AP Human Geography - Unit 6 and Unit 7 Review Questions

What are the different measures of economic and social development?

GNP, GDP, and GNI are different ways to measure a country's economic productivity and growth. Adding per capita and purchasing power parity values to GNP, GDP, and GNI measures allows for more detailed comparisons of national economies. • Measures of social development include the Gender Inequality Index and the Human Development Index.

How do women's roles in society change as countries develop economically?

With economic growth, women achieve higher rates of education, which leads to lower rates of early marriage and adolescent childbearing. • Economic development is associated with greater freedom of movement for women and greater participation in civic life.

How and where did cities originate?

· Agricultural surplus and socioeconomic stratification are two elements necessary for the development of cities in the first urban revolution. • Early cities rose in areas known as urban hearths. • Site and situation were important in the location of early cities and urban areas. • Urbanization in Europe diffused through the Greek and Roman Empires. • Urban centers grew independently in Spain, China, and the Americas.

What is an urban system?

· An urban system is a set of interdependent cities or urban places • Economic functions of the urban system are distributed by networks that link the urban system

What models describe the internal structure of cities in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa?

· The Latin American city model (1980 and 1990s) is a combination of concentric zones and radial sectors with a CBD divided between a traditional market and a more modem sector. Squatter settlements radiate from the market areas and into the outer zone of the city. • The Southeast Asian city model (1960s) shows the old colonial port as the focal point with a Western commercial zone and alien commercial zones radiating outward through a mixed-use zone. Squatter settlements are mixed with new suburban zones, indicating a rapidly advancing middle class pushing poorer people farther outside of the city. • African cities are diverse with Islamic cities in the north and in coastal East Africa and Western-oriented cities in South Africa. The sub-Saharan Africa model shows three CBDS representing the colonial, traditional, marketing influences. As with other non-North American models, there is a rapidly expanding outer ring of shantytowns due to unchecked in-migration from rural areas.

What are the recent patterns in city infrastructure, economic base, and housing?

· The loss of residential population and businesses affects the financial health of a city and its ability to repair and update infrastructure • Changes in the economic base from industry to technology allow cities to attract high-income jobs and high- profile businesses • In recent decades, socioeconomic groups in metropolitan areas have tended to cluster in housing types that are specific to each group

How do the rank-size rule and the primate city rule help to explain hierarchy?

• A primate city, which is disproportionately larger than all the other urban places in a country, dominates the country's economic, political, and cultural life. • Within an urban hierarchy, the population of a settlement is inversely proportional to its rank within the hierarchy

What is the central place theory?

• Central place theory, a model constructed by Walter Christaller, seeks to explain the organization of central places. • Cristaller understood cities as economic centers that distribute goods and services to people who will travel a certain distance to acquire them • According to Christaller, the shape of the service areas of central places is a hexagon where a large first-order city provides high-order goods and fourth-order villages and hamlets provide lower-order goods. • Services in small urban places have a lower threshold and smaller range than services at higher levels. · Advances in technology, communications, and transportation have made Christaller's model less applicable in modern times, although the model still offers useful insights.

What are the main economic sectors and their distinct development patterns?

• Economies may have up to five economic sectors: primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary, and qinary. • The relative mix of economic sectors results in recognizable spatial patterns of economic development. • One common spatial pattern is the core-periphery-semi-periphery model.

How can cities respond to the challenges of sustainability?

• Environmental conservation projects on a regional scale can help to protect natural environments outside urban areas from environmental degradation. • Brownfield remediation and redevelopment have many advantages, including the removal and treatment of harmful substances, increased property values, and community pride and vitality. • Farmland protection and preservation policies are intended to minimize the unnecessary and irreversible conversion of farmland to nonagricultural uses. • Local communities have taken additional steps to preserve farmland by passing right-to-farm ordinances and preserving farmland as open space. • Urbanization can lead to the efficient use of land, with a large portion of the population living in a relatively small area.

How do patterns of land use, population and housing density, and technological capabilities shape metropolitan regions?

• Factors that drive urban land use are utility and accessibility • Early mass transit systems such as the electric streetcar (trolley) controlled the development of residential and industrial areas within cities • Socioeconomic pattems developed through differential access to transportation systems in the expanding city • Zoning regulations dictate how land can be used. • Low-density suburban housing increased with the popularity of the automobile

What are some responses to economic and social challenges in urban areas?

