APES AP Exam Review
Hydrogen Fuel Cells
-fuel cells combine with hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen gas (O2) to produce energy and emit water vapor -would eliminate most of the air pollution because it emits no CO2
Geothermal Energy
-heat stored underground in rocks, soil, and fluids in the Earth's mantle -in the winter: a closed loop of buried pipes circulates water which extracts heat from ground and transfers it to the house -in the summer: removes heat from house and storing it underground
Hydrologic Cycle
-Movement of water in the seas, land, and air -Driven by solar energy and gravity -Distributed unevenly
More sustainable aquaculture involves:
-Protecting mangrove forests and estuaries -improve management of wastes -reduce escape of aquaculture species into the wild -set up self-sustaining polyaquaculture systems -certify sustainable forms of aquaculture
RCRA (Resources Conservation Recovery Act) 1976
-Sets standards for management of several types of hazardous wastes and issues permits to companies that allows them to produce and dispose of a certain amount of those wastes via an approved method -permit holders must use a cradle-to-grave system -only covers about 5% of hazardous waste
More energy-efficient vehicles include:
-Superefficient, ultralight cars -Gasoline-electric hybrid car -Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle -Energy-efficient diesel car -Electric vehicle with a fuel cell
We should evaluate energy resources on the basis of:
-Their potential supplies -Their net energy yields -Environmental and health impacts of using them
Projected disadvantages of GMOs
-Unpredictable effects; -potential toxins -promotes pesticide resistant insects -disrupt seed market -reduce biodiversity
industrialized agriculture
-Uses heavy equipment -large amounts of financial capital, fossil fuel, water, commercial fertilizers, and pesticides -produce single crops; high-input agriculture
brownfield
-abandoned industrial and commercial sites such as junkyards, factories, older landfills, and gas stations -often contaminated with hazardous waste so nothing can be built on it
How to improve EXISTING buildings efficiency...
-adding insulation -plugging leaks -installing energy saving windows -heat houses more efficiently -use motion sensors to turn lights on and off -Using energy efficient appliances
CERCLA (Comprehensive Environmental, Compensation, and Liability Act ) 1980
-aka the "Superfund" -identify hazardous waste sites -clean up hazardous waste sites -have little to no funding, can't do anything
Advantages of Hydrogen Fuel Cells
-can be produced from water -low environmental impact -easier to store than electricity -nontoxic -no CO2 -high efficiency (45-65%)
Disadvantages to Biofuels
-competition for cropland -could raise food prices -fuel crops can be invasive species -low net energy yield for more sustainable biofuels
Energy from Biomass
-consists of plant materials, wood, agricultural waste -supplies 10% of the world's energy -supplies 95% in developing countries -fastest growing trees: cottonwood, poplars, kenaf, crop residues
Disadvantages of Ethanol
-does not work in a convetional engine -corrosive -low NET energy -costs more
Disadvantages of Geothermal
-environmental costs not listed in market price -CO2 emissions -moderate to high local air pollution -noise and odor (H2S)
Ways to prepare for climate disruption
-expand mangrove forests as buffers for storms -plant trees on slopes to prevent landslides -create flood walls and flood gates -Desalinization plants, would reduce dependence on precipitation for drought-stricken, coastal cities
Wind Power Electricity
-fastest growing energy resource -wind turbines usually in clusters (wind farms: California and Texas)
Disadvantages to Hydropower
-high construction costs -large land disturbance and displacement of people -disrupts downstream aquatic ecosystems
5 Things that promote urban sprawl:
1) Ample land 2) low-cost gasoline;highways 3) tax laws that encourage home ownership
subsidies
A payment that the government hands out to producers for producing more of a good or consumers for consuming more of a good
Lead (Pb)
A pollutant that is found in air, water, soil, plants, and animals. Since it is a chemical element, it does not break down in the environment. An indestructible and potent neurotoxin can harm the nervous system.
distillation
A process of desalinization in which water is evaporated and then recondensed
fracking
A process of extracting natural gas by Drilling wells; using huge amounts of water, sand, and chemicals to spray into the ground to expand crevices to get more oil; dealing with toxic wastewater; transporting the natural gas
community-supported agriculture (CSA)
A program where consumers pay farmers in advance for a share of their yield, usually a weekly delivery of produce; improves peoples' diets, increasing their chance of living longer, healthier lives
famine
A severe shortage of food (as through crop failure) resulting in violent hunger and starvation and death
dam
A structure built across a river to control its flow
recirculating aquaculture system
A system of raising shrimp and fish species in indoor tanks in which the water is constantly recycled
multiple cropping
A type of agriculture in which two or three crops are raised each year on the same land
polyculture
A type of intercropping in which several kinds of plants that mature at different times are planted together
Thermal Pollution
A type of pollution that occurs when heat is released into water or air and produces undesirable effects on the environment.
Organic Matter
Biodegradable remains of plants and animals, point and non-point. -Causes eutrophication --Increases BOD, decomposers use up oxygen
First gene revolution
Cross-breeding via artificial selection to develop genetically improved varieties of crops and livestock
compost
Decayed organic matter used for fertilizing and conditioning land
Benthic Zone
Decomposers + detritus feeders; high nutrients because of marine snow
Oligotrophic lakes
Deep, steep banks; water supplied from mountains & streams; crystal clear water, small amount of phytoplankton --> low nutrients --> low NPP
chronic malnutrition
Deficiencies of protein and other key nutrients; this weakens them, makes them more vulnerable to disease, and hinders the normal physical and mental development of children
As BOD increases, ____ decreases sharply
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
gray water
Domestic wastewater composed of wash water from household sinks, tubs, and washers; can be used to irrigate lawns and non-edible plants
Cultural Eutrophication
Human input of an excessive amount of nutrients into the lake via agriculture runoff or other ways
Maximum Sustained Yield
Humans harvest the maximum amount of a certain species in order for it to be a sustainable harvest
Hypoxic
Hypoxia or oxygen depletion is a phenomenon that occurs in aquatic environments as dissolved oxygen (DO; molecular oxygen dissolved in the water) becomes reduced in concentration to a point detrimental to aquatic organisms living in the system.
I = P x A x T
I = environmental impact, P = population, A = affluencel T = technology
Risk Analysis
Identifying hazards and evaluating their associated risks; determine options and making decisions about reducing/eliminating risks; and informing decision makers and the public about risks
Troposphere
The first/lowest atmospheric layer; where 75-80% of the earth's air mass is found (0-10 miles)
Atmospheric pressure
The force that air exerts on the surface of the body
surface water
The freshwater that flows across the Earth's land surface into rivers, streams, lakes, etc.
Persistence
The length of time of pesticides remain deadly in the environment
Metal product life cycle
The life cycle of the metal product; from mining the mineral, to processing it, manufacturing the product, to disposal/recycling of the product
Background extinction rate
The natural rate at which species go extinct. 1 per 1,000,000 species on Earth
Density
The number of gas molecules per unit
system
has inputs, flows, and outputs of matter and energy; feedback can affect behavior
unreliable science
has not been through peer review or has been discredited (or has been paid for by a company who wants a certain result)
Ethanol
made from the distillation of sugars in plants -sugarcane, corn, rice, sugar beet -converts starches into sugar
sedimentary rock
made of sediments that have been eroded from weathered rock
Why is species diversity important?
major component of biodiversity, tends to increase the sustainability of ecosystems
stewardship worldview
manage earth for our benefit with ethical responsibility to be stewards
surface mining
materials lying over a deposit are removed to expose the resource for processing
mutation
random change in DNA molecules, must happen on a reproductive cell in order to pass traits to offspring
If there are many people under the age of 15...
rapid population growth ensues even if women only have 1 or 2 children each
Species that reproduce ________ and in ________ numbers are better able to adapt.
rapidly; large
scientific theory
rarely overturned unless new evidence discredits them
Tropical Desert
Hot and very dry most of year ex: Sahara
Cultural Eutrophication
Human activities that accelerate the input of plant nutrients
Materials revolution
Silicon replacing some metals for common uses
Urban sprawl
the Low-density development at edges (outskirts) of cities/towns
neurotoxin
toxins that cause damage to the brain, nerves or spinal cord
atmosphere contains...
troposphere and stratosphere
Optimum Sustained Yield
Similar to maximum sustained yield, but accounts for interactions among species
Negatives of aquaculture
-Large inputs of grain, land, and fishmeal -large amount of fish waste -loss of mangrove forests
pre-industrial
Slow population growth; high birth rate & high death rate
frontier era
(1607-1890) -during this time it is believed nature/wilderness is there to be used, managed, and conquered by humans, Industrial rev (1750-1850) Began in Great Britain, medical revolution (cities/factories/disease/waste) -"inexhaustible resources"
Projected benefits of GMOs
-Less fertilizer, less water, less pesticides -disease/insect resistant -grow faster
early conservation era
(1832-1870) - some people were alarmed with resource use, protect unspoiled wilderness for future generations -national parks, yellowstone, new population growth, gasoline -thoreau, marsh
present/current era
(1970-present) -increase in resource conservation, public health/education, and environmental protection
tribal era
(Before 1600s) -sustainable, hunter-gatherers, small scale agriculture, low-impact bc small population -North America occupied by 5-10 million tribal people for at least 10,000 years before 1607. People practiced hunting and gathering, burned and cleared fields, and planted crops. Low environmental impact
HIPPCO
(H)abitat destruction (I)nvasive species (P)opulation growth (P)ollution (C)limate Change (O)verexploitation
population change =
(births + immigration) - (deaths + emigration)
Effect of building dams/levees
+ effects = reduces flooding from rivers, generate electricity - effects = reduces sediment deposited at river deltas ex: New Orleans + Gulf of Mexico coastlands are sinking since no sediment to fill under the land
Non-threshold dose response
- any dosage of a toxic chemical causes harm that increases with the dosage, assumes that even though harmful effects may not be detected with a very low dose, they are still present
Nontransmissible disease
- cause by something other than a living organism and not spread from person to person
Threshold Dose Response Model
- certain level of exposure to the chemical must be reached before any detectable harmful effects occur
Mutagens
- chemicals or forms of radiation that cause or increase the frequency of mutations in the DNA molecules found in cells
Teratogens
- chemicals that harm or cause birth defects in the fetus or embryo
Carcinogens
- chemicals, radiation, and viruses that can cause or promote cancer - arsenic, benzene, gamma radiation, etc.
Endocrine System
- complex network of glands that release tiny amounts of hormones into the blood streams of humans
Risk Management
- deciding whether or how to reduce a particular risk to a certain level and at what cost
Toxic Chemicals and types of them
- element or compound that can cause temporary or permanent harm or death to humans and animals - three major types: carcinogens, mutagens, teratogens
Transmissible Disease
- infectious disease that can be transmitted from one person to another via direct or indirect contact
Toxicity
- measure of harmfulness of a substance - ability to cause injury, illness, or death - key factor in determining is dose
Risk Assessment
- process of using statistical methods to estimate how much harm a particular hazard can cause to human health or to the environment
Immune System
- specialized cells and tissues that protect the body against disease and harmful substances by forming antibodies
Risk
- the probability of suffering harm from a hazard that can cause injury, disease, death, economic loss, or damage
Methods of storing nuclear waste
-Deep burial: safest and cheapest option (Would any method of burial last long enough?) -There is still no facility -Shooting it into space is too dangerous and costly -Underwater storage systems
Main reasons for continued energy waste
-Energy remains artificially cheap via govt subsidies, tax breaks, and lack of full-cost pricing -few incentives to use less energy (no subsidies/tax breaks for consumers) -lack of education on the subject
3 general conclusions about energy usage
-Gradual shift to smaller, decentralized micropower systems -Combination of increased energy efficiency and regulated use of natural gas will be the best way to transition to renewable energy -Because fossil fuels are cheap we will continue to use them
Best ways to transition to a more sustainable energy future
-Greatly improving our current energy efficiency -rely upon a diverse amount of renewable energy resources -Include the environmental and health costs of energy resources in their market prices
Designing NEW buildings to be more energy efficient include:
-Green architecture -living/green roofs -superinsulation
Disadvantages of Hydrogen Fuel Cells
-H2 not found naturally in nature -energy is needed to produce fuel -negative net energy -nonrenewable if generated by fossil fuels or nuclear -excessive H2 leaks may deplete ozone
Human body's defense against air pollution
-Hairs in nose filter out large particles -mucus gets smaller particles -coughing/sneezing dispel bad air and mucus -prolonged exposure to air pollutants overwhelms these defenses -prolonged exposure results in illnesses like lung cancer, asthma, heart attacks, etc
Benefits of aquaculture
-High yield/efficiency -reduces over harvesting of fisheries
What are the top 4 energy inefficient devices?
