AP Human Geography Unit 13

census

-census tracts: urban areas in the U.S. are divided into census tracts that contain 5000 residents and correspond, where possible, to neighborhood boundaries -block group: collection of several neighboring blocks -blocks: set of households typically bounded by four streets

social area analysis of each model

-concentric zones: if there are two houses with the same income and ethnic background, the older home is located in the inner ring and the newer house is located in the outer ring -sectors: given two houses, the house with the more modest income is unlikely to live in the same sector of the city as a house with a higher income -nuclei: people with the same ethnic or racial background are likely to live near each other

innovative techniques to reduce congestion

-congestion charges: London requires that drivers pay a congestion charge to drive into a central area during rush hour -tolls: Toronto and many California cities require that drivers are charged higher tolls to drive on freeways during congested times versus other times -permits: Singapore requires drivers to buy a license and own a parking space in order to drive downtown during the busiest times of the day -bans: cars are banned from portions of the central areas of a number of European cities

density gradient trends

-fewer people are living in the center and thus, there is a gap in the center of the city -fewer differences in density within urban areas. Density has decreased in central residential areas through population decline and abandonment of older housing and density has increased in the periphery through construction of apartments and diffusion of suburbs

reasons that inner-city neighborhoods are attractive

-houses may be larger and more sustainable yet less expensive than those in the suburbs -may possess attractive architectural details -eliminates the strain of commuting -near theaters, bars, restaurants, stadiums, and more

metropolitan governments in North America

1. Consolidation of city and county governments (ex: boundaries of Indianapolis were changed to match those of Marion County and the government functions of the city and county were combined) 2. federations (ex: Toronto's metropolitan government was created through a federation of 13 municipalities, which were later combined into a single municipality)

levels of autonomous driving

1. First Level (Assisted Driving): driver has to be ready to take control (ex: cruise control) 2. Second Level (Partially Automated): braking, accelerating, and steering are automatic but switches to manual when the driver takes over 3. Third Level (Highly Automated): the vehicle is fully automated only on high-speed highways 4. Fourth Level (Fully Automated): No driver attention is required but the driver can take over in case of an emergency 5. Fifth Level (Driverless): No steering or petals

CBD distinctive features

1. Land uses commonly found elsewhere in the urban area are rare in the CBD, especially industrial and residential activities 2. CBD has a 3D character with more space used below and above ground level than elsewhere in the urban area

benefits of motor vehicles

1. Motorists do not have to rely on public transport (can travel when and where they want) 2. Motorists perceive the cost of cars (annual costs and fuel) is cheaper than the cost of public transport (daily fares)

European colonizers shaped their colonies

1. Standardized plans for cities (all Spanish cities in Latin America were built according to the Laws of the Indies: centered around a church and plaza, walls around each house, and neighborhoods built around smaller plazas) 2. Built a new city next to an existing one (Fes, Morocco contains two nodes. The one before French took control was an Islamic city surrounding a mosque and marketplace known as the Medinah with narrow streets and cramped residences. The one after the French took control was a location for colonial services, like administration, military command, and international trade. Contained wider streets, low density, and large houses). 3. simply demolished the precolonial city (examples: Saigon, Vietnam and Mexico City were built by demolishing preexisting cities)

costs of urban sprawl

1. local governments must spend more money extending roads and utilities to connect developments 2. More agricultural land is lost through construction of developments and more energy is expended because trips to work and services must cover longer distances

redlining

A discriminatory real estate practice in which members of minority groups are prevented from obtaining money to purchase homes or property in predominantly white neighborhoods

Mexico City since independence

At independence, Mexico City was small but rapidly grew in the twentieth century, which resulted in expansion of land area of Mexico City. Lake Texcoco was drained, allowing expansion north and east (less desirable location)

increase suburbs' impact on consumer services

Consumer services in suburbs have expanded because most of its customers live there. Since World War II, suburban sales have risen at an annual rate of 5%. Suburban retailing if concentrated in shopping malls (have declined because of online consumer services). Suburban residents no longer wish to travel to the CBD