• Inclusionary zoning (IZ) is a means of providing housing for low-income families and increasing neighborhood diversity • Local food movements increase options for obtaining nutritious and affordable food for low-income city residents

What were the major demographic and social consequences of industrialization?

• Industrialization resulted in increasing food supplies and related increases in population. • Industrialization greatly accelerated migration from rural areas to urban centers. • The social consequences of industrialization were extensive, including a new social class structure, changes in the family, and changes in the everyday experiences of space and time.

How did industrialists' needs for resources and markets drive colonialism and imperialism?

• Many industrializing countries did not have sufficient natural resources within their boundaries, leading them to colonized other regions in order to monopolize their natural resources. • Once consumer demand was met in the domestic markets of industrializing countries, imperialism provided access to new foreign markets. An important result of imperialism under industrial capitalism was the creation of an international division of labor, with the colonies providing natural resources and the colonizers providing finished, mass-produced goods.

What is the role of microloans in advancing living standards and opportunities for women?

• Microloans have become an important component of economic development strategies to raise women out of poverty. Microloans have helped improve the lives of millions of women, though they have not relieved widespread poverty among women in developing countries.

What are the spatial outcomes of urbanization in the contemporary world?

• Patterns of urbanized population reveal that the countries of Europe, North America, Latin America, and the Caribbean have relatively high levels of urbanization, but the nations of Africa and Asia are less urbanized • The majority of the world's largest cities - metacities and megacities - are located in the developing world, a major change from 50 years ago. • The rapid increase in urban population in the developing world has led to severe unemployment and infrastructure issues

What are the positive and negative responses to urban design initiatives?

• Positive responses to smart growth policies point to diminished air pollution, a high quality of life, fewer motor vehicle accidents, reduced health care costs, and increased life expectancies. • Negative responses to urban design initiatives include the fears that property values will decrease; affordable housing will decrease; property owners will face restrictions on land; existing communities will be disrupted; de facto segregation may occur; structures and places of historical importance will be destroyed; and sprawl will increase rather than decrease

What economic challenges result from movement of urban populations?

• Redlining and blockbusting are illegal forms of housing discrimination that have shaped some neighborhoods. • Atight market for affordable housing leads to economic and social segregation, fewer educational opportunities for children, and homelessness.

What are the different theories of economic development?

• Rostow's stages of economic growth model suggests that all countries will inevitably progress through the same development stages. According to world systems theory, regions were incorporated into the world economy historically through colonialism, creating interdependent but unequal relationships among them. • Dependency theorists believe that the causes of persistent underdevelopment in the periphery lie in exploitative relationships with the core. • Real-world data link commodity dependence to underdevelopment

Which processes influence patterns of urbanization?

• Rural-to-urban migration fuels the growth of cities. • Innovations in transportation shaped and reshaped the layout and size of cities and their surrounding areas over time. • Innovations in communication systems allowed businesses, and therefore cities, to grow • The second urban revolution was the result of industrialization and innovations in mining and manufacturing. • itites require governing bodies to manage infrastructure and provide for the needs of the population.

What are sustainable design initiatives and zoning practices in urban geography?

• Smart growth policies are designed to combat regional sprawl by addressing issues of population density and transportation • New Urbanism focuses on fostering European-style cities of dense settlements, attractive architecture, and diverse housing options, within walking distance to shopping, restuarants, jobs, and public transportation • Greenbelts are areas of grassy, forested, or agricultural land that separate urban areas, promote healthy lifestyles, and promote ecological health • Slow-growth cities change their zoning laws to decrease the rate at which the city spreads horizontally, with the goal of avoiding or slowing the negative effects of sprawl

What social challenges do cities face?

• Social challenges that cities face include access to services for all residents, urban crime, environmental injustice, and the growth of squatter settlements • Rural-to-urban migration and international immigration have led to larger numbers of low-income people in need of services. • Rates of violent crime in the United States have declined significantly, but disadvantaged, segregated communities are still disproportionally affected by high rates of violent crime • Native peoples, people of color, women and children, and the poor are most vulnerable to environmental hazards and affected the most by environmental injustice. • Squatter settlements usually begin as collections of crude shacks constructed from scrap materials; gradually, they become increasingly elaborate and permanent as cities integrate them into their borders

Why is natural resource availability important to industrialization?