-Incandescent Light-bulbs -Internal Combustion Engine -Nuclear Power Plant -Coal Fired Power Plant
Benefits of feedlots
-Increased meat production (meat= cheaper) -less land use -reduce topsoil erosion/overgrazing
3 Suggested strategies for government policies
-Keep the prices of selected energy resources artificially low to encourage their use (via tax breaks and subsides) -allow the energy prices for some energy resources to rise to discourage their use (remove subsidies) -Consumer education
Negatives of feedlots
-Large inputs of food and energy -greenhouse gas emissions -animal wastes pollute water -use of antibiotics will lead to genetic resistance to microbes in humans
Disadvantages of Solar Cells
-high costs -DC must be transformed into AC -high land use could disrupt desert areas -back up systems are needed -need access to sun -low efficiency
Advantages of Geothermal
-high efficiency -moderate net energy at accessible sites -lower CO2 than fossil fuels -low land use
Disadvantages of Biodiesel
-increased NOx emissions and more smog -you have to modify your engine to use it b/c corrosive -higher cost -competes with crops -corn has high CO2 emissions and low NET energy
Decentralized Power Systems:
-instead of electricity being produced by one large syatem, example coal, several small scale (micropower) systems are used -improve national and economic security -best way to transition to renewable energy resources
Advantages to Hydropower
-moderate to high net energy -high efficiency 80% -low cost electricity -no CO2 emissions -provide flood control
Disadvantages of Passive or Active Solar Heating
-need access to the sun 60% of the time -high cost (active) -needs a lot of maintenance or repair (active) -environmental costs aren't listed in market price -sun can be blocked
Advantages of Passive or Active Solar Heating
-net energy is high (passive) and moderate (active) -no CO2 emissions -moderate costs (passive) -very low air, water, land disturbance -energy is free -quick installation
Advantages to Wind Power
-no CO2 emissions -land can still be used for livestock -quick construction -high efficiency -low energy costs -inexhaustible -abundant
Advantages to Solar Cells
-no CO2 emissions -low land use -less reliable on fossil fuels -works on cloudy days -high net energy yield -quick installation
Advantages of Solid Biomass
-no NET CO2 increase (if sustainable) -can make use of agricultural waste -moderate costs -large potential in some areas -renewable resource -widely available in some areas
Passive Solar Heating:
-no moving parts, the way you design your house -captures sunlight directly within structure and converts to low-temperature heat for space heating -thermal mass in form of walls, floors, etc. to collect solar heat and release slowly through day and night -cheapest way to heat a home in an area with sunlight available 60% of the day
Disadvantages of Solid Biomass
-nonrenewable if harvested unsustainably -competes with cropland -habitat destruction -low photosynthetic -leads to higher food prices
Biofuels
-produced from plants and plant waste ex: ethanol and biodiesel
Benefits of reducing energy waste
-prolong fossil fuel supplies -reduces need for oil imports -reduces pollution -reduces environmental degradation --buys time for the transition to new energy resources (50yrs for a country) -cheapest way to provide more energy
Advantages of Biodiesel
-reduces CO2 emissions by 78% -increases fuel efficiency by 40% -renewable -high net energy yield -high octane
Advantages of Ethanol
-reductions in CO2 -renewable
Advantages to Biofuels
-renewable -no NET increase (CO2) -easy to store and transport -biofuels can be used in many countries (reduce dependence on foreign oil)
Green architecture
-solar heating -insulated windows -energy efficient appliances -solar hot water heaters -automatic darkening windows
Active Solar Heating:
-specially designed collectors absorb solar energy and a fan or pump supplies part of building space and/or water heating -require a pump, a motor, etc. -free, moderate to high energy yield , no CO2, environmental probs are low
Disadvantages to Wind Power
-steady winds needed -noise pollution -visual pollution -noise pollution -can kill migratory birds -back up systems needed
Ways to encourage the natural cooling of homes
-super insulation and windows -block summer sun with deciduous trees, window overhangs, or awnings, use light colored shingles on roof to reflect up to 80% -reflective insulating foil sheet in attic to block heat from radiating down into house
Smart growth
-uses zoning laws and other tools to prevent sprawl, direct growth to certain areas, protect ecologically sensitive and important lands and waterways, and develop environmentally friendly urban areas -reduce dependence on cars
Hydropower
-using flowing water from higher to lower elevations can be used to generate electricity
spaceship-earth environmental worldview
-we live on a planetary spaceship that we should not harm because it is the only home we have -The view of the earth as OUR spaceship, something that we are responsible for. Expresses concern about the use of limited resources.
frontier environmental worldview
-wilderness is to be conquered and managed for human use -viewing undeveloped land as a hostile wilderness to be conquered (cleared, planted) and exploited for its resources as quickly as possible, thought resources were infinite
As environmental conditions change, the balance between formation of new species and extinction of existing species determines...
...the earth's biodiversity
Problems with the Colorado river system
1 = the Colorado river basin include some of the tries lands in the US and Mexico space 2- legal pacts signed between United States and Mexico allocate more freshwater human use in the river can supply 3= the river has rarely flowed all the way to the golf California because of its reduce water flow 4= the river received an enormous amount of pollution via urban areas, farms, and industries
How are coral reefs threatened by increasing CO2 levels in the atmosphere
1) CO2 dissolves into the ocean --> ocean acidification, can dissolve the shells of crustaceans and coral; 2) Warmer waters threaten polyps (coral)
3 drawbacks of zoning
1) Developers can influence or modify zoning decisions in ways that threaten or destroy wetlands/croplands/forests/open spaces 2) Zoning favors high-priced housing/factories/hotels/ businesses instead of protecting environmentally sensitive areas 3) It can discourage innovative approaches to solving urban problems
3 reasons why taxing gasoline would be difficult in the US:
1) Faces strong opposition from those who are overtaxed and those who are part of large transportation-related corporations 2) Because of dispersed living, people are dependent on cars a lot, and taxes would be an economic burden 3) Fast, efficient, reliable, and affordable mass transit systems, sidewalks, bike lanes not easily available
Ways to prevent groundwater contamination
1) Find substitutes for toxic chemicals 2) Store hazardous waste/liquids in aboveground insulated tanks 3) require leak detectors on underground tanks
Benefits of fully protected marine reserves
1) Fish population bounces back very quickly; 2) Fish size grows
Why can't groundwater easily clean itself
1) Groundwater flows very slowly, contaminants not diluted or dispersed quickly 2) Fewer decomposing bacteria in groundwater
Steps of Cultural Eutrophication
1) Humans add nutrients 2) Algae grows due to nutrients 3) Algae uses all of nutrients 4) Algae dies 5) Decomposers eat algae and use all of O2 and produce CO2 6) Fish die due to lack of dissolved oxygen + nutrients (food) 7) Aerobic decomposers die (no oxygen to do respiration) 8) Anaerobic decomposers (respirate w/o O2) survive and produce CH4.
Negatives of aquaculture
1) If an aquacultured species is released into the wild, it may negatively impact the surrounding fish populations (may outcompete) 2) Not all species can be raised via aquaculture
Ways to prevent climate change
1) Improve energy efficiency to reduce fossil fuel use 2) Shift from carbon-based fuels to renewables 3) Stop deforestation 4) Shift to sustainable forms of agriculture
Steps of dead zones in the Gulf of Mexico
1) In spring and summer, nutrient-laden freshwater flows into Gulf 2) algae grows and feeds off of those nutrients (phosphates) 3) When algae dies, aerobic decomposers decompose the algae and use all of the oxygen in the process, so Dissolve Oxygen falls 4) Since no DO, fish die.
Disadvantages to Deep-well disposal
1) Leaks can occur 2) emits CO2 and air pollutants 3) Encourages waste production
4 Advantages of living in an urban area:
1) Longer lives 2) less unemployment 3) technological advances 4) better social and medical services
Undesirable impacts of urban-sprawl
1) Loss of cropland, fragmentation of forests/wetlands/grasslands 2) Increased use (and pollution) of surface water, groundwater, and more runoff and flooding 3) Increased CO2 emissions (energy use) and other pollutants 4) decline of downtown businesses aka more unemployment
2 ways we can reduce the harmful effects of automobile use:
1) Making people directly pay for the pollution and health problems/costs caused by their motor vehicle using: full-cost pricing - charging a tax or fee on gasoline 2) Having larger parking fees, and charging tolls on tunnels, roads, and bridges leading into cities
5 Point ecosystems approach
1) Map global ecosystems and identify species 2) Identify resilient and fragile ecosystems 3) Protect the most endangered 4) Restore as many degraded ecosystems as possible 5) Make development biodiversity friendly
Sustaining the world's aquatic biodiversity requires:
1) Mapping it 2) Protecting aquatic hotspots 3) Creating large and fully protected marine reserves 4) Protecting freshwater ecosystems 5) Restoring degraded coastal and inland wetlands
3 phases of urban growth: In the USA
1) Migration from rural areas to large central cities 2) Migration from large central cities to suburbs and smaller cities 3) Migration from North and East to South and West
2 Options when dealing with climate change
1) Mitigation -acting to slow climate change and avoid tipping points 2) Adaptation -adapt to this new, changing world to reduce number of deaths because of climate change
5 Effects of climate change
1) More Ice and Snow will melt -as more ice/snow melts, more dark land/sea areas are exposed, absorb more solar energy, thus more melting (positive feedback loop) 2) Permafrost is likely to melt -as permafrost melts, CO2 and other greenhouse gases stored in permafrost are released into atmosphere, accelerating global climate change 3) Sea levels are rising (2 reasons why) -1st reason- as water heats up, it expands, so sea level rises -2nd reason- as glaciers melt, more water is released into the ocean -effects: destruction of coastal cities and wetlands; submersion of low-lying islands, disruption of world's coastal fisheries 4) Ocean acidification -more CO2 in the atmosphere, thus more CO2 is absorbed by water and water becomes more acidic -decreases population of phytoplankton that are base of many food webs and produce lots of world's oxygen 5) Severe Weather patterns -more intense droughts, flooding, rainstorms, blizzards, etc -results in less food production because of natural disasters, will have trouble feeding world's pop
Sustaining biodiversity in national parks requires
1) More effective protection of existing parks and nature reserves 2) The protection of much more of the earth's remaining undisturbed land area
Factors that have contributed to genetic resistance
1) Over-use of pesticides on crops 2) Over-use of antibiotics for colds , flu, and sore throats 3) use of anti-bacterial hand soap and cleaners
3 major trend in: Urban Population Growth
1) Percentage of global population living in urban areas is increasing 2) Number and size of urban areas is increasing 3) poverty is becoming increasingly urbanized; mostly in less-developed countries
Ways to clean up groundwater contamination
1) Pump to surface, clean, return to ground(v. pricey) 2) inject microorganisms to clean it 3) pump nanoparticles of inorganic compounds to remove pollutants
When a mineral becomes economically depleted, we have these 5 options
1) Recycle/Reuse existing supplies 2) Waste less 3) Use less 4) Find a substitute 5) Do without
Ways to reduce non-point source water pollution
1) Reduce erosion 2) Reduce the amount of fertilizers 3) Plant buffer zones of vegetation 4) Use organic farming techniques
Ways to prevent/reduce incidences of infectious diseases
1) Reduce poverty/malnutrition 2) Improve drinking water quality 3) Reduce unnecessary use of antibiotics 4) Immunize children against major viral diseases
Disadvantages of waste-to-energy incineration
1) Releases CO2 + other greenhouse gases 2) Expensive (but price somewhat offset by profit from sale of energy produced 3) Produces hazardous waste 4) Encourages waste production
Ways to purify drinking water
1) Reservoirs and purification plants 2) Process sewer water to drinking water 3) Expose clear plastic containers to sunlight (UV) 4) The LifeStraw
Advantages to Deep-well disposal
1) Safe if no leak and site = chosen well 2) Wastes can be retrieved 3) low cost
3 Reasons to keep species alive (prevent extinction)
1) Species provide vital ecosystem services(Ex: bees/pollinators) & economic services (lumber --> paper, medicines from certain rare plants, ecotourism -- more money from tourism for an animal vs the actual value of the animal's fur 2) Long time to rebuild species after mass extinctions (will take 5-10 million years for natural speciation to replace lost species) 3) Species have a right to exist (moral reason)
Benefits of aquaculture
1) Steady supply of fish even during off-seasons 2) Decreased cost to consumers due to increased supply
Top 3 Indoor air pollutants in the US
1) Tobacco smoke 2) Formaldehyde 3) Radon Gas
What are the three (in order) leading causes of water pollution
1) agriculture 2) industry 3) mining
Advantages of waste-to-energy incineration
1) decreases trash volume 2) Produces energy 3) concentrates hazardous substances into ash for burial
5 factors availability is dependent upon:
1) demand for the oil 2) technology used to make it available 3) rate at which we can remove the oil 4) cost of making it available 5) it's market price
5 Disadvantages of living in an urban area:
1) larger ecological footprints produced 2) lack of vegetation - trees, shrubs, grasses in general 3) concentrate pollution and health problems 4) excessive noise pollution 5) light pollution caused by local climates (urban heat islands)
We're running our of conventional oil; what are our 3 options?
1) learn to live with much higher oil prices 2) extend oil supplies 3) use other energy sourcss
Describe how a sanitary landfill is created 5 steps
1) lined with clay and plastics 2) pout two layers of pipes down to collect leachate 3) leachate is pumped from bottom and stored in tanks until treated 4) when "full", it is covered with clay, sand, gravel, and topsoil 5) Monitoring wells drilled to monitor site
Benefits of sanitary landfills
1) low cost 2) processes large Amt of waste 3) Land can be used for other purposes
Advantages to Surface Impoundments
1) low cost 2) wastes can be retrieved 3) can store wastes indefinitely with double liners
Lakes cannot cleanse themselves easily because...
