AP PSYCHOLOGY CH 5 AND 6 QUESTIONS

A degenerative disease which is an untreatable neurological disorder involving severe, progressive memory loss is called ______.

Alzheimer's disease

Bobby is unable to transfer new material from short-term memory to long-term memory, even though his long-term memory still works well enough to retrieve old memories from his distant past. He is MOST likely suffering from ______.

Alzheimer's disease

Degeneration of the hippocampus is a major factor in ______.

Alzheimer's disease

Researchers are now investigating if eyeblink conditioning can be used as a diagnostic tool for ______.

Alzheimer's disease

Which of the following is true of food aversion?

The interval between taste and illness can be relatively long.

The person MOST closely associated with the law of effect is ______.

Thorndike

The concept of latent learning was developed by ______.

Tolman

In an experiment, two groups shadow the ambiguous sentence, "I got the mail/male order today," delivered to one ear. Both groups are told to ignore verbal messages delivered to the other ear (for one group these messages concern the male gender, for the other they concern the postal service). Later questioning reveals the meaning of the supposedly unattended messages filtered through. Whose theory of sensory register operation does this BEST support?

Treisman

The owner of a black Labrador can hear her dog when it barks in the night, although she sleeps through the sounds of other more loudly barking dogs. Whose theory of sensory register operation does this BEST support?

Treisman

Someone a short distance away, to whom you have been paying no attention, quietly speaks your name, and suddenly you are attending to that conversation. This is best explained by ______.

Treisman's modified filter theory

One of the best known examples of classical conditioning was the Little Albert study, conducted by ______.

Watson

Social learning theory's foremost proponent is ______.

Bandura

______ conditioning depend(s) on direct experience and stimulus control.

Both classical and operant

______result(s) in the learning of new behaviors or strengthening existing behaviors.

Both positive and negative reinforcement

The person who first proposed a filtering process at the entrance to the nervous system was ______.

Broadbent

Sitting in a very noisy restaurant, you are able to screen out all the other conversations around you so you can listen to the friend with whom you are conversing. This is an example of ______.

Broadbent's filter theory

The person most closely associated with the development of desensitization therapy is ______.

Joseph Wolpe

The idea that for classical conditioning to occur, the presentation of the conditioned stimulus must tell you something about whether the unconditioned stimulus is going to occur, was proposed by ______.

Kamin

A form of amnesia related to chronic alcoholism is ______.

Korsakoff's syndrome

Which of the following is true of learning?

Learning involves changes in mental processes that may or may not be reflected in behavior.

For more than 20 years, the most influential researcher into eyewitness memory has been ______.

Loftus

Another name for classical conditioning is ______.

Pavlovian conditioning

Which of the following statements is true? a. Punishment does not always work. b. The effectiveness of punishment depends solely on its force. c. Punishment should be applied intermittently. d. Punishment usually enhances the learning process.

Punishment does not always work.

Which of the following is true of research on insight?

Researchers have found that under proper circumstances even lower animals, such as pigeons, are capable of insight learning.

The person most closely associated with research on learned helplessness is ______.

Seligman

Which of the following statements about short-term memory is NOT true?

Single words are harder to remember than phrases and sentences.

A box used in operant conditioning of animals, which limits the available responses and thus increases the likelihood that the desired response will occur, is called a ______.

Skinner box

A puppy has ruined four pairs of shoes by chewing them up at times when the family is not home. Which of the following is the MOST effective way to use punishment to teach the puppy not to chew shoes?

Smack it with a newspaper whenever you catch it in the act of chewing shoes, but not at other times.

If you are trying to memorize a list of numbers, which of the following would be most likely to cause you to forget or mix up the numbers on your list?

Someone starts reciting another list of different numbers to you.

Your dog Hans loves to ride in the car. Whenever anyone picks up a set of keys he races for the door. When your grandmother, who is afraid of dogs, arrives for a visit, Hans is not allowed to ride in the car. By the end of her two-week visit, he has ceased going to the door when the keys come out. However, after a brief vacation away from home, he's back at the door again as soon as he hears the keys. Why?

Spontaneous recovery has occurred.

Four students prepare for a final exam in a psychology course. Their methods of preparation follow. Predict which student will get the LOWEST grade on the exam. a. Student A read the material and then closed the book and tried to see what she could remember, and then read the book again. b. Student B set up a series of questions after skimming the text and then tried to answer them. c. Student C read the material in the text to himself two separate times. d. Student D read the material and then tried to explain it to another student.

Student C read the material in the text to himself two separate times.

Cognitive theorists seek to ______.

explain what goes on inside our minds when we learn

Amnesia is a failure of ______ memory.

explicit

Memory for information that was intentionally committed to memory or intentionally retrieved from memory is called ______.

explicit memory

Cue-dependent forgetting is due to ______ cues, and state-dependent memory is due to ______ cues.

external, internal

Higher-order conditioning is difficult to achieve because it races against ______.

extinction

New learning that works in the opposite direction from the original learning results in ______ of the original learning.

extinction

The process of presenting the conditioned stimulus alone so often that the learner no longer associates it with the unconditioned stimulus and stops making the unconditioned response is called ______.

extinction

In the experiment with Little Albert, the unconditioned response was ______.

fear of the loud noise

In the experiment with Little Albert, the conditioned response was ______.

fear of the rat

On a fixed-interval schedule, reinforcement is given for the ______.

first correct response after a fixed amount of time has passed

On a variable-interval schedule, reinforcement is given for the ______.

first correct response after varying amounts of time have passed

If the most recent theories regarding the capacity of short-term memory are correct, then ______.

five sentences should be more difficult to remember than five words

Scott works at a job where he is paid a salary every two weeks. Scott is being reinforced on a ______ schedule.

fixed-interval

Abigail is trying to figure out how she can BEST use employee pay to shape her employees' behavior. She is interested in short-term productivity (speed), not consistency, long-term productivity, or employee turnover. According to reinforcement theory she should use a ______ schedule.

fixed-ratio

Perry works at a job where he is paid by commission. For every car Perry sells he gets 10 percent of the profits. Perry is being reinforced on a ______.

fixed-ratio schedule

Memories that concern events that are highly significant and are vividly remembered are called ______.

flashbulb memories

According to the law of effect, a behavior is MOST likely to be stamped in, or repeated, when it is ______.

followed by reinforcement

In the case of H.M., his surgery left him unable to ______.

form new long-term memories

Episodic memories seem to be located primarily in the ______ lobes of the cortex.

frontal and temporal

Semantic memories seem to be located primarily in the ______ lobes of the cortex.

frontal and temporal

An unruly child has become conditioned to fear the sight of the principal's door. Over the past month, however, he had no contacts with the principal. Now the child will probably ______.

gradually stop fearing the sight of the principal's door

A dog, taught to salivate to the sound of a whistle, is now going through many trials in which the whistle sound is not followed by food. The dog probably will ______.

gradually stop salivating to the sound of the whistle

Being in an intoxicated state ______ the effectiveness of memory.

greatly reduces

Compared to acoustical coding, visual coding in short-term memory ______.

