APHG Chapter 9 - Development
North America and Energy Consumption
-contains 1/20 of the world's population -consumes 1/4 of the world's energy
Life Expectancy at Birth
-contributor to the HDI -the average baby born today is expected to live to age 70 -developed: 80 years -developing: 68 years, but with a big range (55 in sub-Saharan Africa)
Photovoltaic cells
-converts light energy into electrical energy -developed by Bell Laboratories in 1954 -made of silicon (second most abundant element on Earth)
International Trade Path
-country must know what is special about itself (what resources it has) -concentrating scarce resources on distinctive local industries
Human Development Index (HDI) Factors
-decent standard of living -long and healthy lives -access to knowledge -highest possible score is 1.0
important inequalities in the global distribution of fossil fuels
-demand: consumers are in developed countries, while the reserves are in developing countries -supply: fossil fuels are not distributed evenly among developing countries, which results in instability, which results in war
money challenges in developed countries
-developed countries were hit hardest by the world recession in 2008 -this spilled over into developing countries (especially those relying on international trade) -inequality between rich and poor
expected years of schooling statistics
-developed: 16 (highest in North America and Europe) -developing years: 11 (lowest are sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia) -children are expected to go to 5 more years of schooling than previously, but the gap is still high
Expected years of schooling
-developed: 16 years -developing: 11 years
literacy rate statistics
-developed: >99% -developing: range from 70-90%
Consumer Goods in Developed vs. Developing
-developed: accessible to all and vital to economy -developing: not that big of a deal; may cause unrest between have and have-nots
Cycle of Failure (international loans)
-developing countries fail to pay back loans from developed -developed countries refuse to give more money and now are in debt themselves -construction stops -debt increases -both countries have economic instability
Primary Sources of Financing Development
-direct investment by transnational corporations -loan from a bank or international group
Age of Mass Consumption (Rostow Model)
-economy shifts from heavy industry to consumer goods -you can buy stuff now
Nuclear Energy
-electricity produced by splitting uranium atoms in a controlled environment in a process called fission -nonrenewable -product of nuclear reactions is radioactive waste -large amount of energy from small amount of material -14% of world's energy
Preconditions for Takeoff (Rostow Model)
-elite group starts innovative economic activities -under the guidance of the elite, country invests in new tech and infrastructure
Factors that make up the GII
-empowerment -labor -reproductive health
Self-Sufficiency
-encourage domestic production -discourage foreign intervention/ownership -protect businesses from international competition -i.e. Wakanda from MCU (not a real country)
Geothermal Energy
-energy from hot water or steam in volcanic areas -has to occur where crustal planes meet (same areas where earthquakes and volcanoes are)
IDA
-provides loans to countries too risky to qualify for an IRBD -mostly to Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia -money raised from government contributions
tertiary sector
-provision of goods and services in exchange for payment -retail -banking -government -lawyers -doctors
Measures of Quality of Schooling
-pupil/teacher ratio -literacy rate
quality of schooling
-pupil/teacher ratio -literacy rate
Measures of Access to Knowledge
-quantity of schooling -expected years of schooling
Nuclear Energy Challenges
-radioactive waste is highly lethal to humans -uranium in a nonrenewable resource -high cost
Takeoff (Rostow Model)
-rapid growth -limited umber of economic activities -the few economic activities become successful, but the rest of the economy are undeveloped
Countries with a low GII (less inequality) are more likely to:
-ratify international environmental treaties -take steps to reduce carbon dioxide emissions -set aside protected land areas and reduce deforestation -undertake recycling and water conservation
high cost of nuclear plants
-related to elaborate safety measures -nuclear power plants cost several billion dollars to build -complexities of safe transportation and storage of radioactive wastes are expensive
Wind Energy
-relatively minimal impact on the environment -greater potential for increased use (only a small portion of the potential resource has been harnessed)
Why does the US have a high GII (more inequality), but a high HDI?
