AP Lang Exam

euphony

A cluster of harmonious sounds used in poetry or prose; the opposite of cacophony.

ellipsis

A cluster of periods ( . . . ) used in writing to indicate an omission of language.

abstraction

A concept or idea without a specific example; a concept that is immaterial or without physical substance. Some examples include justice, romance, honor, friendship, innocence, heritage, and so on.

balance

A condition where various elements are equal or in complementary proportions to one another. In many ways, balance is a quality of successful writing. The ability to compose a balanced sentence when needed. A balance between logical and emotional appeals in our arguments. A balance among the different forms of evidence we present to state our case

figure of speech

A device used to produce figurative language. Figures of speech take many different forms: apostrophe, hyperbole, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, among many many others. When we analyze a text, the figures of speech we observe and investigate will hopefully help us to see the text's purpose more clearly.

implication (implicit)

A difficult word to fully understand. (1) Something that is implied is something merely suggested or hinted at. To become more perceptive readers, we increase our sensitivity to the implied messages within a text. We might ask, What claim is the speaker implying in this passage? (2) We can also discuss the "implications of the text." We might ask, What are the implications of the speaker's argument? How might the argument change the way we understand energy consumption, driving a car, or the important role trust plays in our day-to-day lives? How might the argument change our priorities, our values, or our actions? So the word implication has two main meanings that are somewhat related.

arrangement

A feature of a text that involves a method of purposeful organization. We can examine how a speaker arranges a sentence, for example, to maximize the effect it has on the audience. We can examine how a paragraph is arranged to accentuate its purpose. We can even examine the arrangement of an entire text to better understand the speaker' step-by-step process of developing his or her argument, or to perceive how the speaker arranges the text to be most convincing or persuasive. Generally, we avoid the word "organization" in this class.

hyperbole (hyperbolic)

A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Hyperbole aims to expose reality by presenting a distorted portrayal of reality, which makes it an especially effective element of satire. If one says, "It was so cold, I saw polar bears wearing parkas" one is being hyperbolic.

idiom (idiomatic)

A figure of speech whose meaning is determined by culture and tradition; a manner of speaking that is natural to native speakers but is often confusing to outsiders. Consider the idiomatic and literal meaning of these idioms: madder than a wet hen, hot potato, back to the drawing board.

circular reasoning

A flaw in reasoning where the speaker attempts to validate a claim by simply restating the claim in a different way. Although the claim might be accurate, the circular reasoning renders the claim invalid or unsupported by evidence. Speakers who commit circular reasoning often fail to perceive the difference between claim language and evidence language and the relationship between the two.

clause

A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent clause expresses a complete idea. A subordinate clause is an incomplete idea that needs an independent element to be a sentence.

cluster

A group of similar textual features we observe in a text. When examining a text, we might find a cluster of negative diction, a cluster of rhetorical questions, a cluster of patriotic images, a cluster of intentional fragments, and so on. It's a handy word we sometimes use when writing a rhetorical analysis.

cause and effect

A language pattern in which the speaker highlights the cause and effect relationship.

bias

A preference or an inclination that inhibits impartial judgment.

diatribe

A rant or an explosion of harsh language intended to condemn an idea or person.

anecdote

A short narrative of an amusing, unusual, or interesting event. Anecdotes might relate the speaker's personal experiences, a historical episode, or a current event. The possibilities are endless. Generally speaking, anecdotes establish context, appeal to the audience's sympathy, or imply claims. The important thing to remember about anecdotes is that their rhetorical power is usually a result of how the speaker relates them to the audience.

arguable thesis

A statement that sets out to prove or to validate an arguable claim. The claim articulated by the thesis must be worthy of serious debate. An arguable thesis avoids setting out to prove the obvious, or setting out to validate a foregone conclusion, or setting out to confirm an overly simplistic claim. When we write a rhetorical analysis essay, our focus is driven by our arguable thesis.

analysis statement

A statement whose function is to examine a feature of a text. By "statement," we are not suggesting that all analysis statements must be a single sentence. Some analysis statements might be multiple sentences in length, but the finest analysis statements are often concise. The most successful analysis statements include the following components but not necessarily in this order: FEATURE + EVIDENCE + PURPOSE or EFFECT + COMMENTARY

empiricism (empirical)

