AP World History Study Guide

Explain how historical documents influenced resistance to colonial rule.

France's Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen upset many of their colonies, because revolutionary freedoms outline in this document were extended only to Frenchmen and creoles. This spared rebellion amongst the slaves, free blacks, and mulattoes in French colonies. Similarly, Simon Bolivar's Jamaica Letter, in which he promised to fight for the rights of mixed-race Latin Americans, turned a small, unsuccessful upper-middle class rebellion into a mass war of independence.

Casualties of WWII

Strategic bombing was a new, widely used (often times necessary) technique. An example of strategic bombing was the firebombing of Dresden, which killed 25,000 people. The many casualties caused by the new war tactics allowed genocide to be formally defined as a crime.

What were the impacts of the Chinese Communist Revolution?

Sun Yat-sen became president of the new Chinese Republic, and it was renamed the Nationalist Party. The Chinese Communist Party was founded after clashing with the Nationalist Party. Communists governed China, but faced deadly threats. First, was the CCP, which was kept alive by Mao Zedong, and next was the Japanese expansion that worsened and didn't cease until the end of WWII.

How did new military technologies lead to increased wartime casualties?

1. During WWI, the machine gun was popularized. This new technology was capable of bringing down rows and rows of soldiers from a distance on the battlefield, making movement across "no-mans land" extremely dangerous. 2. Submarines and U Boats were widely used by the Germans to destroy neutral ships who were in support of the Allies. This resulted in the death of thousands of neutral citizens. 3. The Germans used chemical warfare first, and definitely the most. There were nearly 100 thousand deaths associated with poison gas, and almost 1.3 million injured. 4. Barbed wire was another technological development that became popularized during the war. It proved effective in frustrating the advance of soldiers across no-mans land, and it helped to trap enemies in prepared kill zones.

List 4 ideologies given used to justify imperialism.

1. Western hunger for raw materials, which could easily be obtained from less powerful societies. 2. Europe's rapid population growth, which caused migration to settler colonies away from the homeland. 3. Social Darwinism, or a sense racial superiority that many European's felt. 4. The White Man's Burden, or the idea that Europe had a mission to civilize and modernize other nations

Describe the isolationist trade policies in the Tokugawa Shogunate.

A feature of Tokugawa policy was isolationism. Like their predecessors, the Tokugawa feared the influence of foreign ideas and the further importation of gunpowder weapons. Christianity was officially discouraged, and the national seclusion policy (instituted in the 1630s), restricted foreign access to an artificial island. Despite such restrictions on trade, Japan's economy flourished under the Tokugawa.

How did alliances cause WWI?

Alliances are agreements between two or more nations to assist each other. The two main European alliances were the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance, which divided the European powers into two rival camps, and brought about the First World War.

Provide an example of how a ruler used religion to legitimize their power.

Absolutism in Europe was typically justified by the doctrine of divine right, according to which the monarch reigns by the will of God. Europe's archetypal absolute monarch was Louis the XIV of France who centralized the French bureaucracy and broke the power of stubborn aristocrats by shifting administrative power from traditionally powerful families (nobles) to civil servants that he ennobled himself.

What were the main cultural developments in Africa?

African societies discovered advanced metalworking and architectural techniques, which showed a unique fusion of Islamic function with local style. African literature also flourished during this time, and has been preserved through oral traditions. Professional storytellers known as griots chronicled history and social customs all while acting as entertainers and chief rulers.

What effects would the Paris Peace Conference and the resulting Treaty of Versailles have on international relations?

After WWI, several terms were decided at the Paris Peace Conference by the five Central Powers. The most important was the Treaty of Versailles. The Treaty was directed toward Germany, and forced the country to accept all the blame for the war. Germany suffered loss of territories, and were required to pay reparations for the entire war. The Conference and the Treaty of Versailles produced flawed results, and exacerbated international tensions.

Discuss the causes and effects of the Haitian Revolution.

After the French Revolution, the slave colony of Saint-Domingue was thrown into turmoil, largely because the Rights of Man and the Citizen, were not extended to everyone living in the French colonies (more specifically free blacks and mulattoes). Because France's government decided not to end slavery, the slaves in the colony of Saint-Domingue revolted, marking the start of the Haitian Revolution. This rebellion not only led to the birth of Haiti as an independent nation, but it also inspired further uprisings in Latin America.

What is appeasement?

Aggression from Germany was unchecked by Western democracies who responded with the policy of appeasement. In 1938, Germany annexed Austria and threatened war against Czechoslovakia over Sudetenland. The British and French prime ministers entered the Munich Agreement, an example of appeasement, which agreed to let Hitler have Sudetenland if he ceased further expansion.

Describe two examples of direct resistance to imperial rule in the Americas.

Anti-colonial resentments sparked insurrections in Haiti and Latin America. The Haitian Revolution was the only successful slave revolt in the New World and the Latin American War of Independence showed a sense of nationalism and the local resentment of imperial economic policies.

Describe one piece of evidence that receiving societies did not always embrace immigrants.

Anti-immigration sentiment was common on both the popular and official level. Countries hosting large numbers of immigrants imposed quota systems, which limited the quantity of people they would allow in from a certain country per year. In the US, feverish racial fears about a rising "yellow peril" combines with concerns about jobs for white Americans, motivated the Chinese Exclusion Act. This suspended Chinee immigration for 10 years and was then renewed into the 1800s.

How did Buddhism divide into different sects?

As Buddhism spread throughout Asia, the rift grew larger between older and newer denominations. The older Theravada schools emphasized simplicity and mediation, and were generally more popular in South Asia. The newer Mahayana denominations performed rituals more frequently and had concepts of an afterlife.

Describe how the Industrial Revolution contributed to the rise of the industrial working class in Europe.

As the proportion of rural people among the lower classes shrank, it was made up for by the rapid expansion of the industrial working class. This newer working class included factory workers, miners, and wage laborers of any kind urban or industrial setting.

What types of restrictions were imposed on women's rights and freedoms?

Aside from their already secondary status in society, women were also forced into repressive practices, such as arranged marriages (common in India and China), veiling (common in the Middle East), and foot binding (common in China). Organized religions generally played a crucial role in defining women's roles and justifying their subservience. Hinduism for example highly restricted women by the dictates of the caste system.

