AP Psychology Chapter 14

Leon Festinger (Cognitive Dissonance)

Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance Theory suggests that we have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and beliefs in harmony and avoid disharmony (or dissonance).

Just World Hypothesis: In-group/Out-group Dynamics, Prejudice

In-group/Out group Dynamics: Social identity theory states that the in-group will discriminate against the out-group to enhance their self-image. Prejudice: An unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an individual based solely on the individual's membership of a social group.

Peripheral and Central Route to Persuasion

-Central route processes: Require a great deal of thought, and therefore are likely to predominate under conditions that promote high elaboration. Central route processes involve careful scrutiny of a persuasive communication to determine the merits of the arguments. -Peripheral route processes: Do not involve elaboration of the message through extensive cognitive processing of the merits of the actual argument presented. These processes often rely on environmental characteristics of the message, like the perceived credibility of the source, quality of the way in which it is presented, the attractiveness of the source, or the catchy slogan that contains the message.

Culture: Independent vs. Interdependent

-Independent: Relationships, memberships, groups, and their needs and goals, tend to be secondary to the self. When assessing self-concept, one's positioning among peers is important because of the competitive nature of society, where people view themselves as better or worse than peers. -Interdependent: Interpersonal relationships are more central than one's individual accomplishments. Great emphasis is placed on these relationships, and the self is seen primarily as an integral part of society.

Bystander Effect

A social phenomenon in which the presence of other people reduces helping behavior.

Conformity

A type of social influence involving a change in belief or behaviour in order to fit in with a group.

Social Facilitation

Boosting effects of co actors and audiences on performance (example: runners run faster when surrounded by people who are also running, like when in a race.).

Just World Hypothesis: Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive Dissonance: A discomfort caused by holding conflicting cognitions (e.g., ideas, beliefs, values, emotional reactions) simultaneously. In a state of dissonance, people may feel surprise, dread, guilt, anger, or embarrassment. The theory of cognitive dissonance in social psychology proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance by altering existing cognitions or adding new ones to create consistency.

Social Loafing

Describes the tendency of individuals to put forth less effort when they are part of a group.

Obedience to Authority (Milgram's study)

Milgram's study measured the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience.

Groupthink

Occurs when a group makes faulty decisions because group pressures lead to a deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment. Groups affected by Groupthink ignore alternatives and tend to take irrational actions that dehumanize other groups. A group is especially vulnerable to groupthink when its members are similar in background, when the group is insulated from outside opinions, and when there are no clear rules for decision making.

Diffusion of Responsibility

Occurs when observers all assume that someone else is going to intervene and so each individual feels less responsible and refrains from doing anything

Phillip Zimbardo (Social Roles, Fundamental Attribution Error)

Philip Zimbardo set up a mock prison in the basement of Stanford University's psychology building. -Social Roles: People will conform to the Social Role they are given after a certain amount of time (like the "inmates" did in Zimbardo's experiment). -Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency when explaining the behavior of others—especially behavior that leads to no good—to overestimate the importance of personality traits and underestimate the power of situational forces (again, like the individuals in the experiment did).

Solomon Asch (Conformity)

Psychologist Solomon Asch conducted a series of experiments designed to demonstrate the powers of conformity in groups. He thought that the majority of people would not conform to something obviously wrong, but the results showed otherwise.

Just World Hypothesis: Self-fulfilling Prophecy

Self-fulfilling Prophecy: A prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true, by the very terms of the prophecy itself, due to positive feedback between belief and behavior.

Stanley Milgram (Obedience)

Stanley Milgram researched the effect of authority on obedience. He concluded people obey either out of fear or out of a desire to appear cooperative... even when acting against their own better judgment and desires.

Group Behavior: Deindividuation

The psychological state of deindividuation is aroused when individuals join crowds or large groups. The state is characterized by diminished awareness of self and individuality.

Group Behavior: Group Polarization

The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Attribution Theory: Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to over estimate the internal and underestimate the external factors when explaining the behaviors of others.

Attribution Theory: Self-Serving Bias

We tend to equate successes to internal and failures to external attributes.

Attribution Theory: Dispositional and Situational Factors

We tend to explain our own behavior and the behavior of others by assigning attributes to these behavior. -Dispositional Attribution: Internal factors. Example: Boss tells you in angry tone not to bother him at work; you conclude that he must just be busy. Situational Attribution: External factors. Example: Boss tells you in angry tone not to bother him at work; you conclude that he is a jerk who has no time for his employees.