Nielsen Claritas

Created the Potential Rating Index by Zip Market clusters (person is likely to live near people who are similar). Combined the distribution of social and economic characteristics of people obtained from the census and the addresses of purchasers of various products obtained from service providers. These variables are organized into 66 clusters

removing manufacturing from the CBD

Current larger vessels are unable to move in the waterfronts of CBDs, like they could in the past so modern factories and industrial activities are moving out of the CBD and into suburbs where there is more space. Port cities are used more recently for commercial and recreational activities (ex: tourism)

skyscrapers

Each city has a unique downtown skyline, which is a symbol of unifying force. The first skyscrapers were built in Chicago in the 1880s. Ventilation, heating, and AC helped neighboring businesses overcome problems caused by skyscrapers blocking light and air movement. Washington D.C. has no skyscrapers and instead has a more horizontal CBD. North American and European cities have enacted zoning ordinances to control the location and height of skyscrapers

sustainability of electric vehicles

Electric vehicles may or may not be sustainable. Fossil fuel may be consumed to generate the electricity at the power plant but electric vehicles do reduce consumption of petroleum. However, electric cars may deplete natural gas and coal, if electricity is generated by coal.

structure of European cities

European CBDs have a different mix of land uses than those in North America because of medieval origins of many European CBDs and they display low-rise structures and narrow streets.

public transport in the U.S.

Expansion of U.S. cities was constrained in the 1800s by poor transportation. People lived in crowded cities and trams and buses were ineffective because of congestion. Streetcar suburbs emerged, some of which still exist today. In order to relieve congestion, the U.S. built subways and trams in the 1900s. Also suburbs expanded because motor vehicle drivers had much greater flexibility in their location of residence.

challenges of U.S. public transportation

Fares do not cover the operating costs. As people stop using public transportation, fares increase which causes more people to stop using public transportation. The United States also does not fully recognize that public transportation is deserving of subsidies to the degree other countries do. Low-income residents have difficulties traveling to their jobs in the suburbs where public transportation does not travel

John Borchert's five epochs

Five epochs of U.S. urban areas resulting from changing transportation. Cities either prospered or suffered during various epochs depending on their proximity to economically important resources and migration patterns. Five epochs: sail-wagon, iron horse, steel rail, auto air-amenity, and satellite-electronic-jet propulsion

Asia

For most of the recorded history, the world's largest cities have been in ________, despite the fact that until recently, most Asians have lived in rural settlements.

traffic congestion

GPS and electronic mapping play central roles in the design of intelligent transportation systems. There are many innovative techniques to reduce traffic congestion, such as increasing road capacity and providing drivers with information so they can avoid congestion. Information about congestion is provided through computers, phones, and car monitors. Traffic hot spots are displayed on maps using information collected through sensors in roadbeds and cameras placed at strategic locations

Auto Air-Amenity (1920-1970)

Gasoline engines made motor vehicle the dominant mode of transportation and planes facilitated trade between urban areas

public services in CBDs

Government offices, libraries, museums, and more remain in CBDs today to facilitate access for people living in all parts of town. Sports facilities, convention centers, and semipublic services (ex: places of worship and social service agencies) also cluster in the CBD

residential segregation

Housing in suburbs is usually built for people of a single social class with others excluded by virtue of the cost, size, or location of the housing

Europe - sector model

In Paris, higher-income families are mostly located in the southwest sector (this cluster was reinforced during the Industrial Revolution in the 1800s) and the lower-income families are mostly located in the northeast sector.

Europe - multiple-nuclei model

In contrast to the United States urban areas, most ethnic and racial groups of immigrants reside in the suburbs of Paris

residents in the CBD

In the 1900s, more residents were abandoning downtown because of push factors (high rents in CBDs) and pull factors to the suburbs. Now, the population in CBDs has increased because they are more attractive now to people without children, but consumer services, such as grocery stores, may be lacking.

public (social) housing in the UK

In the UK, the supply of social housing declined because the government forced authorities to sell some of their dwellings to residents. They also expanded subsidies to nonprofit housing associations that build houses for groups with special needs.

public housing in the US

In the US, if public housing is demolished, the government pays the residents forced to leave money for moving and the rent increases over a period of four years. They also have been renovating old houses for low-income families through public housing programs.

removing public housing

In the mid 1900s, many inner-city houses were demolished and replaced with public housing, which in turn, was considered unsatisfactory and was then demolished. High-rise public housing is especially unsatisfactory with high crime rates and broken elevators. Supply of public housing has declined but demand has increased

predicted changes of cars

In the near future, it is predicted that vehicles will be powered by electricity, will be shared more, and will operate with little or no effort by the driver.

services

Inner-city neighborhoods lack adequate police, fire protection, shops, hospitals, clinics, and more. Food deserts are common here too. There is a growing gap between the cost of needed services and the availability of funds to pay for them.

