 2 of DMT as migrants search for more space and opportunities in countries in stages 3 and 4. Stage 4 countries show less emigration and more intraregional migration.

Ethnic groups

People of the same race or nationality who share a distinctive culture.

Food Security

People's ability to access sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life.

baby bust

Period of time during the 1960s and 1970s when fertility rates in the United States dropped as large numbers of women from the baby boom generation sought higher levels of education and more competitive jobs, causing them to marry later in life. As such, the fertility rate dropped considerably, in contrast to the baby boom, in which fertility rates were quite high.

Second Empire Homes

Period: 1855-1875 Name: Second Empire Description: Based on trendy styles in Europe at the time; feature the unique mansard roof

Georgian Style Homes

Period: Colonial period Name: Early American Description: Generally rectangular and the homes gables are on the side of the house. The roof line runs from the sides of the home to the other side.

Greek Revival Homes

Period: Early 19th Century Name: Greek and Roman Description: Have columns and other touches that make them look like ancient temples

Prairie Style Homes

Period: Early 20th century (1920s) Description: Frank Lloyd Wright; low-pitched roof, overhanging eaves, horizontal lines, central chimney, clerestory windows

Gothic Revival/Italianate Homes

Period: Mid-19th Century (1840s-70s) Name: Gothic/Italianate Description: Gingerbread houses Italianate: Low roofs, wide eaves, and ornamental brackets, Victorian Italianate houses suggest an Italian Renaissance villa

Victorian Homes

Period: late 19th Century (1870s-1890s) Name: Victorian Description: Crazy rooflines, odd-shaped windows, wrap-around porches, ornamental designs on outside walls. Can be seen in Crown Point. Rarely built today and the majority have been turned into bread and breakfasts

exurbanite

Person who has left the inner city and moved to outlying suburbs or rural areas

idiographic

Pertaining to facts or features that are unique to a particular place or region, such as its history or ethnic composition Example: Regional approach to geography

Economics

Played a key role in the *evolution* of *cities* with *agriculture* and *industry dictating the shape* of these cities that evolved over the *course of history*.

modern architecture

Point of view, wherein cities and buildings are thought to act like well-oiled machines, with little energy spent on frivolous details or ornate designs. Efficient, geometrical structures made of concrete and glass dominated urban forms for half a century while this view prevailed.

physical boundary

Political boundaries that correspond with prominent physical features such as mountain ranges or rivers.

territorial organization

Political organization that distributes political power in more easily governed units of land.

implosionists

Population theorists who believe that declining fertility rates indicate that the earth has turned the corner on population growth.

explosionists

Population theorists who believe that the world will continue to see rapid population growth for decades to come.

cultural barriers

Prevailing cultural attitude rendering certian innovations; ideas or practices unacceptable or unadoptable in that particular culture.

salinzation

Process that occurs when soils in arid areas are brought under cultivation through irrigation. In arid climates, water evaporates quickly off the ground surface, leaving salty residues that render the soil infertile.

prorupt or protruded state

Round with a large extension (panhandle). Increases access to resources such as water. Example: Thailand, Myanmar (Burma), Mozambique

outsourcing

Sending industrial processes out for external production. The term outsourcing increasingly applies not only to traditional industrial functions, but also to the contracting of service industry functions to companies to overseas locations, where operating cots remain relatively low.

megalopolis

Several metropolitan areas that were originally separate but have joined together to form a large, sprawling urban complex

expansion diffusion

The spread of ideas, innovations, fashion, or other phenomena to surrounding areas through contact and exchange.

Linguistics

The study of language

human geography

The study of the spatial variation in the patterns and processes related to human activity. Sub disciplines: population geography, cultural geography, political geography, economic geography, agricultural and rural geography, and urban geography.

projection

The system used to transfer locations from Earth's surface to a flat map

popular vote

The tally of each individual's vote within a given geographic area.

Cotton Belt

The term by which the American South used to be known, as cotton historically dominated the agricultural economy of the region. The same area is now known as the New South or Sun Belt because people have migrated here from older cities in the industrial north for a better climate and new job opportunities.

cartography

The theory and practice of making visual representations of Earth's surface in the form of maps.

trinary rank-size distributions

The top three cities overwhelm the rest in terms of population

organic agriculture

The use of crop rotation, natural fertilizers such as manure, and biological pest control— as opposed to artificial fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, antibiotics, additives, and genetically modified organisms—to promote healthy, vigorous crops.

shifting cultivation

The use of tropical forest clearings for crop production until their fertility is lost. Plots are then abandoned, and farmers move on to new sites.

Language pollution

The use of unwanted loan words(words used in one language that have an origin in another language) in a country ( France trying to remove the US loan word Le Weekend from their language)

organic theory

The view that states resemble biological organisms with life cycles that include stages of youth, maturity, and old age.

spatial diffusion

The ways in which phenomena, such as technological innovations, cultural trends, or even outbreaks of disease, travel over space.

Christianity

The world's largest religion, grounded in Judaic beliefs and based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who Christians believe is the son of God. 3 major categories: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Eastern Orthodox

Homer

The writer often considered the father of geography.

dot maps

Thematic maps that use points to show the precise locations of specific observations or occurrences, such as crimes, car accidents, or births.

world-systems theory

Theory developed by Immanuel Wallerstein that explains the emergence of a core, periphery, and semiperiphery in terms of economic and political connections first established at the beginning of exploration in the late 15th century and maintained through increased economic access up until the present.

nation

Tightly knit group of individuals sharing a common language, ethnicity, religion, and other cultural attributes.

brick-and-mortar business

Traditional businesses with actual stores in which trade or retail occurs; it does not exist solely on the Internet.

Environmental protection

Sustainable development also focuses on what by maintaining and improving regional resources

slash-and-burn agriculture

System of cultivation that usually exists in tropical areas where vegetation is cut close to the ground and then ignited. The fire introduces nutrients into the soil, thereby making it productive for a relatively short period of time.

Fragmented state

Two or more areas separated by another country or body of water. Difficult communication between areas. Example: Philippines, Denmark, Indonesia, Malaysia

labor-intensive agriculture

Type of agriculture that requires large levels of manual labor to be successful.

Sun Belt

U.S. region, mostly comprised of southeastern and southwestern states, which has grown most dramatically since World War II.

containment policy

US foreign policy that sought to limit Soviet advance to any countries not allied with the United States or the Soviet Union, thereby containing communist expansionism *George Kennan*

visualization

Use of sophisticated software to create dynamic computer maps, some of which are three dimensional or interactive.

John Harrison

The British clockmaker (1693-1776) who invented a chronometer that worked while at sea, thus allowing accurate measurements of longitude to be determined

Ester Boserup

The Danish economist (1910-1999) who argued that rising populations will stimulate human societies to produce more food through innovation and technology.

sustainability

The concept of using Earth's resources in such a way that they provide for people's needs in the present without diminishing Earth's ability to provide for future generations.

Balkanization

The contentious political process by which a state may break up into smaller countries.

environmental determinism

The controversial idea, popular in the early 20th century and largely discredited today, that climate or other physical qualities of an area dictate the culture of the people who live there.

metropolitan area

Within the United States, an urban area consisting of one or more whole county units, usually containing several urbanized areas, or suburbs, that all act together as a coherent economic whole.

division of labor

Workers are given specific chores to do, with some prestige or value placed on certain tasks as opposed to others; can be used in a factory system in which each worker specializes in a single, repeated task. *Labor Specialization: tool makers, tanners (leather), merchants, etc.*

basic sector

Workers who produce goods and services for individuals outside the urban area work and produce an income flow of new money into the city.

Green Revolution

The development of higher-yield and fast-growing crops through increased technology, pesticides, and fertilizers transferred from the developed (western nations) to developing world (Asia, Latin America, Africa) to alleviate the problem of food supply in those regions of the globe between the 1950s and 1960s.

natural increase rate

The difference between the number of births and number of deaths within a particular country.

movement

The diffusion of diseases across the world. *AIDS and SARS*

deglomeration

The dispersal of an industry that formerly existed in an established agglomeration.

redistricting

The drawing of new electoral district boundary lines in response to population changes.

North/south divide

The economic division between the wealthy countries of Europe and North America, Japan, and Australia and the generally poorer countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.

globalization

The elimination of national boundaries through ever greater integration of *people*, *companies*, and *governments* across the world. *A World of Cities* Characteristics: *1)* Deterritorialization *2)* more social and economic interconnectedness *3)* faster communication *4)* multipronged process including political, social, cultural, and economic movements

transculturation

The expansion of cultural traits through diffusion, adoption, and other related processes.

Eratosthenes

The geographer and thinker (~276-195 BC) who is best known for his remarkably accurate calculation of the circumference of the earth. The head librarian at Alexandria during the 3rd century BC. He is credited with coining the term geography.

time-space convergence

The idea that distance between some places is actually shrinking as technology enables more rapid communication and increased interaction among those places. Example: increased transportation technology has "shrunk" the distance between NYC and London

urbanization

The increase in the *percentage* of people who live in *cities*, which eventually outstrips the number of people living in rural areas.

Columbian Exchange

The interaction between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres after the arrival of Europeans in the Americas, including the sharing of cultural ideas as well as plants and animals

environmental geography

The intersection between human and physical geography, which explores the spatial impacts humans have on the physical environment and vice versa.

primate city

The largest city in a country that is much greater than the second largest, overwhelming the rest of the country in terms of population, as well as cultural and economic importance. *Examples: Mexico City, London, Paris, Moscow, and Tokyo*

chain migration

The migration event in which individuals follow the migratory path of preceding friends or family members to an existing community

quinary sector

The most advanced form of quaternary activities consisting of high-level decision making for large corporations or high-level scientific research.

breaking point

The outer edge of a city's sphere of influence, used in the law of retail gravitation to describe the area of a city's hinterlands that depend on that city for its retail supplies.

natural landscapes

The physical landscape or environment that has not been affected by human activities

nonagricultural population

The portion of the population not engaged in farming. They rely on farmers for food.

desertification

The process by which formerly fertile lands become increasingly arid, unproductive, and desert-like.

urban revitalization

The process occurring in some urban areas experiencing inner city decay that usually involves the construction of new shopping districts, entertainment venues, and cultural attractions to entice young urban professionals back into the cities where nightlife and culture are more accessible.

reapportionment

The process of a reallocation of electoral seats to defined territories.

development

The process of economic growth, expansion, or realization of regional resource potential.

democratization

The process of establishing representative and accountable forms of government led by popularly elected officials.

urban sprawl

The process of expansive suburban development over large areas spreading out from a city, in which the automobile provides the primary source of transportation.

agricultural density

The ratio of the number of farmers to the total amount of land suitable for agriculture.

dependency ratio

The ratio of the number of people who are either too old or young to provide for themselves to the number of people who must support them through their own labor. This is usually expressed in the form n : 100, where n equals the number of dependents.

physical geography

The realm of geography that studies the structures, processes, distributions, and changes through time of the natural phenomena of Earth's surface.

description

The recording of knowledge about the peoples and environments of the earth. In ancient times, many geographers simply described what they saw in the world without attempting to explain it.

situation

The relative location of a place in relation to the physical and cultural characteristics of the surrounding area and the connections and interdependencies within that system; a place's spatial context.

self-determination

The right of a nation to govern itself autonomously

ecotone

a place where there existed two or more separate environments, which allowed for greater variety of foodstuffs at different times of the year and was most likely where agriculture began.

mercantilism

a policy that seeks to reduce barriers to trade within a country while creating a large number of external barriers, such as quotas and tariffs. *Economy that promotes external barriers*

extraction economy

a political economy that sought chiefly to enrich the ruler and the aristocracy and to maintain its armies; common in the early modern states

vertical loyalty

a political structure in which the people were expected to owe allegiance to the ruler.

urban population

a population composed of individuals who are not themselves engaged in agriculture yet have to be housed and fed, which poses a challenge to the urban economy

human capital

a population's level of *education and skill*

tuberculosis

a potentially deadly lung disease, also known as TB. There are 9 million new cases each year

ghettoization

a process occurring in many inner cities in which they become dilapidated centers of poverty, as affluent whites move out to the suburbs and immigrants and people of color vie for scarce jobs and resources

devolution

a process that enable a central government to grant powers to lower administrative units, such as a state or country

new international division of labor

a recent phenomenon in which the production process transcends international boundaries.

borderland

a region centered around the boundary between places, often containing a lot of cultural diversity

vernacular/perceptual region

a region that people construct in their mind making them difficult to dissect. An area or location which people believe exists as a section of their cultural identity Example: American Deep South

large scale

a relatively small ratio between map units and ground units. Usually have a higher resolution and cover much small regions than small-scape maps. Example: map depicting a farm or a neighborhood

Buddhism

a religion founded in the 6th century BC and practiced today by over 400 million people. It emphasizes that life is suffering, but by living a proper life a human can achieve enlightenment and break free from the cycle of births and deaths

polytheistic

a religion that believes in many deities

mental map

a representation of the real world that humans have in their minds

taboo

a restriction on behavior imposed by a social custom.

scale of analysis

a scale that determines what is being studied based on the size of the area being examined

local culture

a set of common experiences or customs that shapes the identity of a place and the people who live there. Local cultures are often the subjects of preservation or economic development efforts.

language group

a set of languages with a relatively recent common origin and many similar characteristics.

structuralism

a set of social theories that generally look for deep structures or theories that guide human actions and societies

Ravenstein's laws

a set of theories about migration developed in the late nineteenth century by Ernst Georg Ravenstein. Saying that migration is impacted by push and pull factors 1) More people migrate a short distance than a long distance. 2) There is a flow of migrants from remote areas to less remote areas and finally to the cities. 3) Flows of migration also create small counterflows. 4) Long-distance migrants are more likely to be heading to a major city. 5) Urban residents are less likely to migrate than rural people 6) Women migrate more than men, but they tend to migrate shorter distances. Ravenstein believed that long-distance migrants were more apt to be men.

basic demographic equation

a simple equation that holds that a country's population in a future time period will equal births minus deaths plus immigration minus emigration. (future pop. = births - deaths + immigration - emigration)

crude birth rate (CBR)

a simple measure of fertility that represents the number of children born per 1,000 people in a given population in a given year.

pidgin

a simplified language that is used by people who speak different languages for common communication; usually not the primary language of anyone using it

culture trait

a single component of a culture; can be a thing, an idea, or a social convention Examples: Language, Music, Clothing, Food, religion, social institutions, ethnicity and History

oligarchy

a single individual or clique that holds concentrated power in an authoritarian or autocratic state

peak value intersection/ prime value intersection (PVI)

a single intersection with the greatest access, usually located at the intersection of two main streets

foreclosure

a situation in which a mortgage holder losses all claims to his or her property due to nonpayment

predatory lending

a situation in which mortgages impose an undue financial burden on households by forcing debts that far exceed assets and can result in foreclosure

ethnic enclave

a small area occupied by a distinctive minority culture.