-reproductive rights are limited -maternal mortality rate is 24 in the US (12 in Canada and less than 10 in Europe) -% of women in national legislature is MUCH lower in the US than in other MDCs
Why has the GII in the US declined?
-reproductive rights are much lower in the US compared to in other countries with high HDIs -% of women in national legislature is lower than in other high HDI countries
Policy Framework Paper (PFP)
-require a structural adjustment program from a developing country if they want debt relief -already lost money, but need more, so they need to show how they will fix the problems
Structural Adjustment Program
-requirement for economic reforms -spend only what you can afford -direct benefits to the poor, not just the elite -money has to go to health and education (not military) -invest scarce resources where they have the most impact -encourage a productive, private sector (work your butts off- don't expect to get any more money from the government) -reform government
Fair Trade Worker Standards
-requires employers to pay fair wages to workers, permit unionization, and comply with environmental and safety standards -2/3 of the artisans are women -paid enough to cover basic needs
Petroleum (oil)
-residue deposited on the seafloor -25% comes from Russia/Saudi Arabia -50% comes from other developing countries in SW and Central Asia -25% from developed countries (mostly US)
Prediction for Future Energy
-running low on oil (more expensive to extract) -need alternative energy based on renewable resources
Paths to Development
-self-sufficiency -international trade
fair trade certifiers
-set internationally by the Fair Trade Labeling Organization (FLO) -set in the US by Transfair USA
Why are countries that use the international trade system usually small states?
-since they are small, it doesn't take a lot to develop them -can diffuse things rapidly
microfinance development
-small loans given directly to the individual and small businesses who do not qualify for a commercial loan from a regular bank
Use of Solar Electricity
-spacecraft -calculators -remote areas -heating water
Electric Car Facts
-started in the 1900s -lost favor -has had a resurgence -limited range and more expensive
stimulus vs. austerity during recession
-stimulus: government spends more money to stimulate the government; will get paid back when people succeed and pay more taxes -austerity: government needs to sharply reduce taxes so people can revive the economy themselves with the money they save from paying less taxes; government should also cut its own spending
Nuclear Energy Distribution
-supplies 14% of the world's energy -used by only 30 of nearly 200 countries (19 developed, 11 developing) -2/3 of world's nuclear power generated in North America and Europe -most highly dependent countries clustered in Europe -relatively higher concentration of nuclear power plants in the Eastern half of the US
Enhanced Recovery from Already Discovered Fields (how potential reserves become proven reserves)
-techniques used to remove the last supplies from a proven field -painstaking and inefficient
Drive to Maturity (Rostow Model)
-technology diffuses -rapid growth -workers become skilled and specialized
GNI per Capita
-the gross national income / population -provides a measurement for the contribution of average individuals to a country's wealth -the higher the ratio, the more developed the country is -not a perfect measurement of a country's development
Gross Domestic Product
-the output of goods and services produced in a country (does not account for the money going in and out)
literacy rate
-the percentage of a country's people who can read and write
productivity
-the value of a product compared to the amount of labor needed to make it -measured by value added per capita
Coal
-tropical locations -lush and swampy with lots of plants -mostly in the mid-latitude countries -50% comes from China -25% comes from developed countries (mostly US) -25% from developing countries
breeder reactor
-turns uranium into a renewable resource by generating plutonium, which is also an energy source -PROBLEM: plutonium is more lethal and easier to turn into a bomb
Solar Energy
-ultimate renewable resource supplied by the Sun -US received 1% of its electricity, but potential growth is unlimited -harnessed through passive solar energy systems and active solar energy systems -cannot be owned by a single government -does not damage the environment -0.3 quad BTUs
Oil Sand Fields
-unconventional source -extracting oil from tar -Alberta, Canada -Venezuela -Russia -as oil prices have increased, oil sand fields in Canada have become profitable, and are now reclassified as a proven reserve
fracking
-unconventional source -pumps water at high pressure at rocks to release gas -uses water as a resource -environmentally unfriendly
Problems with International Trade Approach
-uneven resource distribution (if you only have 1 commodity and world demand is limited, you can't use it) -increased dependence on developed countries (because they are putting so much energy for 1 commodity, they don't have industries for other needs, like food or clothing, and are dependent on other nations to sell that to them) -market decline (if the world market declines, everyone goes down)
widening inequality between rich and poor
-until 1980, the inequality gap was narrowing in developed countries -since 1980, the gap has re-widened, especially in the US and UK -in 2010, the richest 1% of America held 20% of the wealth, and 421 billionaires hold 10% of the wealth
Why do developed countries have longer average lifespans?