1) low flow rate in and out 2) little mixing (stratified layers)
Ways poverty can threaten one's health
1) malnutrition 2) unsafe drinking water 3) unsafe housing and inadequate access to sanitation facilities 4) lack of access to health facilities
Negatives of landfills
1) noise, traffic, dust 2) greenhouse gases 3) possible contamination of groundwater 4) Encourages waste production
Ways to detoxify hazardous wastes
1) physical methods (charcoal or filtering resins) 2) chemical methods (using chemical reactions) 3) Nanomagnets to remove various pollutants from water 4) bioremediation 5) phytoremediation
3 Greatest risks in terms of premature deaths
1) poverty 2) tobacco 3) pneumonia & flu
Ways to prevent/reduce water pollution
1) prevent groundwater contamination 2) substitutes for toxic pollutants 3) reduce air pollution 4) reduce poverty 5) slow population growth
A more sustainable approach to hazardous waste:
1) produce less of it 2) reuse or recycle it 3) convert it to less-hazardous materials 4) safely store what is left
Ways to have a sustainable use of non-renewable minerals
1) reuse/recycle metal products where possible 2) redesign manufacturing processes to use less mineral resources 3) reduce mining subsidies 4) increase subsidies for reuse, recycling, and finding substitutes
3 Factors that affect level of harm a chemical does
1) solubility - water-soluble toxins spread faster through env, also can go through cell membranes 2) persistance - resistance to breaking down 3) Genetic makeup- an individual might be more or less sensitive to a certain chemical
2 Types of situations that cause temperature inversions
1) town in a valley surrounded by mountains that are cloudy and cold; clouds block winter sunlight that causes air to rise; mountains block air flow that move pollutants 2) Town surrounded by mountains on 3 sides and ocean on the 4th and a sunny climate; photochemical smog is produced rapidly and can't escape easily
3 goals of eco-city/eco-village designs:
1) use renewable energy 2) prevent pollution and reduce waste 3) recycle and purify water
5 principles of new urbanism:
1) walkability 2) mixed-use development and diversity 3) quality urban design 4) environmental sustainability 5) smart transportation
Disadvantages to Surface Impoundments
1) waste pollution from leaks and overflows 2) air pollution from VOCs 3) Encourages waste production
Why reduce solid waste?
1) ¾ of the materials are an unnecessary waste of the earth's resources 2) Huge amounts of air pollution, greenhouse gases, and water pollution 3) It can take 1,000+ years for plastics to break down in landfills
Steps to produce Ethanol
1. Harvest crop 2. Remove Sucrose 3. Fermentation
2 main effects of topsoil erosion
1. Loss of soil fertility 2. Water pollution
Ways to reduce Acid Deposition
1. Reduce use of coal 2. Use Renewable Energy or natural gas 3. Burn Lower Sulfur Coal
frontier closed
1890: A US census effectively proved that the Frontier Line no longer existed, because there were so many people living in the West
The Forest Reserve Act
1891: established responsibility of the federal government for protecting public lands from resource exploitation, authorizing the president to set aside public forests as national parks and other reserves.
Sierra Club
1892: America's oldest and largest grassroots environmental organization founded in San Fransisco -first President was John Muir -group was pushed by the wealthy bc they wanted to conserve the nature (despite all the land the already own and "corrupted") for their later generations American environmental organization. -Helped promote the protection of the environment and nature.
John Muir
1892: founded sierra club; troubled by deforestation; leader of the preservationist movement; lobbied for creation of a national park system on public lands
golden age of conservation
1901-1909: Theodore Roosevelt's term as president is known as this because of the many environmentally friendly long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to either mitigate or defer global warming and avoid dangerous climate changes and policies he put into effect.
Pelican Island
1903: the very first u.s. *FEDERAL* wildlife refuge that was established by President Theodore Roosevelt to help protect birds (esp. brown pelican) from extinction.
U.S. Forest Service
1905: manages forest and grasslands throughout US, provide a sustainable source of timber- T.R.
Antiquities Act
1906: allows the president to protect areas of scientific or historical interest on federal lands as national monuments. -T.R.
US National Park Service Act
1916: Declared that parks are to be maintained in a manner that leaves them unimpaired for future generations
Great Depression
1929-1941: saved public lands - Hoover vs. environment
Dust Bowl
1930s: a large area of degraded land in the Great Plains states --experienced a drought lasting for a decade, leaving many farmers without work or substantial wages.
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)
1933: put 2 million unemployed people to work planting trees and developing/managing parks and recreation areas - During Great Depression, so helped many people with unemployment while giving back to the environment
Soil Conservation Act
1935: established a Soil Erosion Service (aka Resource Conservation Service and later Natural Resources Conservation Service) to correct erosion problems caused by the Dust Bowl -established the soil conservation service, which deals with soil erosion problems, carries out soil surveys, and does research on soil salinity
US Fish and Wildlife Service
1940: created to manage National Wildlife Refuge system and protect endangered species
first green revolution
1950-1970; developed nations increased crop yields by using: -Monocultures of high-yield key crops (Rice, wheat, and corn) -Large amounts of fertilizers, pesticides, water -Multiple cropping
Silent Spring by Rachel Carson
1962: documented the pollution of air, water, and wildlife from the use of pesticides; helped broaden the concept of resource conservation to include preservation of the quality of the planet's air, water, and wildlife -credited with starting the modern environmental movement
Wilderness Act
1964: passed by congress, inspired by Muir - authorized the government to protect undeveloped tracts of public land as part of the National Wilderness System
second green evolution
1967-present; fast-growing varieties of rice and wheat were introduced
National Environmental Policy Act
1969: the environmental impact statement (EIS) which makes the government and businesses carefully evaluate environmental impacts and avoid those with the potential for significant environmental damage, iy must be done before any project affecting federal lands can be started
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
1970: greatly strengthened the role of the federal government in protecting endangered species along with the Endangered Species Act, passed in 1973 - established to coordinate programs aimed at reducing pollution and protecting the environment - Nixon
environmental decade/ first decade of the environment
1970s: during this period, media attention, public concern about environmental problems, scientific research, and action to address environmental concerns grew rapidly
Mountains' ecological role
Home to many endemic species, only found on mountains;
CITES
1975 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species; bans the hunting, capturing, and selling of threatened and endangered species; enforcement varies from country to country & minor fines --> not very effective
Federal Land Policy and Management Act
1978: gave the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) its first real authority to manage the public land under its control - more protection of public lands
Comprehensive Environment Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)
1980: Superfund established federal authority for emergency response and clean-up of hazardous substances that have been spilled, improperly disposed, or released into the environment
Announcement of Global warming
1983: US EPA and National Academy of Sciences publish reports finding that build-up of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases will lead to global warming
UN environmental summit
1992: Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Three major problems with the widespread use of desalination:
1= High cost because it takes a lot of expense of energy to remove salt from seawater 2= using chemicals to sterilize the water kills many marine organisms and also requires a large input of energy 3= n produces huge quantities of salty waste water that must go somewhere
Two major causes for large losses of freshwater:
1= The cost of freshwater to users is low 2= A lack of government subsidies for improving the efficiency of freshwater use
Ways the government influences food production
1= controlling food prices by putting a legally mandated upper limit on them in order to keep them artificially low 2= Providing subsidies by getting farmers price supports tax breaks and other financial support to keep them in business
Cogeneration or CHP (Combined heat and power)
2 useful forms of energy are produced from the same fuel source. (coal= steam and electricity) -80% efficient -ex: steam used to generate electricity can be used again to heat homes and the power plant
HIV
2nd most deadly disease for humans worldwide-immune deficiency disease caused by a virus-spread primarily through sexual relations, IV drug use and breast milk
How many mass extinctions so far?
5 so far, we could be in the middle of the 6th
How many species are there?
8 million to 100 million
center-pivot, low pressure sprinkler
80% efficient method of delivering water to crops using pumps and a mobile central boom with sprinklers to mist water directly on crops
integrated pest management (IPM)
A carefully designed program in which each crop and its pests are evaluated as part of the ecosystem; uses a combination of cultivation, biological, and chemical tools and techniques applied in a coordinated process
Ozone
A colorless and highly reactive gas; a major ingredient of photochemical smog that can cause coughing, breathing problems and aggravate lung + heart diseases and reduce resistance to colds, etc. It can damage plants, tires, fabrics, paints, etc. Ozone near the groundlevel is referred to as "bad" ozone
Integrated Coastal Management
A community identifies shared problems & goals in the use of marine resources
fishery
A concentration of particular aquatic species suitable for commercial harvesting in a given ocean area or inland body of water
sinkhole
A depression produced in a region where soluble rock has been removed by groundwater
reverse osmosis
A desalinization process that involves forcing salt-water through a membrane permeable to water but not to salt
low-energy, precision application (LEPA) sprinkler
A form of center-pivot irrigation that puts 90-95% of the water where crops need it
desertification
A form of land degradation in which 10% of a land's productivity is lost due to erosion or other factors
land subsidence
A gradual (or sudden) settling of land when groundwater that previously filled cavities in the land is pumped out
drip irrigation
A highly-effective form of irrigation that uses pipe or tubing perforated with very small holes to deliver water one drop at a time directly to the soil around each plant
reservoir
A large artificial lake used as a source of water supply
Habitat Fragmentation
A large intact area of habitat (forest/grassland) is divided (usually by roads or crop fields); blocks animal migration routes; separates species, more vulnerable to predators
Main Factors limiting the use of nuclear power (negatives of nuclear power)
A low net energy yield, high costs, fear of accidents, and long-lived radioactive wastes; Its role in spreading nuclear weapons technology
floodplain
A low plain adjacent to a river that is formed chiefly of river sediment and is subject to flooding
user-pays approach
A means of discouraging water waste (and other resource waste) by charging a fee to withdraw water for consumptive use
slash-and-burn agriculture
A type of subsistence agriculture that involves burning and clearing small plots in tropical forests, growing a variety of crops until the soil is depleted, then shifting to other plots to begin the process again
Negative effects of deforestation
Acceleration of flooding, habitat loss, increased soil erosion, water pollution
Advantage that applies to all of these and Disadvantage that applies to all of these
Advantage: Safe if it doesn't leak Disadvantage: Encourages Waste production
hydroponics
Agricultural cultivation of plants by placing the roots in liquid nutrients rather than soil; fish and plants are grow together; Fish wastes are fed to the plants which clean the water that is given back to the fish
Disadvantages of conventional crude oil
Air and water pollution; releases greenhouse gases to the atmosphere; land disruption
food security
All or most people in a population have daily access to enough nutritious food to have an active and healthy life
Clear-cutting
All trees removed from the area; most efficient, least costly, and most damaging to an ecosystem
Mitigation Banking
Allow destruction of wetlands as long as the same amount destroyed is created or protected; negatives - attempts to recreate wetlands usually fail and are not as good as the original wetlands
Benefits of Integrated Coastal Management
Allows all members of community to feel included ; long term ecological and economic gain
strip-cropping
Alternating stips of erosion-prone crops with strips of erosion preventing crops
Advantages of Conventional natural gas
Ample supplies, versatile fuel, medium net energy yield
crop rotation
An agricultural technique in which crop species in a field are alternated from season to season; One year plant a nutrient-depleting crop, then next year plant the same area with lagoons or nitrogen fixating crops
nonrenewable aquifer
An aquifer that receives very little, if any, recharge; deep underground and must be mined to yield water
zone of saturation
An area beneath the Earth's surface which extends downward until all of the open spaces in sediment and rock are completely filled with water
Access to freshwater is a global health issue
An average of 9300 people die each day from waterborne infectious disease is because they do not have access to safe drinking water
channelization
An engineering technique to straighten, widen, deepen, or otherwise modify a natural stream channel
water footprint
An estimate (for an individual or a nation) of the amount of water required to sustain the consumption of goods and services
genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
An organism whose genetic material has been altered through some genetic engineering technology or technique
aquifer
An underground water reservoir.
