AP Lang Rhetorical Terms

anaphora

repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses, sentences, or lines of poetry.

inference/infer

to draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented.

emotional fallacy

unfair appeal to the audience's emotions

ethical fallacy

unreasonable acvance of the writer's own authority or character

logical fallacy

use of faulty logic

zeugma

use of two different words in a grammatically similar way but producing different, often incongruous meanings. Example: "Now the trumpet summons us again--not as a call to bear arms, though arms we need--not as a call to battle, though embattled we are." My daughter and my money go to U.T. lol.

concession

when a speaker/writer agrees that a point given by the opposition may, in fact, be true. Example: As Joe says, it is true that French fries contain fat and empty calories.

parallelism

when structures within sentences or parts of a sentence (word, phrase, or clause)take the same form. This structure acts to attract the reader's attention, add emphasis and organization or simply to provide a rhythm. Example from JFK: "Let both sides explore...Let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious and precise proposals...Let both sides seek to invoke..."

anadiplosis

("doubling back") the rhetorical repetition of one or several words; specifically, repetition of a word that ends one clause at the beginning of the next. Example from Sir Francis Bacon: "Men in great place are thrice servants: servants of the sovereign; servants of fame; and servants of business."

rhetorical patterns of development

1) Narration refers to telling a story 2) Description emphasizes the sentences 3) Process analysis which explains how something works, how to do something, or how something was done 4) Exemplification in which you provide a series of examples -- facts, specific cases, or instances -- to turn a general idea into a concrete one 5) Comparison and contrast in which you juxtapose two things to highlight their similarities and differences 6) Classification and division in which material or ideas are sorted into major categories 7) definition in which a speaker/writer provides a paragraph or two to clarify terms 8) Cause and effect in which the causes in which the causes that lead to a certain effect or the effects that result from a cause are explained as a powerful foundation for argument.

Classical Model of Argumentation

The five part structure for an oratory, speech, or written argument. Introduction: introduces the reader to the subject. Often establishes ethos. Narration: provides factual information and background material and often appeals to pathos. Confirmation: usually the major part of the text, including hte development of the proof needed to make the writer's case--makes strongest appeal to logos. Refutation: addresses the counterargument and is in many ways a bridge between the speaker's proof and the conclusion. The counterargument largely appeals to logos. Conclusion: brings the writing to a satisfying close. Often appeals to pathos and answers the "so what?" Makes the strongest impact or call to action.

imagery

The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions, usually using terms related to the five senses.

didactic

This type of work has the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially in the moral or ethical principles.

analogy

a comparison between two different things. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with something more familiar.

simile

a comparison of two things using like, as, or if.

figure of speech

a device used to produce figurative language; they include apostraphe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox, simile, etc.

conceit

a fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. For examplme, in love poems,m poets may compare their love to some object, such as a rose, a ship, or a garden.

hyperbole

a figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Example: There were a million people in the cafeteria!!!!!!11one!

metaphor

a figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things.

clause

a grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. There are independent, or main, clauses which can stand alone as a sentence, and there are subordinate (dependent) clauses, which must be accompanied by an independnet clause. Example with independent clause in parenthesis and the subordinate clause not in parenthesis: Because I worked hard every day in class, (my AP score was high).

subordinate clause

a group of words containing a subject and verb, but is unable to stand alone as a sentence. Example: "Because I could not stop" ...for death, death stopped for me.

extended metaphor

a metaphor developed at great length over several lines

pathos

a persuasive appeal to emotions. Example: a photo of a lonely and homeless puppy

rhetorical question

a question asked for effect, not in expectation of a reply. Why do the birds seem to sing so sweetly when you're in love? o.o''

oxymoron

a self-contradictory combination of words or smaller verbal units. Examples: bittersweet, jumbo shrimp, guest host.

loose sentence

a sentence where the main idea comes in the beginning of the sentence. Example: The weather was hot even though we had a little rain and an occasional breeze from the north.

periodic sentence

a sentence which builds up, often through two or more parallel constructions, to a climactic statement in the main clause. Example: From breakfast to lunch, from lunch to dinner, from dinner to midnight snack, he is thinking of only one thing -- the next meal.

tricolon

a sentence with three clearly defined parts of equal length, usually independent clauses and of increasing power. Example: "A happy life is one spent learning, earning, and yearning." Lillian Gish

paradox

a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense, but upon closer inspection or thought contains some degree of truth or validity. Example: 2 Corinthians "For when I am weak, then I am strong". "War is peace, freedom is slavery, ignorance is strength." (George Orwell, 1984)

polysyndeton

a style that employs a great many conjunctions. This usually slows down the flow of the sentence and creates a piling on effect. Example: I love the trees, and the birds, and the flowers, and the many, many aspects of nature.

metonymy

a substitution of some attributive of the whole used to represent the whole. Example: The White House (substitute for President and staff) helped free the reporters held captive in North Korea. The suits (substitute for professional people) make all the money these days!

aphorism

a terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. Example from Benjamin Franklin: "Early to bed, early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise."

chiasmus

a verbal pattern in which the second part is balanced against the first but with the parts reversed. Example from Freddy Douglass, "If black men have no rights in the eyes of the white men, of course the whites can have none in the eyes of the blacks."

transition

a word or phrase that links different ideas. Examples: Furthermore, on the other hand.

parody

a work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. Example: SNL

satire

a work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule

pedantic

an adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish.

epithet

an adjective used to point out a characteristic of a person or thing and may be complimentary or not. Examples: heartfelt thanks, blood-red sky, stone-cold heart, Ivan the Terrible

counterargument

an anticipation of the opposing sides views of an argument where the validity of all or part of the argument is accurate or true. Example: (counterargument) Although there are claims that fish oil is toxic, (refutation) these claims can be easily be disproven through lab testing. Science has proven, however, that fish oil contains healthy fats and nutrients good for brain health.