has more capacity

According to Bouton, extinction results from ______.

interference by newly learned associations

Pairing the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus on only a portion of the learning trials is called ______.

intermittent pairing

The place in the cerebellum where learning takes place during classical conditioning is the ______.

interpositus nucleus

In classical conditioning the desired behavior is usually ______, and in operant conditioning, the desired behavior is usually ______.

involuntary; voluntary

Visual information in the sensory registers is gone when it ______.

is replaced by new information

Information in short-term memory gets transferred to long-term memory if ______.

it gets rehearsed

Each of the following is true of eyewitness testimony EXCEPT ______.

it is most accurate when people are asked to describe an incident in its entirety

Each of the following is also true of eyewitness testimony EXCEPT ______.

it is not essential in most criminal cases

Each of the following is a current explanation for infantile amnesia EXCEPT ______.

it results from repression of threatening memories, thoughts, and feelings that were too emotionally charged for the infant to cope with at the time

A problem with avoidance training is that ______.

it sometimes persists when it is no longer effective or necessary

Each of the following is true of punishment EXCEPT ______.

it teaches more desirable behavior

A scientist trains a group of rats to run a maze to get food pellets. Another group of rats is trained to run the maze without receiving food pellets. At the end of the training, the group receiving the food pellets runs the maze faster and with fewer errors. However, when the scientist begins giving the second group of rats food pellets for running the maze, they almost immediately begin running the maze as well as the first group. This improved performance is probably due to ______.

latent learning

Learning that occurs but is not immediately reflected in a behavior change is called ______.

latent learning

The idea that learning occurs, and is stored up, even when behaviors are not reinforced is called ______.

latent learning

A battered woman has been previously punished by her abusive husband when she has tried to leave the abusive relationship. Now she makes no effort to leave even when there are good opportunities to get out of the relationship. Her behavior is typical of ______.

learned helplessness

A researcher places dogs in a cage with metal bars on the floor. The dogs are randomly given electric shocks and can do nothing to prevent them or stop them. Later, the same dogs are placed in a cage where they can escape the shocks by jumping over a low hurdle. When the shocks are given, the dogs do not even try to escape. They just sit and cower. This is an example of ______.

learned helplessness

Failure to take steps to avoid or escape from an unpleasant or aversive stimulus that occurs as a result of previous exposure to unavoidable painful stimuli is called ______.

learned helplessness

Mnemonics are ______.

learned techniques to improve memory

The process by which experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behavior is known as ______.

learning

Animals have been shown in controlled research studies to be capable of each of the following EXCEPT ______.

learning advanced algorithms

Each of the following is true of biofeedback EXCEPT ______.

learning biofeedback techniques is quick, simple, and easy

A monkey learns that given three differently shaped boxes (square, round, and triangular), food will always be found under the round box. Once this learning has occurred, the monkey only looks under the round box for food, ignoring the other boxes. This exemplifies the principle of ______.

learning sets

Each of the following is a recommended strategy for improving your memory abilities EXCEPT ______.

learning to rely on your memory alone

Ed is asked to recall someone's name. When he tries to recall the name, the part of his brain that is most likely to become active is his ______ lobe.

left temporal

Which kinds of items are MOST likely to be confused in an experiment on short-term memory?

letters that sound alike

Research on the use of rewards to facilitate learning indicates that ______.

linking rewards to learning does not compromise either motivation or creativity

The concept of a house would be stored in ______.

long-term memory

The meaning of the word "civilization" would be stored in ______.

long-term memory

The portion of memory that is more or less permanent and that corresponds with everything we "know" is called ______.

long-term memory

A lasting change in the structure of function of a synapse that increases the efficiency of neural transmission, and is thought to be related to how information is stored by neurons is ______.

long-term potentiation

Repeating information in memory simply by repeating it over and over is called ______.

maintenance rehearsal

Rote repetition is another name for ______.

maintenance rehearsal

The process in which new visual information constantly replaces old visual information in the sensory registers almost immediately, is called ______.

masking

According to the modified filter theory, information will draw our attention if it stands out because of its ______.

meaningfulness

The ability to remember the things that we have experienced, imagined, and learned is known as ______.

memory

Remembering a telephone number because it contains the numbers of the year in which you were born is an example of the use of ______.

mnemonics

People who can perform seemingly impossible feats of memory because of their highly developed memory skills are known as ______.

mnemonists

Ebbinghaus found that ______.

most forgetting occurred in the first few hours, then leveled off

In regard to improving memory, ______.

motivation matters much more than innate ability

A child is scolded for using his fingers instead of his fork to eat some spaghetti. The scolding stops when he picks up his fork. Stopping the scolding is an example of ______ reinforcement.

negative

A student studies primarily because she is afraid of failing the next test. As she studies and learns the material her fear of failing subsides. This is an example of ______.

negative reinforcement

Nagging someone to do something until they do it is an example of ______.

negative reinforcement

A reinforcer that removes something unpleasant from a situation is a ______.

negative reinforcer

Any event whose reduction or termination increases the likelihood that an ongoing behavior will recur is a(n) ______.

negative reinforcer

In ______ conditioning, extinction erases a response forever.

neither classical nor operant

Steinmetz's studies of eyeblink conditioning strongly suggest that the cerebellum demonstrates ______.

neural plasticity

A biofeedback technique that monitors brain waves using an EEG to teach people to gain voluntary control over their brain wave activity is ______.

neurofeedback

Patrick is taught to control his attention-deficit disorder by using specialized computer equipment to monitor his brain waves and learn to produce more faster brain waves associate with being calm and alert. This technique is known as ______.

neurofeedback

Retroactive interference of long-term memory means ______.

new material interferes with remembering old material

On a fixed-ratio schedule, reinforcement is given for the ______.

next correct response after a fixed number of responses have occurred

On a variable-ratio schedule, reinforcement is given for the ______.

next correct response after a varying number of responses have occurred

Ebbinghaus used ______ to study memory processes.

nonsense syllables

Flashbulb memories are BEST explained by the ______.

now print theory

A key to social learning theory is ______.

observational learning

Vicarious learning is another term for ______.

observational learning

When someone uses negative reinforcement to change a behavior, the behavior is likely to ______.

occur more frequently

Proactive interference of long-term memory means ______.

old material interferes with remembering new material

Response generalization occurs in ______ conditioning.

operant but not classical

A Skinner Box is most commonly used in ______.

operant conditioning

A child learns that whenever he eats all of his dinner he gets a cookie for dessert. This type of learning is BEST explained by ______.

operant conditioning

Biofeedback is an application of ______.

operant conditioning

Emitted, voluntary behavior is BEST modified by ______.

operant conditioning

Instrumental conditioning is another term for ______.

operant conditioning

Kevin is a good student. He studies hard because when he does he gets the teacher's approval. His studying behavior was probably learned through ______.

operant conditioning

The idea that a behavior will increase or decrease based on the consequences that follow that behavior is crucial to ______.

operant conditioning

Chunking is a means of ______.