Jainism

a small religion founded in the 6th century BC and practiced mostly in India or where Indians settle. It emphasizes the elimination of all activity that would accumulate bad karma

feudalism

a small-scale economic system based on self-contained *estates*, controlled by a *lord or master*.

superstructure

a social theory that argues that society has rules that humans can choose to act on or not

structuration

a social theory that human action is partly constrained by social structures governed by laws and social norms and that societies can choose to either reproduce or change their behaviors

reservation

a special region, most common in the Americas, established as a territory for indigenous peoples. It usually represents just a fraction of the land that these peoples had previously occupied.

nation-state

a state that contains a single nation that is not disputed by anyone inside or outside Example: Japan,Iceland, Armenia, Bangladesh, Lesotho

rectangular state

a state whose territory is rectangular in shape

satellite state

a state with less actual sovereignty, such as the freedom to exercise its own foreign policy or even to make internal changes

arithmetic density

a statistic of population density calculated by dividing a country's population by its total land area. In other words, number of people per square kilometer or square mile.

rate of population growth

a statistic, expressed as a percentage, that indicates the growth rate of a population in a given time period and that includes not only births and deaths but also migration.

cancer cluster

a statistically unusual concentration of cancer in a particular area

hurricane

a strong cyclonic storm system with *low pressure*, *strong thunderstorms*, *high winds*, and *rain*; also known as a typhoon or cyclone. Storms in the *Atlantic Ocean*.

ethnoburb

a suburb with a concentration of a particular ethnic group Example: Dearborn, MI (large Arab community)

diarrhea

a symptom of various viral, bacterial, and parasitic infections, killing more than 2 million people a year

feudal system

a system based on the principles of personal allegiance and vassalage that results in a political organization not necessarily tied to complete territorial control

modern state system

a system composed of territories that are more closely controlled and integrated than political territories had been and that eventually replaced many different types of political forms.

single member plurality system

a system in which an entire country or political subdivision is divided into electoral districts, each of which elects one representative *most votes win Examples: The US, Canada, the UK, and India

list system of proportional representation

a system in which each party draws up a list of candidates in each electoral district, and people tend to vote for the parties rather than for the candidates themselves *can have more than one representative if a certain threshold is met* Examples: Israel and Italy

majoritarian system

a system in which elections are designed such that the winner must have a majority of the overall votes. For example, the top two candidates from the first round of voting compete directly against each other in the second round of voting. Example: France and Australia

confederations

a system in which sovereign states agree to abridge some of their independent powers in order to work together as a group, but each state retains a great deal of sovereignty Example: former USSR, Canada

language

a system of communication using sounds, gestures, marks, and signs

city-state

a system of small, city-centered states where political organization revolved around the city itself. People not engaged with agriculture lived in the city, while farmers resided in the surrounding hinterlands

mixed system

a system that combines both proportional voting and plurality system Example: Germany

mixed agricultural economy

a system that involves a *heavy reliance* on both *plants and animals* for food, materials, and goods.

Grimm's Law

a theory attributed to Jakob Grimm that modern German and English experienced consonant shifts since ancient times

human capital model

a theory of migration that argues that people move not just for macroeconomic reasons but also for individual reasons

modernization theory

a theory rooted in experience of *western Europe* and *North America*. It views these as models for the rest of the world to follow

decolonization

a trend in which colonies became independent from the states that colonized them after the United States declared its independence

syringe

a tube with a nozzle and piston used for injecting or withdrawing fluids (when fitted with a needle). Free syringes have reduced HIV rates in some areas since HIV can be spread through the sharing of needles during drug use.

space

a two-dimensional area that contains a number of places and boundaries that may or may not be clearly defined

dispersed

a type of distribution in which there does not seem to be any type of agglomeration and incidences are well separated from one another

flow map

a type of map that is often used to depict the interaction between places

T-O map

a type of medieval map that was based on Christian theology, showed the world as three continents (Asia, Africa, and Europe_, and resembled a "T" inside an "O"). Jerusalem located at the center.

Minamata disease

a type of mercury poisoning that came to prominence in the 1960s after decades of industrial pollution in the city of Minamata, Japan.

geographical coordinate system

a type of reference system in which each place is given a unique value based on its latitude and longitude

monotheistic

a type of religion that believes in one Supreme Being

choropleth map

a type of thematic map showing quantity or type of phenomena by area. It uses shades or colors to show class intervals and is often used for maps displaying density

pictographic writing

a type of written speech in which small pictures are used for words

Baha'i

a universalizing religion founded in the 19th century and practiced in nearly every country today

instrumentalism

a view that nations emerge for a particular purpose, which meets the demands of a situation

earthquake

a violent shaking of the earth caused by *tectonic* or volcanic activity.

accent

a way a language sounds or is pronounced in a particular location

region

a way of subdividing space into categorizable geographic units

period

a way to slice up time. It is essential to historical understanding

place interaction

a wide variety of activities that occur between places

HIV/AIDS

a worldwide disease caused by a virus that can cause a progressive breakdown of the human immune system

development traps

according to Jeffrey Sachs, a series of obstacles that cause economies to stagnate. Examples include *poverty, lack of innovation, cultural barriers*, and *physical geography issues*.

optimum location

according to economist *Alfred Weber* (*Industrial Locational Model*), the *ideal location* for a manufacturing plant: where there is a *balance* between the locations of the various raw materials, the labor force, and the markets where the final products would be sold

de jure area

according to the notion of effective national territory, the LEGAL AREA OF THE STATE that effectively controls the territory, or de facto area

de facto area

according to the notion of effective national territory, the TERRITORY A STATE EFFECTIVELY CONTROLS and is not included in the legal area, or de jure area

nonstructural responses

actions taken by a *society*, a *political body*, or *individuals* to reduce the risk of a natural hazard

primary sector

activities involving the extraction of raw materials, the gathering of plants and animals, and the domestication of plants or animals Examples: mining, agriculture, forestry, and fishing

secondary sector

activities that add value to raw materials through some form of manufacturing, processing, power generating, or construction.

tertiary sector

activities that provide services. This category includes everything from store clerks to auto mechanics to lawyers and doctors. Example: retail, transportation, government, personal, and professional services.

nonaligned countries

after World War II, the countries that were not allied with either the Soviet Union or the United States

Mediterranean agriculture

agriculture An agricultural system practiced in the Mediterranean-style climates of Western Europe, California, and portions of Chile and Australia, in which diverse specialty crops such as grapes, avocados, olives, and a host of nuts, fruits, and vegetables comprise profitable agricultural operations.

smog

air pollution produced by sunlight reacting with ozone released from cars, factories, and power plants

pro-natalist policies

aka expansive polices. --Government policy that promotes reproduction and bigger families Example: Tax breaks for families since it encourages and rewards production

anti-natalist policies

aka restrictive policies --government policies that discourage reproduction and try to reduce population growth rates. Example: China's One Child Policy

pure democracy

all citizens have a say in all issues pertaining to their community

deterritorialization

allows for social and economic activities to occur regardless of where people are physically located.

authoritarian states/ autocratic states

also known as autocratic states; they concentrate political power in a single individual(oligarchy) or clique.

guinea worm disease

also known as dracunculiasis, this disease causes an infection by a roundworm that gets into humans when they drink water containing water fleas carrying the worm's larvae

deterministic

always resulting in a particular pattern

aquifer

an *underground* area of permeable rock that can contain water or allow water to pass through *Natural Rate of Recharge*

NIMBY

an acronym for "Not in My Back Yard"; refers to things that communities need and want, such as power plants and landfills, but that nobody wants in close proximity to his or her home

process

an action that brings about a particular pattern

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

an agency in the effort to promote development that represents a consortium of most of the world's countries. It acts as a credit union that provides *monetary resources* that can be used by all the countries in its network

World Bank

an agency in the effort to promote development that represents a consortium of most of the world's countries. It exists primarily as a *lending institution*, making loans available to poorer countries and providing advice about the *correct course of development*

animal husbandry

an agricultural activity associated with the raining of domesticated animals, such as cattle, horses, sheep, and goats.

extensive agriculture

an agricultural system characterized by low inputs of labor per unit land area.

Taoism

an ancient Chinese philosophy or religion focused on individual morality, self-restraint, and humility

cuneiform

an ancient Mesopotamian form of writing made by pressing a reed into a tablet of wet clay

feminist geography

an approach to human geography that focuses on gender relationships as being central to our understanding of how space is created and arranged

systematic geography

an approach to studying geography that focuses on specializing in one subfield of the discipline and then applying that knowledge to a variety of regions or places

downtown

an area (land values are high) where *offices*, *banks*, and *retail spaces* are centrally located. Also known as the *core/central business district*

frontier

an area at the edge of any type of effective political control or at the edge of settlement with edges that shift frequently with settlement advances or increasing military control

culture region

an area defined by a large number of common culture traits Example: New England, Midwest

culture hearth

an area from which important culture traits, including ideas, technology, and social structures, originated. Ancient Mesopotamia is an example

territory

an area in which a government has some measure of sovereignty. Outside the boundaries, a government does not have sovereignty.

landscape

an area that is less defined than a region and is described in an abstract manner

colonialism

an attempt by one country to establish settlements and impose its political, economical, and cultural principles in another territory.

ethnocentrism

an attitude of ethnic or cultural superiority

Runic alphabet

an early alphabet used by Germanic speakers before the adoption of the Latin alphabet

Coptic Christians

an early sect of Christianity primarily practiced in Egypt and Ethiopia

parallel

an east-west line of latitude that runs parallel to the equator and that marks distance north or south of the equator

factor mobility model

an economic model that argues that differences in wage rates cause people to migrate from low-wage areas to high-wage areas

Capitalism

an economic system in which a country's trade and industry is controlled by *private owners* who seek to turn a *profit*. *Merchants and Artisans*

capitalist commercial economy

an economic system primarily concerned with the buying and selling of *commodities*, or a product that can be exchanged for profit. *1st stage*

capitalist economy

an economy in which a wide variety of private concerns are dominant and the state is far less involved in the production of goods and services.

perimeter

an element that defines a city and is the manner by which a city is separated from the country

schistosomiasis

an endemic infectious disease caused by a fluke, which also lives in snails for part of its life cycle. The infection causes a massive immune response, affecting about 200 million people worldwide

Peters projection

an equal-area projection purposely centered on Africa in attempt to treat all regions of earth equally

criteria

an established set of conditions that helps categorize and compare information

Cajuns

an ethnic group possessing unique linguistic, religious, and other cultural traits, located in Louisiana and surrounding areas with historical roots in Canada

resurgent identity (resurgent ethnicity)

an ethnic group that reemerges after its importance faded or it was suppressed Example: Japanese-Americans during WWII, Manzanar (Internment Camp)

embargo

an external source that has the ability to choke off supplies of a critical resource

Protestant Reformation

an important religious movement, which began in Europe in the 16th century and was marked by a rejection of the power and rituals of the Catholic Church. It led to the rise of Protestant Christian sects.

political state

an independent political unit occupying a territory and having sovereign control over its people and territory.

sovereignty

an indicator that a particular government has complete control and jurisdiction over a defined territory and its people *Indicates Power*

Judaism

an old, monotheistic, and ethnic religion, which, despite its small size, has had a strong influence on human history and which formed a spiritual foundation for Christianity and Islam. Its practitioners are known as Jews

agent

an organism that causes a disease, such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa, or flukes

epidemic

an outbreak of a disease

phenomenon

any attribute that can be considered geographically

territorial dispute

any dispute over land ownership

romance languages

any of the languages derived from Latin including Italian, Spanish, French, and Romanian

artifact

any physical object that a culture produces

Tornado Alley

area of the US midsection that stretches from Texas in the South through Wisconsin in the North and Ohio in the East and Nebraska in the West where the greatest tornadic activity is witnessed

green belts

areas around cities where suburban land uses are restricted Example: *Great Britain*

autonomous regions

areas of some countries that feel they ought to have a special status partly because of their cultural distinctiveness and are given more autonomy by their government *Italy's Regions*

high-technology clusters

areas that have a high concentration of specialized *labor*, specialized *inputs*, *knowledge spillovers*, and *market/user accessibility* that benefits the high-technology industry. Example: *Silicon Valley in California*

alliances

associations among countries for the purpose of mutual defense or trade purposes Example: NAFTA

Identity

based on factors such as culture traits, ethnicity, and gender

subsequent boundaries

boundaries created after recognized settlement. They are meant to separate existing cultural groups and may signify an attempt to align the boundaries that exist between nations.

