AP Psychology: Unit 3 Developmental Psychology, Sensation and Perception

Ainsworth

"Strange situation" observe children with and without mothers Infant attachment styles

Sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation Ex- always wearing your watch on your left hand then one day moving it to the right hand. feels weird

androgyny

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics.

female orgasmic disorder

distress due to infrequently or never experiencing orgasm.

Preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic Representing things with words and images; use intuitive rather than logical reasoning Pretend play, egocentrism, language development

Sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities (looking, touching, mouthing, and grasping) object permanence, stranger anxiety

Concrete Operational theory

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations Conservation, mathematical transformations

Formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts Abstract logic, potential for mature moral reasoning

Centration

in Piaget's theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features A young child's tendency to focus only on his or her own perspective of a specific object and a failure to understand that others may see things differently.

Place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

Frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

refractory period

in human sexuality, a resting pause that occurs after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm.

Sex

in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female.

Perceptual adaptation

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field Ex- 3D glasses

erectile disorder

inability to develop or maintain an erection due to insufficient bloodflow to the penis.

Prosopagnosia

inability to recognize faces

Top down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations Occurs when you use your background knowledge to fill in gaps in what you perceive. For example, imagine that you are driving down an unfamiliar street and you see a sign for a convenience store. The sign has several missing letters, but you are still able to read it. Why? Because you use top-down processing and rely on your existing knowledge to make an educated guess about what the sign says.

Dichromatic

is a color vision defect in which one of the three basic color mechanisms is absent or not functioning. lack function of red or green cones Only see in two of the three colors

Henry Harlow

monkey could choose figure with bottle or figure wrapped in soft material--chose soft material when frightened or stressed; the monkeys raised by wire frame mothers became more stressed and frightened than monkeys raised with real mothers when put into new situations Studied non-human primates. Put monkies in total isolation and saw whether they needed love to develop.

Interposition

monocular visual cue in which two objects are in the same line of vision and one patially conceals the other, indicating that the first object concealed is further away If an object is overlapping the sight of the second object, it is perceived as closer than the second to the viewer

Lawrence Kohlberg

moral development; presented boys moral dilemmas and studied their responses and reasoning processes in making moral decisions. Most famous moral dilemma is "Heinz" who has an ill wife and cannot afford the medication. Should he steal the medication and why?

Erik Erikson

neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"

Feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement neurons that "see" different parts of the pattern such as a line set at a specific angle to the background

Optic nerves

nerves that carry the light energy/chemical impulses to the appropriate region of the brain they carry sensory signals from the visual receptors of eyes to the brain.

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.

Gender identity

one's sense of being male or female

Identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

Postconventional morality

third level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the person's behavior is governed by moral principles that have been decided on by the individual and which may be in disagreement with accepted social norms belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles

Great amplitude

this amplitude = bright colors and loud sounds

Small Amplitude

this amplitude = dull colors, soft sounds

Semicircular canals

three canals within the inner ear that contain specialized receptor cells that generate nerve impulses with body movement fluid-filled structures in the inner ear that are associated with the sense of balance

Eardrum

tightly stretched membrane located at the end of the ear canal that vibrates when struck by sound waves

Identical twins (monozygotic)

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms same gender

Cornea

Clear membrane at the front of the globe covering the iris, pupil, and anterior chamber. Responsible for 60% of the eyes focusing power. Contains 5 layer The clear tissue that covers the front of the eye

Schemas

Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information. Conceptual frameworks a person uses to make sense of the world

Transduction

Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

Acoustical transduction

Conversion of sound waves into neural impulses in the hairs cells of the inner ear.

Genes

The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein.

Fovea

The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster. "Point of central focus". Spot on the back of the retina that has more cones that anywhere else. Helps us see fine detail

Genome

The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes.

Extrasensory perception (ESP)

The controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. Said to include telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition. perception of events outside the known channels of sensation

Fetus

The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

Hue

The dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.

Culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas. attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Menarche

The first menstrual period.

Selective attention

The focus of attention on one particular stimulus or task at the exclusion of other stimuli. We encode what we are attending to or what is important to us. Ex- You are at a party and you focus your attention on one conversation and do not pay attention to other conversations.

Retina

The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

Homunculus

The model of distorted human features on the somatosensory cortex and motor cortex which indicates the degree of sensitivity of each brain region to feeling or movement. "little man"

Figure ground

The organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground). Ability to recognize the foreground from the background based on differences in color, luminance, depth, texture, or motion. In Gestalt psychology it is known as identifying a figure from the background.