Describe the creation of the Zulu Kingdom in Africa.

Before 1800, Bantu-speaking Zulu people were organized into a relatively peaceful individual clans. In 1828, a new chieftain united the clans into a single warlike tribe, known as the Zulu Kingdom.

Describe the diffusion of the bubonic plague.

Beginning in China, a particularly virulent outbreak of the bubonic plague migrated first to the Middle East, and then to Europe via the Mediterranean trade route. Each region the plague visited lost on average a third of its population, resulting in the death of millions.

How did Blitzkrieg cause increased wartime casualties.

Blitzkrieg or Lighting War was a new war tactic which used planes and tanks to penetrate quickly and deeply into the enemy's territory. This tactic left enemies disoriented and weakened, which would allow for more wartime casualties due to lack of preparedness. In the fall of 1969, within 6 weeks Poland had been a victim of Germany's Blitzkrieg.

Explain how Columbus' voyage could be an example of state-sponsored transoceanic maritime exploration in this era.

Blocked from following Portugal's African Indian Ocean route, the Spanish monarchs (Ferdinand and Isabella) turned to an unusual proposal by Italian explorer Christopher Columbus: to sail west to reach the far east. He set sail and reached what he thought was the Indies, but turned out to be the New World.

Describe the hacienda system and its impacts.

Both the Spanish New World and the Portuguese colonies involved intense cultivation of a single crop on large estates known as haciendas. As with mining, this sort of agriculture required an immense amount of labor and encouraged the employment of native workers on harsh terms and for little pay.

What were the impacts of the magnetic compass?

By the early 1300s and 1400s, Europeans were adopting key navigational and maritime technologies from Asia, most notably the magnetic compass. The compass helped mariners to accurately determine the direction of travel.

What is chattel slavery and how did colonial economies rely on it?

Chattel slavery, or the outright ownership of human beings as personal property, was commonly practiced throughout the world. This system allowed colonial economies to cultivate their labor intensive crops for free.

Discuss the "opening up" of China by the British and the Americas.

China had imposed substantial trading restrictions on the West, so the trade balance favored the Chinese. British consumers, however, had grown desperate for Chinese tea, and were determined to get it by selling a product that China didn't have, but an ever-increasing number of them wanted: opium. Britain began to smuggle the highly addictive drug into China. Approximately 12 million Chinese people became opium addicts, and the trade balance shifted to favor the British.

What were the goals and ideas of Karl Marx? How were his ideas a reaction to the exploitation of laborers during the Industrial Revolution?

Communism, a more radical form of socialism, originated with German philosopher, Karl Marx. He argued that all historical development was driven by class struggle between the upper and middle class. He believed that the exploitation of workers during the Industrial Revolution had to come to an end, so he advocated to overthrow capitalism.

How did new technology lead to dramatic advancements during the Second Industrial Revolution?

Crucial innovations during the Second Industrial Revolution include the Bessemer process, which made steel production cheaper and easier, and enabled high-rise building in urban cores and key engineering projects like the Suez and Panama canals.

What were the European's goals during the Crusades? Were they successful?

Crusades, or holy wars, were fought by Catholic Europe for many reasons, among them to convert nonbelievers to Catholicism, to crush Christian sects that were considered heretical, and to combat non-Christian foreigners. Many of the crusades were initiated in response to Muslim victories, and many of them weren't successful. The crusades sent parts of the Middle East into deep chaos, and therefore worsened relationships between European Christians and Middle Easterns.

Define diasporic communities and explain their impact.

Diasporic communities were formed in ports and cities along trading routes. They included travelers and traders of all sorts, but centered on merchant families, who took up long term residence in the diasporic communities. The diasporic communities introduced their traditions and practices to the host cultures.

Armenians in the Ottoman Empire during and after WWII.

During the Armenian Massacre somewhere between 500,000 and 1.5 million Armenian men, women, and children were systematically killed by the Ottoman Empire. The Armenian Massacre laid the groundwork for a more homogenous nation-state that eventually became the Republic of Turkey.

What was the significance of Genghis Khan? What was the Pax Mongolica?

During the early 1200s the Mongols, united by Genghis Khan, rapidly created one of the largest land empires in world history. The Mongols brief semi-unification of Eurasia during the 1200s is known as the Pax Mongolica or the Mongol Peace. This period of peace facilitated the transfer of technologies, scientific/medical knowledge, cultural practices, and commodities, particularly among the Silk Roads.

What were some key Chinese technologies?

During this time period, China was recognized as the most technologically adept society in the world, as a variety of hugely important inventions had flowed through Eurasia from China. Some of the most pivotal technologies included water clocks, paper currency, gunpowder, the compass, and block printing, allowed the Chinese to excel in astronomy, medicine, and mathematics.

How did Enlightenment philosophers challenge existing political systems?

Enlightenment philosophers like John Locke argued that government should depend on the consent of the governed. They favored freedom of religion, opinion, and the protection of human rights, and they popularized concepts like popular sovereignty, natural rights, the social contract, and the separation of the church and the state.

European colonization affected the physical environment of the Americas. Explain how European agriculture and settlements cause deforestation and soil depletion in the Americas.

European introduction to the Americas of plantation monoculture was especially harmful and striking to the environment. Whether in the Americas or elsewhere, overexploitation of the land typically led to soil depletion (as nutrients were exhausted) and deforestation (as woods were cleared to make room for farms).

What were the Swahili city states of East Africa? What economic significance did they play during this period of time?

From 1000-1500 Swahili city states flourished. They were composed of forty self-ruling urban centers that were all heavily involved in the Indian Ocean trade networks, and they were all multiethnic with migrants from all parts of Eurasia and Africa.

How did the nationalism/militarism of Germany contribute to the start of WWII.

Hitler, favoring militaristic nationalism sought to expand Nazi Germany. He openly violated the Treaty of Versailles by sending troops to Rhineland with little repercussion. He began producing weapons like tanks and airplanes, which had also been forbidden by the treaty. He invaded Czechoslovakia by violating the Munich agreement and made claims on Poland, which signaled the beginning of WWII.