Water Pollution
Any change in water quality that can harm living organisms or can make the water unfit for human uses such as drinking, irrigation, and swimming
pesticides
Any one of various substances used to kill harmful insects (insecticide), fungi (fungicide), vermin, or other living organisms that destroy or inhibit plant growth, carry disease, or are otherwise harmful
pest
Any species that interferes with human welfare by competing with us for food, invading our homes, lawns, or gardens, destroying building materials, spreading disease, invading ecosystems, or being a nuisance
organic agriculture
Approach to farming and ranching that avoids the use of herbicides, pesticides, growth hormones, and other similar synthetic inputs
Earth Day
April 20, 1970: A holiday conceived of by environmental activist and Senator Gaylord Nelson to encourage support for and increase awareness of environmental concerns
Disadvantages of withdrawing groundwater:
Aquifer depletion from over pumping; sinking of land from overpumping; some deeper wells are nonrenewable; pollution of aquifers last decades or centuries
Biodiversity hotspot
Area especially rich in plant species that are found nowhere else and are in great danger of extinction
Marine Protected Areas
Areas of ocean partially protected from human activities
water hotspots
Areas with high levels of competition for water
Climate
Average pattern of atmospheric weather conditions over a long period of time
Ways to reduce irrigation water loss:
Avoid growing thirsty crops; encourage organic farming and poly culture to retain soil moisture, expand use of drip irrigation, irrigate at night to reduce evaporation
5 Types of Hazards
Biological (pathogens [organisms that can cause disease in another organism; ex: virus, bacteria, fungi, parasites]), chemical (harmful chemicals in air, food, water), natural (fires, earthquakes, etc), cultural (poverty, criminal assault, unsafe working conditions), and lifestyle choices (obesity, drinking too much alcohol)
BOD
Biological Oxygen Demand (represents pollution for us)
Ways to provide safe drinking water to developing countries
Bottled water; using uv radiation to clean wastewater (lime juice speeds up this process)
Benthos
Bottom-dwellers ex: oysters and sea stars
Decomposers
Break down dead organisms into nutrients for aquatic producers
Superinsulation
Build a building so heavily insulated and airtight ghat heat from direct sunlight, appliances, and body heat can warm it without a need for a heating system
Surface fires
Burn only undergrowth and leaf litter; kills seedlings and small trees, spares large trees & animals
Carbon oxides
CO and CO2. Released by fires, vehicle exhaust and factory emissions. Carbon Monoxide is a colorless, odorless and highly toxic gas. Carbon Dioxide is a colorless and odorless gas. 93% of CO2 in the atmosphere is from the natural carbon cycle. Causes heart attacks and lung diseases
photosynthesis
CO2 + H2O + sunlight → glucose + oxygen
Human Activities that add CO2, CH4, and N2O to atmosphere
CO2: Burning of fossil fuels (primarily coal) CH4: livestock production, rice production, natural gas production N2O: nitrogen fertilizers, deforestation and fossil fuels
Harmful effects of groundwater pollution
Cancer/mass-sickness in humans either directly or though crops given polluted water
macronutrients
Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, which are necessary for building and maintaining body tissues and providing energy for daily activities
terracing
Carving small, flat plots of land from hillsides to use for farming
Rotational grazing
Cattle are confined by portable fencing to one area for a short time then move to a new location; allows grasses to regrow
Indoor air pollution
Caused by the burning of wood, charcoal, coal, or dung in open fires in open fires, or poorly designed stoves to heat their homes and cook their food. Cigarette smoke and poorly ventilated areas also contribute to this. 1.6 million people are killed each year because of this.
Primary pollutants
Chemicals or substances emitted directly into the air from natural processes and human activities at concentrations high enough to cause harm. (ex: CO, CO2, SO2, NO, N2O, CH4)
biopesticides
Chemicals, primarily insecticides, that are derived naturally in order to reduce crop damage
Zones of a river from before and after a pollution source and what lives in those zones
Clean Zone (normal fish), Decomposition Zone (pollution resistant fish), Septic Zone (anaerobic bacteria and fungi), Recovery Zone (pollution resistant fish), and Clean Zone (normal fish)
Strip-cutting
Clear cuts a strip of trees along the contour of a land, allows natural forest regeneration; less damaging than clear cutting
3 ways to harvest trees
Clear-cutting, strip cutting, selective cutting
Threats to marine systems
Coastal development, overfishing, pollution, Habitat destruction, Introduction of invasive species
Bathyal Zone
Colder, Little sunlight, no photosynthetic producers; zooplankton and small fish, Medium amounts of O2/CO2, less nutrients
agribusiness
Commercial agriculture characterized by integration of different steps in the food-proccessing industry, usually through the ownership by large corporations
Low or negative net energy yield source struggles to..
Compete in the marketplace with energy alternatives with medium and high net energy yields
vertical farming
Concept that argues that is economically and environment to cultivate plant or animal life within skyscrapers or on vertically inclined surfaces
Botanical gardens
Contain rare & threatened plants
CBD
Convention on Biological Diversity; legally commits governments to reducing the global rate of biodiversity loss and to equitably share the benefits from use of the world's genetic resources; focuses on protecting ecosystems, rather than individual species
Benefits of floods:
Created some of the worlds most productive farmland by depositing nutrient rich silt on floodplains; recharge ground water and refill wetlands
conservation-tillage farming
Crop cultivation in which the soil is disturbed little (minimum-tillage farming) or not at all (no-till farming) to reduce soil erosion, lower labor costs, and save energy
Defining characteristic of Plankton
Drifting organisms- go with the current, cannot swim/steer direction ex: zooplankton, phytoplankton, jellyfish, some plants
animal manure
Dung and urine of cattle, horses, poultry, and other farm animals; improves topsoil structure, adds organic nitrogen and stimulates the growth of beneficial soil bacteria and fungi
Nixon
EPA, ESA, BLM
ESA
Endangered Species Act of 1973; purpose was to identify and then revive populations of endangered plants and animals; debate between developers and environmental scientists, developers - humans right to use the land, env sci- endangered animals must be protected; New idea - protect entire ecosystems rather than save animals/plants from destroyed ecosystems
Energy return on investment
Energy obtained per unit of energy used to obtain it
Threatened Species
Enough remaining survivors to survive in the short term, but likely to become endangered soon
Clean Air Act
Established National Ambient Air Quality Standards for the 5 major outdoor pollutants
Access to freshwater is an environmental issue
Excessive withdrawal of fresh water from rivers And aquifers has resulted in falling water tables, decreased river flows, shrinking lakes, and disappearing wetlands
Crown fires
Extremely hot fire, jumps from treetop to treetop, burning whole trees, usually occur in forests w/o surface fires to remove leaf litter
traditional intensive agriculture
Farmers increase their inputs of human and draft-animal labor, fertilizer, and water to obtain higher crop yields; most is used for the family's survival and the rest is sold
monoculture
Farming strategy in which large fields are planted with a single crop, year after year
concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs)
Feedlots that are housed in huge buildings
Advantages of living on a floodplain:
Fertile soil (suitable for crops); ample fresh water for irrigation; availability of nearby rivers for transportation and recreation
Common groundwater pollutants
Fertilizers/Pesticides, Gasoline, Organic Solvents, Fracking liquid
Debt-for-nature swaps
Financially beneficial to protect forests- receive foreign aid and debt relief for protecting forests
Aquaculture
Fish are bred and harvested in a controlled environment in all types of water environments.
Disadvantages of dams and reservoirs:
Flooded land destroys forests or cropland; large losses of water via of evaporation; deprives downstream cropland and estuaries of nutrient rich salt; disrupts migration and spawning of fish
Lotic bodies of water
Flowing systems of freshwater ex: streams, rivers
Causes of soil erosion (topsoil erosion)
Flowing water, wind, deforestation (plants' roots hold soil in place), overgrazing
Ecosystem Approach
Focuses on protecting full ecosystems and their ecosystem services rather than just one or two endangered species
Trees' economic/ecosystem services
Forests remove CO2 from the atmosphere; provide terrestrial habitats; provide us with raw materials
Tropical Rain Forest
Found near equator, very hot and constant temperatures/rainy/humid; very high biodiversity
green manure
Freshly cut or still-growing green vegetation that is plowed into the soil to increase the organic matter and humus available to support crop growth
How does government subsidies encourage overfishing?
Government subsidies protect struggling fisherman (fishermen are struggling since the fish they are overfishing is decreasing in number --> low income). This keeps fishermen in business so they can keep fishing, but the number of fish decrease and will continue to decrease
aquaculture (fish farming)
Growing and harvesting of fish and shellfish for human use in freshwater ponds, irrigation ditches, and lakes, or in cages or fenced-in areas of coastal lagoons and estuaries; fish farming
Most direct causes of extinction
HIPPCO
3 Major Convection cells
Hadley, Ferrel, and Polar
Greenhouse effect
Heat from sun is absorbed by greenhouse gases and is radiated back into the Earth's troposphere. Humans release more greenhouse gases --> more warming --> global climate change
Benefits of zoos + aquariums
Help educate the public about endangered species; help to reintroduce endangered species back into protected habitats
Massive water transfers via aqueducts involve:
High economic costs, large water losses due to evaporation and leaks, and degraded ecosystems in areas from which the water was taken
More sustainable food production requires:
High-yield poly culture; organic fertilizers; integrated pest management; issue irrigation; crop rotation; soil conservation
Depth of compensation point effect productivity of lake
If compensation point is low (deep) there is high GPP, if point is high (shallow) there is low GPP
What is the best way to reduce pollution and global warming?
If we reduce our energy waste: it is the quickest, cleanest, and cheapest way to provide more energy and reduce pollution
food insecurity
Inability to acquire or consume an adequate quality or sufficient quantity of food in socially acceptable ways, or the uncertainty that one will be able to do so
Other disadvantages of Urban heat island
Increases dependence on AC, leading to higher energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and other forms of air pollution
Access to water it is a national and global security issue
Increasing tensions within and between some nations over access to Limited freshwater resources
Major indoor air pollutant in less-developed countries
Indoor burning of wood, charcoal, crop residues, and coal
tensiometer
Instrument used to measure soil moisture
IPCC
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; established in 1988 to document past climate changes and project future changes
Selective cutting
Intermediate or mature trees are cut singly or in groups
blue revolution
Introduction of motorized and larger boats, processing technology and infrastructure and new production techniques into fisheries
Viruses
Invade a cell and take over it's genetic machinery to clone themselves and spread throughout the body
Commercial extinction
It is no longer profitable to harvest a specific species
First law of thermodynamics
It takes high-quality energy to produce high-quality energy (you have to pump and refine oil before you can use it as an energy source)
Major env impacts on lakes, forests, human-built structures, and human health
Lakes: -fish cannot survive in very acidic waters -acid precipitation releases ions attached to minerals in the soils, suffocates fish Forests: -leaches essential plant nutrients -releases ions of minerals into soil Structures: -eats away at the stone of buildings Human Health: -human respiratory disease -leaks harmful chemicals into drinking water -harmful chemicals accumulate in human tissue
Wilderness
Land designated as area where natural communities have not been disturbed by humans and where harmful activities are limited by law
Problems with subsurface mining
Land subsidence; acid mine drainage
Ocean Garbage Patches
Large patch of garbage rotating in the ocean; Marine life eats the colorful plastic and dies
Mountains' hydrologic role
Large reservoir of water; water stored as ice/snow in winter; water flows into streams and rivers in spring/summer
Eutrophic lakes
Large supply of nutrients; high turbidity (brown or green water); high NPP since high nutrients
epidemic
Large-scale outbreak of an infectious disease that is limited to one area of region
sagebrush rebellion
Late 1970s: citizen launches political campaign that wanted to reduce government regulation of the use of public lands, and remove most public lands in the western united states from federal ownership and management and turn them over to the states
The effect of the degradation of coastal deltas, mangrove forests, and coastal wetlands
Less protection against storm surges --> storms more destructive since no buffer zone ex: Hurricane Katrina very destructive because of lack of mangrove marshes; Coastal wetlands/floodplains
Ways to reduce cultural eutrophication
Limit use of phosphates in cleaning products and fertilizers, reduce nutrient runoff
Over pumping of aquifers can lead to:
Limits on food production, rising food prices, and falling water tables
Surface Impoundments
Lined ponds, pits, or lagoons in which liquid hazardous waste is stored
4 Distinct zones of lakes
Littoral Zone, Limnetic zone, profundal zone, benthic zone
Best type of soil to grow crops in
Loam
Coniferous Forest (Taigas)
Long, cold winters; short, cool summers; mostly evergreen trees
Trophic Cascade
Loss (or major reduction in number) of a keystone species can lead to population declines/extinctions of organisms with strong connections to the keystone species
Characteristics of endangered/threatened species
Low reproductive rate (Pandas), feeds at high trophic level (Bengal tiger), Commercially valuable (Snow leopard, rhinoceros)
What is the threat from arsenic in groundwater?
Lung cancer, Skin cancer, Bladder Cancer
Pastures
Managed grasslands or fence meadows planted with domesticated grasses or other crops (alfalfa and clovers)
synthetic inorganic fertilizer
Manufactured fertilizers made of compounds composed of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
Why is plastic difficult to recycle?