organizing information into meaningful units

In classical conditioning the learner is _______, and in operant conditioning the learner is ______.

passive; active

According to Bandura, ______.

people can be their own source of reinforcement or punishment and can thus regulate their own behavior

Irrational fears of particular things, activities, or situations are called ______.

phobias

Eidetic imagery is sometimes called ______.

photographic memory

A child is praised for using his fork instead of his fingers to eat some spaghetti. This is an example of ______ reinforcement.

positive

A reinforcer that adds something rewarding to a situation is a(n) ______.

positive reinforcer

Any event whose presence increases the likelihood that an ongoing behavior will recur is a(n) ______.

positive reinforcer

The 5-year-old child of two very busy parents has been throwing tantrums. Whenever the child gets angry or upset, one or both of his parents immediately come to his side and fuss over and cajole him. Nevertheless, his tantrums do not diminish. In fact, they seem to occur more often. We may assume that for this child his parents' fussing over him serves as a(n) ______.

positive reinforcer

A disorder in which in which emotional memories are so painful that they lead to intense anxiety, flashbacks, nightmares, depression, difficulty concentrating, and panic, is ______.

posttraumatic stress disorder

Joe is a Gulf War veteran. Ever since he came back from the war, he has been plagued by panic attacks, nightmares, and "flashbacks" in which he relives some of his most horrifying war experiences. He often can't sleep at all, startles easily, and occasionally has sudden and uncontrollable outbursts of anger or crying. His problems typify someone suffering from __________.

posttraumatic stress disorder

Short-term memories seem to be located primarily in the ______.

prefrontal and temporal cortex

The process by which some stimuli, such as snakes, serve readily as conditioned stimuli for certain responses, such as fear in humans, is called ______.

preparedness

Which of the following classical conditioning procedures will result in the MOST effective learning?

presenting the conditioned stimulus no more than 2 to 3 seconds before presenting the unconditioned stimulus

When given a list of items to remember, the tendency of people to remember the first items in the list is called the ______.

primacy effect

A reinforcer that is reinforcing in and of itself is called a ______.

primary reinforcer

In ______, a person is exposed to a stimulus, usually a word or a picture, then later is shown a fragment of the stimulus and asked to complete it.

priming

Tammy is talking to her grandfather. She loves to listen to him tell stories about when he was a child. He has vivid recollections of his youth and enjoys telling people about his fond memories. Unfortunately, grandpa has difficulty remembering what happened within the last few days or weeks. If there are no physiological problems, grandpa's memory problems are BEST explained by ______.

proactive interference

Tim is studying for a test. After seven consecutive hours of studying, he finds he can remember what he studied five or six hours ago, but he cannot remember what he studied just ten minutes ago. Tim's memory problems are BEST explained by ______.

proactive interference

Remembering how to ride a bicycle, swim, or write your name are examples of ______ memory.

procedural

The portion of long-term memory that stores information relating to skills, habits, and other perceptual-motor tasks is ______ memory.

procedural

Implicit memory includes ______ memories.

procedural and emotional

Any stimulus that follows a behavior and decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated is called a(n) ______.

punisher

Any event whose presence decreases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur is ______.

punishment

In the SQ3R method, which of the following choices comes first?

read

The sensory registers ______.

receive sensory information from the external world

When given a list of items to remember, the tendency of people to remember the last items in the list is called the ______.

recency effect

In interviewing witnesses to a bank robbery, detective Watson hears a slightly different story from each witness. Some witnesses say the robber was tall, while others maintain he was short. Some say he was wearing a black jacket, while others say it was blue. One person even said there were two robbers. The MOST likely explanation for these differences in the witnesses recall is ______.

reconstructive memory

The phenomenon in which memories are not lost, but are transformed into something at least partly different from what they were originally is ______.

reconstructive memory

The use of intermittent pairing ______ the rate of learning; it ______ the final level of learning achieved.

reduces; reduces

Operant conditioning operates on the principle that behaviors occur more often when they are ______.

reinforced

Any stimulus that follows a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated is called a ______.

reinforcer

Elaborative rehearsal involves ______.

relating new information to something you already know

Learning is a process by which experience results in ______.

relatively permanent behavior change

The "building phase" of conditioning during which the likelihood or strength of the desired response increases is called ______.

response acquisition

A baby who points to her dog and calls it "mama," "dada," "doggy," and "car" is exhibiting ______.

response generalization

Giving different responses to the same stimuli to which you were classically conditioned illustrates ______.

response generalization

Someone asks you who the twenty-second president of the United States was and you can't remember. To aid your memory, the person then tells you that the person's name is the same as that of a large city on Lake Erie, but you still can't remember it. The person then tells you it is either John Sherman, Thomas Bayard, or Grover Cleveland. Upon hearing the names, you instantly recognize that Grover Cleveland is the answer. In this situation, the name Grover Cleveland acted as a ______.

retrieval cue

Tim is studying for a test. After seven consecutive hours of studying, he finds he can remember what he just finished studying, but he can no longer remember what he studied five or six hours ago. Tim's memory problems are BEST explained by ______.

retroactive interference

The inability to recall events immediately preceding an accident or injury, but without loss of earlier memory is called ______ amnesia.

retrograde

Head injuries, such as concussions, are a common cause of ______.

retrograde amnesia

Randy is recovering from an automobile accident in which he injured his head. The only noticeable psychological symptom of his injury is that he cannot remember what happened immediately prior to the accident. Randy's symptoms are typical of ______.

retrograde amnesia

Arnie finally got the telephone number of a girl he's been wanting to ask out for a date. Unfortunately, he had nothing to write the number on when it was told to him. To keep from forgetting the number, he simply repeats it aloud until he can find a pen and some paper. His memory tactic is called ______.

rote rehearsal

If you want to remember something for a couple of minutes, the MOST effective device is ______.

rote rehearsal

Retaining information in short-term memory simply by repeating it over and over again is called ______.

rote rehearsal

A dog, taught to salivate to the sound of a buzzer, learned that the buzzer was no longer followed by food and stopped salivating to the buzzer. If the dog again heard the buzzer after a few weeks, it would probably ______.

salivate

In operant conditioning, the program for deciding when to reinforce correct behaviors is called a ______.

schedule of reinforcement

A set of beliefs or expectations about something that is based on past experience is a ______.

schema

According to ______ theory, people use past reactions and experiences to organize and interpret their perceptions of a present episode.

schema

A reinforcer that takes on its reinforcing properties only through association with other reinforcers is called a(n) ______ reinforcer.

secondary

The portion of long-term memory that stores general facts and information is called ______ memory.

semantic

Explicit memory includes ______ memories.

semantic and episodic

On a TV game show, Jeanette is asked to name the state capital of Vermont. This information is MOST likely stored in ______.

semantic memory

Our memories of general knowledge items such as the meanings of words or the dates of famous historical events are stored in ______.

semantic memory

The type of memory that is most like an encyclopedia or a dictionary is ______.

semantic memory

The phenomenon whereby people learn information while in a particular mood or mind-set tend to better recall that information when in a similar mood or mind-set is known as ______.