How did Ibn Battuta create important ties between distant societies?

Ibn Battuta was a great explorer of the Islamic world, who embarked on a 70,000 mile, 30 year journey. Not only did he visit most of Islamic Africa and the Middle East, but he also ventured throughout Central, East, and South Asia. He like Marco Polo, composed a journal that revealed the remarkably diverse cultures and customs of Muslim people.

How did imperialism cause WWI?

Imperialism is a policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force. As countries like Britain, France, and Germany expanded their empires, it resulted in increased tensions among European countries.

Explain how nationalism can lead to resistance against imperialism.

Imperialism is the act of a country using its resources to expand its borders into other territories. Nationalism is the advocacy or support for the independence of a particular region. Naturally, nationalists would be against imperialism because it would mean a loss of independence.

Describe the process by which Islam spread throughout Africa.

In Africa during this period, the chief between major societies was whether they adopted Islam or not. The strongest and richest tended to convert peacefully, while some areas were incorporated into the dar-al-Islam by force. Most of North Africa converted rapidly after coming under the authority of the Abbasid caliphate, and later under that of the Ottoman empire. By the 1000s, Islam began to take root not just in the Sahara, but also in sub-Saharan Africa. The southward and westward penetration of Arab traders played a crucial role in this process.

How did religious persecution persist in Europe?

In Europe, Protestants and Catholics regularly prosecuted each other, and both Anti-Semitism and Islam were rampant throughout the continent. Jews were stereotyped by European Christians as greedy because of their success in fields like banking and commerce. Jews were further resented because of popular belief that they bore responsibility for Jesus' death. Due to the Ottoman Empire's campaigns against the Balkans, anti-Islamic tendencies also prevailed among European Christians.

Explain how joint stock companies made it easier for ruler and merchants to finance exploration.

In Europe, joint stock companies became a common way to share the expenses and risks involved with overseas exploration and trade. During the 1600s, nations such as Britain, the Netherlands, and France founded joint stock companies to oversee commercial and colonial interests in the Americas. Not only did these act as business entities, but they often became solely responsible for exerting their home nation's political and strategic will overseas.

How did the treatment of religious minorities differ in Mughal India under the rule of Abkar the Great and Aurangzeb?

In Mughal India, where a Muslim minority ruled a Hindu majority, religious policy varied. It ranged from tolerant benevolence of Abkar who abolished the jizya tax and encouraged friendly relations between all faiths, to the Islamic military of Aurangzeb who imposed Sharia Law on Hindus.

How did the spread of disease impact Afro-Eurasia during this time period?

In addition to environmental conditions, outbreaks of disease swept over parts of Afro-Eurasia decisively affected societies and even fatally disrupted some. For centuries, smallpox, measles, and the bubonic plague moved back and forth throughout Eurasia, and the deadliest strike was the Black Death. Each region this disease visited lost on average 1/3 of its population.

How did Christianity spread to the Americas?

In conjunction with trade and colonization, missionary activity did much during these years to spread certain faiths over wide distances. Christianity experienced the era's most massive growth, as the Catholic French, Spanish, and Portuguese, as well as the Protestant English and Dutch imported the religion to North and South America.

How did the rights of women continue to be limited throughout the world?

In most parts of the world, women continued to occupy a secondary status in terms of social roles, economic opportunities, and political influence. In India the impact of Mughal rule on women was mixed. Hindu women remained subject to the caste system and also to Sharia Law. In China, the practice of foot binding became even more widespread, and Confucian doctrine continued to justify the secondary status of women.

Discuss the continuities in the role of women during this time period

In most parts of the world, women continued to occupy a secondary status in terms of social roles, economic opportunities, and political influence.In India the impact of Mughal rule on women was mixed. Hindu women remained subject to the caste system and also to Sharia Law (though they were not Muslim). In China, the practice of footbinding women became more widespread, and Confucian doctrine continued to justify the secondary status of women.

How did colonial economies use the preexisting mit'a system?

In the Andes, the Spanish took the mit'a system (a form of coerced labor used previously by the Incas) and adapted it for their own purposes. This system forced natives to work on state projects in return for a small salary.

What main ideas were prompted by Adam Smith in the Wealth of Nations?

In the Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith's brand of economic thinking, known as laissez-faire capitalism was identified. This philosophy encouraged free trade and political liberalism, at least for the middle classes. Smith argued that the laws of supply and demand should operate freely, with minimal government intervention.

Because migrants tended to be male, what happened to women in the home society?

Industrialization shifted the workplace away from the home (where both men and women worked) and into factories and bigger businesses. This created a domestic sphere separate from the workplace. In Europe and the US, women of the lower classes were generally compelled to take up work, so women bore the burden of serving as their families' primary homemakers and caregivers.

Define Dar-al-Islam and Sharia Law.

Islam theology divided the world into two spheres, Dar-al-Islam, where Sharia Law was dominant, and Dar-al-Harb, where Islam was not established. Under Dar-al-Islam, people were granted the ability to worship freely and they weren't forced to change their faith, but authorities still didn't extend full rights or equal treatment to non-Muslims. Sharia Law is an Islamic Law derived from the Quran, which acts as a code for Muslims to live by, which included guidelines for prayer, fasting, and charity.

What were the causes and effects of fascism in Italy?

Italy was faced with economic depression, and was in desperate need of a strong leader, so they turned to fascist ideology. Benito Mussolini was responsible for the establishment of the first fascist state. By introducing fascism to Italy, Mussolini hoped to end political corruption and labor strife, while maintaining capitalism. An oppressive fascist regime brought economic hardships and loss of basic human rights. However, it modernized/industrialized Italy.

Holocaust

Jewish people were discriminated against and put into concentration camps where they were killed and tortured by Hitler and the Nazi party. 8 million Jews had been killed by the end of the Holocaust. The Nuremburg trials were hosted to prosecute Nazi leaders, and the concept of crimes against humanity was codified. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was created to prevent something like the Holocaust from occurring again.

Describe one practice used by the Ottomans to accommodate religious diversity within their empire.