Many diff types have to be separated, labor intensive
Coastal wetlands- mangrove forests and coastal marshes
Many nutrients + sunlight --> very productive ecosystem;
soil conservation
Methods used to reduce soil erosion, prevent depletion of soil nutrients, and restore nutrients previously lost by erosion, leaching, and excessive crop harvesting
Photochemical Smog
Mixture of primary and secondary pollutants formed under the influence of UV radiation from the sun. Much more common on warm and sunny days as more UV radiation can cause more photochemical smog. Irritates respiratory tract and eyes
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Moderate rainfall, hot summers, cool winters
Rain shadow effect
Moist air blown inward from the sea towards the mountains, rises, cooling and expanding, loses most of its moisture as rain/snow over the mountains. Result: Little moisture on the leeward side of the mountains + air heats up, creating arid conditions --> desert
Disadvantages of conventional natural gas
More CO2 and CH4 per unit of energy compared to coal; fracking uses lots of water (and produces lots of wastewater)
Advantage of less soil porosity
More runoff into lakes and streams; less flooding of plants
soil erosion
Movement of soil components (topsoil) via wind or flowing water; can be greatly accelerated by human activities that remove vegetation from soil
Profundal Zone
Much less sunlight --> little photosynthesis --> low dissolved O2
______ from ___ - developed countries is often dumped into oceans without treatment
Municipal sewage; less
Coral and algae symbiotic relationship
Mutualism; algae gain protection from polyps (coral), polyps gain food and oxygen from algae
first-generation pesticides
Natural chemicals or botanicals borrowed from plants that had been defending themselves against insects eating them and herbivores grazing on them
natural recharge
Natural replenishment of an aquifer by precipitation, which percolates downward through soil and rock
natural capital
Natural resources + ecosystem services
Methylmercury
Neurotoxin that is biologically magnified in large fish -many fish found to have unsafe levels of methyl mercury -symptoms: loss of motor skills, bad balance, weakness, memory problems, brain damage
Acid rain is comprised of primarily which two chemicals
Nitrogen and sulfur
Reasons Invasive species are so dangerous
No natural predator, top of the food chain
Short depletion time
No recycling/reuse, no increase in reserves
Abyssal Zone
No sunlight, very cold, little dissolved O2; Food/nutrients from marine snow
Can we cleanup ocean garbage patches?
No, all we can do is prevent them from increasing in size
Is clean coal an actual thing?
No, there will always be some harmful emissions of air pollutants and coal ash
What are the layers of the soil profile from top to bottom? What is the composition of each horizon?
O Horizon- leaf litter A Horizon- topsoil (decomposed organic matter and minerals) B Horizon- subsoil (clay and mineral deposits C Horizon- regolith (unbroken rock, little organic matter)
Industrial smog
Occured/occurs in cities due to large usage of coal. Industrial smog is made up of an unhealthy mix of SO2, sulfuric acid (suspended droplets) and a variety of suspended solid particles. It is sometimes called gray-air smog due to its color.
Ocean acidification in coral reefs
Ocean becomes too acidic, algae dies --> coral die (leave behind white calcium carbonic shell
What is the potential for wind power and why?
Offshore wind farms: -even though more costly usually, wind speeds over water are far faster than over land, more energy produced, lesses strain on land-based wind farms
"vote with your wallet"
Only buy products and services that do not negatively impact terrestrial/aquatic biodiversity
Two types of landfills
Open dump and sanitary landfill
Two largest categories of hazardous waste
Organic compounds and Toxic heavy metals
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
Organic compounds that exist as gases in the atmosphere or that evaporate from sources on earth into the atmosphere. Examples: Methane (CH4), benzene (liquid), industrial solvents, dry-cleaning fluids, various components of gasoline, plastics and other products.
organic fertilizer
Organic, material such as animal manure, green manure, and compost, applied to cropland as source of plant nutrients
waterlogging
Over accumulation of irrigation water or excessive precipitation underground so that the water table rises close to the surface
Organic Chemicals
Pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers. Solvents, petroleum products. --MOST TOXIC TO LIFE -Some are persistent, both point and non-point, major type.
Primary sewage treatment is a _______ process and involves...
Physical; involves a bar screen, then a grit tank, then a settling tank to remove large floating objects and to let solids settle out
feedlots
Places where livestock are concentrated in a very small area and raised on hormones and hearty grains that prepare them for slaughter at a much more rapid rate than grazing
alley cropping (agroforestry)
Planting of crops in strips with rows of trees or shrubs on each side; crops that are planted are usually legumes or other crops that return nitrogen to the soil
cover crop
Plants, such as rye, alfalfa, or clover, that can be planted immediately after harvest to hold and protect the soil
Environmental problems with bottled water
Plastic pollution; aquifer depletion in some areas
Advantages of conventional coal
Plentiful, low costs, high net energy yield
contour planting
Plowing and planting crops in rows across the slope of the land, opposite to the direction of water flow, to reduce soil erosion and water runoff
Point Source
Pollution from a single, usually easily recognizable source.
Non-Point Source
Pollution that comes from many sources (a general area) rather than a single specific site.
post-industrial
Population growth levels off then declines; birth rates equal/fall below death rates
Fresh water shortages will grow as:
Population increases, climate change intensifies
Regionally extinct
Population is not found in areas a species is normally found
Functionally extinct
Population is reduced to the point at which species can no longer play a functional role in the ecosystem
Root cause of food insecurity is...
Poverty
4 stages of demographic transition
Pre-industrial, transitional, industrial, post-industrial
surface runoff
Precipitation that does not return to the atmosphere by evaporation or infiltrate into the ground
Best way to reduce flooding:
Preserve Existing wetlands and restored degraded wetlands
Seed banks
Preserve genetic info of endangered/threatened plants by storing seeds in a "refrigerator-like" environment
El-Nino
Prevailing winds in the Pacific Ocean blow from west to east instead of from east to west. Warmer waters in south America --> less upwelling + more rainfall in South America. Drought in Australia.
Prevention ? Controlling the problem
Prevention > Controlling the problem; being able to prevent further damage is better than trying to clean up current damage; nearly impossible to remove an invasive species
Ways to reduce our exposure to lead
Prevention: 1) replace lead pipes and plumbing 2) phase out leaded gasoline worldwide 3) End waste incineration 4) Ban use of lead in computers, TV monitors, ceramics 5) wash fruits and vegetables before eating Control: 1) Remove leaded paint and lead dust from old houses 2) Reduce lead emissions from incinerators 3) remove lead from waste before it is burned 4) Test for lead in ceramics and other cookware
Multispecies Management
Similar to Maximum Sustained Yield, but accounts for competitive & predator-prey relationships among species
Ways to reduce mercury pollution
Prevention: 1) phase out waste incineration 2) remove mercury from coal b4 burned 3) switch from coal -> natural gas and renewables Control: 1) Reduce emissions of mercury from coal p plants 2) label products including mercury 3) collect and recycle batteries and other products containing mercury
irrigation
Process in which water is artificially supplied to the land
phytoplankton and ultraplankton
Producers that make up base of aquatic food chains; produce 50% of earth's oxygen
traditional subsistence agriculture
Production of enough crops or livestock for a farm family's survival and, in good years, a surplus to sell or put aside for hard times
plantation agriculture
Production system based on a large estate to produce a cash crop
Negatives of pesticides
Promote genetic resistance; put farmers on a financial treadmill; kill a pest's natural enemies; can pollute air, water, and land; are expensive; harm wildlife; threaten human health
Wildlife refuges
Protect threatened/endangered organisms
What is the ecological benefit from Coastal deltas, mangrove forests, and coastal wetlands?
Provide natural coastal protection against storms
Benefits of dams and reservoirs:
Provides irrigation water and drinking water above and below dam; reservoir is useful for recreation and fishing; can produce cheap hydroelectric power; reduces downstream flooding of cities and farms
desalination
Purification of salt water or brackish (slightly salty) water by removal of dissolved salts
Types of industrial fishing techniques
Purse-seine fishing, long-line fishing, drift-net fishing, trawler fishing, deep-sea aquaculture cage,
polyaquaculture
Raising fish or shrimp along with algae, seaweeds, and shellfish in coastal lagoons, ponds, and tanks
transitional
Rapid population growth; high birth rate & low death rate (caused by improved food and health)
Kenaf
Rapidly growing plant used to make paper
Medium depletion time
Recycling will stretch existing reserves and better mining tech, higher prices, or new discoveries will increase reserves
Natural Factors that reduce/increase Air pollution
Reduce 1) particles heavier than air fall to ground bc of gravity 2) rain and snow cleanse the air 3) sea spray can clean the air 4) winds move air pollutants away 5) some pollutants are removed by natural chemical reactions Increase: 1) Buildings reduce wind speed and thus reduce rate of removal of air pollution 2) Hills and mountains reduce flow of air in valleys, pollution can get trapped in valleys 3) High temperatures promote reactions that form photochemical smog 4) Temperature inversion
Best way to reduce soil salinization
Reduce irrigation; use more efficient irrigation methods
Effects of damming the Colorado River:
Reduced flow (the Delta at the end of the river is gone; rich forest and jungle ecosystem -> mud flats and desert)
Waste management
Reducing the harm on environment by the waste, doesn't reduce amount of waste
Benefits of surface fires
Removes leaf litter that could bring a more destructive fire; release seeds in pinecones; helps to control destructive insects and tree species
Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
Removing CO2 from smokestacks of industrial power plants and coal-burning power plants and store it elsewhere
windbreaks
Rows of large trees or bushes planted between fields to help block the wind and prevent soil erosion
Long depletion time
Same assumptions as medium depletion time estimate, but also reuse and reduced consumption to further expand reserves
Most threatened marine species & why it is the most threatened
Sea turtles; 1) Poaching of sea turtle eggs; 2) Degradation of nesting habitat (beaches). 3) Sandbags/sea walls prevent turtles from laying eggs; 4) Accidentally caught as by catch
Weather
Set of atmospheric conditions at a given day/short period of time
U.S. Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974
Sets maximum contaminant levels for any pollutants that could have an adverse effect on human health
Disadvantages of conventional coal
Severe air pollution (SO2, CO2, and soot); severe land disturbance
Littoral Zone
Shallow, sunlit waters with high biodiversity since input of nutrients from surrounding land (leaves falling and grasses growing); turtles, frogs, small fish/organisms
More sustainable meat production involves:
Shifting from less grain-efficient forms of animal protein (beef, pork, and carnivorous fish [salmon/shrimp]) to more grain-efficient forms (poultry, plant-eating farmed fish)
Intertidal Zone
Shoreline between lines of high and low tide; organisms must be adapted to avoid being swept away in high tide and dried up in low tide
Marine Snow
Showers of dead and decaying organisms from the upper layers of ocean
Benefits of the green revolution are ... because...
Slowing down;;; yields stop growing because crops can't absorb any more nutrients from fertilizer; can't easily cultivate more land (environmentally disruptive
industrial
Slowing population growth; birth rates drop & death rates drop because of increased food, health, and education
Where do people facing poverty live? What do they lack?
Slums, shantytowns, or illegal squatter settlements. They lack clean water supplies, sewers, electricity, and roads, and are subject to severe air and water pollution/hazardous wastes from nearby factories
Particulates
Small particles of dust released into the atmosphere by many natural processes and human activities
More sustainable food production will result in less...
Soil erosion; soil salinization; water pollution; aquifer depletion; overgrazing; overfishing; loss of biodiversity; greenhouse gas emissions
Second law of thermodynamics
Some high-quality energy is wasted at every step
Three aquatic life zones
Sources zone, transition zone, floodplain zone
bycatch
Species caught in nets that were unwanted; examples: turtles and dolphins
Biological Extinction
Species is no longer found anywhere on earth
Steps to store radioactive waste
Spent fuel rods are first cooled in water-filled pools, then they are placed in dry casks and stored for thousands of years
Lentic bodies of water
Standing bodies of freshwater ex: lakes, ponds, and inland wetlands
Source Zone
Streams from the mountains are cold, shallow, clear, and fast moving; as water tumbles over rocks/waterfalls/rapids, dissolves O2 into the water --> high dissolved O2; low nutrients; populated by cold-water fish (trout)
Clean Water Act
Strengthened regulation of drinking water quality
Cleaning up the air can pollute the water in some cases
Stricter air pollution laws have forced coal-burning power plants to remove ash from smokestack emissions. They instead put thrash in slurry ponds, which can rupture and cause pollution
Nekton
Strong swimming consumers ex: fish, turtles, whales
Effects of soil salinization
Stunts crop growth, lowers crop yield, kills plants, ruins the crop,and
How does the government intervene in the control of the supply, demand, and prices of mineral resources?
Subsidies and tax breaks to mining companies keep mineral prices artificially low
Ways low/negative net energy yield can be more competitive
Subsidies; ex: Nuclear Power gets a lot of subsidies so that it can compete with fossil fuels
Sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a colorless gas with an irritating odor. About one-third of SO2 comes from natural sources as part of the sulfur cycle, other two thirds come from human sources (mostly combustion of sulfur-containing coal). IN the atmosphere, SO2 can be converted to aerosols which are made up of suspended droplets of sulfuric acid.
Limnetic Zone
Sunlit area away from the surface; main photosynthetic zone of the lake (high dissolved O2); phytoplankton and zooplankton; larger fish
reliable surface runoff
Surface runoff that generally can be counted on as a stable source of water from year to year
Narrow-spectrum agents
Synthetic pesticides that are effective against in narrowly defined group of organisms
Broad-spectrum agents
Synthetic pesticides that are toxic to beneficial species as well as to pests
second-generation pesticides
Synthetic pesticides that chemists have developed to kill or repel pests, and also to improve natural pesticides produced in plants
Factors that determine aquatic life
Temperature, Dissolved oxygen content, availability of food, availability of light/nutritents
Temperate Desert
Temperatures high in summer, low in winter, little precipitation ex: Sonoran desert
topsoil
That portion of the soil that is most fertile for plants and is thus of the most direct importance to ecosystems and agriculture
Bioaccumulation
The accumulation of substances in an organism
watershed
The area of land that is drained by a water system; drainage basin
Temperature inversion
The atmospheric condition in which warm air above lies atop and traps cooler air near Earth's surface. Pollution can accumulate in the cooler air below
Why is biodiversity important?