state-dependent memory

The process of learning to respond only to a single specific object or event is called ______.

stimulus discrimination

A child who calls all four-legged animals "doggies" is exhibiting ______.

stimulus generalization

A person is conditioned to fear white rats. Soon after, she also begins to fear white cats, white dogs, and white rabbits. Her new, unconditioned fears result from ______.

stimulus generalization

A person originally feared great heights, such as standing on top of tall buildings. Now the person has also developed fears of flying in airplanes, standing on ladders, and even watching high-wire artists perform. These new fears are probably the result of ______.

stimulus generalization

Reacting to a stimulus that is similar to one you have already learned to react to is called ______.

stimulus generalization

Each of the following is true of learned helplessness EXCEPT ______.

success in solving new problems is quite effective in eliminating it

Because Ollie happened to be wearing a rabbit's foot one time when something good happened to him, he now wears it constantly because he believes that it brings him good luck. Ollie's belief has resulted in actions called ______.

superstitious behavior

The letters in the SQ3R method stand for ______.

survey, question, read, recite, review

SQ3R is a ______.

system for studying written material more effectively

Humans develop food aversions based on ______.

taste, appearance, and smell

Research indicates that rats associate the ______ of a food with food aversion; birds associate the ______ of a food with food aversion.

taste; color

Many individuals decide that they feel hungry and eat lunch when they see both hands of the clock on the 12, indicating that it is noontime. This may occur regardless of how recently they ate breakfast. In this example, the conditioned response is ______.

the act of eating lunch

______ is/are synonymous with short-term memory.

Working memory

Emotional memories are primarily dependent on the ______.

amygdala

People with ______ damage are unable to "read" facial expressions even though they recognize the person's face.

amygdala

A visual image held in the sensory register is ______.

an icon

An experimenter finds that a certain male subject always has an increased heartbeat when he hears a certain piece of music. The experimenter sounds a buzzer and then plays the piece of music. The experimenter repeats this procedure until the man responds with an increased heartbeat to the sound of the buzzer alone. In this situation, the conditioned response is ______.

an increased heartbeat

Which of the following behaviors will be MOST difficult to extinguish? a. A man takes the same bus route every day to get to his job. b. A teenage girl gets home before midnight so that her parents will not punish her. c. A little boy gets 50 cents from his mother each time he dries the dishes. d. A woman goes to her local market four days in a row to get prime rib but finds it unavailable.

b. A teenage girl gets home before midnight so that her parents will not punish her.

Which of the following statements is true? a. Material stored by meaning can usually be retrieved word-for-word. b. Material is usually stored in long-term memory according to meaning. c. Sentences are stored verbatim in long-term memory. d. Both deep and surface structure are aspects of rote rehearsal.

b. Material is usually stored in long-term memory according to meaning.

Which of the following statements about punishment is NOT true? a. Punishment does not always work. b. Rewards should always immediately follow punishments. c. Effective punishment is consistent punishment. d. Effective punishment is swift punishment.

b. Rewards should always immediately follow punishments.

Which of the following is a primary reinforcer? a. money b. a bar of candy c. a buzzer d. poker chips

b. a bar of candy

Each of the following is true of schemata EXCEPT ______. a. they help determine what you will recall b. they are synonymous with rote rehearsal c. they influence the amount of attention you pay to a given event d. they may help you fill in missing information or draw inferences

b. they are synonymous with rote rehearsal

Work done in the last 20 years suggests that ______.

classical and operant conditioning may simply be two different procedures for achieving the same end

Instinctive, elicited, or involuntary behavior is BEST modified by ______.

classical conditioning

Ivan Pavlov is most closely associated with ______.

classical conditioning

Pavlovian conditioning is another term for ______.

classical conditioning

Researchers have discovered that many autoimmune disorders can be successfully controlled without drug treatments through the use of ______ procedures.

classical conditioning

The process of learning to transfer a response from a natural stimulus to another, previously neutral stimulus, is called ______.

classical conditioning

The type of learning in which reflexive behaviors that would automatically follow one type of stimulus are elicited by different, formerly neutral stimuli, is called ______.

classical conditioning

Watson would explain phobias in terms of ______.

classical conditioning

An example of a behavior that is learned through operant conditioning is ______.

cleaning up your room to get your parents' approval

Learning that depends on mental processes that are not directly observable is called ______ learning.

cognitive

In a study on learning, the psychologist conducting the study seeks to explain the inner needs and desires that made learners pursue their goals. She is interested in the inner processes that result in learning. She is studying ______.

cognitive learning

After conditioning, the response an organism produces when only a conditioned stimulus is presented is a(n) ______.

conditioned response

By pairing the ringing of a bell with the presentation of meat, Pavlov trained dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell even when no meat was presented. In this experiment, salivation to the bell was the ______.

conditioned response

An originally neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus and eventually produces the desired response when presented alone is a(n) ______.

conditioned stimulus

By pairing the ringing of a bell with the presentation of meat, Pavlov trained dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell even when no meat was presented. In this experiment, the ringing of the bell was the ______.

conditioned stimulus

In higher-order conditioning, we pair a neutral stimulus with a(n) ______.

conditioned stimulus

Some of the simplest and most basic learning that involves the acquisition of fairly specific patterns of behaviors in the presence of well-defined stimuli is ______.

conditioning

According to the principles of operant conditioning, a behavior increases or decreases in frequency because of its ______.

consequences

A reliable "if-then" relationship between two events such as a CS and a US is called a ______.

contingency

Research comparing partial/intermittent reinforcement with continuous reinforcement indicates that ______.

continuous reinforcement results in behavior that persists longer than behavior learned through partial/intermittent reinforcement

The process by which some objects, such as flowers, or couches, or paper, do not serve as conditioned stimuli for certain responses, such as fear in humans, is called ______.

counterpreparedness

A student who studies in her kitchen at home has more difficulty remembering the material in the exam room than she did in her kitchen. This is most likely due to ______.

cue-dependent forgetting

When environmental factors that were present during learning are absent during recall, the effort to remember is often less successful. This is known as ______.

cue-dependent forgetting

Rachel has found that when she opens the cupboard door to get the cat food, the cats come running to the kitchen. Rachel knows that this is classical conditioning and that the conditioned stimulus is the ______.

cupboard door opening

We associate the name of ______ most closely with classical conditioning.

Ivan Pavlov

It is now believed that short-term memory can hold as much information as can be epeated or rehearsed in ______ seconds.

1.5 - 2.0

Visual information is generally erased from the sensory registers in about ______.

1/4 of a second

Scientific research on memory began in the middle of the ______ century.

19th

It is extremely rare for people to recall events that occurred before the age of ______.

2

In general, our earliest personal memories tend to date back to between ______ years of age.

3 to 4

In Sperling's experiments, people were able to remember about ______ of 12 letters presented to them if he waited a full second between presenting the letters and asking people to recall them.

4 - 5

The famous Russian mnemonist, Shereshevski ("S"), could easily repeat lists of up to ______ words after having heard or seen them only once.