-use resources to protect those who are unable to work -public assistance to the sick, elderly, poor, disabled, veterans, single parents, etc.
Variations in Development within Regions
-very high in SW Asia/N Africa and Central Asia -much of SW Asia/N Africa is desert, but has oil
Regional Variation in Brazil
-wealth is along the Atlantic Coast and lowest in the interior Amazon tropical rain forest
Regional Variation in China
-wealth is along the East Coast -poorest in the remote mountain/desert in the middle
Regional Variation in Mexico
-wealth is in the regions bordering the US and in the Yucatan Peninsula (tourism) -rest of country is poor
Demand for Energy
-while fewer in number, developed countries consume 1/2 of the world's energy -per capita consumption of energy is greatest in North America -per capita energy consumption is nearly 3x greater in developed countries than in developing countries
pupil/teacher ratio statistics
-worldwide: 24 -developed: 14 -developing: 26 -class size is almost 2x as large in developing countries
Computers
-worldwide: 300 per 1,000 -developed: 700 per 1,000 -developing: 200 per 1,000
years of schooling statistics
-worldwide: 7 -developed: 11 -developing: 6
Average years of schooling
-worldwide: 7 years -developed: 11 years -developing: 6 years
Average life expectancies of a baby
-worldwide: 70 years -developed: 80 years -developing: 68
Telephones
-worldwide: 800 per 1,000 -developed: 1,100 per 1,000 -developing: 700 per 1,000
Measurement of Education
-years of schooling -exppected years of schooling
How many countries has the UN found to have women treated equally to men?
0
perfect GII
0
Energy Supply
Earth's energy resources are not distributed evenly
highest adolescent fertility rate
Sub-Saharan Africa (more than 100/1,000)
The UN asserts that gender inequality has _______________ in nearly every country since the 1990s
declined
GII is higher is _______________ countries
developing (i.e. sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, Central Asia, and Southwest Asia)
What obstacles limit women in participation with development and access to benefits?
long-standing cultural and legal obstacles
Countries with a high HDI tend to have a ___________ GII
lower
Alternative Energy sources are _____________ expensive compared to nonrenewable sources
more
Most energy sources used by humans are _____________________
nonrenewable
Principle Alternative Energy Source
nuclear and hydroelectric
expected years of schooling
number of years the average 5 year old is expected to spend in school
years of schooling
number of years the average person aged 25+ has spent in school
Most solar energy in the US is _______________
privately used (electric companies don't have much interest in solar technology because fossil fuels are cheap now)
quad
quadrillion (unit of measurement of fuel)
Sustainable development requires reliance on _______________ energy
renewable
Which country produces at least 20 quad BTUs of all three fuels?
the US
example of a country where the GII has increased
the US
If the IHDI in the US is .77 and the IHDI in Canada is .83, which country has greater inequality?