open boundaries

boundaries where crossing is unimpeded

internal boundaries

boundaries within a country that separate substate units

settlements

built out of more *permanent materials*(mudbrick,stone), rather than being of temporary construction, they allowed for the development of agriculture. *Sedentary Living*

merchants

buyers of large quantities of products, who then ship, store, and/or trade the product; a necessary component of capitalism, especially in the early stages.

forward capitals

capitals that are intended to help move a population toward less populous areas. Placed in a remote or peripheral area for economic, strategic or symbolic reasons.

demographic consequences

changes in a society's population caused by a large influx or outflow of migrants

planned cities

cities laid out along more symbolic lines, often rich with symbolic elements, such as cosmological principles. *Organized layout, grid system*

gateway city

cities that, because of their geographic location, act as ports of entry and distribution centers for large geographic areas.

jus soli

citizenship acquired through birth within a state's territory; Latin for "right of the soil."

jus sanguinis

citizenship based on parents' citizenship, regardless of place of birth; Latin for "right of blood."

developed countries/First World Countries

rich countries that have established economic and political systems and are a model and aspiration to developing countries.

nodes

components of every transportation system that are either *places* in their own right or intersections

nomothetic

concepts or rules that can be applied universally Example: Systematic geography

arable

conducive to farming. *Agronomy* (science of soil), *aridity* (dry) *line* vs. *thermal* (cold) *deficit line*. Some areas are *animal-centered (livestock)*, while others are *plant-centered (crops)*

Received Pronunciation

considered to be the standard form of English, spoken in and around London and often used on British radio and television

underdeveloped world

countries in the *bottom billion*; countries that have averaged periods of very *small growth* and periods of *negative growth*, *no improvement* form one generation to the next, and almost *no foreign investment*

semi-periphery

countries that contain aspects of both core and periphery --moderately developed --medium income --newly industrialized --median standards of living --extreme gaps between the rich and poor Examples: Chile, Brazil, India, China, Indonesia

periphery

countries that export raw materials to core countries to process into manufactured goods --lack economic power -- low per capita income -- social and political instability --low standards of living Examples: Africa (except South Africa), parts of South America, and Asia

core

countries that receive raw materials from peripheral countries to process into manufactured goods. -- economic power -- high income -- social and political stability

artisans

craftspeople who manufactured their own products and were involved in profit-seeking, but their costs were more bound to the expense of materials and labor.

commercial agriculture

crops and livestock that are farmed for *cash* and are considered *commodities*, intended to be exchanged for payment; more likely to *focus on one or two items* in order to gain a maximum return on investment, not necessarily produced for local consumption

vegeculture

crops are grown by breaking off a part of the plant and burying it in the ground

folk culture

culture traits that are traditional, no longer widely practiced by a large number of people, and generally isolated in small, often rural areas

continuous data

data that occur everywhere, beyond observations

Westphalian state system

dating from the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, a system based on the idea of a world composed of autonomous, clearly bounded, sovereign territorial states. (GERMANY)

coastal pollution

destruction or contamination of ecosystems along lakes, rivers, or oceans

sector model

developed by Homer Hoyt (1930s), a visual representation of a city that took site factors explicitly into account. These sites included the high-rent area, low-rent sectors, and middle-income sectors. *-* High rent areas (*5*) are far from factories (*2*) *-* Low rent areas (*3*) are next to undesirable factories and warehouses *-* Middle income areas (*4*) are in-between high and low-rent areas Example: *Mexico City*

comparative advantage

dictates that a specific region does a better job of producing something than another region does. *Ability* of an individual or group to carry out a *particular economic activity* (such as making a particular product) *more efficiently* than another activity. *David Ricardo*, British economist- *RESOURCES*-

absolute location

dictates where each place exists on a reference system

reverse hierarchical diffusion

diffusion up a hierarchy, such as from a small town to large cities

functions of international boundaries

disrupt traffic, represent division, embody national identity

crop complexes

distinct crops grown in certain areas, which became the basis of *regional cuisines*

informal sector

employment that is labor-intensive, absorbs the remainder of the workforce, and is open to nearly everyone but offers a very low standard of living *Selling Items on the street, gambling, and prostitution*

base employment

employment that supports jobs in the service sector and other manufacturing industries Example: *Restaurants* and *Retailers*

social factors

societal realities, such as racist or sexist policies, that might limit a person's access to health care

retail geography

field we use to study retailing's locations and impacts on the landscape

venture capitalists

financers who are willing to risk their money on a risky, initial idea in hopes of great gains.

shamanism

form of a tribal religion that involved community acceptance of a shaman, a religious leader, healer, and worker of magic who through special powers can intercede with and interpret the spirit world.

organic farming

form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation, green manure, compost, and biological pest control.

neo-European realm

former European colonies that were used for acquiring *precious metals* and other *valuable resources* and sometimes for settlement. Example; *Eli Whitney and the cotton gin*

fossil fuels

fuels that are formed when *organic matter* deposited on the earth's surface is changed by *pressure* and time over thousands of years to form *coal*, *oil*, or *natural gas* Major sources: Russia, Middle East, United States, Canada

patois

generally rural or provincial speech or a nonstandard form of a langauge

primary data

geographic data directly collected by the geographer making the map or conducting the study.

topical geography

geography that focuses primarily on understanding and identifying regions. (specialized geography)

specialty goods

goods that are not mass-produced but rather assemble individually or in small quantities.

foodways

how a culture prepares and consumes food

environmental perception

how people perceive, feel about, and interact with the environment

recharge

how quickly groundwater is replenished

water pollution

human contamination of water resources, such as lakes, rivers, and oceans. It often comes from *pesticides*, *fertilizers*, and *animal/human waste*.

primitive migration

human movements that occur when a population runs out of food (hunters and gatherers)

anthropogenic

human-induced changes on the natural environment

built environment

human-made environmental elements, including buildings, monuments, and streets

non-material culture

ideas, knowledge, and beliefs that influence people's behavior, not physical objects

export-led approach

identifies products that can be exported to the outside world, taking advantage of a country's specific advantages Example: *South Korea-Samsung*

Western values

important elements of Western culture, including *rationalism*, *science* as opposed to religion, and a *strong work ethnic*

Third World

impoverished countries that have frail or corrupt economic and political systems and that aspire to become developed countries.

less developed countries

impoverished countries that have frail or corrupt economic and political systems, low levels of economic productivity, low per capita incomes, and low standards of living that aspire to become developed countries Examples: Countries in Africa aside from South Africa, parts of South America and Asia

Schengen Agreement

in 1995, several European countries lifted all border controls between them, allowing for unimpeded access across international boundaries. It now includes most Western and Central European countries as well as many Eastern European countries.

caste system

in Hindu areas, a complex division of society based on hereditary classes that are distinguished by their degree of ritual purity

colonial period

in US history, the period from about 1600 until the American Revolution

central business district (CBD)

in a *city*, the point with the greatest access to offices, banks, stores, and other activities. It is the most distinguishing feature and functions as a *central marketplace*, a major *transportation node*, and an *administrative center*, and it offers high-level services and contains heavy pedestrian traffic. *Nodal Point* (converge)

private sector

in a capitalist society, all the factories, firms, and offices responsible for producing goods and providing services that are not run by the state; includes all of the output produced by individuals working for themselves and privately owned business Example: *Fortune 500 companies*

public sector

in a capitalist society, state-run functions, including external relations, a system of adjudication or arbitration, and tax collection; includes all of the output produced by government at all levels. Has *11% of the US's GDP*

peripheral

in contrast to core areas, these regions are at the edge of political control, recently integrated into the state, culturally distinct, or exclaves

subjects

in monarchical, feudal, or imperial settings, the residents of the state. They are given few rights, despite their many obligations for military service, labor, and taxation.

geographical factors

in regard to access to health care, how close or accessible facilities are to users

functional factors

in regard to access to health care, the presence or absence of health care resources.

karma

in religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism, the notion that every action a person takes, whether good or bad, has a consequence in the future

reincarnation

in religions such as Hinduism, the belief that souls are reborn after death in other life forms

structure

in social theory, social, political, or economic systems that might limit or constrain the human capacity to make more independent decisions; often contrasted with agency

behavior

in the triangle of human ecology, the effects of cultural norms or societal organizations on human health.

national landscapes

include Houses, churches, parks, monuments, and all manner of things that help determine the national flavor of a place

accessibility

indicates ease of movement between places

Aborigines

indigenous people of Australian, words from these people were added into the Australian language (Kangaroo, boomerang, and dingo)

mentifacts

individual culture traits of the ideological subsystem, such as an idea

suburbs

inhabited areas around cities that grew rapidly due to decentralization of cities and automobile dependency

unifying institutions

institutions that help promote nationalist ideology and bring members of a nation together.

economic activity

interaction in which a good or service is *extracted*, *produced*, *consumed*, or *exchanged* and can be found in nearly everything that people need to live. *Economic Determinism*

geometric boundaries

lines drawn on a map without much interest in whatever natural or cultural features are present. Political boundaries that are defined and delimited by straight lines.

meridian

lines of longitude that originate at the Prime Meridian and end at the International Date Line in the Pacific Ocean.

vernacular

local or isolated to a particular area. In the study of languages, words and phrases unique to a particular region.

elongated state

long, narrow. Difficult communications between areas. Example: Chile, Italy, Vietnam, Argentina

absolute distance

method of distance measurement using the straight line mileage between two places

supranationalism

method of extending state borders through the assistance and or establishment of other organizations to further economic and or political cooperation

life cycle factors

migrants move at significant times in their lives

impelled migration

migration in which a person fears that failure to move will likely result in negative consequences because of persecution

Everett Lee

migration theorist who in 1966 came up with the push-pull model

ethnic islands

moderately sized areas of ethnic concentration in rural, or non-urban areas, such as Amish or Hutterite communities Example: Nappanee, IN

conveyances

modes of travel, including boats, horses, trains, motor vehicles, streetcars, and aircraft

environment

most commonly, the physical or natural conditions of an area. Geographers will use the term *physical* or *natural environment*. *Environmental Determinism*

ethnic nations

nations based on cultural commonality as opposed to civic nations, which are based on shared principles

civic nations

nations based on shared principles, in contrast to ethnic nations, which are based more on cultural commonalities

natural boundaries

natural features that divide one country from another *Oceans, Rivers, and Mountains

subsistence agriculture

nearly all the crops and livestock are used to support the farmer, the farmer's family, and perhaps a large group within a clan or village. *Survival*

maternal mortality rate

number of deaths per thousand of women giving birth

gentrification

occurs when the housing stock of a neighborhood is improved generally through the introduction of high-priced, more luxurious housing

ethnoregionalism

occurs where a minority national group is concentrated in a particular region of a country and may create small- or large-scale difficulties, including demands for autonomy

location charts

on a map, a chart or graph that gives specific statistical information about a particular political unit or jurisdiction.

class intervals

on a map, groupings of data assigned different shades or colors

Mahayana Buddhism

one of the two largest branches of Buddhism, practiced primarily in East and Southeast Asia. Generally, it has more mystical and spiritual elements than Theravada Buddhism.

place similarity

one or more attributes that places have in common

e-tailing

online vending of goods, such as on *Amazon.com*, *eBay.com*, *Overstock.com*

political unit

organizational entities at several different spatial scales that aid the study of political geography. The most important of these is the country, or state.

foreign investment

overseas business investments made by private companies

enclave

part of or an entire country surrounded by another country Example: Berlin, (West Germany)

colonies

parts of an empire that are subordinate and have very little right to self-determination

migration stream

pathway from a place of origin to a destination. Shown on maps as arrows; the thicker the arrow, the larger the group of migrants moving in that pathway

remittances

payments made by overseas migrants to their families back home

internally displaced persons

people forced to leave their homes but who settle in another part of their own country

migration counterstream

people moving back to the place of origin from the new place. Can be caused by legal, economic, or personal factors. Example: Indians returning from other parts of the world back to India to take advantage of the growing economy.

material culture

physical manifestations of human activities; includes tools, campsites, art, and structures. The most durable aspects of culture

intervening opportunities

places along a migrant's route that might cause that person to stop and settle before reaching his or her final destination

gendered spaces

places that are considered male or female, or even gender neutral. Example: Restrooms, Retail Spaces and Stores, Gyms, Kitchens, Boardrooms, Workspaces, and Private Clubs

profane landscape

places that are not holy or sacred; everyday places

mystico-religious sites

places that are sacred to a religion because it is believed that a deity or other supernatural entity came into direct contact with humans at those locations

centers of absorption

places that attract migrants, according to Ravenstein (equivalent to Urban/Industrial centers)

formal/uniform/homogeneous regions

places that have one or more characteristics in common Example: --*The Sahara*, *The Rockies*, map showing where Islam is practiced --*Friesland* in the northern part of the Netherlands. In this part of the country, people speak a different language and perceive themselves differently from other citizens of the country.

landfills

places where waste material is buried and covered with soil

capital city

political center and necessary component of every state. It may or may not be in the core, and there may be more than one in a country

special regions

political subunits that are granted different powers than those of regular subunits Example: Canada (provinces and territories), Indian Reservations

periodic movement

population movement, often over long distances, that occurs from time to time but is not permanent, such as going away to school or joining the armed forces

mass migration

population movements of a large number of people (also known as group migration)

triangle of human ecology

population, habitat, behavior

nature

powerful force and often we are caught off guard by the *sheer power* of the *environment*

horizontal loyalty

powerful loyalty to a nation that is expressed toward all the people of that nation

custom

practices followed by the people of a particular cultural group

acid rain

precipitation that has elevated levels of sulfuric or nitric acid

kosher

prepared according to Jewish laws and traditions and most commonly used to refer to food

urban center

represents the organizing principle of the city and reflects the vital concerns of the population. In modern times, the main items that constitute the center is the "*downtown*", where land value is at its peak and where *office*, *banking*, and *retail functions* are located

poststructuralism

a broad term that refers to social theories that question structuralism's search for deep structures and that focused on individuals and local differences. In geography, many poststructuralists focus on how marginalized groups view and use landscapes

compromise capital

a capital of a country that is selected as a compromise between sectional interests within the country Example: Ottawa and D.C.

density gradient

a change in density of people over distance

pure characteristic

a characteristic that can be applied to an entire place

walking city

a city in which the majority of people walk to get from one spot to the other, which was the case for every city *before 1850*. It had a *radius* of about *2 miles*. Example: *Boston*

organic city

a city that is loosely planned, often featuring streets of varied width that might resemble labyrinths. Many medieval cities were organic, as are modern cities such as Boston. *Random; grew as city spread*

iconic landscapes

a class of distinctive landscape types that bring to mind images and symbols essential to identity

tradition

a cohesive collection of customs within a cultural group

language family

a collection of languages that have a common ancestor and is subdivided into smaller branches of related languages

postmodernism

a complex set of ideas that arose as a criticism of modernism and that, in general, rejects that everything in the world is rational or neatly categorized

representative democracy

a complicated structure in which people elect representatives who are supposed to take the time to understand the issues and to represent their interests *Citizens and Voting*

Esperanto

a constructed international auxiliary language incorporating aspects of numerous linguistic traditions to create a universal means of communication

multidivisional corporation

a corporation with many divisions based on production lines or stages in the production chain Example: *Harley Davidson motorcycles*

transnational corporation (TNC)

a corporation with many divisions based on production lines or stages in the production chain that cross international boundaries. Examples: *Bayer* (Aspirin) and *Honda* (cars)

multinational state

a country that contains more than one nation, which is true for many countries Example: The US and Canada

state

a country; political unit with a permanent population, territorial boundaries that are recognized by other states, an effective government, a working economy, and sovereignty.