Beijing during the Yuan Dynasty

Kubla Khan (founder of the Yuan Dynasty) constructed a city called Dadu in 1264 with the Drum Tower at the center. The heart of Dadu was three palaces on Qionghua Island that contained imperial families and offices. There was an inner wall that surrounded the palaces and the outer wall surrounded residential areas which were laid out in checker-board pattern with three markets.

job skills

Many inner-city residents lack the technical skills needed for most jobs because fewer than half of them finished high school. Today factory jobs and clerks handle more computers and electronics. They also cannot access low-skilled jobs because they are located in the suburbs where public transportation will not take them.

CBDs in Europe

More people live downtown in cities and more people are attracted to CBDs because of the concentration of consumer services and with more people living in CBDs, they contain more day-to-day consumer services (like grocery stores). The most prominent structures in European CBDs are often public or semipublic (like churches and palaces). Parks in Europe were originally for aristocrats but later, were opened to the public. European CBDs contain professional and financial services but business services are less likely to be in skyscrapers. Rents are much higher in Europe CBDs than in North America.

costs of motor vehicles

Motor vehicles negatively impact the environment (public transport is cheaper, less polluting, and more energy efficient). They also use valuable space in the CBD rather than underground parking. Congestion and time spent in traffic are also some costs of motor vehicles

Europe - concentric zone model

Newer houses are in the outer rings and older houses are close to the center but much of the newer suburban housing is high-rise apartments, unlike North America.

increase suburbs' impact on business services

Offices that do not require face-to-face interaction, warehouses, and factories are moving to suburbs where the costs are lower, there are larger tracts of land, and executives can drive more easily to their office). Many low-income workers are at a disadvantage because they might not have cars or public transportation to bring them to their jobs in the suburbs

business services in CBDs

People in business services depend on proximity to professional colleagues. Even with telecommunications, professionals still exchange information with colleagues face-to-face to establish a relationship of trust

public transport around the world

Public transport includes buses, heavy rail (underground subway and elevated trains), and light rail (trams and streetcars). Funds for new public transport have been provided in recent years. Cities with existing public transportation have been expanding them. Greater importance is placed on public transport outside the United States.

transportation in the twentieth century

Public transportation reached a peak in the United States in the 1940s, then declined through 1970, and has been increasing since. Public transportation generally brings people in and out of the CBD, especially in New York, Boston, San Francisco, Washington, Chicago, and Philadelphia. Initially the light rail was only for tourist attractions, now the largest U.S. light rail systems are in Dallas and LA. New subway systems opened and modernization of old ones occurred.

Steel Rail (1870-1920)

Rail lines connected urban areas throughout the United States and travel time was greatly reduced

commercial segregation

Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities confined to distinct areas

annexation trends

Rules vary among states, but normally, most of the residents of the annexed land have to vote in favor of annexation. Peripheral residents in the 19th century preferred annexation because the city offered better services but recently, residents prefer their own services and do not want to pay city taxes. Originally, some of these peripheral areas were small towns that had a tradition of their local government being swallowed up by urban growth

Social segregation

Social segregation is enforced because people of color and low-income families are less likely to live in the suburbs due to the high costs and the unwelcoming attitudes of the residents who fear that property values will decline. The interior of suburban housing is similar so suburbs attract people of similar income and lifestyle

reviving consumer services

Some consumer services are returning to the inner-city neighborhoods to meet the needs of residents in gentrified neighborhoods. These consumer services are attracting people looking for leisure activities. Examples include Boston's Faneuil Hall Marketplace, Baltimore's Harbor Place, and Chicago's Navy Pier.

precolonial Mexico City

The Aztecs founded Mexico City on a hill known as Chapultepec. However, others forced them to leave so they traveled to an island on Lake Texcoco. At the node of religious life was the Great Temple. Three drawbridges linked Tenochtitlan to the mainland and controlled flooding. The aqueduct brought water to the city and they had camels for movement and goods came by boat.

Beijing during the Ming Dynasty

The Ming Dynasty captured Dadu in 1368. The imperial palaces were replaced with the Forbidden City and the Temple of Heaven and other temples were added. It took on the name Beijing in 1403.

colonial Mexico City

The Spanish conquered Tenochtitlan in 1521 and destroyed the city, built a new one, and killed most of the inhabitants. The new city was centered around a main square called the Zocalo and the streets were in a grid-like pattern

fragmentation

The U.S. is extremely fragmented with 90,000 local governments. Special districts were organized to provide certain services (fire protection, libraries...). Large metropolitan areas have thousands of local governments with varying levels of resources. This has led to calls for one metropolitan government even though metropolitan areas have a council with local government representatives.