Knowledge based on experience, observation, or experimentation; the view that experience, especially of the senses, is the most reliable source of knowledge.

double entendre

Language that conveys two meanings: one that is neutral and one that is sexually provocative in some way.

damning with faint praise

Language that explicitly expresses praise and admiration towards its subject, but upon closer inspection the language actually implies dislike or condemnation. Upon closer examination of the context, the praise is too exaggerated or too contrived to be genuine or sincere.

figurative language

Language that is not intended to carry literal meaning but nevertheless serves a rhetorical purpose that requires analytical thinking to examine and comprehend.

connotation (connotes)

The non-literal, associative meanings of a word; the ideas, emotions, or attitudes that a word provokes in the audience's mind. While the denotation of knife is a utensil used to cut, for example, the word knife also connotes violence, revenge, or betrayal. Speakers regularly choose words that have the connotation needed to elicit the desired response from the audience, either positive, neutral, or negative.

asyndeton

The omission of the conjunction in a series. Asyndeton is a stylistic device that produces a variety of effects in language.

antithesis

The presentation of opposite ideas or concepts in close proximity to one another. Hope is the antithesis of despair. Poverty is the antithesis of riches.

imagery

The projection of a message in sensory form, not to be confused with description. Whereas description often documents the literal features of a person or place, imagery projects an implied message through sensory language: something we can see, hear, touch, taste, or smell. One can easily describe a beautiful sunset in great detail without ever projecting imagery. An image can express an implied message and can therefore be interpreted by the audience whereas a description resists interpretation. Speakers often use imagery with other features like diction, selection of detail, metaphor, hyperbole, or contrast.

alliteration

The repetition of consonant sounds at close intervals. Alliteration creates a sound pattern, and this pattern might be used to highlight some aspect of the text, to heighten the audience's awareness of something, or to affect the tone of the text. Example: "His soul swooned slowly as he heard the snow falling faintly through the universe . . ." - James Joyce

consonance

The repetition of similar consonant sounds in close proximity to one another, as in same and home and shame. Generally speaking, consonance involves a cluster of harmonious sounds; whereas, dissonance involves a cluster of harsh, contrasted sounds, as in fierce-throated beauty.

cadence

The rhythm language creates through repetitive or complementary elements.

jargon

The special language of a profession or group of experts. The term jargon usually has a negative connotation because jargon is often perceived as arcane, misleading, and confusing to outsiders. Legal texts, for example, are often criticized for including too much jargon to be understood by non-lawyers.

generic conventions

The typical characteristics of a written genre or text type, which help us to identify what we are reading: a letter of apology, public awareness campaign, journalistic article, personal essay, formal reprimand, a letter to the editor, and so on. Conventions differentiate an essay from an editorial, for example, or an autobiography from a political speech. When we read a text that begins "Once upon a time . . .," we are observing a convention.

ambivalence

The uncertainty regarding the meaning, attitude, or purpose of a text, especially when produced intentionally by the speaker. The speaker intentionally causes the audience to experience contrary notions about the text. The audience is unsure whether they should be inspired or terrorized, for example. (Do not confuse ambiguity with a reader's misinterpretation of a text.)

epigram

The use of a quotation at the beginning of a work that suggests its focus, purpose, or theme. Hemingway begins The Sun Also Rises with two epigrams, one of which reads, "You are all a lost generation." -Gertrude Stein.

inversion

When we invert the customary subject - verb - complement order of a sentence. English naturally relies on one form of inversion to signal a question: Is Moby Dick your favorite book? But inversion can also serve rhetorical purposes by placing emphasis on the repositioned subject: Off the coast of South Carolina lie the majestic barrier islands. Note how the inversion in this case emphasizes the majesty of the "barrier islands" by placing them at the end of the sentence.

assertion

While an assertion and claim are somewhat similar, we usually think of assertions as more forceful and validated with plenty of sound evidence; whereas, speakers sometimes state claims without evidence to validate them.

balanced antithesis

a syntactic form where sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a balanced structure, as in To err is human; to forgive is divine.