the US (the lower the score, the greater the inequality)
Empowerment
the ability of women to achieve economic and political power
value added
the gross value of a product minus the cost of raw materials
Gender Inequality Index (GII)
the measurement of the inequality between men and women (replaces gender-related index and gender empowerment measure)
adolescent fertility rate
the number of births per 1,000 women aged 15-19 years old (20/1,000 in developed, 60/1,000 in developing)
maternal mortality ratio
the number of women who die per 100,000 births (15/100,000 in developed, 140/100,000 in developing)
development
the process of improving the material conditions of people through diffusion of knowledge and technology
Demand
the quantity of something that consumers are willing and able to buy
Supply
the quantity of something that producers have available for sale
Gross National Income (GNI)
the value of the output of goods and services produced in a country in a year, including money that leaves and enters the country
Why is the average per capita of MDCs higher than in LDCs?
they have different means of earning a living (brains over brawn)
Proven Reserves
a supply of energy remaining in deposits that have been discovered
Potential Reserves
a supply of energy that is undiscovered but thought to exist (can be reclassified as a proven reserve)
Female Labor Force Participation Rate
% of women holding full-time jobs outside of home
Motor Vehicles
-cars/trucks -worldwide: 170 per 1,000 -developed: 630 per 1,000 -developing: 80 per 1,000
majority of the world's energy needs are supplied by:
-coal -petroleum -natural gas
How is empowerment measured?
-% of seats held by women in national legislature -% of women who have graduated from high school
Geothermal Energy Distribution
-1 quad BTU -mostly Iceland and Indonesia -in Iceland, a majority of homes use geothermal steam
Global Natural Gas Distribution
-1/3 of natural gas production is supplied by Russia and SW Asia -1/3 by developing regions -1/3 by developed regions
India's Conversion to International Trade Approach
-1990s -allowed foreign companies to open factories and sell stuff in India -reduced tariffs and restrictions -monopolies in communication and insurance were eliminated -with increased competition, Indian companies have improved the quality of their products
hydroelectric power distribution in the world
-2/3 in developing countries -Brazil is the largest country to depend primarily on hydroelectric power (85% of power is hydroelectric) -in developed countries, Canada is the largest user of hydroelectric power (2/3)
Coal Proven Reserves
-20 million quad BTUs -will run out in 131 years -US has 25% -rest are in Russia and China
Biomass Distribution
-3 quad BTUs total -mostly in North America, Europe, and Brazil
What classes does the HDI sort countries into?
-4 classes -range from developed (Very High) to developing (Low)
Oil Proven Reserves
-5,000 quad BTUs -will run out in 43 years -85% in developing countries
infant mortality rates
-6% in developing countries -0.5% in developed countries
Natural Gas Proven Reserves
-6,000 quad BTUs -will run out in 49 years -less than 10% are in developed countries (mostly US) -Russia, Iran, and Qatar have 60%
Members of OPEC
-Algeria -Iraq -Kuwait -Libya -Qatar -Saudi Arabia -United Arab Emirates -Angola -Ecuador -Iran -Nigeria -Venezuela
Variation within Countries
-Brazil, China, and Mexico (among the world's largest and most populous countries) are in the middle in GDP per capita, but have extremes within the countries themselves
% of World Energy Consumed by Major Countries
-China: 20.4% -US: 18.3% -Europe: 15.1%
Measures of a Decent Standard of Living
-Gross National Income -Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)
Four Asian Dragons
-International Trade Path -South Korea -Singapore* -Taiwan -Hong Kong* -*no natural resources, but were British colonies, and promoted development in production of manufactured goods (clothes and electronics); helped by cheap labor
Other Places for HDI
-Japan/South Pacific (very high) -Russia (was very high, but is now just high due to Communism)
Proven Reserves Statistics
-coal: 131 years -natural gas: 49 years -petroleum: 43 years
Example of India's Success at International Trade Approach
-Maruti-Udyog Automobiles (owned by government) -was protected by import duties, so they sold crappy cars and held 80% of Indian market -after change to international trade, government sold the company to Suzuki (Japanese brand), so they are making better cars -now only hold 45% of market
developed country synonym
-More Developed Country -Relatively Developed Country
9 Regions in Order of HDI
-North America (US & Canada) -Europe (all but E. Europe are very high) -Latin America (high) -East Asia (medium) -Central Asia (medium, but a big range) -Southeast Asia (medium) -Southwest Asia/North Africa (medium, but wide range) -South Asia (medium) -Sub-Saharan Africa (low)
Alternative Energy Sources
-Nuclear Energy -Hydroelectric Power -Biomass -Solar Energy -Wind Energy
1970 Oil Crisis
-OPEC significantly raised prices -US freaked out -US decreased its reliance on OPEC oil by 1/2 -share of imports from OPEC countries declined from 2/3 (1970s) to 1/3 (1980s)
Types of Energy Reserves
-Proven -Potential
Chernobyl
-Russia (Ukraine) -nuclear meltdown -56 immediate deaths due to radiation -4,000+ cancers
Petroleum-rich Arabian Peninsula
-Saudi Arabia -Kuwait -Bahrain -Oman -United Arab Emirates -used to be the world's least developed countries -escalating the world's oil prices in the 1970s -used oil money to finance large-scale housing, hideaways, hospitals, etc.