Key Ottoman institutions included the millet system, which sorted and administered non-Muslim according to their religious categories. The subjects within the millet communities were known as dhimmi, and included Jews and Christians of several denominations, and paid the Jizya tax.

Describe how two advancements facilitated easier trade in Afro-Eurasia.

Key technologies and practices made trade easier in Afro-Eurasia. Commerce was boosted by the rise of banking and the extension of credit in the form of checks, bills of exchange, and loans of interest. States contributed by policing and regulating trade routes with the enforcement of standard weights and measures. They also supported currency by minting coins and printing paper money.

What were innovations in transport that defined this time period?

Land movement during this time depended on wheeled vehicles, like carts and wagons, and the domestic animals that pulled them. Water transport depended on new maritime technologies like the gallery ship, which was powered by oars rather than wind. They also used tools like the astrolabe and the compass to improve navigation.

What was the significance of Mansa Musa, and how did he contribute to the spread of Islam.

Mansa Musa is known as Mali's most powerful ruler, and as one of the world's richest monarchs. He was a devout Muslim who gained fame throughout Africa and Europe while embarking on his internationally sensational hajj. On his pilgrimage, Mansa Musa used his money to develop important cultural centers for the Islamic world, and spread the religion.

Identify two pieces of maritime technology which encouraged Indian Ocean trade.

Maritime technologies made overseas trade more efficient than ever, and therefore encouraged trade throughout the Indian Ocean. The principal vessel in the Mediterranean was the galley, which was powered by oars and a small sail. In China, the junk often featured a stern rudder for improved steering. And of course, there were navigational technologies like the astrolabe and magnetic compass.

Define mercantilism.

Mercantilism is an economic system in which mercantilist states believed that there was a fixed and finite quantity of wealth in the world. Consequently, all other nations were viewed as rivals and they aimed for self-sufficiency.

Explain how mercantilist policies were used by Europeans to control their economies.

Mercantilism was the dominant economic philosophy in most advanced societies. Mercantilist states believed that the colonies they possessed were economic extensions of the homeland. In other words, a source of raw materials and a market for manufactured goods.

Explain how mercantilist policies led rulers to claim overseas empires.

Mercantilist policies led rulers to believe that there was a fixed amount of wealth in the world, so they felt the need to constantly compete with other nations for state control of economic activity.

How did militarism help cause WWI?

Militarism is the build up and glorification of the military. Britain had one of the most powerful navies in the world, and Germany wanted to build an even larger one. This resulted in an expensive naval race between the two countries, which eventually caused the war.

What were the causes of World War I?

Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, Nationalism

How did feudalism maintain a system of authority?

Monarchs awarded land to their followers (vassals) for the use and protection of it. Nobles (aristocratic class) would become lords of their own land. Serfs were relied upon in the manorial system and tied to the feudal lord's land without the option to leave. Feudalism remained at the heart of European politics and socioeconomics for many centuries.

What were science, medicine, and math discoveries that defined the time period?

Most scientific knowledge of the time was based on observation and passed on. Many cultures had long possessed an advanced knowledge of astronomy and calendar making. The same pattern prevailed in medicine; physicians in many societies possessed a high degree of surgical skill and anatomical knowledge.

What is the historical significance of Abkar the Great?

Mughal rule peaked under Abkar the Great. He used gunpowder to complete the conquest of India, reformed taxes and the law code, and gained fame for his religious tolerance.

How did Muslim Empires treat religious minorities?

Muslim empires treated religious minorities differently. Non-Muslim people were allowed to convert to Islam but were not forced to. They had to pay a tax called jizya to protect their freedoms. There were also Millet communities used to monitor non-Muslim subjects. The devshirme system is another example of unfair treatment of religious minorities. The system allowed the Ottoman empire to take young boys from Christian families to serve Ottoman regimes.

Evaluate the positive and negative aspects of the rule of Napoleon in France.

Napoleon was best known as a military general, whose victories made France the most powerful country in Europe. However, though he claimed to be a main of revolutionary ideals, he'd actually established a new dictatorship, and even went as far to crown himself as the emperor.

How did nationalism cause WWI?

Nationalism is identification with one's nation and the support for its interests, especially to the exclusion or detriment of the interests of other nations. In Eastern Europe, Russia prompted an extreme form of nationalism known as Pan-Slavism, or the belief that all Slavic peoples shared a common nationality. It was the Pan-Slavic nationalism that inspired the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, an event that directly led to the outbreak of WWI.

How did nationalism influence politics during the unification of Germany? How did Otto van Bismarck use state sponsored industrialization to encourage the unification of Germany.

Nationalism profoundly affected politics in Italy, Germany, and Austria. After the unification of Germany specifically, the new German emperor Otto van Bismarck encouraged the unification of Germany by offering the lower classes substantial economic concessions, to keep them away from expanding trade unions or socialism.

Discuss any two transnational business that arose during the Industrial Revolution.

New companies emerged to fund railroads and other major building projects in far-off regions. Among these was France's Suez Canal Company, which was opened to oversee the construction of the Suez Canal. Another transnational business that still exists today, is the Hong Kong and Shanghai Company, who assumed responsibility for issuing banknotes in British possessions like Hong Kong and Singapore. The company quickly established branches throughout Asia, and its widespread presence gave Britain informal economic influence over much of the continent.

How did the rise of capitalism and industrialization coincide with the rise in the global importance of commerce and banking?

New financial instruments appeared to protect the growing wealth of merchants and investors. Central banks were formed which housed precious metals, backed their currencies, and determined economic policy. Limited liability corporations grew in number and size, which allowed investors to pool their resourced and minimize risk by separating their personal assets from the assets they'd invested.

What is indentured servitude?

One institution that brought labor to North America, especially to English colonies, was a form of debt bondage called indentured servitude. People who couldn't afford passage across the Atlantic agreed to work for families who paid for their travels. English planters came to rely on Africans who entered indentured servitude.

How did Marco Polo create important ties between distant societies?

One of the first Europeans to cross Eurasia was Marco Polo, who traveled from Venice to Asia along the Silk Roads. On his journey, he compiled stories of his travels into an autobiography known as the Travels of Marco Polo. His writings played an important role in familiarizing Europeans with the luxurious riches and cultural advancements of Asia, which inspired other Europeans to travel and trade there.