Gullah

a creole language spoken on islands off the coast of South Carolina and Georgia

religion

a cultural system of beliefs, traditions, and practices, often centered around the worship of a deity or deities

pastoral nomadism

a culture that locates in areas too harsh for crops and that moves seasonally with their *animals* to locate the available water. Example: *Bedouins of North Africa*

sociofact

a culture trait in the sociological subsystem

Cockney

a dialect traditionally spoken by the lower classes in and around London

cognate

a discipline that is in some way affiliated with a branch of human geography; for example, political science is a cognate of political geography

malaria

a disease caused by a parasite and spread to humans by mosquitoes. About 40% of the world's population is at risk of contracting this disease

endemic

a disease, such as chicken pox, that is always present at some level in a population

clustered

a distribution in which data show distinct pockets of concentration

niche marketers

retailers that sell goods to fulfill a *particular need*, such as an outdoor equipment company. Examples: *Land's End*, *Cabela's*, *Bass Pro Shop*

distance

a factor that heavily influences spatial interactions and can be measured in several ways

topophobia

a fear of place

hunting and gathering

a feature of prehistoric human life, the combination of killing animals and finding edible plant life for food, which required *teamwork*, effective *communication*, and *weapon construction*.

asymmetrical federalism

a federation or confederation in which different constituent states possess different powers: one or more of the states has considerably more autonomy than the other substates, although they have the same constitutional status. The division of powers between substates is not symmetric

conglomerate corporation

a firm that is comprised of many smaller firms that serve several different functions.

urban morphology

a form of an urban area, which in developing countries tends to include inadequate housing, a fairly modern central business district, and a few well-serviced neighborhoods

cash exchanges

a form of trade in which cash, a way to place an abstract value on a *product* or *service* that allows for relatively *easy exchanges*, is exchanged for a good or service.

transportation network

a framework that allows the movement of people and goods. In most cases, it has been composed of *surface streets*, but several cities have also adopted *canals* and *trains* as a means of carrying heavy freight

activity space

a functional region in which individual activities occur

geographical grid

a geographical spreadsheet in which places are represented in rows and have a specific geographical location

democracy

a government that is considered to rule with the consent of its people and, so, is internally legitimate but is not necessarily a government that is legitimate to other governments

culture complex

a group of interrelated culture traits that define a particular culture

sprachbund

a group of languages from different families or branches of a family that share grammatical of lexical similarities because of proximity

minority national group

a group that considers itself a nation but does not have control of the state

Diaspora

a group that identifies with a particular homeland or territory but whose members are now dispersed Example:The Chinese in SE Asia and the Jews

ethnicity

a group's self-identification based on cultural, historical, physical, or other characteristics. NOT the same as culture. _______ INCLUDES culture and many other ideas

national highway system

a highway system that had been established by the 1920s. It led to the development of o*dd-numbered north-south* (*US 41*) roads and *even-numbered east-west* (*US 30*) routes.

mosque

a house of worship in Islam and distinguished by a tower known as a minaret

tourism

a huge and varied industry made up of *travel agents, hotels, restaurants*, attraction developers, cruise, tour guides, guidebooks, and local and regional officials who seek to market their own place. Industry most oriented with the *field of geography* Top 5 destinations: France, Spain, US, China, Italy

cyclone

a hurricane in the Indian Ocean

typhoon

a hurricane in the northwestern Pacific Ocean

multiplier effect

a job in a particular industry that has a multiplier of 2.0, meaning that this one job actually results in two jobs in the economy: the original industrial job as well as an additional non-base job.

pilgrimage

a journey to a place of religious importance

dharma

a key concept in Hinduism, one's proper duty in life

edge cities

a key new concept of a modern city, they combine all functions of a *central business district* (*shopping*) but are located in the *suburbs* and provide more jobs than homes

ordinary landscape

a landscape that people encounter in their daily experiences

language isolate

a language that belongs to no known language family

lingua franca

a language used in cross-cultural communication or trade

American Sign Language (ASL)

a language using hand gestures, primarily used by the deaf in the United States and Canada

Niger-Congo

a large language family of 1400 languages spoken primarily in Africa

Indo-European

a large language family of hundreds of languages including English, Germanic, and Romance languages that is spoken by about 50% of the world

Malayo-Polynesian

a large language family of over 1200 tongues spoken primarily in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific

Sino-Tibetan

a large language family that includes various dialects of Chinese, including Mandarin and spreads through most of Southeast Asia and China. Comprised of: Chinese, Burmese, Tibetan, Japanese, and Korean

mass consumption

a large number of people purchasing large quantities of goods

mass production

a large output of goods, which both drops the price of the goods and sparks demand due to affordability. *Key outcome of industrialization*

concentration of labor

a large population of workers in close proximity to factories, which allows the factory system to function

Rosetta Stone

a large stone discovered in 1799 with three languages inscribed on it. It eventually led to the deciphering of Egyptian hieroglyphics

host

a life form that has a disease *Animal or Human*

quota

a limit imposed on the quantity of a country's exports or imports, often used to restrict imported goods

international date line

a line of longitude that is the other side of the prime meridian and is 180 degrees

boundary

a line that distinguishes the area within the region from the area outside the region

international boundary

a line that separates one state from another. Both sides usually have claims as to where the boundary should be located and it is rare to find an unattended boundary between two sovereign states

moment magnitude scale

a logarithmic scale used for measuring the *strength* of an earthquake. *Richter Scale*- outdated, older

topophilia

a love of place

natural disaster

a major adverse event resulting from natural processes or occurrences of the Earth. ~*Aftermath of a Hazard*~

Azimuthal projection

a map projection in which the plane is the most developable surface. Are planar, meaning they are formed when a flat piece of paper is placed on top of the globe and, as described earlier, a light source projects the surrounding areas onto the map. either the North Pole or the South Pole is oriented at the center of the map, giving the viewer an impression of looking up or down at Earth.

representative fraction

a map scale in which figures representing units are expressed in the form of the fraction 1/x (as 1/250,000) or of the ratio 1:x to indicate that one unit on the map represents x units (as 250,000 centimeters) on the earth's surface

small scale

a map scale ratio in which the ratio of units on the map to units on Earth is quite small. Usually depict large areas. Example: map of the world.

preference map

a map that displays individual preferences for certain places

isoline map

a map that is used to display distributions. It consists of lines that connect points of equal value

cognitive distance

a measure of distance based on perceived distance, rather than physical distance

crude death rate (CDR)

a measure of mortality that represents the number of deaths per 1,000 people in a population in a given year

index of dissimilarity

a measure of segregation that indicates how isolated two groups are from each other in a particular city or area Example: Census Tracts; US Census Bureau

Euclidean space

a measure of space in which space operates as an area in which activities take place; also known as absolute space

gender equity

a measure of the opportunities given to woman compared to men within a given country

longitude

a measured distance east and west of the prime meridian

latitude

a measured distance north or south of the equator, with the North and South Poles as key reference points

productivity

a measurement of the goods and services produced within a particular country

currency manipulation

a method by which a country keeps its currency artificially low in order to make the costs of imported goods high and decrease the costs of its exports

Euclidean distance

a method of distance measurement using the straight line mileage between two places

global production line

a method of worldwide production in which the product is moved from one place to another in order to take advantage of favorable costs or specific expertise.

asylum seeker

a migrant hoping to be declared a refugee in a foreign country

demographic transition model (DTM)

a model of demographic change based on Europe's population int he eighteenth through twentieth centuries. It argues that as a country modernizes, its fertility and mortality rates drop, but not at the same time. Because death rates drop before birth rates, population increase will occur.

push-pull model

a model of immigration that argues that people are pushed from their homes by certain negative factors and pulled into other locations by positive qualities

gravity model

a model that defines the interaction between two cities in terms of each city's population and the distance between the two locations

Islam

a monotheistic religion with two major sects. it was founded in the 7th century by the prophet Muhammad and is now the second largest religion in the World. Its practitioners are known as Muslims. Based in the ancient city of Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the birthplace of Muhammad.

yellow fever

a mosquito-transmitted viral disease that causes an acute hemorrhagic fever, affecting about 200,000 people worldwide each year

scientific exploration

a movement that arose in the 19th century and focused on sending teams of scientists to explore certain parts of the world

polygot

a multilingual state

multistate nation

a nation that encompasses more than one state in which the nations may or may not have control of the state Example: The Arab nation

stateless nation

a nation that has no state/territory to call its own Example: Kurdistan

consumption

a necessary aspect of human existence. Having evolved over time, it used to be what humans needed to survive but today includes luxury items that people desire.

intelligent transportation systems

a network that enhances the coordination of traffic signal lights with the overall patterns and flows of traffic. *Computers*

denomination

a particular religious group, usually associated with differing Protestant belief systems.

cyclical movements

a pattern of migration in which migrants move back and forth between two or a small number of places, such as their home and a distant work-site

hierarchical diffusion

a pattern where things move from one place to other places that have some similarities or are otherwise going to be more receptive, such as from a large city to smaller cities or from a boss to a subordinate

refugee

a person living outside of his or her own country who cannot return home because o fear of jury or persecution

homosexual

a person who is sexually attracted to people of the same sex. 90% of HIV cases in the 1980s in the United States was among these people

heterosexual

a person who is sexually attracted to the opposite sex; HIV epidemic in the 1980s in Africa was mostly among these people

prostitutes

a person, typically a woman, who engages in sexual activity for payment. Most trafficked persons are forced to work as _________

random distribution

a phenomenon that is neither clustered nor dispersed

creole

a pidgin language that has been adopted by a group of speakers as its primary tongue

nodal point

a place at which things, such as transportation routes, converge

core region

a place that can represent where the state and the dominant nationality emerged

sacred landscape

a place that has religious or spiritual importance

vassal

someone who must show fealty and pay some form of tribute to an overlord in return for being able to use the land.

luxury

something that provides enjoyment beyond the necessities of life.

urban functions

specialized functions taken on by cities as a result of an interurban network *Detroit*: Automobiles *Las Vegas*: Tourism *Boston*: Universities *Pittsburgh*: Steel *L.A.*: Film and TV

Basque (Spain)

spoken in some areas of the Basque country in northern Spain, known as isolates because they are unrelated to other languages

communist economy

state that assume nearly all economic and social functions and try to impose comprehensive control over economic activities

federal states

states in which each of the subunits is granted an independent constitutional authority, which defines its level of power, with the central state retaining greater sovereignty

unitary states

states in which nearly all of the sovereignty and power reside with the central government

microstates

states that are very small but are still considered to possess a certain degree of sovereignty, legitimacy, and territory

retail chains

stores that have several locations and are owned by the same company, as opposed to single, family-owned businesses. *Spatial monopoly*

ethnography

study of human races and culture ethno is the Greek word for people

Epidemiology

study of the cause and transmission of disease

fordism

system of standardized mass production attributed to Henry Ford

imperial economies

systems marked by the redistribution of surplus from peasants to large landholders, but with the imperial *bureaucracy* taking a substantial cut. *Diverse and complex*

multiscalar

taking place at different spatial scales

tariffs

taxes on items leaving or entering a country, often used to raise the price of imported goods

Indirect factors of production

technology, infrastructure, financial system, government role, education/training, entrepreneurial climate Write as such: __________ factors of production

squatter settlements

temporary structures built up by people with nowhere else to go, which usually suggest illegal occupation Characteristics: --*poor population* --*no clean water* --*no sanitation or sewers* --*lack of infrastructure or electricity* --*housing shortages and homelessness* are some issues

probabilistic

tending to result in a pattern

loan words

terms used in one language that have an origin in another language

fixed capital

the *buildings*, machines, transportation, and other *structural items needed* to produce goods

development disparities

the *inequity* between *developed and developing countries*, which can be viewed as a function of progress or intrinsic to a global economic structure that began with colonialism and persists today. 2 views: *1*: Underdevelopment is a function of progress *2*: Underdevelopment is intrinsic to a global economic structure that began with colonialism and persists with neocolonialism

modal split

the *percentage* of travel undertaken via each transport mode

land rent

the *profitability* of a particular piece of land, dependent on *soil quality, climate, terrain*, and *cultural factors*.

factory system

the *system* in which several people work under one roof, bringing together all the necessary *machinery* to be powered from belts by one *steam engine*, requiring very little skill. -Machines were very *expensive* to *buy* and *operate*-

Muhammad

the 7th-century prophet that Muslims believe is a messenger of God; the founder of the religion of Islam

Siddhartha (Gautama)

the Buddha; a noble born in the Himalayas approximately 2,500 years ago who rejected his life of privilege and sought a path to enlightenment. His teachings form the basis of Buddhism

Hanification

the Chinese government practice of moving Han Chinese citizens into minority ethnic areas to dilute the importance of the minority culture.