Proven Reserves of Petroleum
-Southwest Asia -North Africa -Central Asia -all 3 have ethnic and political conflict
Data Sources for Development
-UN Development Programme prepares an annual Human Development report -World Bank
Countries with Nuclear Weapons
-US -Russia -China -France -UK -India -Pakistan -North Korea -Israel (?) -Iran (developing)
4 Classes of HDI
-Very High -High -Medium -Low
Core and Periphery
-Wallerstein -developed countries form an inner core, and developing countries occupy the periphery -uneven development with countries near the core doing better than those in the periphery
Future Energy Challenges of the Earth
-We are running out of nonrenewable resources -converting to renewable resources disrupts daily life and causes hardship
Major Lenders for Foreign Development
-World Bank -International Monetary Fund (IMF) -both established in 1944 to promote development after WW2 and avoid the Great Depression -both are branches of the UN
housing bubble
-a rapid increase in the value of houses followed by the sharp decline in their value -accelerate by banks giving shaky loans to people to buy house they couldn't afford -People couldn't pay back loans, banks failed
WTO Functions
-acts as a judge in trade disagreements between countries -protects intellectual property in the age of the Internet
What happened to the euro?
-adopted by most European countries in 1999 to improve trade between European countries -once recession hit, weaker European economies dragged down the stronger ones -i.e. Germany and Italy -Northern Europe is doing well, but Southern Europe is not. NE wants SE to use austerity, while SE wants NE to use stimulus to fix problem
Fundamental Obstacles to Rapid Development
-adopting policies that promote development -finding funds
inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI)
-an indicator of development that modifies the HDI to account for inequality within a country (measure of comparison) -basically measures the gap between rich vs poor -in perfect equality, the HDI and IHDI are the same -if IHDI is lower than HDI, then the country has inequality -the lower the IHDI, the worse the difference in rich to poor is
Fair Trade Business Standard for Producers
-artisans and farmers band together to get loans, reduce raw material costs, and maintain better prices on their products -benefits artisans/farmers directly, rather than a large corporation -artisans/farmers themselves get to set working conditions and have a say in how things are made -products cost more, but more of what is made is going to the people -bypasses distributors to cut costs
Changing US Petroleum Sources
-beginning in the 1950s -extracting domestic petroleum became more expensive than importing it from SW and Central Asia -US imports increased for 14% (1954) to 58% (2009) -sharp increase in price of oil set by OPEC countries
Solar Energy in Developing Countries
-biggest market is in remote villages who lack access to electrical plants
major consumers of energy in the US
-business (coal > gas/oil) -homes (gas > oil/coal) for heat -transportation (oil > gas/coal)
Future Energy Demands
-by 2035, developing countries are expected to need 62% of all energy -currently, 50% is used by developing, and 50% by developed -in 2007, demand for fossil fuel in developing countries surpassed that in developed countries
Less Developed (developing) Country
-can be broken into high, medium, or low countries
passive solar energy systems
-capture energy without using special devices -in other words, building stuff smart to take advantage of the Sun -i.e. greenhouses (south-facing windows and dark surfaces to heat)
fossil fuel statistics
-coal: 27.9% -petroleum: 33.2% -natural gas: 22.2%
World Trade Organization (WTO)
-established in 1995 -represents 97% of companies participating in world trade -purpose is to reduce barriers to international trade -by negotiate reduction of international trade restrictions on manufactured goods (taking away govt. subsidies, import quotas, and tariffs) -by reducing restrictions of movement of money by banks, corporations, and wealthy -does this by enforcing agreements
Why projects funded by the World Bank fail (especially in Africa)