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.

Outer ear

The portion of the ear consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal. The outer ear is separated from the middle ear by the tympanic membrane (the eardrum).

Conservation

The principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

Weber's law

The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

Rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple. Reflex that causes a newborn to turn the head toward a light touch on lips or cheek

Teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Relative size

an Monecular cue; if we assume that two objects are similar in size, we perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image as farther away For example, an item of size 2 is half the size of an item of size 4, but we have no idea how big an item of size 2 or 4 is in some absolute sense.

relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing.

Phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

Critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development a period early in life when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences is needed for proper development.

Gestalt

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. German word for "whole", it refers to our tendency to perceive incomplete figures as complete The principle that maintains that the human eye sees objects in their entirety before perceiving their individual parts. An attempt to understand the laws behind the ability to acquire and maintain meaningful perceptions in an apparently chaotic world. The central principle of gestalt psychology is that the mind forms a global whole with self-organizing tendencies

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex.

Bottom up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information We use only the features of the object itself to build a complete perception. refers to object recognition by parallel processing and feature detection; data driven; brain takes individual sensory stimuli and combines them to make a cohesive image aka feature analysis; only use the features of an object itself to build a complete perception For example, there is a flower at the center of a person's field. The sight of the flower and all the information about the stimulus are carried from the retina to the visual cortex in the brain. The signal travels in one direction.

Jean Piaget

cognitive psychology; created a 4-stage theory of cognitive development, said that two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth (assimilation and accommodation) Developmental psychologist who integrated nature and nurture into a theory of child development.

social script

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.

Monocular cues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone ONE EYE

Binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes TWO EYES

Egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

Tactition

skin senses- touch, pressure, pain, temp

embodied cognition

the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments.

Inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

Convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object As an object gets closer to your face, our eyes must move toward one another to keep focused on the object. The brain receives feedback from the muscles controlling eye movement and knows that the more the eyes converge, the closer the object must be. (binocular) In order to perceive depth properly, your eyes must move slightly inward or converge. In so doing, people are able to determine if objects are close to them or far away.

Cochlea

A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Nearsightedness

A condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina distant objects are blurry

Artificial selection

Breeding organisms with specific traits in order to produce offspring with identical traits. Selective breeding of plants and animals to promote the occurrence of desirable traits in offspring Ex- artificially rear and domesticate wild foxes, select them for friendly traits

Cochlea implant

A device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea. Mechanical device surgically placed under the skin behind the outer ear (pinna) that converts sound signals into magnetic impulses to stimulate the auditory nerve. Can be beneficial for those with profound sensorineural hearing loss.

Light and shadow

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; a dimmer object seems farther away. Patterns of light and dark can create the illusion of a 3d figure.

Relative height

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; objects higher in our field of vision are perceived as farther away. Objects further away appear higher in the visual field. Lower objects appear closer

Linear perspective

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance. Parallel lines get closer together or narrower as they appear farther from the viewer.

Texture gradient

A monocular cue in which an object appears closer to the viewer because it has a more detailed, distinct texture.

Ear canal

A narrow region leading from the outside of the human ear to the eardrum.

Temperament

A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

Natural selection

A process in nature in which organisms possessing certain genotypic characteristics that make them better adjusted to an environment tend to survive, reproduce, increase in number or frequency, and therefore, are able to transmit and perpetuate their essential genotypic qualities to succeeding generations. Charles Darwin's theory that the features of an organism that help it survive and reproduce are more likely than other features to be passed on to subsequent generations. A process in which organisms with certain inherited characteristics are more likely to survive and reproduce than are organisms with other characteristics Ex- picking up camouflage

Mutation

A random error in gene replication that leads to a change. A change in DNA that can aid the organism in survival or limit the organism's survival.

Iris

A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.

Signal detection theory

A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus ("Signal") amid background stimulation ("Noise"). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue. Theory that holds that an observer's perception depends not only on the intensity of a stimulus but also on the observer's motivation, the criteria he or she sets for determining that a signal is present, and on the background noise. A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background noise Influenced by Person's experience, expectations, motivation, level of fatigue. When youre tired, youre not actually aware. Are you really motivated to do the job? Do you expect something to really occur?

Chromosomes

A threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Each chromosome consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins.

Pitch

A tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.

Decibels

A unit of measurement of loudness

Frequency

A wave is the number of wavelengths that pass a given point How often

Accomodation

Adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information. Adjustment to schema, changing understanding Ex- When she eventually learns the name of zebra, she has accommodated this information.