70

In one study, adults who had graduated from high school more than 40 years earlier were still able to recognize the names of ______ percent of their classmates.

75

In Sperling's experiments, people were able to remember about ______ of 12 letters presented to them if he had them recall the letters immediately after presenting them.

9

The researcher whose work with monkeys explored their ability to develop learning sets was ______.

Harry Harlow

The first real memory experiments with well-defined independent and dependent variables and controls for other factors were conducted by ______.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Which of the following people is MOST likely to recall events from early in life?

a 56-year-old female

The mental image of an area, such as a maze or the floor plan of a building, is called ______.

a cognitive map

Many middle-aged adults can vividly recall where they were and what they were doing the day that John F. Kennedy was assassinated, although they cannot remember what they were doing the day before he was assassinated. This is an example of ______.

a flashbulb memory

The ability to become increasingly more effective in solving problems as more problems are solved is known as ______.

a learning set

Short-term memory holds ______ amount of information for ______ time.

a limited, a limited

Remembering an acquaintance's name because she has the same initials as ours is an example of ______.

a mnemonic device

The sensory registers have ______ capacity.

a virtually unlimited

Which of the following pairs of letters would MOST likely be confused in an experiment on short-term memory? a. B and V b. V and Y c. P and R d. O and Q

a. B and V

Which of the following statements is NOT true? a. Behaviors learned through punishment are relatively easy to extinguish. b. The stronger the original learning, the more difficult extinction will be. c. Simple behavior is easier to extinguish than complex behavior. d. It is harder to extinguish a response learned on a partial reinforcement schedule than one learned on a continuous reinforcement schedule.

a. Behaviors learned through punishment are relatively easy to extinguish.

Which of the following statements about the sensory registers is true? a. Far more information is taken in by the sensory registers than we are able to retain. b. All of the information taken in by the sensory registers is retained in short-term memory for a few seconds. c. 60-70 percent of the information taken in by the sensory registers is retained in long- term memory. d. Auditory information fades more rapidly than visual information from the sensory registers

a. Far more information is taken in by the sensory registers than we are able to retain.

Which statement is true of short-term memory? a. It is the virtually the same thing as consciousness. b. It is permanent. c. It has a very large capacity. d. It registers information missed by the sensory registers.

a. It is the virtually the same thing as consciousness.

Which of the following statements is NOT true? a. Rote memorization is just as effective as mnemonic techniques for getting information into long-term memory. b. Mnemonic techniques are methods of encoding material that help us to remember. c. A mnemonic technique may be based on rhyme. d. Mnemonic techniques may involve visualization.

a. Rote memorization is just as effective as mnemonic techniques for getting information into long-term memory.

Which of the following is NOT true of schemas? a. They are part of short-term memory. b. They can influence the amount of attention you pay to a given event. c. They help people retrieve information from memory. d. They help determine what you will recall.

a. They are part of short-term memory.

Which of the following is NOT a type of cognitive learning? a. instrumental learning b. vicarious learning c. insight d. observational learning

a. instrumental learning

Which of the following is a secondary reinforcer? a. money b. a bar of candy c. warm, physical contact d. a drink of water

a. money

Each of the following is true of recovered memories EXCEPT ______. a. there is no evidence that any of them are memories of actual events b. it is relatively easy to implant false memories of an experience merely by asking about it c. people can become convinced that they remember experiences from infancy that never happened d. recovered memories are not, in themselves sufficiently trustworthy to justify criminal convictions

a. there is no evidence that any of them are memories of actual events

In studying your textbook, you should do each of the following EXCEPT ______. a. use rote rehearsal as a major part of your studying techniques b. use elaborative rehearsal as a major part of your studying techniques. c. prepare an outline of each chapter before you read it d. use a reading system such as SQ3R to enhance the efficiency of your reading

a. use rote rehearsal as a major part of your studying techniques

Researchers have found a significant connection between levels of ______ and memory ability in patients with Alzheimer's disease.

acetylcholine

The neurotransmitter that appears to be instrumental in the memory process is ______.

acetylcholine

Information in short-term memory is coded ______.

acoustically and visually

An experimenter finds that a certain male subject always has an increased heartbeat when he hears a certain piece of music. The experimenter sounds a buzzer and then plays the piece of music. The experimenter repeats this procedure until the man responds with an increased heartbeat to the sound of the buzzer alone. In this situation, the unconditioned response is ______.

an increased heartbeat

An experimenter finds that a certain male subject always has an increased heartbeat when he hears a certain piece of music. The experimenter sounds a buzzer and then plays the piece of music. The experimenter repeats this procedure until the man responds with an increased heartbeat to the sound of the buzzer alone. In this situation, the unconditioned response is ______ and the conditioned response is ______.

an increased heartbeat; an increased heartbeat

The fact that all animals can be conditioned implies that ______.

animals are capable of at least minimal cognitive functioning

The process of selective looking, listening, smelling, and feeling is called ______.

attention

The selection of some incoming information for further processing is called ______.

attention

We give meaning to the raw information entering our sensory registers during the process of ______.

attention

Which of the following sensory registers have been studied more extensively than any others?

auditory and visual

Our recollection of the events that have occurred in our life and when those events took place is called ______ memory.

autobiographical

Mastering a skill to the point that you achieve fluid, immediate performance in it, such as expert typing, is called ______.

automaticity

Conditioned avoidance of certain foods, even if there is only one pairing of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli is known as conditioned food ______.

aversion

Learning a positive behavior that prevents an undesirable situation, such as punishment, from occurring is called ______ training.

avoidance

An animal is placed in a box with a bar and also a wire floor that can deliver a mild shock. The experimenter first sounds a buzzer, then a few seconds later turns on the shock. Pressing the bar after the buzzer sounds but before the shock is delivered will prevent the shock from occurring. This is an example of ______.

avoidance training

Oscar takes vitamins to prevent illnesses related to vitamin deficiencies. This is an example of ______.

avoidance training

Presenting the unconditioned stimulus before the conditioned stimulus is known as ______ conditioning.

backward

Classical conditioning is concerned with ______.

behavior that invariably follows a particular event

For observational learning to occur, each of the following must happen EXCEPT ______.

being reinforced for imitating the model

In an experiment, the pupils of subjects' eyes contracted when a bright light was shown. After continual pairing of the bright light with the sound of a bell, the subjects' pupils contracted when they heard the bell. After the pairing of the sound of the bell with the presentation of a black square, pupil contraction occurred with just the sight of the square. In this entire conditioning study, the conditioned stimulus is (stimuli are) the ______.

bell and square

An operant conditioning technique in which a learner gains control over some biological response is ______.

biofeedback

Barbara suffers from tension headaches. Her doctor teaches her to control them by attaching an electronic device that emits a tone to her head. Even slight relaxation of her head muscles causes the tone to drop. By relaxing her head muscles, her headaches are relieved. This technique is known as ______.

biofeedback

The process in which prior conditioning prevents conditioning to a second stimulus even when the two stimuli are presented simultaneously is called ______.

blocking

Research on preparedness and phobias indicates that ______ affect our sensitivity toward developing phobias to a given stimulus.

both our genetic histories and our personal learning histories

Pathological conditions involving severe memory loss usually result from ______.

brain damage

In an experiment, the pupils of subjects' eyes contracted when a bright light was shown. After continual pairing of the bright light with the sound of a bell, subjects' pupils contracted when they heard the bell. After the pairing of the sound of the bell with the presentation of a black square, pupil contraction occurred with just the sight of the square. In this study, the unconditioned stimulus is (stimuli are) the ______.

bright light

Most information in long-term memory is coded ______.

by meaning

Information is grouped for storage in short-term memory through the process of ______.

chunking

According to Treisman's modified filter theory, which of the following is NOT true? a. The filter works even when we are asleep. b. Many signals are passed on from the sensory registers at the same time. c. Many signals in the sensory registers are able to receive our concentrated attention at a time. d. The filter works with a variable control like a volume control knob.

c. Many signals in the sensory registers are able to receive our concentrated attention at a time.