-faulty engineering -nation who received the money wasted it or had it stolen/spent on military instead of economics -despite new infrastructure, companies don't want to come
pupil/teacher ratio
-fewer pupils = better education -how many students are in a class with one teacher
Glass technology
-for passive solar energy -better insulation to keep heat in
Indian Self-Sufficiency (only modestly successful)
-foreign companies have to secure a license to import goods -once they get the license, the companies are severely limited -heavy taxes on imported good (sometimes double or triple price) -Indian businesses aren't allowed to export -Indian money can't be converted to other currencies -effectively isolate Indian economy -Indian businesses need government permission to do anything -if private Indian companies don't make money, the government provides subsidies -government owned large portions of businesses (not just communications, transportation, and power)
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
-formed in 1960 -to gain more control over petroleum -result of European and US transnational companies exploring and exploiting the oil fields of developing countries and keeping profits
Natural Gas
-from sediment on the seafloor -1/3 from Russia/SW Asia -1/3 from developing countries -1/3 from developed countries (mostly US)
Nuclear Fusion
-fusing of hydrogen to form helium -releases a spectacular amount of energy -so far not sustainable -i.e. hydrogen bomb
primary sector
-getting resources directly from the earth -agriculture -mining -fishing -forestry
Lessons from the Worldwide Recession of 2008
-globalization results in co-dependence (one recession affects multiple countries) -globalization is fine, but a country still needs to maintain local diversity and skills
Under OPEC, who sets prices of petroleum?
-governments possessing oil reserves -not petroleum companies
Hydroelectric power
-harnesses the power of moving water to convert it to electricity -leading source of renewable energy in both developed and developing regions -2nd most popular source (after coal)
Gender Inequality Trends
-has declined since 1990 -greatest improvements in Southwest Asia and North Africa -US is one of the few countries where the GII has increased -US is the 47th in GII, even though it has the 4th highest HDI
primary sector GNI
-has decreased in developing countries compared to previous times -remains higher in developed countries
Traditional Society (Rostow Model)
-hasn't started development yet -high % of people in agriculture and non-productive activities (military and religion)
Gender Attitudes towards the Environment
-highest HDI: women care more about the environment -lowest HDI: men care more about the environment
European Debt Crisis
-hit harder than the rest of the world during the 2008 recession -call into question the ability of Europe to support the international trade path
Ground Water Contamination (nuclear energy issues)
-if you store nuclear waste underground, it may contaminate the water and cause cancer
Conservation of Oil
-implemented after 1970s -more gas-efficient cars produced -14 mpg to 22 mpg to hybrids
Female Labor Force Statistics
-in developed countries, 75 women to 100 men -in developing countries, 65 women to 100 men -lowest rates are in Southwest Asia and North Africa -only 35 women to 100 men there -exception is sub-Saharan Africa (highest rate with 77 to 100) -manual labor (agriculture)
Women Graduating High School Statistics
-in developing countries, for every 10 boys, 5-10 girls graduate (depending on where)
Biomass
-includes wood and crops that can be burned as fuel to generate electricity/heat -i.e. sugarcane, corn, and soybeans that can be processed into motor-vehicle fuels
Limiting Factors for Increasing Reliance on Biomass
-inefficient (may require as much energy to burn it as the amount of energy to produce the crops they supply) -"putting food" in the gas tank (Biomass already serves essential purposes, like providing Earth's food, clothing, and shelter) -environmental concerns (logging trees for wood to be burned may reduce the fertility of the forest)
Rostow Model