What were the main cultural developments in Medieval and Renaissance Europe?

One of the most important factors that shaped medieval culture was the Christian Church. The ideal of Christendom emerged which bound European nations together by their allegiance to the church. Some other medieval cultural achievements were the architectural sophistications of churched and cathedrals, secular music in the form of poems, and the founding of the First European colleges.

How did Indian Ocean trade flourish during this time period?

One of the world's most vibrant and culturally diverse commercial economies centered on the Indian Ocean trade network, which linked East Africa and the Middle East directly with South and Southeast Asia. This network also included the Swahili city-states of the East African Coast.

Explain how the environmental knowledge of monsoon winds helped expand/intensify trade in the Indian Ocean.

One of the world's most vibrant and culturally diverse commercial economies centered on the Indian Ocean trade networks, in which vessels allowed sailors to take advantage of the seasonal monsoon winds. The monsoons were winds forceful enough to propel ships over long distances, at great speed.

How did political centralization led to changing social classes and the rise of an elite class?

Political centralization deeply affected aristocrats and nobles, whose authority depended on inherited status and land ownership. Traditionally, these elites were theoretically subject to their monarchs; centralization changed this equation, as in many places power shifted decisively to nobles and aristocrats. European nobles served as officers in their nation's rapidly expanding armies and navies. In India, landowning zamindars were incorporated into the Mughal system as local officers and regional governors. Similarly, in Japan, daimyo were forced into loyalty and service by the Tokugawa shogunate.

What does it mean to say Europe was politically fragmented?

Political fragmentation refers to the process of redistributing power or people away from a central authority. In other words, it means to decentralize the government. This is exactly what happened in Europe, after the Middle Ages; following Rome's collapse a feudal system emerged in which monarchs awarded land to followers n exchange for loyalty and labor.

Explain how the scientific/technological innovation of printing diffused during this time period and what were the effects of this diffusion.

Printing is recognized as the most revolutionary technology to come out of China. Moveable-type printing spread through China, to Korea, and eventually to Europe, where Johannes Gutenberg designed the first easily workable and cost-effective moveable-type press that allowed for the mass-production of texts, improved literacy rates, and the speed at which information spread.

Describe the impacts of the Russian serf uprisings in the 19th century.

Russian serf uprisings and Russia's defeat in the Crimean War made it clear that serfdom was holding back economic and industrial modernization. Alexander II presided over the eventual emancipation of Russian serfs.

How did Europeans impact existing trade routes in the Indian Ocean during this era?

Seaborne trade in the Indian Ocean Basin was restructured by the European's arrival in the 1400s and 1500s. The Portuguese came first, establishing a trading post empire, which consisted of ports along the African coast and other places in Asia. Following the Portuguese, were the Dutch, English, and French, all of whom were firmly entrenched in Asia. Spain also controlled the Philippines, using Manila as a transit point for the shipment of silver from the New World to Asia.

What is a settler colonialism.

Settler colonialism is a distinct type of colonialism that functions through the replacement of indigenous populations with an invasive settler society that, over time, develops a distinctive identity and sovereignty.

What were the state building techniques used by the Qing/Manchu Dynasty?

Skilled warlords, the early Qing rulers spent the late 1600s consolidating their rule over Southern China and expanding it to the island of current day Taiwan. The Qing also forced many neighboring countries into tributary states, and placed regulations on trade and foreign contacts.

What is a social, political, and economic causes of the French Revolution.

Social- the socioeconomic gap between ordinary citizens and the country's elite. Political- the long term debt the state had piled up since the 1600s. Economic- the unfair tax system that exempted wealthy First and Second classes.

Explain how the Enlightenment Era and the American Revolution created ideas and documents that influenced the French and Latin American Revolutions.

The American Revolution and the influence of Enlightenment philosophy were of the many causes to touch off the French Revolution. Guided by Enlightenment ideals and the American Declaration of Independence, the National Assembly guaranteed civil liberties in the Declaration of Rights of Man and the Citizen. Additionally, the American Constitution (despite its flaws), inspired deep political reform in France, like the end of a monarchy. Finally, Enlightenment philosophy inspired a growing number of people to speak out against the unfair taxes levied on the lower class.

How did the Bantu people contribute to the development of sub-Saharan African society.

The Bantu peoples completed their century-long, continent-wide movement, in which they brought new agricultural techniques, which increased reliance on water and the need to irrigate. They also spread the secret of iron working which encouraged mining and metallurgy, and placed even more stress on sub-Saharan African ecosystems.

Discuss the goals and results of the Boxer Rebellion.

The Boxer Rebellion began when two priests were murdered by two Boxer followers in Germany. This was only a tiny expression of the months of mistreatment and control the Chinese endured by Western powers. As a result, violence and destruction took place, in which foreign concessions in key cities like Beijing were contradicted. The goal was to rid China of foreign influence.

Explain how British influence in China is an example of economic imperialism.

The British embarked on a campaign of economic imperialism by flooding China with a highly potent variant of opium from British India. This opium trade overwhelmingly reversed the economic balance of power; instead of money flowing into China, it now flowed out.

Describe the creation of the Cherokee Nation in North America.

The Cherokee Nation was a confederation of related tribes in Georgia and its surrounding environment established in the 1700s. They had their own sophisticated political system, which was later adapted to create the US Constitutional Laws. The Cherokee Nation continued to exist as a sovereign entity on the periphery of the US, until 1906 when it was dismantled by the US government.

How did the Congress of Vienna seek to bring and preserve peace following the Napoleonic Wars.

The Congress of Vienna forged an informal agreement among Europe's major regimes to preserve order and prevent change. Under this agreement, monarchies were no longer absolute, civil liberties were restricted, and censorship was heavy. Furthermore, trade unions and most political parties were deemed illegal.

What economic benefit did the Europeans gain from their participation in the Crusades?

The Crusades stimulated Europe's greater interest and awareness of the wider world, specifically the lands of the east. This brought an increased knowledge and desire for the economic wealth to be gained by interaction (specifically trade) with the east.