Thomas Malthus

the Englishman (1766-1834) who wrote An Essay on the Principle Population (1798) and argued that population growth would lead to famine and disease.

entrepreneurship

the ability of managers to develop new industries, seek out new markets, and maintain a competitive edge.

Literacy

the ability to read and write

access

the ability to travel between locations, such as *workplaces*, *stores*, and *factories*; is defined by an individual's situation

site

the absolute location of a place, described by local relief, landforms, and other cultural or physical characteristics. Example: San Francisco is characterized by diverse ethnic neighborhoods; a large harbor; fine Victorian-era architecture; a cool, foggy climate; and hilly topography.

slavery

the act of being a slave; some women and children who are trafficked are put into _______

emigration

the action or movement of people leaving a country to live and permanently settle in a foreign land

assimilation

the adoption of a new culture by a migrant and the abandonment of most aspects of an original culture

finance capital

the amount of *money* available to finance industries; includes available money as well as the capacity to obtain loans

friction of distance

the amount of time it takes to get from one place to another

Hinduism

the ancient and complex ethnic religion practiced primarily in India. It emphasizes reincarnation, the worship of any one of many gods, and the consequences of one's actions

Hajj

the annual pilgrimage to Mecca that all capable Muslims are expected to undertake at least once in their lifetime

capital region

the area around the capital city in a country.

hinterland

the area surrounding a city from which it obtains its food *Farmland and Pastureland*

pattern

the arrangement of various geographic phenomena at a given point in time

agriculture

the art and science of producing food from the land and tending livestock for the purpose of human consumption.

popular culture

the aspects of a culture that are widespread, fast-changing, and transmitted by the mass media

transportation infrastructure

the availability and quality of transportation networks in a country, such as *roads and railways*

life expectancies

the average life spans of persons in a particular population.

self-sufficiency

the belief of some nations to produce everything that they need within their borders *no trade*

animism

the belief that deities or souls inhabit everyday objects

Vajrayana

the branch of Buddhism practiced primarily in Tibet and Mongolia

Semitic

the branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family that includes Arabic

Great Schism

the breakup, in 1054, of the major sect of Christianity into the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church

structural responses

the building of physical structures, such as *levees*, *walls* or other *engineering systems* to reduce the impact of potential natural hazard

nonstore retailing

the buying and selling of goods that takes place outside of a store setting, such as by *traveling salespeople* or through *mail-ordering*

dual citizenship

the case in which a person can be a citizen of two countries

proto-language

the common ancestor of a family of modern languages

competitive advantage

the concept, promoted by economist *Michael Porter*,that takes into account the mix of infrastructure, skilled labor, government, domestic demand, levels of domestic competition, agglomeration economies, and other items.

domestication

the conscious manipulation of plant and animal species by humans in order to sustain themselves.

transferability

the cost involved in moving goods from one place to another -decreases when the costs of moving people or goods from one place to another is high -increases when costs are low

capitalist industrial economic system

the creation of *finished products* from *raw materials*, first by artisans and later by *mass production*, that paved the way for a truly *global capitalist economy*. *2nd stage; Industrial Revolution and Industrial Activity*

aquaculture

the cultivation or farming (in controlled conditions) of aquatic species, such as fish. In contrast to commercial fishing, which involves catching wild fish.

cultural landscape

the cultural impacts on an area, including buildings, agricultural patterns, roads, signs, and nearly everything else that humans have created

polygyny

the cultural practice of a husband having multiple wives

free migration

the decision to relocate permanently to another location without coercion, support, or compulsion by any group

connectivity

the degree of economic, social, cultural, or political connection between two places

network connectivity

the degree to which direct movements are possible over a network.

separatism

the desire to break away and from one's own nation-state

net migration

the difference between the number of people who leave and the number of people who arrive in a country

value added

the difference between the price of the final product and the cost of *raw materials*, *labor*, and *other inputs.* Example: *Cereal Companies*: *Kellogg's*, *Post*, *General Mills*

rate of natural increase (RNI)

the difference in births and deaths in a population, usually expressed as a percentage; does not take into account migration into or out of an area. [(crude birth rate-crude death rate)/10]

relocation diffusion

the diffusion of a particular phenomenon over a far distance as a result of migration

travel distance

the distance traveled between places based on existing transportation routes.

homeland

the distinct territory associated with a nation; however, unlike a state, the members of a particular nation may not be found in a territorially demarcated and contained place

point pattern

the distribution of points on a map, which can be analyzed to determine patterns

political subunits

the division of territory into smaller, manageable pieces *Factories/Plants, Catholic Dioceses

economic determinism

the doctrine that all social, cultural, political, and intellectual forms are determined by or result from such economic factors as the quality of natural resources, productive capability, technological development, or the distribution of wealth.

cultural imperialism

the dominance of one culture over another

aggregate characteristics

the dominant characteristics found within a place

metropole

the dominant part of an empire, distinguished from the subordinate colonies, which is normally the state that initiated colonization

psychosocial insults

the effects of things such as crowding, anxiety, belonging, or love on a person's health

infectious stimuli

the effects on a person caused by viruses, bacteria, or other physical insults

factors of production

the elements necessary for production, including raw materials, labor, financial capital, and markets.

network

the entire pattern of nodes and links

host society

the established and dominant society within which immigrant groups seek accommodations.

international trade

the exchange of goods and services across country boundaries

economic development

the expansion of and improvement to a country's economy, which can mean harvesting natural *resources*, increasing the *welfare* of poorer countries, or raising per capita *incomes.* *Karl Marx*

exclusivity

the expectation that a person is loyal to only one nation

primary loyalty

the expectation that loyalty to a nation transcends that of other allegiances

commodity export economies

the export of just a few agricultural or mining commodities

economy

the extraction, production, consumption, and exchange of *goods and services*.

restricted migration

the fact that, in the modern world, there is very little "free" migration because of laws and border regulations. Thus, even when people make a free decision to move, they may not be able to migrate

morphology

the form of a city, which varies but often includes an *urban population*, a *center*, a *perimeter*, and an *internal transportation network*

barter

the form of trade in which a good or service is traded for another good or service, as agreed upon by the people doing the trading. *first form of trade*

Gilbert White

the geographer (1911-2006) who pioneered research on natural hazards and human response to *flooding*.

action space

the geographic area that contains the space an individual interacts with on a daily basis.

contextual effect / neighborhood effect

the geographical theory in which the characteristics of people in a local area help determine their political preferences; questions the overall importance of place in shaping people's attitudes or behaviors

The Great Columbian Exchange

the global exchange of crops that occurred after 1492, including the transport of European crops, such as wheat, melons, and grapes, by Christopher Columbus to the island of Hispaniola.

primitive agriculture

the gradual transition to agriculture, occurring in different parts of the world beginning about 9000BC. Some early agricultural groups were nomadic and some involved shifting cultivation; most early agriculturalists settled into more permanent settlements (surpluses bartered). *Irrigation* (wheat, bread, beer)

density peak

the highest density an area in a city has ever experienced, which can be compared with current density to determine increase or decline

Herodotus

the historian (~484-425 C) who included geographic descriptions in his writings.

Qur'an

the holy book of Islam, believed by Muslims to be the actual words of God as revealed to Muhammad

Vedas

the holy books of the Hindus

water diversion

the human alteration of natural water patterns, such as irrigation channels, aqueducts, reservoirs, and similar structures. *Three Gorges Dam Disaster* China 1975

central places

the idea by *Walter Christaller* in the 1930s that different types of stores tend to cluster into *shopping centers*.

urban hierarchy

the idea that cities are rarely equal in size and importance to each other *Not all cities are of equal size or importance*

secularism

the idea that ethical and mortal standards should be formulated and adhered for life on Earth, not to accommodate the prescription, of a deity and promises of a comfortable afterlife.

Zipf's law

the idea that places or things that are farther apart will have less interaction

social construction of space

the idea that society shapes the spatial nature of our world

distance decay

the idea that, all else being equal, as the distance between two places increases, the volume of interaction between these places decreases

nation-state ideal

the ideal arrangement under nationalist ideology that every nation should have control over a state. Conversely, every political state should embody a specific nation.

ideological subsystem

the ideas, beliefs, values, and knowledge of a culture

nationalism

the ideology that maintains that members of a nation should be allowed to form their own sovereign state. Sense of national pride to such an extent of exalting one nation above all others.

digital divide

the inequity between those countries with good and growing access to the World Wide Web and the many countries where Internet use is quite low. *Computer and Internet Accessibility*

backward linkages

the inputs required for production, such as machinery, machine tools, metal working, and iron casting.

human ecology

the interconnections between human populations and the physical world

introduced capitals

the introduction of a new city that can serve as a capital or to designate an existing smaller city as the new capital city, rather than use existing cities to form a capital region

air pollution

the introduction of chemicals, biological matter, or *particulates* (small solids) into the atmosphere. Examples: Carbon Monoxide(CO), Nitrogen Oxide(NO), Hydrocarbons

prime meridian

the key reference line for longitude that is 0 degrees; an arbitrary line that crosses through Greenwich, England, and connects the poles

relative significance

the level of significance a characteristic has, depending on scale of analysis and the topic of interest.

relative location

the location of a place compared to other places

refugee warehousing

the long-term housing of refugees in a specific location without allowing them to assimilate into the receiving country (aka Refugee Camps)

placelessness

the loss of a place's unique flavor and identity because of the standardizing influences of popular culture and globalization.

genocide

the mass destruction of a population.

technological subsystem

the material objects that a culture produces, as well as the procedures for using those objects

vector

the means by which a disease agent is transmitted to a host, such as a mosquito, tick, fly, or rodent

global assembly line

the modern reality that production chains are no longer completed all in one place. Various components are produced in and transported to sites all around the world.

spatial interaction

the movement and interconnections between places, whether through communication, economic transaction, migration, or travel.

Hijra

the movement of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to what is now Medina in 622 AD, an event regarded as the start of the Islamic calendar

diffusion

the movement of a phenomenon from one location to another

innovation diffusion

the movement of a phenomenon from one location to another

cultural diffusion

the movement of culture traits from one place to another

international migration

the movement of people between countries

rural-to-urban migration

the movement of people form the countryside to the city

internal migration

the movement of people within a country

habitat

the natural characteristics and cultural aspects of an environment

functional assimilation

the nearly complete fusion of a minority ethnic group with its larger host society

spatial connectivity

the network created by spatial interactions, which geographers attempt to understand

sequent occupance

the notion of successive societies leave their cultural imprints on a place each contributing to the cumulative cultural landscape. important concept in geography because it symbolizes how humans interact with their surroundings (changing attributes of a place)

effective national territory

the notion that the legal area, or de jure area, of a state is not coincident with the territory that it effectively controls, the de facto area

infant mortality rate (IMR)

the number of babies who die before age of one per 1,000 deaths. [(number of infants who die before age 1/all births) x 1000]

carrying capacity

the number of people an area can support given the technology.

population

the number of people in an area as well as the age, gender, and genetic characteristics of a society

population density

the number of people living per unit of an area

Density

the number of some phenomenon divided by some sort of control group

Theravada Buddhism

the oldest of the two major branches of Buddhism. Practiced mainly in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, and Cambodia, its beliefs are relatively conservative, holding close to the original teachings of the Buddha

sociological subsystem

the part of a culture that guides how people are expected to interact with each other and how their social institutions are structured

High Seas

the parts of the ocean in which no government has sovereignty

first wave of European immigration

the period from 1800 until 1880, when large numbers of Europeans, particularly from northern and western Europe, moved to North America

second wave of European immigration

the period in US history between 1880 and 1921, which saw millions of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe arrive in America

Neolithic Revolution

the period in ancient times, approximately 12,000 years ago, when livestock and agriculture were domesticated, leading to the establishment of more permanent settlements and a rise in global population. Also called Agricultural Revolution.

migration

the permanent relocation of one's place of residence, usually implying a long-distance move

streetcar city

the phase that took place after the *Civil War* in which city population ballooned, *transit systems* developed, and *electric* streetcars replaced horsecars and omnibuses. *Second stage* of transportation and cities. AKA: *Omnibus or Horsecar City*

hearth

the place where something begins

language extinction

the point at which a language no longer has any active speakers

break-in-bulk point

the point at which cargo is broken into smaller units to be transported to local markets

binary rank-size distributions

the population of the top cities overwhelm the rest in terms of population

profit

the positive difference between how much revenue is made by selling a product and how much it costs to buy or make a product.

social consequences

the positive or negative effects of migration when two or more societies come together

economic consequences

the positive or negative financial effects of migration

Pali Canon

the primary teachings of Buddhism; also know as the Tripitaka

Tripitaka

the primary teachings of the Buddha; also known as the Pali Canon

industrialization

the process by which a greater proportion of a national economy is involved in the *manufacturing of goods*. This allows more goods to be produced in *greater quantity* and at a *lower price*.