African model (de Blij model)

The inner city attracts higher-income families because of the concentration of services. Rings are being added to the city because of immigrants looking for jobs in the city. Much of the housing in outer rings is in informal settlements (page 476)

European suburbs

The supply of land for new housing is more restricted in Europe than in the U.S. They are trying to limit sprawl by designating areas of mandatory open space. For example, British cities are surrounded by greenbelts and newer housing is built in old suburbs in greenbelts or extensions of small towns

electrification

There are three types of electric cars: 1. Plug-In Hybrid: the car has to be recharged either with a gas engine when moving or parked while plugging it into an electric outlet when parked 2. Full electric with lithium ion battery: There is no gas engine and the battery has to be charged in an outlet 3. Hydrogen fuel cell: Hydrogen forced through a PEM can be combined with oxygen from the air to produce an electric charge (popular in the East and West Coasts)

consumer services in the CBD

There are three types of retail services (retailers with high thresholds, high ranges, and serving CBD workers) clustered in a CBD because they required accessibility to everyone in the region.

underground in the CBD

There is a vast underground network that exists beneath the CBD. This network includes garages, loading docks, pipes, subway trains, cables for TV, telephone, and electric, and in some colder areas, underground passages, sidewalks, and shops

models of urban structure

These include the concentric, sector, and multiple-nuclei models. They are used to explain where people with different social characteristics tend to live in an urban area and why they tend to live there. Taken individually, these models do not completely explain why people are located where they are. They also fail to consider various reasons that lead people to select particular locations. These models were all from the mid-20th century

retailers with high ranges

These retailers often are specialists with customers who patronize them infrequently but have many customers. They once preferred to be located in the CBD because their customers were scattered over a wide area but they have recently moved to suburban locations. Others remain in CBDs for tourists or residents who patronize them on evenings and weekends.

retailers serving CBD workers

These retailers serve many people who work in the CBD and shop during lunch or working hours. Have increased in the CBD recently because offices in CBDs have increased and offices require more services.

autonomous driving vehicles

These vehicles rely on SLAM (pinpoints the vehicle's exact location through sensors and GPS) and DATMO (identifies people, animals, and other vehicles in the same route as the vehicle)

UN strategy to reduce pollution

This consists of three important factors: 1. sharp decrease in the use of the three fossil fuels 2. increase in the use of renewable energy 3. use of carbon capture and storage (capturing waste carbon dioxide which is then transported to a storage site and deposited underground)

Satellite-Electronic-Jet Propulsion (1970-Present)

This epoch is mostly about the ability to communicate electronically as well as to control transport systems electronically

concentric zone model

This model was developed by Ernest Burgess in 1923. It states that a city grows outward from a central area in a series of concentric rings (1. CBD, 2. zone of transition, 3. zone of independent workers' homes, 4. zone of better residences, 5. commuter's zone)

Latin American model

This model was developed by Ernst Griffin and Larry Ford and it states that wealthy people push out from the center in a well-defined elite residential sector. For example, Santiago has an elite sector extending northeast from the CBD with high-class and middle-class avoiding living near sectors of "disamenity" which are land uses that may be noisy or polluting or that cater to low-income residents (page 477)

galactic (peripheral) model

This model was developed by Harris and Ullman in 1945. It is modification of the multiple-nuclei model that takes suburbs into account. It states that an urban area consists of an inner city surrounded by a large suburban residential and services nodes or nuclei tied together by a beltway or ring road (page 469)

multiple-nuclei model

This model was developed by Harris and Ullman in 1945. It states that a city is a complex structure that includes a CBD as well as other centers around which activities occur. Some activities are attracted to particular nodes whereas others try to avoid them and incompatible land-use activities avoid clustering in the same locations (page 469)

sector model

This model was developed by Homer Hoyt in 1939. It states that a city develops in a series of sectors and that certain areas of a city are more attractive for various activities because of an environmental factor or chance. Industrial and retailing activities develop in other sectors, typically along good transportation lines (page 468)

multiple nuclei model

This model was developed by T.G. McGee and this model of a Southeast Asian city superimposes several informal settlements and "alien" zones where foreigners, usually Chinese, like and work on concentric zones, and the various functions of CBDs are dispersed to several nodes in Southeast Asia. Example: South African cities during the apartheid era (page 477)

challenges for families

Unwed mothers give birth to 2/3rds of the U.S. inner-city residents. Around 80% of children in inner-city neighborhoods only have one parent. Single mothers have to decide between staying at home, raising their children, or working. If the father returns, the mother may lose welfare benefits, making them worse off.