Cognition

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. A wide range of internal mental activities, such as analyzing information, generating ideas, and problem solving.

Attachment

An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.

Norm

An understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior Principles of right action, binding upon the members of a group and serving to guide, control, or regulate proper and acceptable behavior. Ex- asians and no shoes in house

Connectedness

Because they are uniform and linked, we perceive each set of two dots and the line between them as one unit

Recognition

Brain matches with constructed image with stored images the process of matching a current event or fact with one already in memory.

Feature detection

Brain's detector cells respond to elementary features- bars, edges, or gradients of light Specialized nerve cells in the brain respond to particular features such as edges, angles, or movement. These feature detection neurons fire in response to images that have specific characteristics. the ability of the brain to identify specific components of visual stimuli such as corners or edges

Abstraction

Brain's higher level cells respond to combined information from feature detector cells a general concept formed by extracting common features from specific examples

Social-cultural influences on our version of reality

Cultural assumptions and expectations, physical context effects

Synesthesia

Describing one kind of sensation in terms of another when one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another. Ex: The sight of red ants makes you itchy.

Embryo

Developing stage of a multicellular organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

Wavelength

Distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission

Insecure avoidant

Engage in no interaction with mothers If the child is separated from the caregiver the child doesn't become particularly distressed and can usually be comforted by stranger. this type of insecure attachment is shown by children who generally avoid social interaction and intimacy with others

Biological influences on our version of reality

Entry-level sensory analysis, unlearned visual phenomena, critical period for sensory development

Environment

Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us. every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to social support in later life.

Zygote

Fertilized egg; it enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

Preconventional morality

First level of Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning in which control is external and rules are obeyed in order to gain rewards or avoid punishment or out of self-interest. Kohlberg, before age 9; self-interest, obey only rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards

Intensity

The amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude.

Psychological influences for individual development

Gene-environment interaction, neurological effect of early experiences, responses evoked by our own temperament or gender etc, beliefs and feelings and expectations

Individualism

Giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications Many, often temporary or casual Self-Independent (identity from individual traits) Life task-Discover and express one's uniqueness What matters-Me, personal achievement and fulfillment; rights and liberties; self esteem Copying method-Change reality Morality-Defined by individuals Relationships-Many, often temporary or casual; confrontation acceptable Attributing behavior-Behavior reflects one's personality and attitudes Mostly found in western cultures

Short waves

High frequency, bluish color, high pitch

Dementia

Impairment of mental functioning and global cognitive abilities in otherwise alert individuals, causing memory loss and related symptoms and typically having a progressive nature

Gender

In psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female. A socially and culturally constructed set of distinctions between masculine and feminine sets of behaviors that is promoted and expected by society

Secure

Infants use the mother as a home base from which to explore when all is well, but seek physical comfort and consolation from her if frightened or threatened

Assimilation

Interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas. Similar to schema, fitting to your understanding Ex- A child seeing a zebra for the first time and calling it a horse. The child assimilates this information into her schema for a horse

Long waves

Low frequency, reddish color, low pitch

Relative motion

Monocular distance cue based on the fact that moving objects appear to move a greater distance when they are close to the viewer than when they are far away. For example, you are in a bus and it goes with the velocity of 50 m/s to the east, then a truck passes you with a velocity of 60m/s to the east. When the truck is next to the bus you feel that as you go backward to the west or when the two cars have same velocity when you look another car you feel you do not move.

Testosterone

Most important of the male sex hormones. Both the male and female have it. The additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

Negligent parents

Negligent parents are uninvolved. They are neither demanding nor responsive. They are careless, inattentive, and do not seek a close relationship with their children.

Biological influences for successful aging

No genetic propensity for alzheimer's, dementia, or other diseases Neural changes that hinder negative thinking Appropriately meeting nutritional needs

Similarity

Objects that are similar in appearance are more likely to be perceived as belonging in the same group.

Motion perception

Objects traveling towards us grow in size and those moving away shrink in size. The same is true when the observer moves to or from an object.

Fluid intelligence

One's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood. Ability to quickly identify relationships and connections, and then use those relationships and connections to make correct deductions. cognitive abilities requiring speed or rapid learning that tends to diminish with age

Crystallized intelligence

One's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age learned knowledge and skills such as vocabulary, which tends to increase with age Knowledge and skills accumulated from prior experience, schooling, and culture.