cultural convergence

the process by which two cultures become similar

emergent ethnicity

the process in which a new ethnic group or identity appears Example: Palestinians

filtering

the process in which more prosperous families move out of older housing and into new housing, creating a vacancy, which is filled by families that are less wealthy. *Older housing* may be *subdivided (duplexes)* and turned into *rental units*.

language divergence

the process of a language splitting into two or more distinct languages

deforestation

the process of clearing a forest

irrigation

the process of directing water from nearby water sources to cropland. Early technologies required that a community work together through directing, digging, and construction.

acculturation

the process of learning how to operate within a new culture

repatriation

the process of moving refugees back into their home country or region

language convergence

the process of two languages merging together

production

the process that *creates an object* that is more valuable than the sum of the raw materials going into it

demand conditions

the products a country is likely to import based on its level of discretionary income, its preferences, and the availability of similar products at home. --Wealth --Discretionary income --Preferences

Ecumene

the proportion of the earth inhabited by humans

asylum

the protection granted by a nation to someone who has left their native country as a political refugee

border

the region (AREA) where a boundary exists, unlike a boundary, which is simply a line

political economy

the relationship among the state, the members of the state, and the economic activities contained within the state

ecology

the relationship between plants or animals and the environment

covariation

the relationship between the spatial distributions of two or more phenomena that tend to vary in the same way

links

the routes that *connect* nodes. In transportation, these can be roads, railroads, rivers, canals, footpaths, or sea or air routes.

segregation

the separation between or among different social or ethnic groups

commodity chain

the series of events that leads to the sale of a commodity to a consumer; design, production, marketing and retail. Gathers resources, converts them into goods, packages them for distribution, and sells them on the market.

cluster migration

the settlement of a whole town or area en masse by a particular ethnic group. Example: Irish in Boston

people smuggling

the shipping of people to circumvent immigration laws

Shaman

the single person who takes on the roles of priest, counselor, and physician and acts as a conduit to the supernatural world in a shamanist culture

behavioral assimilation/ cultural assimilation

the situation in which a migrant or new ethnic group maintains a strong self-identity and much of the original culture but has adopted enough of the cultural traits of a host society to be a functioning member of it

forced migration

the situation in which migrants have no choice but to move or else face death or other severe penalty

irredentism

the situation that arises when the ethnic group supports and seeks to reunite with its ethnic population in a neighboring countries. Example: Somalia and Ethiopia

recession

the situation that occurs when measures of the economy decline, often for a sustained period of time, such as half a year. Example: *2008 US's Economic _______*

gender

the societal norms and behaviors that are expected of males or females

neocolonialism

the sort of economic relationships that persist between the mother country and the former colony, even after independence

phonemes

the sounds used in spoken language

distribution

the spatial arrangement of a phenomenon

legitimacy

the standing or right of the government of a unit to rule a state's people or territory Example: United Nations; New York

fundamentalism

the strict adherence to a particular doctrine.

geopolitics

the study of how geographical space- including the types of interrelationships between states, the different functions of states, and the different patterns of states-affects global politics

cultural ecology/ nature-society geography

the study of how human societies adapt to *local habitats* and how traditional societies engage in *farming* or other *primary activities*. *human-environment relations*

demography

the study of patterns and rates of population change, including birth and death rates, migration trends, and evolving population distribution patterns.

cultural geography

the study of people's lifestyles, their creations, and their relationships to the Earth and the supernatural.

toponymy

the study of place names

medical geography/ health geography

the sub-branch of geography that studies the pattern of and transmission of diseases as well as the spatial pattern of health care

ethnic cleansing

the systematic attempt to remove all people of a particular ethnicity from a country or region either by forced migration or genocide

domino theory

the theory that looks at every political change in a country's government as a domino that causes other dominoes to fall in a chain reaction

theory of rural land use

the theory, developed by *Johann von Thunen* and published in 1826, that determines which crop to cultivate based on an equation that takes into account *land rent, output, price, production costs, transportation costs*, and *distance from market*. --Activities that require intensive cultivation cannot be transported over great distances pay higher rent to be closer to the market (gardening, dairy farming, forests) --More-extensive activities with goods that are easy to transport, are located farther from the market where rent is less (grains, livestock)

travel time

the time it takes to get from one place to another, accounting for different levels of connectivity.

recreational auto city

the time when automobiles were no longer a novelty and became more affordable and popular among middle-class families, raising ownership to one car for every five people in the United States

daytime density

the time when people are at work, which results in high concentration of people in and around the CBD

nighttime density

the time when people are home from work, which results in a low concentration of people in and around the CBD

replacement level of fertility

the total fertility rate necessary to keep a population at a constant size over time, assuming no migration; usually between 2.1 and 2.3

in-migration

the total number of immigrants who arrive in a country in a given time period

out-migration

the total number of immigrants who leave a country in a given time period

gross migration

the total number of people who leave and enter a country in a given time period

gross domestic product (GDP)

the total of all goods and services produced within a country

gross national product (GNP)

the total of goods and services produced by the citizens of a country, whether the actual production takes place inside or outside a country's boundaries.

Shinto

the traditional animistic religion of Japan

contagious diffusion

the transmission of a phenomenon through close contact with nearby places, such as with many diseases

human trafficking

the transportation of people against their will through the use of force, coercion, fraud, or other means (form of forced migration)

scale

this determines the frame of reference and shows which characteristics are especially important. Indicated on a map as a bar graph, representative fraction, and/or verbal statement.

minaret

towers in which muezzins call the faithful to pray. Part of mosques (Islam)

maritime trade

trade on the seas and oceans that dates back almost 9,000 years ago in the *Mediterranean Basin*

Sharia

traditional Muslim law as set forth int he Qur'an and the examples set by Muhammad in his lifetime

Syncretic

traditions that borrow from both the past and present

physical insults

traumatic events, such as accidents, shock, or radiation poisoning, that negatively affect human health

commuting

travel for the purpose of getting to and from work (or school).

chiefdoms

tribal groups that inhabited particular places but at the same time were less likely to demarcate rigid boundaries

imperialism

use of military threat, cultural domination, and economic sanctions to gain control of a country and its resources.

critical geopolitics

used to dissect the ways state boundaries are perceived, relationships between states, and the ways the world is portrayed

import substitution

used to shelter young domestic industries from foreign competition by providing them with a secure market

secondary data

using data collected at an earlier time for a different study (e.g., census data).

African Traditional Religion

various, mostly animistic religions practiced in Africa

export market school of development

views *production*, perhaps aided by the *government* as a key to *economic development*.

Marxist theories of the state

views of the states as a vehicle promoting capitalism and the capitalist class; also those who control production

structuralist school of development

views the intervention of *government* as key to economic development

tornados

violent rotating columns of air that are in touch with the surface of the earth.

storm surges

walls of wind-driven water caused by a hurricane or tropical storm. They can be meters or tens of meters higher than sea level.

untouchables

within Hindu society, a group whose jobs are considered to be so spiritually and physically impure that they are below all other people in social status and historically have been widely discriminated against

discretionary income

within a country's population, the amount of money available to be used to satisfy various *wants*.

agency

within social theory, the human capacity to make free, independent choices; often contrasted with structure

non-basic sector

workers produce goods and services for people employed within the urban area-to make it safer, healthier, and a better place to live and work. These jobs do not generate an income flow into the city.

pandemic

worldwide outbreak of disease Example: Swine flu; HIV/AIDs

fluke

worms

Karl Marx

wrote that the problem was not population growth rates, but was related to the unequal distribution of wages and resources.

child soldiers

youth that are either forced or impelled to serve as fighters or members of a milita

tsunami

large waves spawned by a massive displacement of water caused by volcanoes or earthquakes

world development

raising the living standards of the world's poorest countries and, so, reducing disparities between countries in the world.

map scale

ratio between the size of an area on a map and the actual size of that same area on Earth's surface

components of industrialization

raw materials, infrastructure, skilled labor, markets, and capital

Direct factors of production

raw materials, labor, financial capital, markets Write as such: ________ factors of production

trade surplus

when *exports* out of a country exceed the number of *imports* coming into a country

trade deficit

when *imports* into a country exceed the number of *exports* going out of a country.

protectionism

when a country seeks to *limit trade* through various mechanisms.

exclave

when a part of a state's territory is geographically separated by another country Example: Kaliningrad, Russia

step migration

when migrants move from a small town to a larger town, then stop and work for a while before moving on to an even large town, and so on (distance and labor)

competition

when producers compete with other producers and are forced to upgrade the quality of their goods or risk being undercut.

demographic momentum

when the population counties to grow in a country even after replacement level fertility is reached (when TFR is between 2.1-2.5)

geographical location

where a place is located

financial factors

whether or not someone can afford health or medical care

European Union

International organization comprised of Western European countries to promote free trade among members.

superimposed boundary

Boundary line drawn in an area ignoring the existing cultural pattern. Example: The boundary creating the modern state of Israel was superimposed by the United Nations.

Ernst Georg Ravenstein

British geographer who wrote extensively on population movements. His "laws" are some of the most accepted theories on migration

nirvana

Buddhist term for release from selfishness and pain. Once a Buddhist has reached _____ they will have become enlightened

functional linkages

Meaningful ties between cities that were historically political and administrative

human development index (HDI)

Measure used by the United Nations that incorporates indicators of health and education to provide a more *comprehensive* portrayal of the average *welfare* of a country's residents. *Aspects* include *income*, *education*, and *life expectancy*

flood insurance

The US government created a program in 1968 to help provide insurance to people living in flood zones.

white flight

The abandonment of cities by affluent or middle-class white residents. Problematic during the mid-twentieth century because it resulted in the loss of tax revenues to cities, which led to inner-city decay. This process reversed itself somewhat during the 1990s and 2000s with urban revitalization projects.

complementarity

The actual or potential relationship between two places, usually referring to economic interactions. Example: FL has a high degree of economic __________ with Northeastern cities because FL supplies fruits and vegetables to the NE. FL provides the supply, the NE provides the demand and the two are __________

geoid

The actual shape of Earth, which is rough and oblate, or slightly squashed. Earth's diameter is longer around the equator than along the north-south meridians.

topological space

The amount of connectivity between places regardless of the absolute distance separating them.

life expectancy

The average age individuals are expected to live, which varies across space, between genders, and even between races.

Grameen Bank

The bank, established by Professor Muhamman Yunus, that provides microloans to primarily women in developing countries, who are more likely to use the money for productive uses, despite no credit history

Vocabulary

The body of words used in a particular language

antecedent boundary

a boundary created before an area is known or populated, often drawn with no recognition of the populations living there.

political geography

a branch of geography that deals with boundaries, divisions, politics, governments, and possessions of a country.

industrial location

*Changes* in recent decades have affected __________ __________ 1. *transportation costs* have declined 2. *labor costs* and specialization of labor has increased 3. majority of production is now conducted *overseas* 4. *government* plays a bigger role in trying to lure businesses to certain areas 5. production processes are more flexible and nimble because of *computers*, robots, fast shipping of raw materials

Theory #1 of adoption of agriculture

*Domestication* started in well-watered fertile areas where pieces of plants could easily be buried to make grow new plants. *Carl Sauer, vegeculture*

bedroom communities

*commuter towns* inhabited by people who drive or take public transport to another city for work.

high technology industries

*companies* that support the growth and development of *sophisticated technologies*. It is a very new industry that has rapidly *transformed* many *cities* and *countries*.

transportation facilities

*improvements* in ease and volume of travel, such as airports, expansion of harbors and sea lanes, expansion of a uniform railroad network, and steady extension and *upgrading* of roadways

subprime lending

*mortgages* (*home loans*) made available to people who could not qualify for *regular conventional* or *prime*, mortgages. They always entail *higher fees and/or rates* to make up for a higher risk of default. *Effects lower incomes; African-Americans*

Stage 1 DMT

--Preindustrial probably agrarian society. --Low Growth (High Stationary) Stage --Both birth rates and death rates tend to be high, thus creating a low RNI --High birth rate is offset by a lot of deaths --War, famine, diseases, and poor healthcare keep death rates high --Population stays about the same size because births and deaths cancel each other out Example: Zambia

Developed countries

-- countries showing negative RNI -- North America, Japan, Europe, New Zealand, Australia -- growth occurring here is due to immigration from LDC

Ancient city

--*Perimeter Wall* --*Elite Compound* (*acropolis*) *at center*; *temples* and key government features --*Roads* were planned and unplanned --*Height* of structures *limited*

Christaller's Model of Central Place

--*Stores cluster into central places* --Each *store type* needs a certain size *hinterland* --Smaller hinterlands (*gas stations*) are nested in large ones (*big box store*) --*Small towns* thus have only *basic businesses* that have small hinterlands and *large cities* have nearly *every type* of business

Elements of supply

--Quality of raw materials --Labor & Productivity --Financial, Fixed, & Human Capital --Entrepreneurship

Barriers to Trade

--Distance --Bad transportation --Trade barriers --Tariffs --Currency Manipulation

Stage 2 DMT

--High Growth (Expanding) Stage --Death rates decline while birth rates stay about the same --Decline due to: change to agricultural society, better sanitary conditions, improved medical supplies --Birthrates remain high and increase a little bit because children could get factory jobs --Fertility rates stay at a constant, high level --Rapid population growth since fertility and mortality are not canceling each other out Examples: Sub-Saharan Africa, Laos, Some Asian countries,Kenya

territorial states

--Larger states that evolved from smaller city-states. They managed a number of cities and extended far beyond the hinterland of a single city. --political units that are supposedly independent and contain a fair amount of area

Stage 4 DMT

--Low Growth (Low Stationary) Stage --modern industrialized country --Birth and death rates have leveled off at low levels, thus reaching equilibrium --RNI stabilizes at a lower level, close to zero-population growth --Population grows at a steady pace, not as rapidly as it did in stages 2 and 3 Examples: US, most of Europe, Japan, few countries in Asia.