-international trade path -5 stages: -traditional society -preconditions for takeoff -takeoff -drive to maturity -age of mass consumption
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
-investment made by a foreign company in another country -grew rapidly from 1990 to 2010 -only 40% went from developed to developing -not evenly distributed among developed countries (40% went to China) -another 20% to Brazil, Russia, and Singapore -of the developing countries, China has the most FDI and the most transnational corporations
challenges of hydroelectric power
-lack of remaining acceptable sites to construct a hydroelectric dam poses a challenge to increasing reliance in US
tertiary sector GNI
-large in developed countries, and continues to grow
secondary sector GNI
-lessened in developing countries -decreased sharply in developed countries
How to do Self-Sufficiency
-limit import of goods (tariffs, quotas, & require licenses) -isolating fledgling businesses from international competition -spreading investment equally across all sectors -prevent a gap between rich and poor (reduce poverty)
Global Petroleum Distribution
-main reserves are located on the seafloor and in areas once under water millions of years ago -Russia and Saudi Arabia combined supply 1/4 of the world's petroleum supply -US supplies 1/4 of the global supply -remaining 1/2 of world supply comes from developing countries (SW and Central Asia mainly)
Global Coal Distribution
-main reserves of coal are located in the mid-latitude countries -China and the US supply nearly 1/2 and 1/4 (respectively) of the world's coal
Natural Gas Fields in the US
-mainly OK, TX, and Appalachians
Measures of a Long and Healthy Life
-mainly life expectancy at birth
How to reform government
-make civil service more efficient -increase accountability in financial matters -implement consistent rules and regulations -give information to the public
Why are infant mortality rates high in developing countries?
-malnutrition -little medication -no access to doctors
secondary sector
-manufacturer of goods -turning trees into lumber -making clothing -pottery making
Measurements of Reproductive Health
-maternal mortality ratio -adolescent fertility rate
problems with structural adjustment programs
-may worsen poverty by placing priority on reducing government spending -cuts in health, education, and social services -higher unemployment -loss of jobs in government sector -less support for those most in need (i.e. pregnant women, nursing mothers, young children, and elderly)
Why GNI per capita is not a perfect measurement of development
-measures average wealth, not the distribution of it -reflects the potential for ensuring the country's citizens have a comfortable life, but is no guarantee
Unconventional Sources (how potential reserves become proven reserves)
-methods currently used to extract resources won't work because of insufficient technology, environmentally unsound, or not economically feasible -i.e. oil sands (AKA tar)
Grameen Bank
-microfinance bank in Bangladesh -specializes in loans to women -Muhammad Yunus, the founder, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize -only 1% of the borrowers have failed to pay off their loans -average loan is only $60 (lowest is $1, highest is $7 million)
problems with longer life expectancies
-more elderly retired people -fewer children under the age of 15
Women in Legislature Statistics
-more women vote than men, but fewer women hold office -highest % is in Europe (25%) -1/6 in the US (below the numbers in many developing regions)
Benefits of International Trade Approach
-most popular alternative in the late 20th century -developed countries increased in number (Japan, Southern, and Eastern Europe) -developing countries have raw materials that developed countries need (no more colonies, so they couldn't just take stuff without paying for it) -developing countries get to learn what the world wants and how to face competitive challenges
North American Fair Trade
-mostly craft products -i.e. jewelry, textiles, ceramics, etc. (largest trade organization is Ten Thousand Villages)
European Fair Trade
-mostly food products
What and why do countries borrow money for?