Abstract diction

involves words that convey ideas and notions that are more difficult to define. In this class, we should be able to describe an author's diction: concrete vs. abstract, formal vs. informal, ornate vs. plain, positive vs. negative, and so on

Concrete diction

involves words that convey substance and are relatively common and easily understood.

Anecdotal evidence

is evidence related in narrative form.

Overgeneralization

occurs when the speaker asserts that a claim applies to all instances instead of only those instances that are relevant to the conversation. In argumentation, it is best to avoid absolute diction such as always, all, anyone, everybody, everyone, forever, and never. Such language often leads to overgeneralized claims that are difficult to validate or defend.

effect

the impact a textual feature has upon the audience, or the impact an entire text has on an audience. Effective speakers place the audience at the center of the rhetorical situation and continually ask themselves

verbal irony

when a speaker means something quite different than what is literally said.

dramatic irony

when the audience understands something that the characters do not understand

situational irony

when what is unexpected actually happens (not to be confused with coincidence

intentional fragment

When a writer purposefully includes incomplete thoughts in a text. Intentional fragments can serve a variety of purposes depending on the context.

episodic

Appearing in episodes; a series of short, individual scenes, stories, or narratives, rather than the presentation of a sustained, continuous plot.

epithet

1) a short, poetic nickname in the form of an adjective or adjective phrase. Example: Grey-eyed Athena - Homer; 2) a term used as a descriptive substitute for the name or title of a person such as The Great Emancipator for Abraham Lincoln; 3) a contemptuous word or phrase, commonly a slur, such as red-coats for the British forces during the American Revolutionary War.

euphemism

A term used in place of another world that is considered too harsh or too crude for the occasion. Sometimes, we use euphemisms to adhere to standards of social conduct. Instead of "hooker," we say instead "lady of the evening." But euphemism is also associated with intentionally deceiving the audience by using a less alarming word in place of another. The Nazi's commonly referred to the final solution as a "relocation program" when, in reality, it was an extermination program of European Jews. Many Nazi documents are riddled with similar euphemisms meant to mask their muderous intent.

aphorism

A terse, pithy, and wise statement of known authorship which expresses a widely regarded truth or principle. Aphorisms sometimes present a memorable summation of the author's larger message, or they might appeal to the audience's common sense. Example: Whatever is begun in anger ends in shame. - Benjamin Franklin (When the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.)

caricature

A tool of parody, caricature is the intentional exaggeration of a person's physical characteristics or mannerisms.

burlesque

A tool of satire where the writer uses absurd exaggerations or outlandish distortions.

invective

A verbally violent attack using insulting or abusive language. Invective is harmful language that is meant to be so. Its purpose is to demean, disparage, and to damage the victim of the attack.

irony (ironic)

All irony is based on some form of discrepancy: the discrepancy between our expectations and the eventual outcome, the discrepancy between what a character thinks and what the audience knows to be true, or the discrepancy between what is said and what is actually meant.

analogy

An analogy is a comparison that serves an instructional purpose. A speaker compares something very obscure or abstract to something more familiar and concrete so that the audience might better comprehend the abstraction. Using the solar system to help school children understand atomic structure, for example. We can also call these analogical comparisons. (Do not confuse analogies with metaphors.)

claim

An arguable assertion that is open to debate or discussion. While the terms claim and assertion mean basically the same thing, one distinction some people make is that claims are sometimes stated without evidence while assertions are almost always accompanied by clear, forceful, relevant evidence.

contextual framework (contextual awareness)

An available body of knowledge. One thing we will learn in this class is that all of us move through the world with a contextual framework, an available body of knowledge located in our minds and memory that informs how we think and how we act. This body of knowledge includes information related to history, science, art, politics, pool safety, and cloud formations. It includes our understanding of mathematics and foreign cultures. It includes the memories of our personal experiences as well as the lyrics of our favorite songs. It includes the associations we make to words like child, trust, and success. It includes EVERYTHING we can call upon at any given moment to help us think. Your ability to think analytically will be heavily influenced by the extent of your personal contextual framework.