Which of the following is true of memory and culture? a. Being able to recite long lists of facts, details, words, and numbers is the best overall measure of memory and is consistently high across cultures. b. People from Western schools do not perform as well as members of other cultures on tests that require memorization of long lists of words and numbers. c. Members of other cultures perform poorly on tests that require the memorization of long lists of words, numbers, and facts because the exercises seem odd and foreign to them. d. People from Western culture are better than members of other cultures at remembering lines of descent of families and detailed accounts of cultural heroes.

c. Members of other cultures perform poorly on tests that require the memorization of long lists of words, numbers, and facts because the exercises seem odd and foreign to them.

Which of the following statements is true? a. Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment all serve to decrease the occurrence of a given behavior. b. Positive reinforcement serves to increase the occurrence of a given behavior whereas negative reinforcement and punishment serve to decrease its occurrence. c. Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement serve to increase the occurrence of a given behavior whereas punishment serves to decrease its occurrence. d. Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment all serve to increase the occurrence of a given behavior

c. Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement serve to increase the occurrence of a given behavior whereas punishment serves to decrease its occurrence.

Which of the following statements is true? a. The more an item is repeated, the more improvement will be shown in later recall. b. Extensive rote rehearsal is as efficient as elaborative rehearsal for permanent memory. c. Repetition without any intent to learn does not enhance long-term memory. d. Rote rehearsal is not effective in learning items such as ABCs.

c. Repetition without any intent to learn does not enhance long-term memory.

Which of the following statements about attention is true? a. We select relatively large amounts of information from the sensory registers. b. We select information from the sensory registers only on the basis of its physical characteristics. c. The background processing of "ignored" signals allows our attention to be shifted to focus on something particularly meaningful. d. "Unattended" messages are completely filtered out.

c. The background processing of "ignored" signals allows our attention to be shifted to focus on something particularly meaningful.

Which of the following is NOT an example of operantly learned behavior? a. a child doing her homework after she receives her teacher's approval for her b. a rat pressing a bar after receiving food for this behavior c. a dog blinking its eyes after a flash of light is presented d. a rat pressing a bar after avoiding a shock for this behavior

c. a dog blinking its eyes after a flash of light is presented

Loni is asked to memorize the letters I K T E A L N. She memorizes them by reorganizing them into the words "INK" and "LATE." This tactic is called ______.

chunking

Rachel has found that when she opens the cupboard door to get the cat food, the cats come running to the kitchen. Rachel knows that this is classical conditioning and that the unconditioned stimulus is the ______.

cat food

Rachel has found that when she opens the cupboard door to get the cat food, the cats come running to the kitchen. Rachel knows that this is classical conditioning and that the unconditioned stimulus is the ______ and the conditioned stimulus is the ______.

cat food; cupboard door opening

Thorndike was known for his pioneering work on how ______ learn.

cats

By the early 1980s, researchers had determined that the ______ was crucial to classical eyeblink conditioning.

cerebellum

Procedural memories appear to be stored primarily in the ______.

cerebellum

Steinmetz's studies of eyeblink conditioning demonstrated that the ______ is the place where conditioned response is encoded.

cerebellum

Memories consist of ______.

changes in synaptic connections among neural cells

In Bandura's classic (1965) study of children exposed to a film of an adult hitting an inflated doll, ______.

children who saw the model rewarded performed more aggressively in a free play situation than children who saw the model punished

Which of the following behaviors will be EASIEST to extinguish? a. A traveling salesman uses a particular come-on with considerable success in cities all across the country; it almost always works. b. A teenage girl gets home before midnight so that her parents will not punish her. c. A little boy who helps with household chores is occasionally paid for his efforts. d. A woman goes to her local market for four days in a row to get prime rib but finds it unavailable.

d. A woman goes to her local market for four days in a row to get prime rib but finds it unavailable.

Which of the following is true of memory and culture? a. People from industrialized Western cultures have better memories than members of other cultures. b. People educated in Western schools have better memories than people educated in non-Western school systems, no matter what their ethnic or cultural background. c. People from non-Western cultures have better memories than people from Western cultures, especially for non-technical information. d. The memories of people from any given culture tend to be best at remembering the things that are most significant to that culture.

d. The memories of people from any given culture tend to be best at remembering the things that are most significant to that culture.

The passing of time causes forgetting according to ______.

decay theory

Explicit memories are most similar to ______ memories.

declarative

When someone uses punishment to change a behavior, the probability of the behavior occurring is likely to ______.

decrease

Retrograde amnesia is characterized by forgetting ______.

events that were in short-term memory at the time of an accident

A kind of therapy closely related to classical conditioning that is designed to gradually reduce anxiety about a particular object or situation is known as ______ therapy.

desensitization

For the treatment of his phobia, Albert is taught a series of deep muscle relaxation techniques. Then he is asked to construct a list of situations that lead to a phobic reaction. These situations are then rated on a scale from 1 to 100. He then enters a state of deep relaxation during which he imagines the least distressing item on the list. When he succeeds in remaining relaxed while imagining that item, he progresses to the next one until he can stay relaxed while imagining even the most frightful item on the list. This is an example of ______.

desensitization

Wolpe's therapy for treating anxiety, which involves the pairing of relaxation training with a hierarchical list of fearful situations is called ______.

desensitization

Skinner found that if he randomly presented rewards to pigeons in a Skinner box, the pigeons ______.

developed a series of superstitious behaviors

Lashley's experiments with rats indicated that removal of any one part of the brain ______.

diminished, but did not erase a whole memory

A pigeon learns to peck at a red disk. It will not peck at an identical disk of any other color. This illustrates the concept of ______.

discrimination

Most of the evidence supporting decay theory comes from ______ studies.

distractor

In an experiment, subjects are asked to learn the letters P, S, and Q. Then they are asked to count backward by threes from the number 167. They are then asked to recall the three letters (PSQ) they had earlier memorized. Most people cannot remember the letters. This type of study is a ______.

distractor study

The auditory equivalent of the icon is the ______.