Explain how the Opium War was an economic turning point for China.

The First Opium War was sparked due to the stunning financial blow of opium. The British' superior weaponry and technology allowed them to win the war. The Qing Dynasty was then forced to allow more foreign trade, place lower taxes on goods (like tea), and provide a piece of land to the British Empire (present-day Hong Kong)

What were the effects of the Five Year Plan?

The Five Year Plan sought to transform the Soviet Union from a predominantly agricultural country into a leading industrial power. It set targets for increased productivity in all spheres of the economy, but emphasized industrial growth. The Five Year Plan combined the social and economic trauma of state-sponsored industrial revolutions with ruthless police brutality. Millions of people who opposed the plan found themselves imprisoned or executed, so Stalin's state-directed form of modernization brought the country far more torment than benefit.

What were the causes and effects of fascism in Germany?

The Great Depression and the effects of the Treaty of Versailles boosted the popularity of the Nazi Party led by Hitler. Hitler hoped to use fascism to spread racial nationalism, dictatorial government, and expansion into Eastern Europe by means of war. As a result, the Nazi party gained control of the German Parliament by 1934, and Hitler became Chancellor. Additionally, fascism severely limited people's civil liberties outlawed all other political parties, and took control of the police force.

What were the causes and effects of the Great Depression?

The Great Depression was caused by the Stock Market Crash of 1929. In the US, the Depression caused unemployment rates to skyrocket and international trade dropped 50%. As the Depression spread outward from the United States, European economies and governments struggled. Italy, for example, slipped into fascism, and in Germany, Nazism flourished. Even well established governments like France and Britain experienced political weakness and economic sluggishness.

What were the effects of the Great Leap Forward?

The Great Leap Forward industrialized on a far more grandiose scale than the Five Year Plan, and it intensified the collectivization of agriculture, calling for an unrealistic increase in food production. The Great Leap caused stress, chaos, industrial breakdown, and agricultural collapse. The plan resulted in a famine which killed between 15 and 20 million people.

Discuss one positive and one negative social impact of industrialization.

The Industrial Revolution astronomically expanded the size of the working class, and their labor allowed industrialization to move forward. However, workers were badly treated and barely compensated. Additionally, they worked in factories where they were constantly exposed to poisonous or harmful substances.

How did the Mediterranean Sea and Europe flourish during this time period?

The Mediterranean Sea continued to support large scale trade between Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, especially during the Crusades. The holy wars between the Middle East increased European appetite for Asian goods. Commerce in this region depended heavily on galleys, which emerged when Europeans shifted more of their economic efforts to trade routes of their own. The Hanseatic League took shape and they began conducting experiments sailing ships that would eventually lead to the European Age of Exploration.

How did Japan's political structure change during the Meiji Restoration?

The Meiji Restoration began Japan's modern age. The Meiji emperor swept away the feudal social hierarchy, stripping the samurai of their privileges (including immunity to taxation). Additionally, access to political positions now relied more heavily on merit and civil service exams. Lastly, during the Meiji Restoration, a new elected parliament known as the Diet was created, and Japan's legal system was updated.

What were the main cultural developments in Asia?

The Ming years in China remained famous as a time of artistic and intellectual dynamism, and the architectural masterpiece of this time was the Forbidden City, an imperial residence built to show the regime's power. Ming artists also produced exquisite glassware and porcelain, along with silk, and they also helped to popularize scroll painting.

Other than fear, describe one way the Mongols established authority.

The Mongols established a single political authority by reviving Silk Road trade and enforcing law and order. The Mongols skillfully organized their army and they quickly learned military techniques from neighbors and conquered peoples.

Describe one negative biological impact of the Mongols on Afro-Eurasia.

The Mongols played a huge role in the spread of the Black Plague throughout Afro-Eurasia. The Mongols revived trade along the Silk Roads by creating a sense of security for travelers and merchants . Because the Black Plague spread as a result of contact through trade, the Mongols were indirectly responsible. They also engaged in biological warfare, by throwing dead bodies (who had the plague) over the walls of civilizations they wanted to conquer.

Other than increased trade, describe one positive impact of the Mongols.

The Mongols were adept cultural borrowers. For example, they adopted Uighur as a written script from the Turks, they embraced Buddhism and Islam, and took their paper currency and law code from China.

What state-building techniques were used by the Mughal Empire in India?

The Mughals were Muslims and they turned India into one of the Islamic world's three gunpowder empires. Mughal rule peaked under Abkar the Great, who not only used gunpowder weaponry to complete the conquest of India, but also gained fame for his religious tolerance. He abolished the jizya tax and encouraged friendly relations between all religious groups.

How did Islamic Caliphates maintain order and stability using a caliph and the concept of "circle of justice"

The Muslim world was governed by a caliph who combined political and religious power in one person. The key political principle was known as the circle of justice, which required that the caliph give justice to the people, the people pay taxes to the treasury, the treasury ensures that army gets its salary, and the army allows the caliph to exercise sovereignty, which creates a cycle of justice and order in the caliphates.

What were the effects of the New Economic Policy?

The NEP temporarily restored part of the economy and private enterprise in Russia. Large industries still remained under state control, but peasants were allowed to sell their surpluses to the public for their own financial gain. The NEP also established schools to train volunteers and engineers in an effort to evolve technology.

What state building techniques were used by the Ottoman Empire.

The Ottoman sultans borrowed many state-building techniques from the past. In the early 1500s, Selim I claimed religious authority as well as political power, equating the Ottomans' right to rule with the bygone Arab caliphates. Other key Ottoman institutions included the devshirme system of recruiting civil servants and elite troops by enslaving sons from Christian families and placing them in positions of privileged servitude.

Define the term gunpowder empire.

The Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires, are referred to as gunpowder empires because of their mastery of new weaponry and their effective use of it in accumulating regional might. Gunpowder empires are usually highly centralized, technologically advanced and militarily powerful.

What is the significance of Suleiman the Magnificent?

The Ottomans' last gifted sultan was Suleiman the magnificent, who began a trend of asserting the sultan's right to shape the law, and blending secular dictates with the Sharia Law. This was apart of building power, and also softening some of the fundamental aspects of Muslim tradition.