Stage 3 DTM

--Moderate Growth (Expanding) Stage --birth rates decline significantly --Decline in fertility occurs because children become less important as laborers for families; women have more opportunities in industrializing economies --Death rates continue to decline --Birthrates are still higher than death rates --Population growth occurs --Fertility rates get closer to mortality rates and overall population growth slows and begins to level off Examples: Turkey, Argentina, Latin America, Asia

behavioral geography

a branch of human geography that focuses on the psychological processes that underline human geographic decisions

Trading City

--centered on a *marketplace*/and or square --markets had *easy access* to *city gates* --*street patterns* were meant to help *facilitate trade* --*warehouses* for storage --*guild halls* : major centers for artisan production

Factors affecting rate of natural increase

--economic development: increase in this leads to lower RNI due to new available healthcare and employment opportunities --education: better educated populations tend to have lower fertility rates and lower RNI --gender empowerment: when women have more economic and political access, power, and education, fertility rates drop --healthcare: contradictory effects *improved healthcare in LDCs has decreases the infant mortality rate and increased life expectancy, contributing to population growth *same healthcare services are effective at providing contraception and family planning education -- cultural traditions: many parts of the world encourage high fertility rates by limiting women's employment opportunities and deterring them from doing anything else --public policy: 1979 China's One Child Policy, providing economic incentives favoring families who have fewer children and penalizing those with too many

Industrial City

--focused on *factories* --Factories were often located *near water* and *warehouses* --*Railroads* connected cities to main ports --*Workers housing* & *tenements*

functional/nodal regions

--regions constructed out of places that interact -- Defined by the connections and interactions that occur between them and surrounding areas. --Used to display information about economic areas. Example: A boundary line around the circulation of a particular newspaper Example: a map showing a group of places all affected by a type of disease Example: Chicago (or another large city) and all the various economic, cultural,, and recreational connections that exist within that area.

Rust Belt

1960s-80s The manufacturing region in the United States (OH, MI, PA) that is currently debilitated because many manufacturing firms have relocated to countries offering cheaper labor and relaxed environmental regulations.

modernism

20th century trends in art, architecture, and literature that represented a break from traditions of the past

citizenship

embodies the responsibilities and rights that some residents of a state possess

Carl Ritter

A German geographer (1779-1859), who emphasized observation of the landscape and who argued that geography must focus on understanding the interconnections among phenomena on the earth's surface and not just basic description

Yi-Fu Tuan

A Human geography professor(Chinese born) that wrote extensively on the importance and meaning and the connections humans have with places. Came up with terms of topophilia and topophobia.

Jesus

A Jewish prophet, whose teachings form the basis for Christianity and whom Christians believe was the Messiah

ibn-Battuta

A Moroccan Muslim (1304-1368) who traveled over 75,000 miles and wrote an account of his journeys.

al-Idrisi

A Muslim geographer and cartographer (1100-1165) educated in Spain who improved geographic knowledge by merging ancient knowledge with firsthand accounts by Muslim and European traders of his time

South and West

After the mid-20th century there was a *shift in manufacturing* to what parts of the US? There was also a shift from *inner cities* to *suburbs*. The movement of these jobs hurt many once thriving areas. *Deindustrialization = Detroit* Causes: *1)* Shifting labor costs (*cheaper labor costs*) *2)* Car Ownership and Highways (*increased car use and trucking;better highways*) *3)* Petroleum (*increased need for oil and gas*) *4)* New High Technology sectors *5)* Role of Government (*government programs*)

Neolithic Period

Also known as the *New Stone Age*, this is the period that saw the arrival of the *Agricultural Revolution*

Christopher Columbus

An Italian-born explorer (1451-1506) known for exploring the Caribbean and for erroneously believing that Asia was closer to Europe than it was.

Communication

An act or instance of transmitting information (verbal and written)

spatially variable costs

An input cost in manufacturing that changes significantly from place to place in its total amount and in its relative share of total costs.

spatially fixed costs

An input cost in manufacturing that remains constant wherever production is located.

spatial perspective

An intellectual framework that looks at the particular locations of a specific phenomenon, how and why that phenomenon is where it is, and finally, how it is spatially related to phenomena in other places.the Amish community and the measles epidemic in the United States in the mid-1980s. Example: The Amish, because of their belief system, refused to get measles vaccinations. As a result, the disease ran rampant through this community and the surrounding Amish communities of the eastern United States. Understanding the spread of this disease could not be done without understanding the spatial relationship between the Amish communities and the areas of outbreak.

organization of petroleum exporting countries

An international economic organization whose member countries all produce and export oil.

George Perkins Marsh

An inventor, diplomat, politician, and scholar, his classic work, Man and Nature, or Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action, provided the first description of the extent to which natural systems had been impacted by human actions.

intensive cultivation

Any kind of agricultural activity that involves effective and efficient use of labor on small plots of land to maximize crop yield.

renewable resources

Any natural resource that can replenish itself in a relatively short period of time, usually no longer than the length of a human life.

fast world

Areas of the world, usually the economic core, that experience greater levels of connection due to high-speed telecommunications and transportation technologies.

offshore financial center

Areas that have been specially designed to promote business transactions, and thus have become centers for banking and finance.

export-processing zone

Areas where governments create favorable investment and trading conditions to attract export-oriented industries.

blockbusting

As early as 1900, real estate agents and developers encouraged affluent white property owners to sell their homes and businesses at a loss by stoking fears that their neighborhoods were being overtaken by racial or ethnic minorities.

Five Pillars (of Islam)

Basic Acts that Muslims are supposed to carry out, including a confession of faith, prayer, charity, observance of Ramadan, and participation in a pilgrimage to Mecca

trade regulations

Began to be levied some 4,000 years ago. *Phoenicians*

One-Child Policy

Begun by the Chinese government in 1979, a population control policy that restricts most couples to just one birth without special permission.

Interstate Highway System

Begun in the 1950s (*Eisenhower* and funded largely by the federal (US) government, it created large, limited-access superhighways, connected cities, and made it easier for people to live farther away from cities. Consisted of a *41,000 mile network*

colonial city

Cities established by colonizing empires as administrative centers. Often they were established on already existing native cities, completely overtaking their infrastructures.

European cities

Cities in Europe that were mostly developed during the Medieval Period and that retain many of the same characteristics such as extreme density of development with narrow buildings and winding streets, an ornate church that prominently marks the city center, and high walls surrounding the city center that provided defense against attack.

Latin American Cities

Cities in Latin America that owe much of their structure to colonialism, the rapid rise of industrialization, and continual rapid increases in population. Similar to other colonial cities, they also demonstrate distinctive sectors of industrial or residential development radiating out from the central business district, where most industrial and financial activity occurs.

truck farming

Commercial gardening and fruit farming, so named because the truck was a Middle English word meaning bartering or the exchange of commodities. Predominant in Southeastern U.S.A, because of the long growing season and humid climate, accessibility to large markets of New York, Philadelphia, and Washington. These farmers grow many of the fruits and vegetables that consumers demand in developed societies. They sell some of their product to fresh markets, but mostly to large processors for canning or freezing. Truck farms are highly efficient and large-scale operations that take full advantage of machines at every stage of the growing process.

geographic information systems

Computer systems that can capture, store, analyze, and output geographic data; commonly referred to as a GIS. --Most GIS use thematic layers

Commonwealth of Independent States

Confederacy of independent states of the former Soviet Union that have united because of their common economic and administrative needs.

residential sector

Consumes the largest sector of any city. *Homes* or *Houses* take up a significant amount of *real estate*.

specialty crop

Crops including items like peanuts and pineapples, which are produced, usually in developing countries, for export.

schedule

Cycles of the day, of seasons, and of rain and drought that determine the food supply

ancillary activities

Economic activities that surround and support large-scale industries such as shipping and food service.

Rostow's Stages of Economic Development

Five Stages: 1) Traditional society: pre-industrial economy. Primitive technology and hierarchical social structure with kings and emperors 2) Preconditions for takeoff: Rise in rates of investment, increase in infrastructure, development of a more centralized state that is growth orientated, emergence of social/political elite. 3) Takeoff: growth dominates society. Development of manufacturing sector. Major technological advances. Rate of new investment rises as productivity improves. 4) Drive to maturity: economy has self-sustained growth. New sectors. More products manufactured at home and more consumer goods are made available. Development of wider industrial and consumer base. 5)high mass consumption: economy increases steadily. Economic growth is often lower than during the earlier stages but it initiates from a greater base. Economy relies on middle-class consumption (consumer spending).

genetically modified foods

Foods that are mostly products of organisms that have had their genes altered in a laboratory for specific purposes, such as disease resistance, increased productivity, or nutritional value allowing growers greater control, predictability, and efficiency.

capital-intensive agriculture

Form of agriculture that uses mechanical goods such as machinery, tools, vehicles, and facilities to produce large amounts of agricultural goods— a process requiring very little human labor.

population planning

Government attempts to increase or decrease the birth rate in the country.

agglomeration

Grouping together of many firms from the same industry in a single area for collective or cooperative use of infrastructure and sharing of labor resources.

exponential growth

Growth that occurs when a fixed percentage of new people is added to a population each year. Is compound because the fixed growth rate applies to an ever-increasing population.

moksha

Hindu state of perfect understanding of all things (achieving liberation from earthly things)

lebensraum

Hitler's expansionist theory based on a drive to acquire "living space" for the German people.

Soldier Field

Home of the Chicago Bears; built 1924; Lake Shore Drive and Chicago Lakefront.

United Center

Home of the Chicago Blackhawks and Bulls; built 1994; "Madhouse on Madison".

Wrigley Field

Home of the Chicago Cubs; built 1914, "Wrigleyville"; Clark, Addison, and Sheffield Streets. (Northside)

U.S. Cellular Field

Home of the Chicago White Sox; built 1991; 35th and Shields. (Southside)

Locational Interdependence

Hostelling's theory asserts that an industry's locational choices are influenced by the location of their chief competitors and related industries. Industries make decisions on locations after considering where other related industries exist.

idiom

language that is peculiar to a certain group of people or a region; often used synonymously with dialect

heartland theory

Hypothesis proposed by Halford Mackinder that held that any political power based in the heart of Eurasia could gain enough strength to eventually dominate the world.

Four Noble Truths

In Buddhism, principles that the Buddha taught concerning the nature of existence

Eightfold Path

In Buddhism, the proper way to eliminate desire and achieve enlightenment

Torah

In Judaism, the first five books of the Hebrew scriptures, believed to be the law of God

mechanization

In agriculture, the replacement of human labor with technology or machines

ethnic neighborhoods

In cities, areas that have concentrated populations of a particular ethnic group, such as Chinatown and Little Italy

measurement

In geography, human understanding about the size and shape of the world as well as where things are located

feminism

In the social sciences, theories and philosophies that focus on the status, contributions, and rights of women.

push factors

Incentives for potential migrants to leave a place (negative influences) Examples:natural disasters, lack of freedoms, discrimination, war, political turmoil, economic recession, harsh climate, high taxes, high crime rates

thematic layers

Individual map that contains specific features, such as roads, stream networks, or elevation contours that are overlaid on one another in a Geographical Information System to understand and analyze spatial relationship

bulk reducing industries

Industries whose final products weigh less than their constituent parts, and whose processing facilities tend to be located close to sources of raw materials. Example: sawmills that process timber and oil and refineries that produce gasoline

bulk gaining industries

Industries whose products weigh more after assembly than they did previously in their constituent parts. Such industries tend to have production facilities close to their markets. Example: soda bottling

deindustrialization

Loss of industrial activity in a region.

topsoil loss

Loss of the top fertile layer of soil is lost through erosion. It is a tremendous problem in areas with fragile soils, steep slopes, or torrential seasonal rains.

early pioneers of geopolitics

Mackinder, Mahan, and De Seversky

topographic maps

Maps that use isolines to represent constant elevations. If you took a topographic map out into the field and walked exactly along the path of an isoline on your map, you would always stay at the same elevation.

neo-Malthusians

Modern population theorists that carry on Malthus's idea that population growth will lead to global chaos. Advocate population control programs to ensure enough resources for current and future populations.

purchasing power parity (PPP)

Monetary measure of development that takes into account what money buys in different countries (exchange rates).

Sikhism

Monotheistic religion founded in South Asia in the late 15th century by Guru Nanak as a reaction to perceived problems with the teachings of Islam and Hinduism

feedlots

Places where livestock are concentrated in a very small area and raised on hormones and hearty grains that prepare them for slaughter at a much more rapid rate than grazing; often referred to as factory farms.

Landlocked state

No access to water. Trade difficulties because of lack of ports. State completely surrounded by the land of other states. Example: Bolivia, Laos, Rwanda, Paraguay, Serbia, Switzerland

occupational specialization

Nonagricultural workers became involved in different types of trades and tasks, from *metal workers to tanners to scribes*; a hallmark of early *cities* and *civilization*.

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization, an international organization that has joined together for military purposes.

child morality rate

Number of deaths per thousand children within the first five years of life.

cultural extinction

Obliteration of an entire culture by war, disease, acculturation, or a combination of the three.

relic boundaries

Old political boundaries that no longer exist as international borders, but that have left an enduring mark on the local cultural or environmental geography

locales

Places where societal structures intersect with human decisions, according to structuralists

regionalization

Regionalization The process by which specific regions acquire characteristics that differentiate them from others within the same country. In economic geography, regionalization involves the development of dominant economic activities in particular regions.

economic backwaters

Regions that fail to gain from national economic development.