dilemma

An either-or situation where there is no obvious choice free of consequences, typically a moral or ethical decision. When a speaker misrepresents the options available to an audience and characterizes those options as very limited when, in reality, a broader range of options is available, the speaker commits the logical fallacy of false dilemma.

fallacy (fallacious claim)

An error in reasoning based on mis-stated claims, or the presentation of faulty evidence, or some combination of the two. The speaker intends to appeal to the audience's logic but, in reality, commits a mistake in logic. Logical fallacies come in many flavors, too many to mention here.

hypothetical (a hypothetical)

An example based on supposition or uncertainty. While hypothetical examples are not entirely useless for argumentation, a factual example is considered much more meaningful and convincing.

exemplar

An example that lies at the center of an argument in some way. When speakers use exemplars, they often refer to them multiple times throughout a text because the example is so representative or tailor-made for the speaker's purpose.

counterexample

An exception to a proposed general rule.

footnote

An explanatory reference at the bottom of a page of text. In this class, we need to recognize that footnotes, like all textual features, serve a purpose that might not be immediately obvious.

conceit

An extreme comparison that is nonetheless intellectually imaginative and insightful. Conceits often add a touch of humor to a text, or they might establish a lighthearted tone.

innuendo

An illusive or implied insult. Innuendo is usually the result of a clever use of language and is often very subtle. Only the most perceptive readers or members of an audience might detect it.

anachronism

An inconsistency whereby an object, person, or custom is placed in an unusual context. The object does not belong in this setting, or the person does not belong in this time period. Children's cartoons that present humans and dinosaurs living side-by-side in the same epoch present an anachronism. Paintings of several dogs playing poker in a billiard hall present an anachronism. The famous painting The Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci that depicts Christ and the twelve apostles sitting at a long table presents an anachronism. Such long tables were unknown during that historical time period. Yes, some anachronisms are accidental. Other anachronisms are produced for practical reasons. In the texts we read, anachronisms might serve a rhetorical or argumentative purpose.

allusion

An indirect reference to something presumably well known to the audience. Allusions often invoke in the audience's minds certain associations, lessons, or principles. Allusions can be divided into four basic types

example

An individual instance taken to be representative of a general rule or tendency. Arguing by example is considered reliable if examples are accurately presented as well as relevant.

colloquialism (colloquial)

Common or regional language rooted in local customs or dialect. Colloquialisms are generally unacceptable for formal, academic texts, but colloquialisms can give a text a more conversational and familiar style under appropriate circumstances.

concrete versus abstract

Concrete is observable, measurable, easily perceived. Chair is a concrete term. An example of an abstract noun is patriot because there exists many different understandings of this idea.

diction

Diction refers to a speaker's word choice, especially with regard to their common qualities or effectiveness.

didactic

Didactic texts seek to teach or instruct, especially moral or ethical principles. To claim a text is didactic is to suggest that the speaker assumes too much authority or is too preachy or bossy. Didactic texts tend to moralize instead of present an evidence-based argument.

exemplification

Exemplification is a pattern of essay development that uses specific instances (or examples) to validate assertions, to clarify purpose, to add interest, or to persuade.

anaphora

When repetition occurs at the beginning of successive lines, clauses, or phrases.

coherence (unity)

When the multiple parts of a text complement one another, when the parts effectively serve a common purpose or focus on a particular idea.

digression (digress)

When the speaker moves off the point or veers into unrelated territory; to go backwards and to rehash earlier ideas rather than to progress forward.

generalization

When the speaker validates a claim with a single isolated example, or when the speaker asserts that a claim is universal in some way when it's probably not.

cacophony (dissonance)

Harsh, awkward, or dissonant sounds used deliberately by the speaker. Cacophony is sometimes used to reinforce a sense of displeasure or to enhance a negative tone, or to emphasize contrasting elements. Cacophony is the opposite of euphony.

evidence

Information that validates a claim. Evidence can take many forms: examples, data, personal experiences, appeals to credible authorities, and so on. Regardless of the form the evidence takes, evidence is understood to be based in fact.