-new infrastructure (i.e. dams, electricity, flood protection, water supply, roads, and hotels) -business will not move to a place where there is not infrastructure
Undiscovered Fields (how potential reserves become proven reserves)
-newly discovered reserves are smaller and more remote (largest, most accessible fossil fuel deposits have already been exploited) -costly to extract and find
radioactive waste management
-not possible to burn or chemically treat waste to make it safe for human exposure -waste must remain isolated from human contact for thousands of years (until it loses radioactivity)
Fair Trade Producer Standards
-on average, 1/3 of the price goes to the producer in a developing country
International Trade
-opens themselves to foreign investments and trade -more popular now -got messed up with the 2008 recession
Criticisms of Wind Energy
-opposition by environmentalists who are concerned about windmills being noisy, lethal for birds and bats, and ugly
Current US Oil Situation
-price of petroleum plummeted to the lowest level in the 1990s (inflation) -petroleum consumption significantly increased due to cheap gas (people started buying SUVs) -in 2008, oil prices hit a high, contributing to recession
Challenges for Developed Countries with Fuel
-produce the most, but also use the most -need to import their fuels (especially oil) -US and Europe import 50% of the oil they use -developing countries now need more, and don't want to trade
Criticisms of WTO
-progressive: WTO is anti-democratic and promotes large corporations, rather than individuals -conservatives: compromises the power and sovereignty of individual countries (can order change in taxes and laws that it considers unfair)
Problems with Self-Sufficiency
-protection of inefficient businesses (government guaranteed subsidies, so there is no incentive to improve) -needs large bureaucracy (results in a lot of waste)
Uranium reserves
-proven reserves are projected to only last 124 years at current consumption rate -most reserves in Australia
IMF
-provides loans to countries experiencing bounce-off payment problems -designed to help countries rebuild international reserves and stabilize the currencies -funding is based on the size of the country and economy
IRBD
-provides loans to countries to reform public administration and legal/financial institutions -implement transportation and social service project -mostly to Europe and Latin America -money raised from sale of bonds to private investors
worst GII
1.0 (worst places to be a woman)
% of alternative energy sources in the US
20
Wind Energy Distribution
3 quad BTUs
How much of the world's energy needs are supplied by fossil fuels?
5/6
quad BTU
8 million gallons of gasoline
How many regions of development are there in the world?
9
Knowledge = Possibility for _________
Better Lives
BTU
British Thermal Unit
lowest adolescent fertility rate
Europe (8/1,000); related to use of contraceptives
Why is the GII higher in developing countries?
GII measures inequality (reproductive health is the largest contributer to gender inequality)
Greatest Improvement in GII
Southwest Asia and North Africa
greatest energy demand per capita
US; North America consumes 25% of the world's energy, but only has 1/20 of the world's population
In developed countries, dependency on coal, petroleum, and natural gas has _______________ in the 20th century
increased
Human Development Index (HDI)
a metric measure created by the UN to measure the level of development in every country (based on a decent standard of living, long and healthy life, and access to knowledge)
Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)
an adjustment made to the GNI to account for differences among countries in the cost of goods (a number that accounts for differences in the relative cost of items from country to country)
fossil fuels
an energy formed from the residue of plants and animals buried millions of years ago
What does per capita GNI measure?
average (mean) wealth, not distribution among citizens
What is a major factor that keeps countries from achieving higher development?
inequality between men and women
active solar energy systems
collecting solar energy and converting it to either heat energy or electricity directly or indirectly
fair trade
commerce in which products are made and traded in standards that protect workers in developing countries
Dominance of developed countries high supply of proven fossil fuels is _________________
ending (Europe ran out, Japan never had any to start with, etc.)
Higher GII = ____________ inequality
greater
Value added per capita is _____________ in MDCs
higher (because in an MDC we have more machines and tools to do more of the work, so we are more productive)
Leading Source of Renewable Energy
hydroelectric power
Why does the UN consider reproductive health a measure of gender inequality?
in countries where effective control of reproduction is universal, women have fewer children
World Bank consists of:
includes International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and International Development Association (IDA)