Marxist

Related to the work of 19th century thinkers Karl Marx and Frederich Engel

culture

Religions or other cultural attitudes and practices can affect how diseases and other ailments are dealt with in an area. *Abortion and Polygyny*

suburb

Residential communities, located outside of city centers, that are usually relatively homogenous in terms of population.

more developed countries

Rich countries that have established economic and political systems and are a model and aspiration to developing countries

states' rights

Rights and powers believed to be in the authority of the state rather than the federal government.

census tract

Small county subdivisions, usually containing between 2,500 and 8,000 persons, delineated by the U.S. Census Bureau as areas of relatively uniform population characteristics, economic status, and living conditions.

Hecataeus

The Greek historian (~550-476 BC) credited with writing the book Ges Periodus, a descriptive account of the ancient world.

NAFTA

The North American Free Trade Agreement - Taxes and tariffs- Agreement signed on January 1, 1994, that allows the opening of borders between the United States, Mexico, and Canada.

electoral vote

The decision of a particular state elector that represents the dominant views of that elector's state.

environmental racism

The deliberate placement of polluting industries or activities in minority areas because those communities are less able or likely to fight the polluters. * Chester, PA - waste processing facilities*

gerrymandering

The designation of voting districts so as to favor a particular political party of candidate.

slow world

The developing world that does not experience the benefits of high-speed telecommunications and transportation technology.

transhumance

The movements of livestock according to seasonal patterns, generally lowland areas in the winter, and highland areas in the summer.

Fertile Crescent

The name given to the crescent-shaped area of fertile land stretching from the lower Nile Valley along the east Mediterranean coast and into Syria and present-day Iraq where agriculture and early civilization first began about 8,000 B.C. Once a lush environment and one of the first hearths of domestication and thus agricultural activity. Also includes Lebanon and Turkey.

backwash effect

The negative effects on one region that result from economic growth within another region.

total fertility rate

The number of children a woman can expect to have in her lifetime, given current fertility rates. Influencing Factors: Health, Economics, Education, and Culture

population size

The number of people living in an area

remote sensing

The observation and mathematical measurement of Earth's surface using aircraft and satellites. The sensors include photographic images, thermal images, multispectral scanners, and radar images.

concentric zone model

This model was devised in the 1920s by Ernest Burgess to predict and explain the growth patterns of North American urban spaces. Its main principle is that cities can be viewed from above as a series of concentric rings; as the city grows and expands, new rings are added and old ones change character.In theory, each ring contains different types of development and economic activities. This is because the value of land decreases as you go farther out from the central core. Key elements of the model are the central business district and the peak land value intersection. Example: *Chicago* *1)* CBD *2)* CBD fringe or frame *3)* zone of transition *4)* zone of independent workingmen's homes *5)* residential zone *6)* commuter zone

Beaux arts

This movement within city planning and urban design that stressed the marriage of older, classical forms with newer, industrial ones. Common characteristics of this period include wide thoroughfares, spacious parks, and civic monuments that stressed progress, freedom, and national unity.

maquiladora

Those U.S. firms that have factories just outside the United States/ Mexican border in areas that have been specially designated by the Mexican government. In such areas, factories cheaply assemble goods for export back into the United States. Companies take advantage of cheap labor.

industrialized countries

Those countries including Britain, France, the United States, Russia, Germany, and Japan, that were all at the forefront of industrial production and innovation through the middle of the 20th century. While industry is currently shifting to other countries to take advantage of cheaper labor and more relaxed environmental standards, these countries still account for a large portion of the world's total industrial output.

inner-city decay

Those parts of large urban areas that lose significant portions of their populations as a result of change in industry or migration to suburbs. Because of these changes, the inner city loses its tax base and becomes a center of poverty.

Cities in less developed countries

_______ in ______ _________ countries Must contend with many *challenges to urban planning* due to factors like a *high growth rate* and *extreme poverty*. People often move to cities to find *employment*

empires

large political entities made up of several culturally distinct regions held together by force, under the control of a single, dominant region

Geographic Advantages

___________ ___________ of the Anglo-American Belt 1. The presence of a good *railroad network* that tied the region together 2. there existed *close proximity* between places 3. they were close to major *financial institutions* (*banks*) 4. There were good *ports*, *farmland*, and abundant *coal* 5. The region attracted *skilled*/*unskilled labor*

agribusiness

a *large company* that owns the land and hires individuals to cultivate crops or raise livestock. Also includes other aspects such as *fertilizers*, *seeds*, *equipment companies*, retailing, and consumption of agricultural products. Examples: *Pioneer Seeds*, *John Deere*, *Case-International Harvester*

grid

a *street pattern* with the greatest impact, first developed by the ancient Greek Hippodamus. Its advantages are that it is regular, simple, and repeatable for as far as the city expands.

synagogue

a Jewish house of worship

Superfund Program

a US government program that identifies and attempts to clean up the worst pollution sites in the country. Example: Valley of Drums (KY); Cancer Clusters; 1300 sites

place

a basic unit and key concept in geography that indicates where something exists

positivism

a belief that all knowledge can be pursued by the scientific method. It puts a strong emphasis on observation and measurement

blood-borne pathogen

a blood-borne disease (HIV/AIDS) is one that can be spread by contamination of blood

influenza

commonly known as the flu, a disease caused by a virus that affects humans, animals, and birds. Flu outbreaks can be regional or even global

mixed economies

economies in which the government controls certain economic activities it considers key or appropriate to the public trust while leaving others in the hands of the private sector. *Free public education & health care, government regulates* certain activities. Examples: *Canada* and *Most of the Developed World*

planned economies

economies that emerged as a response to unrestricted capitalist economies and often in response to what were perceived as some of the inequities embedded in a capitalist system. *An Alternative to Capitalism* *All farms, factories, and services (banks) are publicly owned and decisions are controlled by the state government.* *State socialism* Examples: *USSR* and *Maoist China*

basic functions and concerns of the modern state

education, social welfare, health care, currency, business regulation, infrastructure

natural hazards

environmental events such as floods, hurricanes, earthquakes, tornadoes, tsunami, mudslides, volcanic eruptions, and droughts Examples: California, Hawaii, and Japan, Mt. Saint Helens (1980)

solid waste

essentially, *garbage* or *trash* but it may include solid, semi-solid, or even liquid refuse.

irredentist movements

ethnoregional movements that do not seek to create their own independent country, but, rather, to separate from their existing state in order to join a neighboring state

Tobler's First Law of Geography

everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things

electoral geography

examines how people's political preferences are manifested in representation *Red (Republican, conservative) and Blue (Democrats, liberal) States*

Internal Transportation

factor that has the greatest impact on the shape of the modern city

intervening obstacles

factors that a migrant must consider when weighing the pluses and minuses of a potential move, such as the cost or ease of crossing a border

living standards

factors that affect the quality of life in a country, such as access to *safe food* and *water*, *employment*, and *security*

centrifugal forces

factors, often negative, that tend to pull apart and disperse a population Examples: break down of central authority

centripetal forces

factors, often positive, that tend to unify and bring together a population Examples: national holidays, charismatic leader, national anthems, national institutions (schools)

chemical insults

factors, such as drugs, dangerous gases, and harmful liquids, that negatively affect human health

traditional religions

faiths practiced by small, isolated groups of people who largely live in developing areas of the world

universalizing religions

faiths that seek to convert nonbeliever to their ranks

Upanishads

group of philosophical writings contributing to the theology of ancient Hinduism, elaborates on earlier Vedas

culture realm

groupings of culture regions based on broad culture similarities. Western Europe is an example

multivariate

has many variables, involves several different factors

multicultural

having to do with may cultures

militarized boundaries

heavily fortified boundaries that discourage the crossing of traffic, people, goods, and/or information.

forward linkages

items that can be produced from the output of an industry. For example, garments such as shirts, pants, and other cotton goods can be produced from cotton textiles.

formal sector

jobs in industry, established services, and government that are limited to a privileged few Examples: *Embassy Workers, Skilled Laborers*

guest workers

laborers allowed to enter a country for a specific job and for a specific period of time

interior landscapes

landscapes found inside a building, house, or other structure

official language

language in which all government business occurs in a country

malapportionment

manipulation in which some electoral districts vary in size even thought they are equal in representation Example: US Senate

thematic maps

maps that show the distribution, flow, or connection of one or more characteristics and are used to show distribution.

Earliest economic systems

marked by a reliance on *subsistence (survival) food gathering or farming*, most activities took place in *small groups, small-scale production*, and an extensive use of *bartering (trade)*.

diplomatic relations

marks of state legitimacy, which include sending out a state ambassador, establishing an embassy, and signing treaties

commodities

products that can be exchanged for profit

tiger economies

quick and effective *industrialization* in East Asia by a concentration on *factory production*, *government* integration with *industry*, and a reliance on exports Examples: Singapore, South Korea, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and China

situation factors

realities such as where people live, their *age*, their *financial resources*, and other truths that might affect a human's actual or perceived ability to deal with a possible hazard

locational advantages

reductions in production costs by locating in areas where wages are lower or some other factor makes it cheaper to produce in that area.

geographic scale

refers to a conceptual hierarchy of spaces, from small to large, that reflects actual levels of organization in the real world Examples (from small to large): □ neighborhood, the urban area, the metropolitan area, and the region □ the watershed, ecosystem, landscape, and biome

hazardous waste/ toxic waste

refuse that poses a risk either to the environment or to humans. Has the potential to *kill* or *cause severe illness*. Example: Yucca Mountain (NV); US nuclear waste storage

geopolitical regions

regions that are formed by spatial contiguity and by political, military, cultural, and economic interactions between them

shatterbelts

regions that are politically fragmented and are often areas of competition between two ideological or two religious realms

Core national/global regions

regions where economic power, in terms of wealth, innovation, and advanced technology, is concentrated.

evangelical religions

religion in which an effort is made to spread a particular belief system

components of ethnicity

religion, language, racial characteristics, geographic origin, common history

ethnic religions

religions primarily associated with one ethnicity, such as Shinto in Japan or Hinduism in India that does not seek new converts

local religion

religions that are spiritually bound to particular regions

zero population growth

replacement fertility level - the total fertility rate necessary to keep a population at a constant size over time, assuming no migration; usually between 2.1 and 2.3

World Trade Organization (WTO)

represents most of the world's economies and enforces the rules of free trade. The rules are negotiated and signed by most of the world's trading nations in order to smooth the flow of trade between countries. *G8 nations* G8= global top 8 economies

autarky

self-sufficient country. *no trade*

quaternary sector

services that rely on information gathering and sharing. These include information technology services, research and development, consulting services, and other similar activities.

neoliberalism

set of policies that favor *minimal government interference* in markets and the promotion of *free trade*

depression

severe economic downturn for a longer period of time than a recession. It is marked by unemployment, unsold goods, and many business closings. Example: *1930s US Great _____________*

Four markers of a nation

shared cultural heritage,loyalty,territorial expression,political goals

culture

shared patterns of learned behavior, attitudes, and knowledge

bid-rent curve

show the variations in rent different users are willing to pay for land at different distances from some peak point of accessibility and visibility in the market, often the CBD. Because transportation costs increase as you move away from the market (often the CBD), rents usually decrease as distance increases from the market. Importantly, different types of land use (commercial retail, industrial, agriculture, housing) generate different curves. Explains the series of concentric rings of land us found in the concentric zone model.

gross national income (GNI)

similar to GNP, except it does not include the costs of indirect taxes, depreciation, and subsidies.

particulates

small solids

auto-centered city

with the rapid growth of vehicle use, cities developed automobile access. Effects include *shopping centers near highways*, *decline in the central business district*, and *fewer downtown areas*

totalitarianism

the type of autocracy that has been associated with ideologies of fascism, communism, and religious fundamentalism

knot

the unit of speed used by sailors; equal to 1 nautical mile per hour, which is equivalent to approximately 1.151 miles per hour, or 1.852 kilometers per hour

terrorism

the use of violence in a controlled and intentional way to force attention onto issues.

single-occupancy motor vehicle travel (SOV)

the vehicles (such as cars, minivans, pickup trucks, and motorcycles) that are used by *80%* of Americans to get to work. *Carpooling*

elite theories of the state

the view that governments, no matter what their political ideology or their constitution,are likely to support an elite class of people

constructivism

the view that nations are artificial creations that result from modernization, elite aspirations, or a series of events that makes nation-building a much more viable approach than anything else

primordialism

the view that nations are organically grown entities, that the world is divided into different national groups that have persisted for some-time, and that nationalist movements represent an awakening of already signified identities.

world systems persepective

the view that the economic system operates as a whole because the *economy is global* and events in one country have an effect on other countries. No place is this more clear than with our experiences with *colonialism*. *Age of exploitation and its evils - exploitation*

pluralist theory of the state

the view that the government is a neutral arbiter of all the different stakeholders

possibilism

the viewpoint that arose as a criticism of environmental determinism, holding that human populations develop their own cultures within constraints set by the environment.

cognitive factors

the ways in which a person's personality or attitudes (*risk takers*) toward nature, risk, or other factors might affect his or her reaction to a hazard

land value

the worth of a plot of land, affected by *function (retail, industrial, residential, etc.)*, *location*, and *ability to be developed*

theories of the state

theories used by geographers and other scholars to discuss how states operate, particularly those within democratic, capitalist systems

barriers to diffusion

things that slow or stop the spread of an idea, innovation, people, or other things

economic system

way in which humans in a society organize themselves in regard to their economic activity. *Determines almost everything else* in a society, including the *political system* and *social relations*.

Ethnologue

web-based catalog; database of languages that classifies 473 languages as nearly extinct

e-commerce

web-based economic activities