echo

Christine has always had an unusually effective memory. She credits this to the fact that after seeing something just once, she can visualize the object in great detail, as if she was looking at a photograph of it. Christine's ability is an example of ______.

eidetic imagery

The ability to reproduce unusually sharp and detailed images of something that has been seen is called ______.

eidetic imagery

Each of the following is a type of long-term memory EXCEPT ______ memory.

elaborative

The linking of new information in short-term memory to familiar material stored in long-term memory is called ______.

elaborative learning

Material is best transferred from short-term to long-term memory through ______.

elaborative rehearsal

Remembering a friend's description of a recent cross-country skiing trip by associating the things she describes with a film you have seen on the subject is ______.

elaborative rehearsal

Remembering that the French word "maison" means house by connecting maison with the English word "masonry" illustrates the use of ______.

elaborative rehearsal

Feeling enraged at the sight of a burning cross in someone's yard is an example of ______ memory.

emotional

Learned emotional responses to various stimuli are known as ______ memory.

emotional

A number of studies with animals have shown that ______ can enhance recall of exposure to stimuli associated with unpleasant experiences, such as shock.

epinephrine

Two hormones that are crucial to learning are ______.

epinephrine and cortisol

The portion of long-term memory that stores specific information that has personal meaning is called ______ memory.

episodic

The type of memory that is most like a diary is ______ memory.

episodic

Declarative memory refers to ______ memories.

episodic and semantic

When Rip Van Winkle returns to his native village, after 20 years of sleeping in the mountains, he goes immediately to the location of his former house and asks for his wife and children by name. The kind of memory he is exhibiting by remembering his home's location and the names of his wife and children is ______.

episodic memory

Your memories of personal information such as what you wore to work yesterday or what you ate for breakfast this morning are stored in ______.

episodic memory

The single biggest factor leading to the wrongful conviction of innocent people for crimes they did not commit is ______.

errors in eyewitness testimony

A group of dogs is taught to salivate to the ringing of a bell by pairing the sound of the bell with the presentation of meat. Once the dogs have been conditioned to the sound of the bell, a black square is presented each time the bell is rung. Soon, the dogs are salivating to the presentation of the black square without it being paired to the presentation of the bell. This is an example of ______.

higher-order conditioning

Conditioning based on previous learning, in which the conditioned stimulus serves as an unconditioned stimulus for further learning, is called ______.

higher-order conditioning

Alzheimer's disease involves decreased functioning of the ______.

hippocampus

By the early 1980s, researchers had determined that the ______ was also crucial to classical eyeblink conditioning.

hippocampus

Patients who are treated with electroconvulsive shock therapy often suffer memory losses for events that occurred up to three hours before the treatment. These problems in forming new memories are MOST likely due to disruption of the ______.

hippocampus

The functioning of episodic memory as well as the ability to remember spatial relationships involves primarily the ______.

hippocampus

The ______ are crucial in the formation of long-term memories.

hippocampus and temporal cortex

Lashley's experiments with rats indicated that the degree or amount of recall that remained after the removal of brain tissue depended on ______.

how much brain mass was removed

In Bandura's classic study of children exposed to a film of an adult model hitting an inflated doll, BOTH the children who saw the model rewarded and the children who saw the model punished ______.

imitated the aggressive behavior they had seen

After being told all morning not to play baseball near the house, a small boy continues to play ball and breaks a window. Of the following methods of discipline, the one likely to be MOST effective in changing the boy's subsequent behavior is to ______.

immediately take away his bat and ball and not let him use them for a week

Suddenly thinking of a friend's name without knowing why is an example of ______ memory.

implicit

Memory for information that either was unintentionally committed to memory or was unintentionally retrieved from memory is called ______.

implicit memory

While memorizing a list of words, students are exposed to the smell of chocolate. The next day, the same students are tested on their recall of the word list and it is found that they are more likely to recall words if they are again exposed to the smell of chocolate. The effect of the chocolate is MOST likely due to ______.

implicit memory

We use mnemonics to ______.

impose order on material we want to learn

Classical conditioning has been demonstrated ______.

in almost all living things

The phenomenon whereby most people cannot recall events that occurred when they were babies, is called ______.

infantile amnesia

The computer-like model used to describe the way humans encode, store, and retrieve information is the ______ model.

information-processing

A child sees a cookie jar on a shelf. After several unsuccessful attempts to reach it, the child looks around the room. She suddenly realizes that she can pull a chair over by the shelf, then stand on the chair to reach the cookie jar. This type of learning is called ______.

insight

The type of learning that involves a sudden coming together of the elements of a situation so that the solution to a problem is instantly clear is ______.

insight

Operant conditioning is another name for ______.

instrumental conditioning

According to ______ theory, information gets mixed up with or pushed aside by other information in short-term memory, making it harder to remember.

interference

The finding that when asked to recall a list of unrelated items, people tend to best remember the items at the beginning and at the end of the list, is called the ______.

serial position effect

An echo usually stays in the sensory registers for about ______.

several seconds

At the National Zoological Park in Washington, D. C., a polar bear suffered a broken tooth, and keepers needed a safe way of treating the problem. The bear was rewarded first for sticking its nose through a slot in the cage door, then for allowing a keeper to lift its lip and touch its teeth. Finally, a veterinarian was able to treat the damaged tooth while the bear waited placidly for its familiar reward. This is an example of ______.

shaping

Changing behavior through the reinforcement of partial responses is called ______.

shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior is known as ______.

shaping

To teach a tiger to jump through a flaming hoop, the tiger is first reinforced for jumping up on a certain pedestal, then for leaping from that pedestal to another. Next, the tiger has to jump through a hoop between the pedestals to get the reward. Finally, the hoop is set afire and the tiger must jump through it to get the reward. This is an example of ______.

shaping

Working memory is the original name of ______ memory.

short-term

An old joke tells of an elephant who walks into a bar and tells the bartender, "Boy, have I got a problem. Elephants are supposed to have good memories and I can't remember a thing." "That's too bad," says the bartender, "Maybe I can help you with your problem." "What problem?" asks the elephant. The elephant in the story is demonstrating a deficiency in ______.

short-term memory

What we are thinking of at any given moment, or what we commonly know as "consciousness," is ______.

short-term memory

When William James talked about primary memory, he was referring to what we now call ______.

short-term memory

When we are pricing items in a grocery store, and we attempt to remember the prices of three different brands of 7-ounce cans of tuna fish by repeating them again and again, the information is being held in ______.

short-term memory

Rotating an M until it is recognized as a W is evidence that we can process information in ______.

short-term memory visually

The most important determinant of interference is ______.

similarity

When moving from one state to another, a young woman is required to take a new written driving test on the rules and regulations for driving in the state of her new residence. Which of the following sequences probably reflects the MOST effective way for her to prepare?

skim the manual, ask herself some questions about new regulations, then read the book carefully and see what she remembers

A girl learns that whenever her older brother shares his cookie with her, her mother gives him a piece of candy. The girl's learning is ______.