The biodiversity found in genes, species, ecosystems, and ecosystem processes is vital to sustaining life on the earth.
Oxygen Sag Curve
The decline and recovery of oxygen in streams and rivers, the dilution and breakdown of dregradable wastes by bacteria depletes dissolved oxygen.
green revolution
The development of higher-yield and fast-growing crops through increased technology, pesticides, and fertilizers transferred from the developed to developing world to alleviate the problem of food supply in those regions of the globe
soil salinization
The excess accumulation of salts due to evaporation, typically most pronounced at or near the soil surface; happens because some salt is in irrigation water (picked up from soil/rocks
Mass Extinction
The extinction of many species in a relatively short period of geologic time
Buffer zone
The outside part of a nature reserve, allows local people to extract resources sustainably for their own personal needs without harming the inner core
Compensation point
The point in which respiration loss and GPP are equal, thus, NPP = 0
Air pollution
The presence of chemicals in the atmosphere in quantities high enough to harm organisms
lifeline rates
The process of giving each household a set amount of water at a low price to meet basic needs
Climate fluctuation is normal, why are we worried about an increased in avg. temp?
The rate at which the earth's temperature is increasing is far faster than ever before
Secondary pollutants
The result of primary pollutants reacting with one another in the atmosphere and with natural components of air (example: water vapor) to form new harmful chemicals. ex: (SO3, H2SO4, O3, PANS, HNO3)
gene revolution
The shift, since the 1980s, to greater private and corporate involvement in and control of the research, development, intellectual property rights, and genetic engineering of highly specialized agricultural products, especially crop varieties
How do communities and ecosystems respond to changing environmental conditions?
The structure and species composition of communities and ecosystems change in response to changing environmental conditions through a process called ecological succession
Biomagnification
The tendency of pollutants to concentrate as they move from one trophic level to the next
Atmosphere
The thin blanket of gases surrounding the earth.
water table
The upper level of the saturated zone of groundwater
more crop per drop strategy
The use of irrigation methods that greatly reduce water losses by delivering water more precisely to crops
agrobiodiversity
The world's genetic variety of animals and plants used to provide food; currently being lost
California State Water Project
The world's largest publicly built and operated water and power development and conveyance system; original purpose was to provide water for arid Southern California which lacks adequate local water resources to provide for the growth the region has experienced
Benefits of pesticides
They have saved human lives; stand food supplies; raise profits; work fast; are saved if used properly
Invasive Species in Aquatic Ecosystems
Threaten native species, degrade whole ecosystems, no natural predators (unrestricted growth)
Can We Get More Minerals from the Ocean?
Too costly
Overgrazing
Too many animals graze for too long, damages grasses + roots; reduces grass cover --> exposes topsoil to erosion by water + wind
overnutrition
Too much food energy or excess nutrients to the degree of causing disease or increasing risk of disease; a form of malnutrition
Exurbs
Towns usually consisted of housing developments scattered over vast areas that lie beyond suburbs and have little to no socioeconomic centers and low crime rates (basically San Ramon rn)
Methane hydrate
Trapped in icy water; in permafrost environments; on ocean floor; Costs of extraction is currently too high
Pathogens
Type of pollutant, bacteria, virus, contagious diseases. --Sources: medical wastes, animal and human wastes. -Can be non-point, usually the result of improper disposal.
Relationship between low-sulfur coal, atmospheric warming, and toxic mercury
US companies shift from high-sulfur coal to low-sulfur coal. Low-sulfur coal contains more CO2 which contributes to atmospheric warming and climate change. Low-sulfur coal contains more mercury as well compared to high-sulfur coal
Rangelands
Unfenced grasslands (temperate or tropical) that supply vegetation for grazing
Waste Reduction
Use less and focus on reuse, recycle, composting
natural gas
a mixture of gases of which 50-90% is methane (CH4)
Why has ozone been destroyed in the atmosphere and what are its effects?
Use of CFCs has destroyed protective ozone in the atmosphere -CFCs are now banned -ozone depletion results in less UV protection and thus more skin cancer
Advantages of withdrawing groundwater:
Useful for drinking and irrigation; exists almost everywhere; renewable it is not over pumped or contaminated; cheap to extract
Alternatives to synthetic pesticides
Using cultivation practices to fool the past; providing homes for pest's natural enemies; implant genetic resistance
Second gene revolution
Using genetic engineering (gene splicing) to develop genetically improved strains of crops and livestock
EPA's discharge trading policy
Using market forces to help reduce water pollution; (water version of cap and trade)
Integrated Waste Management
Variety of coordinated strategies for waste disposal and waste reduction
Endangered Species
Very few individual survivors; likely for species to go extinct soon ex: California Condor, Sumatran Tiger
Cold Grassland (Arctic Tundra)
Very few trees, very very cold winters, cold summers, very little precipitation; permafrost
Negatives of biomining
Very slow; very expensive
Tropical Grassland (Savanna)
Warm temperatures year round + alternating wet/dry seasons
Euphotic Zone
Warm, Phytoplankton, lots of sunlight, high dissolved O2, low nutrients, Exception to low nutrients: upwelling zones, lots of nutrients
Industrial Solid Waste
Waste produced by mines, farms, and industries that serve the public through goods or services
Greenhouse gases
Water Vapor (H20), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), and Nitrous oxide (N20)
Floodplain zone
Water and nutrients from previous zones are dumped here as sediment in these areas; high temp water, low dissolved O2, lots of algae; delta empties floodplain zone out into ocean
Tidal power
Water can rise and fall up to 6 meters (can be tapped for its hydropower
Access to freshwater is a economic issue
Water is vital for producing food and energy and for reducing poverty
freshwater
Water that contains very low levels of dissolved salts
groundwater
Water that fills the cracks and spaces in underground soil and rock layers
virtual water
Water that is not directly consumed but is used to produce food and other products
lateral recharge
Water that replenishes an aquifer from the side from sources such as streams
flood irrigation
Watering crops by pumping water to fields and letting it flow via gravity through unlined ditches to surround crops; very wasteful
circle of poison
When companies produce banned pesticides and export them to other countries the pesticides can returned by wind or by imported foods
Turbidity effect productivity of lake
When more turbidity, less light penetrates lake/doesn't reach as far down, so less photosynthesis, so less GPP
Precautionary Principle
When substantial preliminary evidence indicates than an activity can harm human health or the environment, we should take precautionary measure so prevent or reduce such harm even if some of the cause and effect relationship hasn't been established scientificially
Estuary
Where a river meets the sea
Septic tank
Where the sewage from each house is discharged into in many cases; has a settling tank to separate layers of gas, scum, wastewater, and sludge
Transition zone
Wider & deeper & warmer streams, gentler slopes, more turbid water; more producers
Temperate Grassland (Prairie)
Winters = very cold, summers = hot and dry, uneven precipitation
Cold Desert
Winters = very cold, summers = warm/hot ex: Gobi Desert
Can we mine lower grade ore?
Yes, but we have to mine more of it (more energy and higher cost); decreasing freshwater supplies to mine and process minerals; more land disruption
Energy Conservation
a decrease in energy use based primarily on reducing unnecessary energy waste
nuclear reactor
a highly complex and costly system designed to boil water and produce steam that spins a turbine and generates electricity
Rapid population decline is caused by...
a large number of people in the post-reproductive stage
Tree farm/plantation
a managed forest containing only one or two species of trees that are all of the same age; much less ecologically diverse
tar sand (oil sand)
a mixture of clay, sand, water, and a combustible organic material called bitumen
nuclear fusion
a nuclear change at the atomic level in which the nuclei of two isotopes are forced together at extremely high temperatures until they form a heavier nucleus; technology isn't here yet
secondary succession
a series of communities or ecosystems develop in places containing soil or bottom sediment.
tsunami
a series of large waves, generated when part of the ocean floor suddenly rises or drops
rock
a solid combination of one or more minerals found in the earth's crust
coal
a solid fossil fuel that was formed in several stages from the remains of plants that were buried 300-400 million years ago and the exposed to intense heat and pressure
asthenosphere
a sone of hot, partly melted rock that flows and can be deformed like soft plastic
Second growth forest
a stand of trees resulting from secondary ecological succession
Habitat Corridor
a strip of protected land connecting two reserves that allows animals to migrate from one area to another
mantle
a thick zone surrounding the mantle that is mostly solid rock, except the asthenosphere
suspended particulate matter (SPM)
a variety of solid particles and liquid droplets small and light enough to remain suspended in the air for short to long periods. 62% of SPM comes from natural sources while 38% come from human sources.
scientific law and the law of nature
a well-tested and widely accepted description of what we find happening repeatedly and in the same way in nature
resilience
ability of a living system to be restored through secondary succession after a very severe disturbance
inertia (persistence)
ability of a living system to survive moderate disturbances
genetic resistance
ability of one or more members of a population to resist a chemical designed to kill it
Advantages of conventional crude oil
abundant; medium net energy yield
What do the types of species interactions do?
affect the resource use and population sizes of the species in an ecosystem
peak producion
after years of pumping, the pressure in a well drops and its rate of conventional crude oil production starts to decline
atmosphere
air
EPA established...
air quality standards for CO, NO2, SO2, SPM, O3, etc
atomic theory
all elements are made of atoms
developing country
all of the other countries, which are 83% of the world's population
ecological footprint
amount of biologically productive land and water needed to provide a person or area with renewable resources, and to recycle wastes and pollution
time delay
amount of time between the input of a feedback stimulus and the response to it
Cluster developments
an area in which high-density housing units are concentrated on one portion of a parcel, and the rest of the land (often 30-50%) is used as commonly shared open space
mineral
an element or inorganic compound that occurs naturally in earth's crust as a crystalline solid, or one that has a regularly repeating internal arrangement of its atoms
tipping point
an estimated threshold that could set into motion large-scale climate changes for hundreds to thousands of years
acute effect
an immediate response to exposure
Greenbelts
an open area reserved for recreation, sustainable forestry, or other nondestructive uses. They provide vital ecosystems such as absorbing CO2, making urban air more breathable . (ex. Central Park, NY, Golden Gate Park, SF)
pandemic
an outbreak of an infectious disease that spreads globally
Old-growth/primary forest
an uncut or undisturbed forest that hasn't been severely disturbed by human/natural activity
the key to environmental solutions is...
applying the principles of sustainability to the design of our economic and social systems, and individual lifestyles
control rods
are moved in and out of the reactor core to absorb neutrons, thereby regulating the rate of fission and amount of energy produced; prevent chain reactions (and explosions) from occuring
Toxic Heavy Metals
arsenic, lead, mercury
demographic transition
as countries become more industrialized and economically developed, their populations tend to grow more slowly
coal ash
ash created in the burning and chemical extraction of coal
biodiversity
astounding variety and adaptability of natural systems and species
exponential growth
at a fixed percentage per year
four major components of the earth's life-support system
atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the geosphere, and the biosphere
producers
autotrophs, make their own food
replacement-level fertility rate
average number of children that couples must bear to replace themselves, slightly higher than 2, ~2.1
life expectancy
average number of years a person born in that year can be expected to live
crude birth/death rates
based on total # of births/deaths per 1000 people in a population
wise-use/ conservationists
believed all public lands should be managed wisely and scientifically to provide needed resources. (Roosevelt and Pinchot) Interested in managing natural resources so that future generations might use them later on.
win-win solutions
benefit people and the environment
commensalism
benefits one species and has little effect on the other
Some alternates to cars in urban areas:
bikes, buses, mass rail transit, rapid rail transit
Bioplastics can _______.
biodegrade
Secondary sewage treatment is a ______ process and involves...
biological; aerobic bacteria remove dissolved/biodegradable organic wastes, then (tertiary treatment) chlorine or UV light is used to kill the bacteria and purify the water one last time before it is released
population size governed by...
births and deaths; immigration and emigration
generalist species
broad niche - wide range of tolerance
Theodore Roosevelt
brought conservation issues to the attention of the American public; resource conservation; Golden Age of Conservation
waste to energy incinerators...
burn MSW to heat water, produce steam, turn turbine, starts generators, produces electricity
How do populations evolve?
by becoming genetically different: genes mutate and give some individuals genetic traits that enhance their abilities to survive and to produce offspring with these traits (natural selection)
preservationist movement
called for protecting large areas of wilderness on public lands from human exploitation (hiking and camping okay)
how prey avoid predation
camouflage, chemical warfare, warning coloration, mimicry, behavioral strategies
chronic effect
can occur from a single dose or long term exposure-usually causes longer lasting or permanent damage to a person-like liver damage or kidney damage
sustainability
capacity of the earth's natural systems and human cultural systems to survive, flourish, and adapt into the very long-term future
tertiary consumers
carnivores that eat other carnivores
secondary consumers
carnivores, eat herbivores
positive feedback loop
causes system to change further in the same direction, can cause major environmental problems
negative, or corrective, feedback loop
causes system to change in opposite direction
What human activities decrease biodiversity?