Psychological influences for successful aging

Optimistic outlook Physically and mentally active life-style

Social-culture influences for individual development

Parental and peer influences, cultural individualism or collectivism, cultural gender norms

Closure

Part of Geostalt (Principles) The law of closure states that individuals perceive objects such as shapes, letters, pictures, etc., as being whole when they are not complete. Specifically, when parts of a whole picture are missing, our perception fills in the visual gap For example, theres a figure that depicts a circle on the left side and a rectangle on the right side, both broken up in many lines. Gaps are present in the shapes. If the law of closure did not exist, the image would depict an assortment of different lines with different lengths, rotations, and curvatures—but with the law of closure, we perceptually combine the lines into whole shapes

Continuity

Part of Geostalt (Principles) The law of continuity states that elements of objects tend to be grouped together, and therefore integrated into perceptual wholes if they are aligned within an object. In cases where there is an intersection between objects, individuals tend to perceive the two objects as two single uninterrupted entities. Stimuli remain distinct even with overlap. We are less likely to group elements with sharp abrupt directional changes as being one object the effect of perceiving smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones

Proximity

Part of Geostalt (principles) Objects that are close together are more likely to be perceived as belonging in the same group. Nearness The law of proximity states that when an individual perceives an assortment of objects they perceive objects that are close to each other as forming a group. For example, there are 72 circles, but we perceive the collection of circles in groups. Specifically, we perceive that there is a group of 36 circles on the left side of the image, and three groups of 12 circles on the right side of the image.

Theory of mind

People's ideas about their own and others' mental states -- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict

Color constancy

Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wave-lengths reflected by the object. Color of light does not change perception of objects i.e. grass at night

Phototransduction

Photons are absorbed and converted into a change in membrane potential that is relayed to the brain for visual perception and processing. Conversion of light energy into neural impulses that the brain can understand

Fetal alchohol syndrome (FAS)

Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions physical and mental abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features.

Aggression

Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone.

Alzheimer's disease

Progressive irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and physical functioning Progressive degeneration of the brain that ultimately results in dementia.

Cones

Retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. Detect color

Rods

Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond. respond to low-intensity illumination (important in night vision), but do not detect color well

Psychological influences on our version of reality

Selective attention, learned schemas, gestalt principles, emotional context effects, perceptual set

Biological influences for individual development

Shared human genome, individual genetic variations, prenatal environment, sex related genes hormones and physiology

Aculity

Sharpness of vision ability to resolve fine detail and patterns of light (different from sensitivity) (n) sharpness (particularly of the mind or senses)

Insecure ambivalent

Shown by a child being clingy and taking a long time to calm down after separation protest. They appear anxious when mother is around, protest when she leaves, but fail to be comforted upon her return.

Social-cultural influences for successful aging

Support from family and friends Access to meaningful work or activities Positive expectations of the surrounding culture Stable and safe living conditions

Priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response. A retrieval cue by which recall is aided by a word or phrase that is semantically related to the desired memory.

Pupil

The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.

Imprinting

The process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life. evidence of critical period in some animals; they follow the first moving thing they see after hatching A primitive form of learning in which some young animals follow and form an attachment to the first moving object they see and hear. Ex- ducks following humans if theres no mother duck around but humans

Sensation

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. The use of sensory information and pre-existing knowledge to create a functional representation of the world. The act of becoming aware through the senses

Parallel processing

The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. simultaneously analyzing different elements of sensory information, such as color, brightness, shape, etc.

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied. the ability of a trait to be passed down from one generation to the next

Audition

The sense or act of hearing

X Chromosome

The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

Opponent process theory

The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green Receptor cells exist in pairs, and one is stimulated while the other is inhibited Ex- If you stare at a blue circle you will see a yellow afterimage, and if you stare at a white dot you will see a black afterimage.

Gate-control theory of pain

The theory that pain is a product of both physiological and psychological factors that cause spinal gates to open and relay patterns of intense stimulation to the brain, which perceives them as pain. Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall pain determined by operation of 2 nerve fiber types: smaller fibers carry pain from body to brain, longer fibers stop and start flow of pain; pain affected by expectations and moods Pain messages encounter "nerve gates" that control whether signals are allowed to pass through to the brain

Social learning theory

The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished. A theory that takes into account how learning and motivation are influenced by people's thoughts and beliefs and their observations of other people's behavior

Menopause

The time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

Lens

The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.

Fraternal twins (dizygotic)

Twins who develop from separate eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment same gender or different genders

Retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object If you cover your left eye and look straight ahead, you will not be able to see anything in the left peripheral area. In contrast, if you cover your right eye and continue looking straight ahead, you will not see in the right peripheral area.