logos

an appeal to reason using clear, rational ideas, usually with specific details, examples, facts, statistical data, or expert testimony as support.

schemes

an artful deviation from the ordinary arrangement of words. Schemes and tropes both have to do with language in an unusual or "figured" way. Kinds of schemes include change in word order, omission or words, and repetition. Examples: anaphora, chiasmus, ellipses, parallelism, polysyndeton, antithesis, zeugma

invective

an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language. Examples: He's ignorant! Who was the idiot who left the milk out?

colloquial/colloquialism

an expression used in informal conversation but not accepted universally in formal speech or writing. These expressions include local or regional dialects. Example: "Howdy, ya'll."

enthymeme

an informally stated syllogism with an implied premise. Example: Children should be seen and not heard. Be quiet, John. The minor premise -- that John is a child -- is left to the reader to add.

ellipsis

an omission of one or more words, which must be supplied by the listener or reader. Example: Sharon was the first-born; Phil the second.

homily

any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice; a sermon

epigram

any witty, ingenious, or pointed saying tersely expressed. Example from Oscar Wilde, "I can resist everything except temptation."

apostrophe

breaking off discourse to address some absent person, or thing, some abstract quality, or a nonexistent character. Example: In Julius Caesar, Cassius is talking to Brutus and exclaims, "Age (abstract quality), thou art sham'd!/Rome thou hast lost the breed of noble bloods!"

rhetorical modes

describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing: 1) Exposition is to explain and analyze information 2)Argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea 3) Description is to re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action 4) narration is to tell a story or narrate an event.

Dehortation/hortative sentence

dissuasive advice given with authority. Language that urges or calls to action. Example: You have a future. It is quite clear: Stob abusing your credit card. Stop abusing your body. Slow down. Pull over. Seek help. Call home..."

understatement

figure of speech in which a speaker/writer deliberarely makes a situtation seem less important or serious than it is. Examples: When someone says "pretty fair" but means "splendid." When someone says that war is "a little messy."

trope

figure of speech that produces an unexpected twist in the meaning of words. Examples: wordplay, puns, substitutions, overstatement, and understatement.

rhetorical triangle

initially described by Aristotle, sometimes reffered to as the Aristotelian triangle. Aristotle described the interaction among subject, speaker, and audience, as well as how this interaction determines the structure and language of the argument-- that is, a text or image that establishes a speaker/writer's position.

sarcasm

involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something

ambiguity

lack of clarity (vagueness), either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.

archaic diction

old fashioned or outdated choice of words. Examples: amongst, doth, by the by, yonder.

asyndeton

omission of conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses. It tends to speed up the flow of the sentence. Example: From Lincoln, "goverment of the people, by the people, for the people..."

ethos

persuasive appeal to character used by speakers and writers to demonstrate that they are credible and trustworthy

hypophora

raising questions and answering them. Example from The Wizard of Oz, "What makes a King out of a slave? Courage! What makes the flag on the mast wave? Courage!"

diction

refers tot he speaker/writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness.

antistrophe

repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of successive clauses. Ex: "In 1931, ten years ago, Japan invaded Manchukuo-- without warning. In 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia-- without warning. In 1938, Hitler occupied Austria-- without warning. In 1939, Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia-- without warning. Later in 1939, Hitler invaded Poland-- without warning. And now Japan has attacked Malaya and Thailand-- and the United States-- without warning." Franklin D. Roosevelt

euphemism

substitution of an inoffensive term for one considered offensively explicit. Examples: Calling one a senior citizen rather than an old geezer, or calling a liar someone who stretched the truth.

persona

the character the speaker creates when he or she writes or speaks, depending on the context, purpose, subject, and audience.

syntax

the choices and arrangement of words by a speaker/writer

rhetorical strategies

the choices speakers/writers make in order to achieve their purpose. Perhaps a writer chooses to use chiasmus, tricolonk dehortation, and pathos to convince readers to vote in the next election.

irony

the contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant. There are three major types of irony: 1) Verbal, in which the words state hte opposite of the writer/speaker's true meaning; 2) Situtational, in which the events turn out the opposite of what is expected; 3) Dramatic, in which the facts or events are unkwon to a character in a play or piece of fiction, but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.

allegory

the device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. the allegorical meaning usually deals with a moral truth or a generalization about human existence. Animal Farm by George Orwell is an example.

connotation

the emotional meaning of a word. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes. Example: home as opposed to house, connotes comfort.

genre

the major category in which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. Other divisions within prose are autobiography, biography, diary, criticism, essay, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.

refutation

the part of a discourse wherein a speaker/writer anticipates opposing arguments and answers them. "(counterargument) Although as Joe says, it is true that hamburgers contain fat, (refutation) I contend the protein in beef is important due to its iron content."

mood

the prevailing atmosphere of a work. Settin tone, , and events can affect the mood.

rhetoric

the principle governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively; the skillful use of language to secure the acceptance or agreement of the reader.

antimetabole

the repetition of words in successive clauses in reverse grammatical order. The difference between antimetabole and chiasmus is that the chiasmus reverses grammatical order but does not use the same wording. Antimetabole uses the same wording. Example from JFK, "Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country."

jargon

the special language of a profession or group, like doctors, lawyers, or computer techs. Rhetorical terms are part of the jargon used in an AP Language and Composition course. Same thing as lexicon.

style

the way an author uses language to convey his/her ideas; includes diction, syntax, imagery, figurative language, selection of detail, and tone.