causing the extinction of many species, destroying or degrading habitats needed for the development of new species
coevolution
changes in the gene pool of one species can cause changes in the gene pool of the other, species interact over a long period of time; such as bats and moths- bettter echolocation of bats, so more sensitive hearing of moths
persistence
chemicals that will last for long periods of time in the environment because they do not break down quickly
Compact cities
cities where people can get around by walking, biking, or using mass transit systems (bus and train), and all their needs are walking distance (ex. grocery stores in Tokyo)
environmental movement
citizens organized to demand that political leaders enact laws and develop policies to curtail solution, clean up polluted environments, and protect unspoiled areas from environmental degradation (Leopold became the foremost leader)
Streams can ______ themselves. Why is it difficult for them to do this?
cleanse; We overload them with pollutants and reduce their flow, reducing their ability to clean themselves.
unconventional natural gas
coal bed methane gas, natural gas trapped in underground shale beds and methane hydrate
Radon 222
colorless, odorless, tasteless, naturally occurring radioactive gas produced by radioactive decay of U238. Second leading cause of lung cancer. Large quantities are found in poorly ventilated basements of homes; ways to prevent: seal cracks in foundation's slab and walls, increase ventilation in basement
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
combined solid waste produced by homes and non factory workplaces (garbage, trash)
Dispersed cities
combo of lots of land, relatively cheap gasoline, network of highways because most people own motor vehicles (Canada, US, Australia)
However, if people continue to overfish an area...
commercial extinction may occur where the fish may never bounce back or may take a long time to bounce back
cholera
common diarrheal disease caused by a bacteria
dysentery
common diarrheal disease caused by a bacteria, protists (usually amoebas), or parasitic worms
tragedy of the commons
common property and open-access renewable resources are degraded from overuse
five types of species interactions
competition, predation, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism
biomagnification
compounds that get passed through the food chain-organisms at higher levels on the food chain will have the highest concentration of these compounds
Fishery
concentration of a particular wild aquatic species suitable for commercial harvesting in a specific area
Mineral Resource
concentration of one or more minerals in the earth's crust that we can extract and process into raw materials and useful products at an affordable cost
Weather
condition of earth's atmosphere at a particular time and place
high level radioactive waste
consist mostly of spent fuel rods and assemblies from commercial nuclear power plants, the waste materials from dismantled plants, and assorted wastes from the production of nuclear weapons
zooplankton
consume phytoplankton and other zooplankton ex: single cell protozoa and jellyfish
decomposers
consumers that release nutrients
high grade ore
contains a large concentration of the desired material
low grade ore
contains a small concentration of the desired material
stratosphere
contains ozone layer; upper
pollution
contamination of the environment by a chemical or other agent to a level that is harmful to the health, survival, or activities of humans or other organisms
refinery/refining
conventional crude oil is heated to separate it into components with different boiling points
Photovoltaic Cells
convert solar energy directly into electrical energy -transparent -paper-thin silicon wafer: sunlight falls on cells and releases a flow of electrons when striking the silicon
coal liquification
converting coal into liquid fuels such as methanol and synthetic gasoline
nuclear fuel cycle
cycle of nuclear energy from mining uranium to processing uranium to using it in a reactor to storing the nuclear radioactive waste for thousands of years to the decommissioning of the power plant
AIDS can...
decrease average life expectancy & can result in a shortage of young workers
subsurface mining
deep deposits of minerals; underground mineral resources are removed through tunnels and shafts; disturbs much less land than surface mining, but more dangerous (cave-ins, explosions, fires)
three scientific principles of sustainablility
dependence on solar energy, biodiversity, and chemical cycling
Storm drains and septic tanks feed into _______
different places: storm drains: ocean/bay/lake septic tanks: wastewater treatment plant
Infectious Disease
disease that can be spread from person to person, such as influenza, HIV, malaria, tuburculosis
non-point source pollution
dispersed and difficult to identify
hormone blockers
disrupt the endocrine system by preventing natural hormones (ex: male sex hormones) from attaching to their receptors. Example: phthalates, used in PVC and plastics, cause birth defects and abnormal sex development
age structure
distribution of individuals among various age groups (pre-reproductive age, reproductive age, post-reproductive age)
nonnative species
do not normally live in an ecosystem (aka alien, invasive, exotic). Not all are threatening to an ecosystem
Economic benefits of family planning for government:
each $1 spent on financial planning saves $10-16 spent on health, education, and social service costs
George Perkins Marsh
early conservationist/scientist; published "Man and Nature" a study of how humans were impacting the environment; suggested resources were not inexhaustible
Henry David Thoreau
early conservationist; alarmed by loss of multiple species from his native eastern Massachusetts; to gain a better understanding of nature he lived alone near a pond for 2 years
What happens when tectonic plates slide against each other
earthquakes
omnivores
eats plants and animals
Women have less children if they are...
educated
Family planning
educational and clinical services that help couples choose how many children they want to have; responsible for 55% decrease in total fertility rate (6.0 in 1960 -> 2.6 in 2012)
Ways to reduce population growth:
elevating status (increased opportunities for education/employment) for women and family planning
kinetic energy
energy of movement
seismic waves
energy that has accumulated overtime in tectonic plates is released in this form
Urban heat island
enormous amounts of heat generated by cars, factories, furnaces, lights, air conditioners, and heat-absorbing dark roofs. Heat Island surrounds suburban/rural areas
Adaptive genetic traits must precede change in the...
environmental conditions.
inexhaustible resourse
expected continual supply
mountaintop removal
explosives, earth movers, large power shovels, and other machines with huge buckets (draglines) are used to remove the top of a mountain and expose seams of coal
environmental resistance
factors that limit population growth
detritivores
feed on dead bodies of other organisms
predator
feeds directly on all or part of a living organism
carbon tax
fees on each unit of CO2 or CH4 emitted by fossil fuel
nonrenewable resource
finite stock on earth
ecological deficit
footprint is larger than biological capacity for replenishment
oceanic ridges
form when oceanic plates move apart from one another and magma flows up through the resulting cracks
trench
formed when two oceanic plates collide and the denser one is subducted under the other
igneous rock
forms below or on the earth's surface when magma wells up from the earth's upper mantle or deep crust
metamorphic rock
forms when a preexisting rock is subjected to high temperature, high pressure, chemically active fluids or a combination
endemic species
found only in one area, particularly vulnerable to extinction
chemical cycling
from the environment to organisms and then back to the environment
synfuels
fuels created from coal (usually cleaner for the environment)
three social science principles of sustainability
full cost pricing, win-win solutions, and a responsibility for future generations
tipping point, threshold level
fundamental shift in the behavior of the system
renewable energy
gained from resources that are replenished by natural processes in a relatively short time
What is the first step in biological evolution?
genetic variation
diversity varies with...
geographical location
cap and trade (pollution reduction approach)
government places a cap on total human-generated CO2 and CH4 emissions, issues permits to emit these pollutants, and allows polluters to trade their permits in the marketplace
ecological succession
gradual change in species composition; increase biodiversity because species richness increases
primary succession
gradual establishment of life in lifeless areas ex: volcanic rock (newly cooled)
example of ecosystem with low inertia and high resilience
grasslands
Laws enacted in the US to control water pollution have...
greatly increased the number and quality of wastewater treatment facilities
population
group of interbreeding individuals of the same species
fuel assemblies
groups of fuel rods
keystone species
have a large effect on the types and abundances of other species; can play critical roles in helping sustain ecosystems, such as pollination and top predator
smelting
heating ores to release metals
primary consumers
herbivores, first in food chain after producers
high-quality energy
high capacity to do work, concentrated (ex: high-temperature heat, strong winds, and fossil fuels)
The Aral Sea disaster is caused by:
high evaporation because of surrounding climate, large scale freshwater diversion project, and many people using water from the lake
negative effects of affluence
high levels of consumption, high levels of pollution, unnecessary waste of resources
sustainable yield
highest rate at which we can use a renewable resource without reducing available supply
Open Dump
holes in the ground where garbage is deposited and sometimes burned; frequently used in developing countries
the continuing rapid growth of the human population and its impacts on natural capital raise questions about...
how long the human population can keep growing
tectonic plates
huge rigid plates that the lithosphere is broken up into that move extremely slowly atop the asthenosphere
Compost
humus-like material, rich in organic matter and soil nutrients, produced when microorganisms break down organic matter in the presence of oxygen
proven oil reserves
identified deposits from which conventional crude oil can be extracted profitably at current prices with current technology
reserves
identified resources from which we can extract the mineral profitably at current prices
Number of children women have is affected by...
importance of children as labor force (in undeveloped countries), costs of raising and educating children, urbanization, education/employment opportunities for women, average age at marriage, ability of legal abortions, and religious beliefs
ecosystem services
important nature processes provided by healthy ecosystems such as renewal of air, water, and soil
full cost pricing
include harmful health and environmental costs of goods and services
Natural selection
individuals witch certain favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce under a particular set of environment conditions than others w/o the beneficial traits
developed country
industrialized nations with high average income, which are 17% of the world's population
environmental science
interdisciplinary science of how humans interact with the living and nonliving parts of their environment; integrates ideas from natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities
Reconciliation ecology
inventing, establishing, and maintaining new habitats to conserve species diversity in places where people live
influenza
is the most deadly infectious disease-very contagious respiratory illness caused by a virus
when a population exceeds the area's carrying capacity...
it can crash
electromagnetic radiation
it is the energy that travels via the oscillation of electromagnetic fields- can travel without involving matter
heat
kinetic energy of molecules in a substance
Disadvantages of recycling
labor intensive costs more than putting in landfill
Most ocean pollution originates on... and includes...
land; oil, and solid waste
fuel rods
large numbers of pellets are packed into these closed pipes
biomes
large regions such as forests, deserts, and grasslands
Ozone layer
layer of the stratosphere with a high concentration of ozone (11-16 miles); absorbs most of the Sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation; "good" ozone
a responsibility for future generations
leave environment and planet's life support systems in good shape for future generations
conventional natural gas
lies above most reservoirs of crude oil
Theory of evolution
life on earth changes over time through changes in the genes of populations
no population can grow indefinitely because of...
limitations on resources and competition among species for those resources
Deep-well disposal
liquid hazardous wastes are pumped into dry rock formations that are far below drinking aquifers
biosphere
living things/life
epicenter
located on earth's surface directly above the focus
low-quality energy
low capacity to do work, dispersed
Advantages of Nuclear Power
low environmental impact; and a very low accident risk
open pit mining
machines dig very large holes and remove metal ores as well as sand, gravel, and stone
cultural carrying capacity
max number of people who could live in reasonable freedom and comfort indefinitely w/o decreasing ability of Earth to sustain future generations
carrying capacity
maximum population of a given species that a particular habitat can sustain indefinitely
Energy Efficiency
measure of how much work we can get from each unit of energy
magnitude
measurement of the severity of an earthquake
predation
member of one species feeds on another organism as part of the food web
interspecific competition
members of two or more species interact to use the same limits resources: food, water, light, and space. Occurs when two species' niches overlap
Advantage of greater soil porosity
more water can be absorbed into the soil and flow into aquifers
malaria
mosquito borne disease that spreads by the protozoan parasite, Plasmodium. Spread by the Anopheles mosquito.
What happens when tectonic plates collide
mountains form
convection cells
move large volumes of rock and heat in loops within the mantle like gigantic conveyor belts
food chain
movement of energy and nutrients from one trophic level to the next; photosynthesis → feeding → decomposition
continental drift
movement of the continents and tectonic plates
reproductive isolation
mutations and natural selection in geographically isolated populations, leads to inability to produce viable offspring when members of two different populations mate
specialist species
narrow niche - narrow range of tolerance
What are the 4 important roles in a particular ecosystem that any species can play one or more of?
native, nonnative, indicator, keystone
Eutrophication
natural enrichment of a body of water from the runoff of plant nutrients
liquefied natural gas (LNG)
natural gas can be converted to this at a high pressure and at the very low temperature of about -162 degrees Celsius; low net energy yield; easy to transport
What is the second step in biological evolution?
natural selection
predation plays a large role in...
natural selection
Asbestos
naturally occurring silicate mineral woven in some cloth and insulating materials- breaks down tiny fibers that may be suspended in air. May cause asbestosis, lung cancer, mesothelioma
Organisms do not develop traits out of...
need or want
food web
network of interconnected food chains
What do collisions between the earth and large asteroids cause?
new species and extinctions
Nitrogen oxides and nitric acid
nitric oxide is a colorless gas that forms when nitrogen and oxygen gas in air react at the high-combustion temps in automobile engines and coal-burning plants. nitric acid is a component of harmful acid deposition. NO --> photochemical smog. Irritate the eyes, nose, throat, and lungs
first law of thermodynamics (law of conservation of energy)
no energy is created or destroyed
anaerobic respiration
no oxygen used, end products are methane or acetic acid (stinky), or alcohol (fermentation)
native species
normally live in an ecosystem
chronic undernutrition
not enough food to meet their basic energy need; hunger
tentative science, frontier science
not yet considered reliable by the scientific community
population density
number of individuals in a given area
mutualism
nutrition and protective relationship; both species benefit
drought
occurs when evaporation from increased temperatures greatly exceeds precipitation for a prolonged period
volcano
occurs where magma reaches the earth's surface through a central vent or a long crack, called a fissure
petroleum (crude) oil
oil as it comes out of the ground; a black, gooey liquid consisting of hundreds of different combustible hydrocarbons; formed from decayed and compacted remains of ancient organisms
shale oil
oil from rocks (oil shales) with kerogen, a solid combustible mixture of hydrocarbons, that is extracted when the oil shales are crushed
parasitism
one species feeds on another organism by living on or inside the host; the parasite is usually much smaller than the host, parasite rarely kills the host, may lead to coevolution
speciation
one species splits into two or more species
Ecologists study interactions within and among...
organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, biosphere
crust
outermost and thinnest part of the earth
George H.W. Bush
overall, bad
George W. Bush
overall, bad
Reagan
overall, bad for the environment
Clinton
overall, good
Carter
overall, good for the environment
ore mineral
part of the extracted ore that contains the desired metal
As popular fish species have been declining in number...
people have been starting to overfish sharks and other species
There is no grand plan of nature for...
perfect adaptation
geographic isolation
physical isolation of populations for a long period, first step of speciation
spoils
piles of waste material
Living roofs
plant specific vegetation on a rooftop to absorb heat from the summer sun and insulate the structure in the winter
Bioplastics
plastics made from corn, soy, sugarcane, switchgrass, chicken feathers, components of garbage, and even CO2
Dose Response Curve
plotting an organisms response to a given chemical versus the dose received
BOD increases near a ____ source
pollution
Plastic
polymers made by petrochemicals from crude oil and natural gas
logistic growth
population faces environmental resistance
5 basic causes of environmental problems
population growth, wasteful and unsustainable resource use, poverty, failure to include
Acid desposition
precipitation with a pH less than 5.6 that forms in the atmosphere when certain pollutants mix with water vapor. Sometimes called acid rain.
greenhouse gases
primarily H2O (water vapor), CO2, CH4, N2O; heat causes these gases to vibrate and release infrared radiation with an even longer wavelength into the lower atmosphere
Two major types of recycling
primary or closed loop and secondary or open loop
extinction
process in which an entire species ceases to exist
Ecological restoration
process of repairing damage caused by humans to the biodiversity and ecosystem services provided by ecosystems
Biodiesel
produced from vegetable oil extracted from soybeans, sunflowers, corn, and oil palms
petrochemicals
products of crude oil distillation used as raw materials in many things (ex: pesticides, plastics, medicines, paints)
positive effects of affluence
provide funding for developing technologies to reduce pollution, environmental degradation, resource waste
how carnivores prey on animals
pursuit and ambush, camouflage, chemical warfare
3 types of nuclear change
radioactive decay, nuclear fusion, nuclear fission
example of ecosystem with high inertia and low resilience
rain forest
gross primary productivity (GPP)
rate at which an ecosystem's producers convert solar energy to chemical energy and biomass (organic matter) Kcal/m2/year
net primary productivity (NPP)
rate at which an ecosystem's producers convert solar energy to chemical energy, minus the rate at which producers use energy for aerobic respiration
Primary Loop (Closed Loop)
recycling materials and reusing them for the same material EX: paper to paper
Benefits of recycling
reduce virgin resource use, reduce pollution and environmental degradation
Ways to reduce pollution:
reduce, redesign manu process (use less material), use less hazardous cleaning products, design products to last longer, institute trash taxes
a more sustainable future will require that we...
rely more on energy from the sun and other renewable energy sources, protect biodiversity through the preservation of natural capital, avoid disrupting the earth's vitally important chemical cycles
fitness
reproductive success (not strength)
nonrenewable energy
resources can be depleted and are not replenished by natural processes within human timescales
tuberculosis
respiratory disease caused by a bacteria-common in developing countries with crowded conditions-highly infectious by air
What happens when tectonic plates move apart
ridge/volcano (land) or trench/volcano (ocean)
ore
rock that contains a large enough concentration of a particular material to make it profitable for mining and processing
Land near water impacts that water due to...
runoff. Pollutants, chemicals (nitrates and phosphates [fertilizers]) and other things enter the water and cause eutrophication
People are moving from...
rural to urban areas
Soil types from largest to smallest
sand>silt>clay
ecology
science of organism's interactions with each other and their nonliving environment
Climate change can cause...
sea level rise --> drown low-lying coastal wetlands, warm waters threaten coral reefs
Stratosphere
second layer of atmosphere 11-30 miles above the Earth's surface; Contains protective ozone gas (O3) that makes up the ozone layer
species
set of individuals who can mate and produce fertile offspring
renewable resource
several days to several hundred years to renew
Tectonic plate movements, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and climate change have...
shifted wildlife habitats, wiped out large numbers of species, and created opportunities for the evolution of new species
mass extinction
significant rise above background level, probably have been 5 mass extinctions
point source poollution
single, identifiable source
Bacteria
single-celled organisms that multiply very rapidly ex: Tuberculosis
amplitude
size of the seismic waves when they reach a recording instrument
Rate of population growth has ________ in recent decades
slowed
environmentalism
social movement dedicated to trying to protect the earth's life-support systems for all forms of life
overburden
soil and rock overlying a useful mineral deposit
compost is used for
soil fertilizer, topsoil, landfill cover, and to restore land
Hazardous Waste
solid or liquid with one or more of 39 toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, or teratogenic compounds at levels exceeding established limits
Sanitary landfill
solid wastes are spread out in thin layers, compacted, and covered daily with a fresh layer of clay or plastic foam; waste remains dry and reduces leakage of leachate (contaminated water); bottom of landfills have collection systems that store the leachate; more often used in more developed countries
Organic compounds
solvents, pesticides, PCB's and Dioxins
resource partitioning
species may use only parts of resource at different times and in different ways, prevents/reduces competition
indicator species
species that provide warning of damage to a community or ecosystem
The global trend over the last century is that fish species have been...
steadily declining in number (especially commercially valuable fish species [tuna, salmon])
potential energy
stored energy
reproductive time lag may lead to overshoot
subsequent population crash, damage may reduce area's carrying capacity
Factors that determine biome
temperature + precipitation
Overfishing can lead only a...
temporary depletion of fish species, as long as the area is allowed to recover.
as energy flows through ecosystems in food chains and webs...
the amount of chemical energy available to organisms at each successive feeding level decreases
Soil porosity
the amount of open space between soil particles
total fertility rate
the average number of children born to a woman in a population in their reproductive years
Climate
the average weather conditions in an area over a long period of time
functional diversity
the biological and chemical processes such as energy flow and matter recycling needed for the survival of species, communities, and ecosystems
nutrient cycling
the circulation of chemicals necessary for life from the environment through organisms and back to the environment
lithosphere
the combination of the crust and the rigid, outermost part of the mantle
Urbanization
the creation and growth of urban and suburban areas, and is calculated by the percentage of people who live in such areas
subduction
the denser tectonic plate is pushed down under the other when they collide (typically two oceanic plates or an oceanic and a continental)
median lethal dosage (LD 50)
the dose of a toxin that kills 50% of the test population
core
the earth's innermost zone, having two parts: the solid inner zone and the molten or semisolid outer core
life is sustained by...
the flow of energy from the sun through the biosphere, the cycling of nutrients within the biosphere, and gravity
spent fuel rods
the high-grade uranium fuel in the rods becomes useless and must be replaced
clean coal
the idea that we can "clean up" the coal that we burn; we can add costly air-pollution devices to control power plants emissions
seismograph
the instrument used to record the magnitude of an earthquake
rock cycle
the interaction of physical and chemical processes that change rocks from one type to another
nuclear fission
the nuclei of certain isotopes with large mass numbers (such as uranium-235) are split apart into lighter nuclei when struck by a neutron and release energy
radioactive decay
the nuclei of unstable isotopes spontaneously emit fast-moving chunks of matter (alpha or beta particles), high-energy radiation (gamma rays), or both at a fixed rate
infant mortality rate
the number of babies out of every 1,000 born that dies before their first birthday; high infant mortality rate indicates malnutrition and undernutrition
species richness
the number of different species in a given area; increases productivity and stability or sustainability, provides insurance against catastrophe
species diversity
the number, variety, and abundance of species present in different communities
focus
the place where an earthquake begins, often far below earth's surface
coal gasification
the process that converts solid coal to SNG by removing sulfur and other impurities
Urban growth
the rate of increase of urban populations, resulting from immigration from rural areas
species evenness
the relative abundance of each species present. The more even the number of different species in a given area, the higher the species evenness in that area
Richter scale
the scale that increases by 10-fold for each unit (5.0 is 10 times stronger than 4.0) used for the magnitude of an earthquake
geosphere
the solid earth; rock, soil, and sediment
Populations lives in clumps because..
the species cluster for resources, protection from predators, ability to hunt in packs
ecological niche
the specific ecological role each species plays; includes everything that affects survival and reproduction, such as water, space, sunlight, food, temperatures
Toxicology
the study of the harmful effects of chemicals on humans and other organisms
depletion time
the times it takes to use up a certain proportion-usually 80%-of the reserves of a mineral at a given rate
net energy yield
the usable amount of high-quality energy available from a given quantity of energy resource; total amount of high quality energy available from an energy resource minus the high-quality energy needed to produce it
genetic diversity
the variety of genetic material within a species or a population
ecological diversity
the variety of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems found in an area or on the earth
containment shell
thick, steel-reinforced concrete walls surrounds the reactor core to keep radioactive materials from escaping into the environment
Rapid population decline can...
threaten economic growth, produce shortage of laborers, increasing government costs to support the elderly
How does genetic variation occur?
through mutations in reproductive cells
limiting factor principle
too much or too little of any physical or chemical factor can limit or prevent growth of a population, even if all other factors are at or near the optimal range of tolerance (ex: precipitation, nutrients, sunlight)
hormonally active agents (HAAs)
toxins that act as endocrine disruptors because they either mimic estrogen or block androgens from binding to their receptor sites in the cells
nuclear fusion
two nuclei of lighter atoms, such as hydrogen, are forced together at extremely high temperatures until they fuse to form a heavier nucleus and release a tremendous amount of energy
background extinction
typical low rate of extinction ~.0001% of all species per year
Human population growth is...
unevenly distributed geographically
Solid waste
unwanted or discarded material that is not a liquid or gas; made of Municipal Solid Waste and Industrial Solid Waste
BPA (Bisphenol A)
used in H2O bottles, sports equipment, and baby bottles; endocrine system disruptor, neurological damage, and great cancer
area strip mining
used where the terrain is fairly flat; a gigantic earthmover strips away the overburden and a power shovel removes the mineral deposit
strip mining
useful and economical for extracting material deposits that lie in large, horizontal beds close to the earth's surface
natural resources
useful materials and energy in nature
Bioremediation
using bacteria and enzymes to help destroy toxic/hazardous substances or convert them to less harmful substances
biomining
using microorganisms that can breakdown rock material and extract minerals in a process called "in-place" or "in-situ" mining; miners can remove desired metals from ores through wells bored into the deposit
aerobic respiration
using oxygen, turn glucose back to carbon dioxide and water
Land-use planning
using the land in the best way/for the betterment, from zoning, encourages economic growth, and encourages future population growth
Phytoremediation
using various types of plants that function as pollution sponges to clean up contaminants
coolant
usually water, circulates through the reactor's core to remove heat, preventing meltdowns
range of tolerance
variations in physical and chemical environment; individuals may have different tolerance ranges
biodiversity
variety in the earth's species
preservationist
wanted wilderness areas on public lands to be left untouched (Muir) believes that humans are merely passing through the earth and have no claim to anything on it
Coastal Zone
warm, nutrient rich, shallow water (lots of sunlight); 90% of all marine species, high dissolved O2 & CO2
What are ice ages followed by?
warming temperatures
greenhouse effect
warms to earth's lower atmosphere and surface and thus effects the earth's climate; occurs when some of the solar energy absorbed by the earth radiates into the atmosphere as infrared radiation
Secondary Loop (Open Loop)
waste materials converted into different products EX: paper to cardboard
environmental/natural capital degration
wasting, depleting, and degrading the earth's natural capital; it is happening at an accelerating rate
hydrosphere
water on the earth's surface
environmental worldview
we are part of nature and must engage in sustainable use
planetary management worldview
we are separate from and in charge of nature
synthetic natural gas (SNG)
we can convert solid coal into SNG by a process called coal gasification, which removes sulfur and most other impurities from coal
second law of thermodynamics
we end up with lower quality or less-usable energy than we started with
Reserves can change when...
we find new profitable deposits or higher prices and improved mining technologies make it profitable for us to extract deposits that were previously too expensive to removeeconomically depleted when it costs more then it is worth to find, extract, transport, and process the remaining deposits
earthquake
when a fault forms, or there is abrupt movement where a fault has already formed, energy that has accumulated is released in seismic waves
liquefied petroleum (LPG)
when a natural gas field is tapped, propane and butane gases are liquefied under high pressure and removed as this
Zoning
when parcels of land/ares are designated for residential, commercial, or mixed use. Can be used to control growth and protect areas from certain types of development
the law of conservation of matter
whenever matter undergoes a physical or chemical change, no atoms are created or destroyed
troposphere
where the weather happens; lower
reliable science
widely accepted by experts