How did the Protestant Reformation lead to new Denominations of Christianity in Europe?

The Protestant Reformation was one of Europe's religious earthquakes. The reformation affected not just matters of faith, but also culture, politics, and the spread of Christianity to other parts of the world. Prior to the 1500s, there were two main denominations of Christianity: Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. This changed in 1517, when a German monk, Martin Luther, protested against the abuses of the Catholic doctrine. He created the 95 Theses, which helped him to found a new church: Lutheranism, which was one of Europe's first major protestant denominations. More people began to join the movement, like French scholar John Calin who established Calvinism throughout Europe, and Henry VIII who formed the Protestant Church of England (also called the Anglican Church).

What were the impacts of the Russian Revolution?

The Russian Revolution resulted in the overthrowing of the Romanov Dynasty. Vladimir Lenin came to power, and he created a one party dictatorship, in an effort to modernize the country. Lenin instituted the New Economic Policy, which was a more gradual approach to the socialist development that allowed for limited private trade.

Discuss the role of minerals in the "Scramble for Africa".

The Scramble for Africa was motivated by a combination of European greed for raw materials (gold, diamonds, ivory, rubber, and palm oil), a belief in their own racial superiority, and their condescending White Man's Burden conviction.

How did the Silk Roads flourish during this time?

The Silk Road flourished through the 1400s, linking the Middle East with the rest of Asia. The Silk Roads served as Eurasia's principal artery for the transfer of cultural and religious practices, technological advancements, and new diseases. The revival of trade along the Silk Roads was due mostly in part to the Pax Mongolica, as traders and travelers felt more secure.

Spanish Flu

The Spanish Flu of 1918 was one of the most severe pandemics in recent history. It is said to have infected about 500 million people. The Spanish Flu struck during the ending months of World War One and it added to the pain of the Great Depression, killing at least 25-40 million people.

How were Muslims divided into two sects- what was the Sunni-Shiite split?

The Sunni and Shiite are the two major sects of Islam, and the origin of their split can be traced back to a dispute over the succession of the prophet Muhammad. The Sunnis nominated Abu Bakr (a close follower of Muhammad), while the Shiites believed that Ali (Muhammad's family member) should be successor.

Discuss the impacts of the Taiping Rebellion.

The Taiping Rebellion was led by Hong Xiuquan, who claimed to be the brother of Jesus Christ. The rebellion claimed the lives of 20-30 million people, making it one of the deadliest wars in history.

What were the goals of the Tanzimat Reforms of the Ottoman Empire? How did nationalism lead to the destruction of the Ottoman Empire?

The Tanzimat Reforms were a series of government changes which prompted religious tolerance and equality for non-Muslims in the Ottoman Empire. The reforms introduced Western science and technology into the educational system, and boosted communication and industry with railroads and telegraphs. Unfortunately, the Tanzimat's efforts fizzled, and Ottoman domestic policy was threatened by a cascade of wars and rebellions motivated by Balkan nationalism.

How did the Treaty of Versailles contribute to the start of WWII.

The Treaty of Versailles placed most of the blame for the war on Germany, and required them to pay over 32 billion dollars in reparations. Germany lost territories and population, and has restrictions placed on the size of their army as well as their weaponry. This angered many German citizens, who deemed the terms of the treaty unfair.

Explain how European use of the caravel was influenced by cross cultural interactions with the Classical and/or Islamic and/or Asian worlds.

The caravel was largely invented by the Portuguese, but through cross-cultural interactions ended up in the hands of the Eastern Europeans. They continued to build and improve upon the original design of the caravel, making it more efficient.

How did European colonization lead to mixed populations emerging in the Americas?

The colonization created mixed populations as Europeans had children with Native Americans or transplanted Africans, and as Africans had children with Native Americans. In the long run, mixed populations hugely enriched the cultures of the New World.

How did the rise of fascism contribute to the start of WWII?

The crisis of democracy caused by the Great Depression allowed dictatorships to take hold in Europe, some of which attained totalitarian levels of control. The rise of totalitarianism and fascism caused Nazi Germany to display aggressive militarism, as Hitler sought to prove that Germany possessed great power after their defeat in WWI.

How did Byzantine emperors use the concept of cesaropapism to maintain authority?

The doctrine of cesaropapsm, was a political system in which the head of state was also the head of the church and religious matters. This doctrine held Byzantine emperors as the supreme authority over political and religious affairs.

How did the Great Depression contribute to the start of WWII.

The effects of the Great Depression in the US caused European economies to sink due to their reliance on US economies. Germany was especially dependent, so the country faced severe economic instability, unemployment, and famine. These issues allowed Hitler to rise to power with the promise of revitalization. The Depression caused well-established economies like Great Britain and France to experience political weakness and economic sluggishness, making it difficult to deal with the threat of Nazi Germany.

Describe the encomienda system and its impacts.

The encomienda system gave conquistadors and their agents a right to enslave American natives, who were declared against their will to be subjects of Spain. The Spanish used many of them as slaves in mines and on plantations.

Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

The heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife were murdered by Bosnian Serbs affiliated with the Black Hand (a terror group). The Austrian government was outraged, and decided to issue a list of humiliating demand to the Serbian government, and threatened war if they did not accept.

What role did the home fronts play in WWII?

The home front became a crucial part of every combatant nation's war effort as entire economies geared for war. The procurement of raw materials including steel, coal, petroleum, rubber, cloth, etc. were centralized. The rationing of food, fuel, and other consumer goods became increasingly strict. Another home front effect of the war was the restriction of civil liberties, even in democracies. All combatants censored the press and mail, and special laws allowed anyone suspected of espionage to be arrested and tried without due process.

What were the state building techniques used by the Songhai Empire in West Africa?

The kingdom of Songhai took place in the md 1400s and the kingdom's most famous ruler, Askia Mohammed, came to throne by overthrowing the previous monarch. He created a complex bureaucracy to centralize his power and he also built mosques and used Islam to justify his rule. Furthermore, he generated wealth by exchanging salt for gold.

How did new scientific advancements lead to advancements during the Industrial Revolution?