• Some natural resources, such as water, wood, and coal, are needed as sources of energy to power machinery. Other natural resources, such as timber and iron ore, are needed as inputs in manufacturing processes.

What models and theories describe the internal structure of North American cities?

• The Burgess concentric zone model (1920s) shows four concentric rings surrounding the central business district • The Hoyt Sector model (1930s) shows sectors radiating out from the central business district as transportation options expanded The Harris and Ullman multiple-nuclei model shows urban residential districts organized around several nodes rather than on a primary CBD • The galactic city or peripheral model (1960s) expand on the multiple-nuclei model with the decentralization of the CBD and increasing business and residential areas to accommodate the rapidly developing suburbs • Bid-rent theory focuses on the utility of a place for specific groups and its accessibility to these groups with the assumption that both accessibility and utility decrease with distance from the city center

What is the Industrial Revolution and how did it influence the diffusion of industrialization?

• The Industrial Revolution refers to the rapid transformation of the economy through the introduction of machines, new power sources, and new chemical processes in Europe and the United States between 1760 and 1830. • The first technological breakthroughs in industrialization came in textile manufacturing in England.

What are some new urban land uses and the challenges they create?

• The automobile has contributed to urban sprawl as cities grow outward in an unchecked manner. Some U.S. suburbs are called automobile cities due to their reliance on cars. • Edge cities are concentrations of business, shopping and entertainment that developed at major suburban highway interchanges • Boomburbs are quickly growing incorporated places that have more than 100,000 residents found principally in a belt stretching from Texas to the Pacific • Exurbs are located beyond the suburbs in a semi-rural unincorporated district inhabited chiefly by well-to-do families

How can you define contemporary cities using quantitative data?

• The definition of a city varies throughout the world • Often, cities are defined by the size of their population • Geographers use data from the Population Reference Bureau, the U.S. Census Bureau, and the United Nations, among other sources • Different countries use different methods to calculate their populations, making international comparisons difficult

What are the challenges to urban sustainability?

• The ecological footprint of cities is enormous and includes higher temperatures and higher levels of atmospheric pollution due to the phenomenon of the urban heat island • Cties use a great deal of water and are subject to flooding because they have little open ground of precipitation to seep into • Urban environmental vulnerability includes water and sanitation concems, air quality, and high energy usage • Natural disasters are major challenges for cities of all sizes, particularly those in coastal locations • Responses to climate change are uneven across the world, with some cities actively working to reduce risk and others poorly prepared

What is the gravity model?

• The gravity model suggests that the closer two places are, the more they will influence each other. As distance increases, interaction decreases. • The mathematics of the gravity model considers both the distance between two cities and the size of each city • The gravity model is less useful today due to technological advances

How does government fragmentation challenge efficiency in urban governance?

• The many different levels of government lead to inefficiencies in governance and the provision of services Consolidation of services involves centralizing services to create fewer independent districts, thus removing layers of hierarchy

What factors influence the location of manufacturing?

• The most common factors influencing the location of manufacturing are energy, materials, labor, markets, and transportation. • One important theory of manufacturing location is Weber's least-cost theory.

What is the basis for international trade?

• Theories explaining the reasons for international trade have evolved as the world economy has grown more interconnected. • International trade has helped fuel global GDP growth.

How does women's increased presence in the workforce affect gender parity?

• Though women's participation in the workforce is increasing, gender wage gaps persist. In many developing countries, women are employed mostly in the informal sector (including agriculture), which provides lower wages with less job security than the formal sector.

What are the consequences of urban renewal and gentrification?

• Urban renewal projects are large-scale projects undertaken by the state or as public-private partnerships that often lead to demolition of old neighborhoods. • Gentrification leads to the displacement of lower-income residents by higher-income residents as the neighborhood improves. Eventually, gentrified neighborhoods become expensive and available only to the wealthy • Gentrification contributes to racial and ethnic tensions and creates a visible reminder of the uneven distribution of wealth within cities

What are world cities and their roles in globalization?

• World cities are control centers of the global economy, the sites of major decisions about the world's global commercial and financial networks. • World cities such as New York, London, and Tokyo are nodes that connect to other places where international action and interaction occur. • World cities are often home to significant numbers of high-net-worth individuals • Gated communities reflect the efforts of the wealthy to insulate and protect themselves.

What are the networks and linkages that drive globalization?

• World cities drive globalization through networks and linkages in transportation services, communications systems, and business services