Human factors psychology

a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use Ex- The knobs for the stove burners on the right are easier to understand than those on the left

Developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information In Piaget's view, a specific mental structure; an organized way of interacting with the environment and experiencing it- a generalization a child makes based on comparable occurences of various actins, usally physical, motor actions

Farsightedness

a condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina A condition in which the lens of the eye focuses distant objects behind rather than on the retina

intersex

a condition present at birth; possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors.

Visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals process to tell if a baby has a sense of depth

AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections.

Perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. we often tend to notice only certain aspects of a object or situation while ignoring other details. motivation, past experience, emotional and personal It has been found that a number of variables, or factors, influence perceptual set, and set in turn influences perception. Expectations, emotion, motivation, culture Ex- In a group of numbers like 12, 13, 14-- 13 is not "B" We EXPECT to see a letter in the context of other letters of the alphabet, whereas we EXPECT to see numbers in the context of other numbers.

Relative clarity

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; hazy objects are farther away than sharp, clear objects

Emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults.

sexual dysfunction

a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning.

Self-concept

a sense of one's identity and personal worth our understanding and evaluation of who we are The knowledge of oneself as a person both separate from other people and constant throughout changing situations.

Role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave Behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status

Gender role

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females The accepted behaviors, thoughts, and emotions of a specific gender based upon the views of a particular society or culture.

Reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus.

Incus

a small anvil-shaped bone in the middle ear, transmitting vibrations between the malleus and stapes.

hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another person (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

Cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another technique that compares individuals from different age groups at one time A study in which a representative cross section of the population is tested or surveyed at one specific time.

posthypnotic suggestion

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.

Basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

Subliminal threshold

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness subconscious Ex- cannot taste the subtle food like cinammon or smell it, etc, during a taste test.

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience refers to the orderly and sequential developmental changes which occur in the nervous system and other bodily structures controlled by our genes.

Konrad Lorenz

ethology (animal behavior); studied imprinting and critical periods in geese researcher who focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds, a concept he called imprinting

Inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere A failure to perceive objects that are not the focus of attention Ex- When your attention is focused on one demanding task, such as paying attention to the main character in a movie, you might not notice unexpected things entering your visual field.

Spermarche

first ejaculation.

Collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly. Self-Interdependent (identity from belonging) Life task- Maintain connections, fit in, perform role What matters-Us, group goals and solidarity; social responsibilities and relationships; family duty Copying method- Accommodate to reality Morality- Defined by social networks (duty based) Relationships-Few, close and enduring; harmony valued Attributing behavior-Behavior reflects social norms and roles Mostly found in eastern cultures

asexual

having no sexual attraction to others.

Sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness

Conduction hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

Overtones

high frequency sound waves

2. Early childhood/toddlerhood (2 to 3 years) stage

in Erikson's theory Autonomy vs. shame and doubt Important events- Toilet training As toddlers, children begin to develop independence and start to learn that they can do some things on their own (such as going to the toilet). If a child is not encouraged properly at this age, he or she might develop shame and doubt about their abilities.

4. Elementary school (6 to 11 years) stage

in Erikson's theory Competence vs inferiority Important events- school Throughout their school years, children learn to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence while failure results in feelings of interiority

7. Middle adulthood (40s to 65 years) stage

in Erikson's theory Generativity vs stagnation Important events- work and parenthood This is the longest period of a human's life. It is the stage in which people are usually working and contributing to society in some way and perhaps raising their children. If a person does not find proper ways to be productive during this period, they will probably develop feelings of stagnation.

6. Young adulthood (19 to 40 years) stage

in Erikson's theory Identity vs isolation Important events- relationships During early adulthood most people fall in love, get married and start building their own family. If a person is unable to develop intimacy with others at this age (whether through marriage or close friendships), they will probably develop feelings of isolation.

5. Adolescence (12 to 18 years) stage

in Erikson's theory Identity vs role confusion Important events- social relationships When they reach the teenage years, children start to care about how they look to others. They start forming their own identity by experimenting with who they are. If a teenager is unable to properly develop an identity at this age, his or her role confusion will probably continue on into adulthood.

3. Preschooler (3 to 5 years) stage

in Erikson's theory Initiative vs guilt Important events- exploration As preschoolers, children continue to develop more independence and start to do things of their own initiative. If a child is not able to take initiative and succeed at appropriate tasks, he or she might develop guilt over their needs and desires.

8. Late adulthood (Late 60s to death) stage

in Erikson's theory Integrity vs despair Important events- reflection on life As senior citizens, people tend to look back on their lives and think about what they have or have not accomplished. If a person has led a productive life, they will develop a feeling of integrity. If not, they might fall into despair.