The knowledge of germ theory helped prevent the spread of common diseases, and vaccinations became more common, also helping to prevent disease. Anesthesia was adapted and childbirth became less risky, and as the infant mortality rate decreased, the population increased.

Pick on technology that encouraged interregional trade.

The lateen-sail dhow was crucial to the development of ships that were maneuverable and reliable under sail power alone. These improvements made it possible for ships to increase in size and gave them the ability to transport more cargo.

Discuss the impact and importance of the global circulation of silver during this time period.

The most important activities were mining (especially for silver). The massive influx of silver with which the Portuguese and Spanish paid for trade goods triggered inflation and economic breakdown.

What were the impacts of the caravel?

The most important ship model was the caravel, which was used extensively in the 1400s. It was the first to enable true oceanic exploration, and it combined square and lateen sails for better control over direction.

Choose a Spanish colony and discuss the causes and effects that led to their independence from Spain.

The most influential Latin American revolutionary was Simon Bolivar, who was inspired by Enlightenment ideals, and frustrated by the inefficiency and injustice of Spanish rule. He took control of the independence movement that swept through South America. He joined forces with Jose de San Martin to clear Spanish royalists out of Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru, hence freeing South America from Spanish rule.

How did rulers use monumental architecture to legitimize their rule?

The political use of art and architecture continued and impressive artworks and buildings showed off the grandeur of various regimes and helped to legitimize their rule. Key examples from this era include the Palace of Versailles, built by King Louis XIV to demonstrate his power as an absolute monarch and the Blue Mosque in Istanbul to distract attention from Ottoman military defeats.

What is the significance of the printing press and how did it contribute to religious developments?

The printing press was able to disperse information over greater distances and to increasingly larger audiences. Religious debates and texts could spread more rapidly and to a greater extent. People could share each other's opinions about the differing faiths.

What role did women play in WWI?

The role of women dramatically changed during WWI. Women began to work instead of their husbands, holding positions as police officers, business owners, farmers, factory workers, and other "male jobs". And behind the warfront, women worked as nurses and clerks.

How did new technology lead to dramatic advancements during the Industrial Revolution?

The steam engine was a cost effective and sufficiently strong source of energy for pumping coal and iron out of mines, and driving new machines in the textile industry. The steam engine unlocked the broader potential of machine power and factory production. The invention of the telegraph, radio, and telephone transformed the field of communications which enabled long distance connection

How did the atomic bomb cause increased wartime casualties?

The use of nuclear warfare led to increased wartime casualties because of its long-lasting effects. Not only could atomic bombs wipe out entire cities, but the radioactive fallout of the bombs could cause cancer (even decades after the original explosion). An example of the atomic bomb in use was the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan in August of 1945.

What were the consequences of WWII?

There were many consequences of WWII, most notably the death of around 9-10 million soldiers, and 2-7 million civilians, with 28-30 million people wounded. WWII also sparked the start of the Armenian Genocide, in which the Ottoman Empire killed millions of Armenians. This marked a new inexperienced level of military atrocity and massacre. Similarly, WWII led to the start of the Holocaust, another massacre initiated by the Nazis of Eastern European Jews.

What state building techniques were used by the Tokugawa Shogun of Japan?

Tokugawa Ieyasu, a brilliant, ruthless commander, founded a shogunate that came to be referred to as the Great Peace. During this period, Japan's caste system was justified by Confucian ideology and became more rigid than before. Another feature of Tokugawa policy was isolationism, as they feared foreign ideas and the further importation of gunpowder weapons.

How did the Trans-Saharan Trade flourish during this time period?

Trade along the Trans-Saharan caravan routes vastly increased during this period, influenced by dramatic changed like the rapid expansion of Islam into parts of Africa and the formation of strong African city-states with an appetite for trade on a larger scale. Several other factors boosted trans-Saharan trade, but most crucial were the domestication of camels, which could carry large cargoes.

What were the main cultural developments in Islam in the Middle East

Under the Abbasid Caliphate, the Middle East enjoyed a period of time with such tremendous artistic and intellectual sophistication, that is commonly referred to as the Islamic Golden Age. During this time, the mathematical and scientific aptitude of Muslim scholars was great. They developed algebra and popularized Arabic numerals. Additionally, chief centers of learning emerged, known as madras or religious colleges, which became the main thrust of Islamic philosophy.

How did Kublai Khan of the Yuan Dynasty maintain authority?

Under the rule of Kublai Khan, the Golden Horde kept Russia under its yoke and the Khan-Mongols converted to Islam and governed much of the Middle East.

Why is Voodoo considered a syncretic religion?

Voodoo developed among African-descended populations throughout the Caribbean due to the mixing of spirit worship from West Africa with animalistic practices native to the Americas and also some elements drawn from Christianity.

Total War

Warfare that includes any and all civilian-associated resources. Total war has 4 main parts: mobilization, refusal to compromise, blurring of roles between soldier and civilians, and total control of society. World War I was a total war, requiring the complete mobilization of populations and resources. The home front became a crucial part of every combatant nation's war effort, as entire economies geared for war. The procurement of raw materials including steel, coal, petroleum, rubber, cloth, etc. was centralized and the rationing of food, fuel, and other consumer goods became increasingly strict.

How did the West African trading kingdoms of Ghana and Mali maintain authority.

West Africa was home to powerful kingdoms that were able to maintain authority mainly due to their heavy involvement in the salt trade. The Empires of Ghana and Mali for example were highly successful in trade because of their access to large deposits of gold and other precious metals. They were also successful in maintaining power thanks to their access to salt, animal skins, slaves, and ivory.

Why is Sikhism considered a syncretic religion?

While many might consider Sikhism an independent tradition it is categorized as syncretic, as it joined certain aspects of Hinduism with monotheism perhaps inspired by Islam.

How did Islam divide into different sects?

While there were already existing divisions in the Muslim world, they deepened with the emergence of Sufism. Sufism was a mystical strain of Islam that emphasized communication with Allah over the strictness of beliefs. Another especially disruptive division was the Sunni-Shia separation. The two sects of Islam disagreed over who should be Mohammed's successor.