social learning theory

The view of learning that emphasizes the ability to learn by observing a model or receiving instructions, without firsthand experience by the learner, is called ______.

social learning theory

The fact that people recognize that M and M are the same letter faster than they recognize that M and m are the same letter is evidence that ______.

some verbal material in short-term memory is stored in visual form

The process in which a learned response which has been extinguished suddenly reappears on its own, with no retraining is called ______.

spontaneous recovery

A student who studies for an exam while mildly anxious is most likely to remember the material in the exam room if she is also mildly anxious. This is most likely due to ______.

state-dependent memory

In an experiment, the pupils of subjects' eyes contracted when a bright light was shown. After continual pairing of the bright light with the sound of a bell, subjects' pupils contracted when they heard the bell. After pairing the sound of the bell with the experimenter's verbal instruction "Contract," pupil contraction occurred with just the verbal instruction. In this entire study, the conditioned stimulus is (stimuli are) ______.

the bell and the word "contract"

The patient has his hippocampus removed to relieve him of epileptic seizures. He is most likely to lose which of the following abilities?

the capacity to process short-term memories into long-term storage

Someone a short distance away, to whom you have been paying no attention, quietly speaks your name, and suddenly you are attending to that conversation. This is an example of ______.

the cocktail party phenomenon

Students in a psychology experiment were exposed to three notes of music for a very short period of time and then asked to recall them. If the instructions to recall the notes came immediately, the students usually succeeded. If the instructions came more than three seconds after the notes were played, the students were much less successful. The MOST plausible explanation for this phenomenon is that in the latter case ______.

the echo faded before being stored in short-term memory

According to Treisman's modified filter theory, ______.

the filter works with a variable control like a volume control knob

Many individuals decide that they feel hungry and eat lunch when they see both hands of the clock on the 12, indicating that it is noontime. This may occur regardless of how recently they ate breakfast. In this example, the conditioned stimulus is ______.

the hands of the clock

Many individuals decide that they feel hungry and eat lunch when they see both hands of the clock on the 12, indicating that it is noontime. This may occur regardless of how recently they ate breakfast. In this example, the conditioned stimulus is ______ and the conditioned response is ______.

the hands of the clock; eating lunch

Researchers have found that under conditions of extreme stress, ______.

the hippocampus may dysfunction and the amygdala becomes overactive

Students in a psychology experiment were exposed to three nonsense syllables for a very short period of time and then asked to recall them. If the instructions to recall the syllables came immediately, the students were usually successful. If the instructions came even one second after the syllables were shown, the students were much less successful. The MOST plausible explanation for this phenomenon is that in the latter case ______.

the icon faded before being stored in short-term memory

Michael is given a list of items to memorize. If the serial position effect occurs, he is most likely to best remember ______.

the items at the beginning and the end, but not those in the middle

The "principle of reinforcement" is synonymous with ______.

the law of effect

The theory that behavior consistently rewarded will be "stamped in" as learned behavior, and behavior that brings about discomfort will be "stamped out" is ______.

the law of effect

In the experiment with Little Albert, the unconditioned stimulus was ______.

the loud noise

An item is easier to remember ______.

the more indexes or associations it has in long-term memory

A pet dog loves to go for rides in the family car. Every time it sees someone take out a set of keys, it goes to the garage door and waits expectantly. When grandma, who is afraid of dogs, comes to visit for two weeks in the summer, the family decides not to let the dog ride in the car during her stay. By the end of grandma's visit, the dog has stopped going over to the garage door when someone takes out a set of keys. The BEST explanation for this change in behavior is that ______.

the original conditioned response has been extinguished

According to decay theory, forgetting is caused by ______.

the passage of time

In the experiment with Little Albert, the conditioned stimulus was ______.

the rat

According to Bouton, we overcome the interference that causes extinction through ______.

the renewal effect

Our auditory sensation of someone's voice would be initially stored in ______.

the sensory registers

Our visual sensation of a passing automobile would be initially stored in ______.

the sensory registers

Many years ago, telephone numbers had only four or five digits. Even now, no more than seven digits (not counting area code) are used for phone numbers. The MOST reasonable psychological explanation for this is that ______.

there is an inverse relationship between the number of items in short-term memory and their retention

It is easier to remember the names of seven people you just met at a party than it is to remember their addresses (even if both pieces of information were given to you at the same time), because ______.

there is an inverse relationship between the size of the chunks in short-term memory and their retention

The "now print" theory implies that flashbulb memories are subject to each of the following EXCEPT ______. a. they are subject to decay b. they are accurate c. they are created at the time of the event d. they are remembered better because of their highly emotional content

they are subject to decay

The words "boat" and "goat" are MOST likely to become confused in short-term memory because ______.

they sound alike

The hippocampus is instrumental in ______.

transferring information from short-term to long-term memory

A response that takes place in an organism whenever an unconditioned stimulus occurs is a(n) ______.

unconditioned response

By pairing the ringing of a bell with the presentation of meat, Pavlov trained dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell even when no meat was presented. In this experiment, salivation to the meat was the ______.

unconditioned response

A stimulus that invariably causes an organism to respond in a certain way is a(n) ______.

unconditioned stimulus

By pairing the ringing of a bell with the presentation of meat, Pavlov trained dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell even when no meat was presented. In this experiment, the presentation of the meat was the ______.

unconditioned stimulus

Mary Cover Jones first demonstrated that children's fears can be ______.

unlearned through classical conditioning

A possible limitation of Ebbinghaus's studies was that he ______.

used only one subject -- himself

Rote rehearsal is ______ for holding information in short-term memory, and ______ for holding information in long-term memory.

useful, useful

Flashbulb memories ______.

usually concern events that are emotionally charged

Abigail is trying to figure out how she can BEST use employee pay to shape her employee's behavior. She is worried about consistent behavior, not speed. Therefore, she is interested in getting a slow but steady rate of response from her workers. According to reinforcement principles, she should probably use a ______ schedule.

variable-interval

Lila doesn't like her psychology class because the instructor uses unannounced "pop" exams to test the class. As a result, she never knows when she will be tested. Her instructor is testing her on a ______ schedule.

variable-interval

Abigail is trying to figure out how she can BEST use employee pay to elicit a high rate of employee productivity over a long period of time. If employees' responses to pay schedules are similar to people's general responses to reinforcement schedules, she should use a ______ schedule.

variable-ratio

Sandy's favorite activity is to go to Las Vegas and play the slot machines. Her gambling behavior is being reinforced on a ______ schedule.

variable-ratio

Long-term memory can store ______ amounts of information for ______ years.

vast; many

Punishment experienced by models that decreases the willingness of others to perform the behaviors they learned by observing those models is known as ______ reinforcement.

vicarious

Reinforcement experienced by models that increases the willingness of others to perform the behaviors they learned by observing those models is known as ______ reinforcement.

vicarious

The sensory registers have a ______ capacity, and information disappears from them ______.

virtually unlimited, quite rapidly

When studying for an exam, your performance will probably be best if you study ______.

with a little anxiety

Mnemonists ______.

work at actively developing memory techniques