sharing vehicles

Urban residents have been increasingly utilizing vehicle sharing services: sharing with others a vehicle you own (ex: Uber) and sharing with others a vehicle that no single individual owns (ex: Rent-a-Car)

retailers with high thresholds

Used to be located in CBDs in order to be accessible to many people. High-threshold shops (ex: large department stores) have closed their downtown branches and are more likely to be located in suburban malls

underclass

a group prevented from participating in the material benefits of a more developed society because of a variety of social and economic challenges (mostly live in the inner-city neighborhoods)

filtering

a process of change in the use of a house from single-family owner to abandonment

suburb

a residential or commercial area situated within an urban area but outside the central city. Only 20% of Americans lived in these in 1950 but this rapidly increased after World War II (baby boomers)

urbanized area

an urban area with at least 50,000 inhabitants (70% of the US population lives in 1 of the 486 of these). They are visibly separated from each other by open spaces used as parks, farms, etc but at the periphery of the urban areas, the boundaries overlap

urban cluster

an urban area with between 2,500 and 50,000 inhabitants

central city

an urban settlement that has been legally incorporated into an independent self-governing unit known as a municipality. Has legal entities with fixed boundaries, elected officials, ability to raise taxes, and provides essential services. Has been decreasing in northern and eastern U.S. but increasing in the south and west

core-based statistical area

any one micropolitan or metropolitan statistical area

megalopolis

collection of adjacent or overlapping metropolitan areas that merge into a continuous urban region. Example: the urban complex in northeastern US from Boston to Washington D.C.

urban area

consists of a central city and its surrounding built-up suburbs

micropolitan statistical area

designated smaller urban areas that include an urbanized area of between 10,000 and 50,000 inhabitants, county in which it is located, and adjacent counties tied to the city.

rush hour

four consecutive fifteen-minute periods that have the heaviest traffic

public housing

government-owed housing rented to low-income people with rents set at 30% of the tenant's income. Other countries have charities own much of public housing aided by subsidies from the national government.

zoning ordinance

law that limits the permitted uses of land and maximum density of development in a community (marketing geographers identify sectors, rings, and nodes that come closest to matching customers preferred by a retailer. Companies use this to determine the best location of stores and advertising)

smart growth

legislation and regulations to limit suburban growth and preserve farmland (ex: states have defined growth boundaries where new developments can occur, can annex only lands included in urban growth areas, and discourage funding of new highways and projects that would extend sprawl)

metropolitan statistical area (MSA)

measures the functional area of ab urban settlement. Includes an urbanized area with at least 50,000 people, a county within which the city is located, and adjacent counties that have a high population density and high percentage of people working in the central city's county

segmentation

process of partitioning markets into groups of potential customers with similar needs and characteristics who are likely to exhibit similar purchasing behavior

informal settlements

residential area where housing has been built on land to which the occupants have no legal claim or has not been built to the city's standards for legal buildings. Has few services because the people cannot afford them. Houses are basic shelters made out of cardboard and cans. Water is carried from a well or truck and electricity service may be stolen by running a wire from the nearest power line

greenbelt

rings of open space

Iron Horse (1830-1870)

steam-powered railroads serve as transportation and canals connect inland cities with urban centers on the East Coast

leapfrog development

suburb development in which housing is more likely to be concentrated in new towns or planned extensions of existing towns (example: the United Kingdom)

central business district (CBD)

the best-known and most visually distinctive area of most cities is downtown or called this. It is usually one of the oldest districts in a city, near or at the original site of settlement. Contains a large collection of services because it is the easiest part of the city to reach from the rest of the region and is the focal point of the region's transportation network

sprawl

the development of suburbs at relatively low density and at locations that are not contiguous to the existing built-up area

edge city

the nodes of consumer and business services around the beltway

density gradient

the number of houses per unit of land diminishes as distance from the center city increases

gentrification

the process of converting an urban neighborhood from a predominantly low-income, renter-occupied area to a predominantly middle-class, owner-occupied area

annexation

the process of legally adding land area to a city

social area analysis

the study of where people of varying living standards, ethnic backgrounds, and lifestyle live within an urban area. Depends on availability of data at the scale of individual neighborhoods

combines statistical area

two or more contiguous core-based statistical areas tied together by commuting patterns

Sail-Wagon (1790-1830)

urban areas are clustered along the Atlantic Coast where communication was wind-powered ships