annotation

Explanatory notes added to the margins of a text to document the textual features, to examine the purpose of such features, and to record the audience's experiences as they read the text.

explicit

Expressly stated or openly announced; made obvious or evident; clear.

fact versus fiction

Facts can be verified; fiction, on the other hand, is supposed or imagined. While fiction might express a profound truth, its truth is not of a factual nature.

cliché

Language that is so common and overused that it has lost its rhetorical power. The coach who refers to the team as a family is guilty of a cliché. The man who tries to romance a lady by describing how her eyes are as beautiful as the night stars is also guilty of a cliché. While these clichés were apparently original at one time, they have since become so trite and that they should be avoided. Most perceptive readers recognize clichés and consider them evidence of a lack of maturity or imagination. In this class as in life, originality matters. We want our writing to be original and new, not threadbare and dull.

commentary

Language that offers an explanation or interpretation of some kind. Professional football games, for example, are often followed by commentary when two or more announcers recap what happened during a game. Why the game unfolded the way it did, and why that's important. When we write a rhetorical analysis, we provide similar commentary as part of our analysis: the circumstances that gave rise to the text, the exchange between speaker and audience, the audience's apparent reaction to the text, the implications of the text, and so on.

deduction

One of the two basic types of logic. The process of moving from a general rule to a specific example.

candor

Open, honest, and straightforward communication; truthfulness. Candor is appropriate for some situations but not others

induction

Reasoning by which a general statement is reached on the basis of particular examples.

inference (infer)

The ability to reach a reasonable conclusion based on our contextual framework and the available evidence. In this class, we are constantly mastering the ability to infer the speaker's intent, the audience's reaction to the text, the purpose a particular feature might serve, and so on.

idealism

The act or practice of envisioning things in an ideal form; seeing things as they could be or as you hope them to be.

denotation

The explicit, dictionary definition of a word, which is free of any emotion, attitude, or associations.

exigency (exigence)

The immediate circumstances or needs that gave rise to a text. Perhaps the problem a speaker tries to remedy through the creation of a text. A text does not spring into existence spontaneously; a text is a reaction to some event or controversy. To ask What need is the speaker trying to satisfy? is to wonder about the text's exigence. To ask What motivated the speaker to say this? is to wonder about the text's exigence. When writing the introduction of a rhetorical analysis, we often reference the exigence of the text under analysis, or the origin of the text.

ambiguity

The multiple meanings or interpretations of language. In some cases, a speaker is unintentionally ambiguous; in other cases, a speaker might be intentionally ambiguous.

antecedent

The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The exam sometimes asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a very complex or arcane passage.

circumlocution

To write around a subject; to write evasively; to use many, many words to say nearly nothing of substance. We might call circumlocution as "fluff," "drivel," or "bullshit."

appeal to expert testimony

When a speaker refers to the claims or findings of a recognized expert in a particular field. An experienced carpenter is an expert in the field of carpentry, for example. When a speaker refers to the claims or findings of a person who is not an expert in the relevant field, then the speaker commits the fallacy known as false authority.

appeal to credible authority

When a speaker refers to the claims or observations of a person with relevant experience. While the person in question might not have any official credentials, they do have direct experience that makes them a credible authority. Perhaps they were a witness of a historical event, or they worked for many years in a lumber yard. Whatever the case, they are more credible than someone who does not possess similar experiences.

Classical allusions

reference Greek or Roman mythology

Shakespearean allusions

reference Shakespeare's dramatic works or sonnets

Biblical allusions

reference the Old or New Testament

Dickensian allusions

reference the works of Charles Dickens.

contrast

the state of being different from something else, typically two ideas in juxtaposition or close association to one another. Contrast can take many forms. A text might present two contrasting images, or a speaker might use contrasting tones throughout the course of an essay. As you read a text, you might notice how the speaker uses contrasting diction, some positive and some negative. The first challenge is to detect the contrast, and the next challenge is to determine the speaker's intent or purpose. Why is the speaker calling our attention to these differences?