1. Infancy (birth to 18 months) stage

in Erikson's theory Trust vs. mistrust Important events- Feeding Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust

Intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood A state of being or feeling in which each person in a relationship is willing to self-disclose and to express important feelings and information to the other person.

Authoritarian parents

parents who make arbitrary rules, expect unquestioned obedience from their children, punish misbehavior, and value obedience to authority Authoritarian parents are coercive. They set the rules and expect obedience: "Don't interrupt." "Keep your room clean." "Don't stay out late or you'll be grounded." "Why? Because I said so."

Permissive parents

parents who provide lax and inconsistent feedback and require little of their children Parenting style consisting of very few rules and allowing children to make most decisions and control their own behavior. Permissive parents are unrestraining. They make few demands and use little punishment. They may be unwilling to set limits.

Authoritative parents

parents who set high but realistic and reasonable standards, enforce limits, and encourage open communication and independence high in both warmth and control; more balanced and less rigid, set guidelines for their children's behavior, but they are also flexible and will listen to children's concerns and needs; children of these parents fare best and have self-control Authoritative parents are confrontive. They are both demanding and responsive. They exert control by setting rules, but especially with older children, they encourage open discussion and allow exceptions.

Perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change Size constancy,Shape constancy, Distance constancy, Color constancy, Auditory constancy we have stable perceptions of an object's qualities even under changing circumstances Ex- Have you ever noticed how snow looks just as "white" in the middle of the night under dim moonlight as it does during the day under the bright sun? When you walk away from an object, have you noticed how the object gets smaller in your visual field, yet you know that it actually has not changed in size?

Retinal processing

receptor rods and cones -> bipolar cells -> ganglion cells Glutamate released by photoreceptors in dark. This excites some bipolar cells and inhibits others.

Prospective memory

remembering to do something in the future

Longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period A research method that focuses on a specific group of individuals at different ages to examine changes that have occurred over time study same group of people over an extended time period

Conventional morality

second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior kohlberg, early adolescence; uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order

Olfaction

sense of smell

Gustation

sense of taste

estrogens

sex hormones, such as estradiol, that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. Estrogen levels peak during ovulation. In nonhuman mammals this promotes sexual receptivity.

Visual capture

tendency for vision to dominate the other senses vision usually dominates when there is a conflict among senses

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships.

Depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

Gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

Object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.

Personal space

the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies how people distance themselves from one another the zone of privacy and separation from others our culture or our physical circumstances require or permit

Middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window The space behind the eardrum.

Social Clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.

Interaction

the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity) the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).

Stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

sexual response cycle

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson—excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.

Difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference. (Also called just noticeable difference or JND.) The smallest difference that is sufficient for a change in stimulus to be noticed Ex- You turn on the light in your room to watch a movie because you still want some light. But you want the least amount possible, so you turn it down just until you can still recognize that there is light when it is very dim.

Absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time The statistically determined minimum level of stimulation necessary to excite a perceptual system. For example, in an experiment on sound detention, researchers may present a sound with varying levels of volume. The smallest level that a participant is able to hear is the absolute threshold.

Optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

Grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups Creating groups of records that share something in common

Blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there point in the retinal where the optic nerve leaves the retina so there are no rods or cones there

Sensory interation

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences taste

Accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

Vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance body sense of equilibrium and balance

Y Chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

Epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.

evolutionary psychology

the study of how our behavior and mind have changed in adaptive ways over time due to natural selection.

Psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

Evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection. perspective that seeks to explain and predict behaviors by analyzing how the human brain developed over time, how it functions, and how input from the environment affects human behaviors

Behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior the perspective of psychological science that deals with how much our genes, and our environment, influence our individual differences

Molecular genetics

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes studies how specific genes influence behavior, finds some of the many genes that influence normal behaviors

Kinesthesis

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

Change blindness

the tendency to fail to detect changes in any part of a scene to which we are not focusing our attention Ex-While a man provides directions to a construction worker, two experimenters interrupt by passing between them carrying a board. There is now another construction worker and the man fails to notice the change

Gender schema theory

the theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly The theory that children and adolescents use gender as an organizing theme to classify and interpret their perceptions about the world and themselves

Adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

Young Helmholtz trichromatic (three color) theory

theory that retina contains 3 different color receptors (cones) - red, blue and green that can make any color 3 types of cone The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors-one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue-which wen stimulated in combination can produce the percetion of any color.