APUSH 9

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

- Supreme court declared that same sex marriage is legal in all 50 states - ruling struck down any law that prevented or limited same-sex marriage

1980s on the surface

- Economic recovery from stagflation - Psychological recovery from violence, chaos, and assassinations of the 60s and 70s - Military recovery (from the Vietnam War and a general perception of being weak on the world stage) - Political stabilization (from the Watergate scandals) - general recovery from 1970s Malaise

Domestic issues of the 1980s

- Focus on the economy (reversing stagflation) - Healing from unintended negative consequences of the 60s and 70s - Reversing the malaise of the 1970s - Restoring hope and confidence in the American dream

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) aka Star Wars

- President Reagan's program to create an effective laser based defense against a nuclear attack - SDI was a part of Reagan's arms race challenge to the Soviet Union in the 80s

Foreign issues of the 1980s

- Winning the Cold War - fighting Communism and preventing its spread throughout Central and South America (focus of the Cold War in the 80s) - Supporting ANY and ALL anti-communist insurgents in ANY nation or region of the world ("Reagan Doctrine") - Restoring America's image and strength on the world stage

Affordable Care Act of 2010 (Obamacare)

- although a law reforming the health care system was rejected under President Clinton, a law establishing near universal health care coverage was passed under President Obama - strong opposition to "Obamacare" from conservatives led to the founding of the Conservative Tea Party movement.

Attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon (9/11)

- attacks by Al Qaeda on the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in Washington, DC that killed approx 3000 people and started the US war on Terrorism.

Nancy Pelosi

- first woman to become speaker of the House of Rep (2007) - Democrat from California

Iraq War (2003)

- invasion of Iraq led by the United States, followed by a longer phase of fighting, in which an insurgency emerged to oppose the occupying forces and a newly formed Iraqi government.

Mikhail Gorbachev

- leader of the Soviet Union who assumed power in 1985 and introduced political and economic reforms in the Soviet Union, relaxed tensions with the US, and presided over the break up of the Soviet Union

1980s in Reality

- materialism and conspicuous consumption were at an all time high - wealth gap widened between the rich and the poor - conditions in cities worsened as "white flight" to the suburbs continued to grow - AIDS epidemic hits America (largely ignored and stigmatized in the early years of the crisis as a "gay man's disease)

Taliban

- organization of Muslim fundamentalists that gained control over Afghanistan in 1996 following a long bloody civil war that ensued after the Soviet Union withdrew in 1989 - established a strict Islamic government that provided a safe haven for Al Qaeda in the years leading up to the 9/11 attack

Don't Ask Don't Tell aka DADT (1994)

- policy prohibiting military personnel from discriminating against or harassing closeted homosexual or bisexual service members or applicants, while barring openly gay, lesbian, or bisexual persons from military service. - President Obama reversed DADT in 2011 to allow openly queer persons to openly serve in the military

glass ceiling

- term used to describe the barrier within a company that prevents women and/or minorities from rising to upper-level positions.

Al Qaeda

- terrorist network established by Saudi Arabian Osama Bin Laden in 1989 - Organizes militant Islamic groups that seek to remove foreigners from Islamic holy lands and to unite all Islamic lands under one single rule.

Global warming

- the gradual warming of the surface of the Earth that could cause major ecological changes in the future - the cause (natural or man made) of global warming is a hotly debated topic in the world today

Persian Gulf War (1991)

- war in the Persian gulf region triggered by Iraq's invasion of Kuwait - international coalition led by the US defeated Iraqi forces and liberated Kuwait from Iraqi control

Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981

Law passed under President Reagan that cut income taxes over three years by 25%. Lowered the rate for the highest income bracket from 78% to 28% - Tax cuts were a fundamental part of Reaganomics

Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986

Law that prohibited the hiring of undocumented foreigners. Offered amnesty and legal resident status to immigrants who could prove they had entered the United States before 1982.

The Cold War in Latin America

1. Multiple interventions (Legacy of the Monroe Doctrine?) 2. Starts with Cuba in 1959 (Castro) 3. "Reagan Doctrine" 4. Iran-Contra Affair (Nicaragua)

The Four Pillars of Reaganomics

1. Reduce federal income and capital gains taxes 2. Reduce Federal Spending 3. Reduce Government Regulation 4. Tighten the money supply to reduce inflation

7 parts of Reaganomics

1. Supply side economics (the foundation) 2. Reduce the size and role of the Federal Government (broadly speaking) 3. Tax cuts (stimulate economic growth) (corporate tax, capital gains tax, and income tax) 4. Reduce Government Regulations of the Economy (less Government involvement) 5. Tighten the Money Supply (reduce inflation) 6. Increase Defense Spending (win the Cold War) 7. Practice "Trickle Down Economics Theory"

End of the Cold War with the Soviet Union (4 main reasons)

1. The "Evil Empire" rhetoric of Reagan 2. Behind the scenes with Gorbachev 3. Gorbachev's reforms in the Soviet Union 4. An Arms Race with the Soviet Union

In 1984, Reagan won a smashing re-election campaign against Walter Mondale. Democrat Mondale, running with the first woman nominee for VP, Geraldine Ferraro, won only his home state of Minnesota and district of Columbia.

A 1984 Reagan campaign as declared proudly "It's morning in America"

As both parties moved to the center to claim the largest numbers of American voters, bitter partisanship emerged. Voters punished the Republicans by voting against George Bush in 1992. After two years of Bill Clinton, voters punished him by turning the House and Senate over to the Republicans.

A bitter partisan struggle arose over the personal sexual improprieties of Clinton in 1998, leading to an impeachment vote largely along party lines. Although disgusted with Clinton's behavior, voters punished overzealous Republicans by trimming their majority in Congress in 1998.

Additional problems beset President Bush in 1992. In April, Los Angeles erupted into a five day looting and burning rampage that killed more than 50 people. The riot was touched off by the acquittal of five LA police officers for the beating of Rodney King during his arrest in 1991.

A hidden camera showed the officers beating King with nightsticks while he lay on the ground. Despite the video evidence, the jury found the police officers not guilty of using excessive force. The announcement of the verdict released years of pent up rage many African Americans felt about the ongoing problem of police brutality.

Perestroika

A policy initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev that involved restructuring of the social and economic status quo in communist Russia towards a market based economy and society

Glasnost

A policy of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev which called for more openness with the nations of West, and a relaxing of restraints on Soviet citizenry.

Reagan announced the Reagan Doctrine, which pledged American support to "Freedom Fighters" opposing Communism anywhere on the globe. Funds and CIA training were awarded to the government of El Salvador to help defeat communist guerillas.

After left-leaning revolutionaries took over the island of Grenada in 1983, Reagan dispatched the Marines to install a US-friendly regime. The United States gave support to the Mujahedeen Rebels in Afghanistan against the USSR.

War in Afghanistan, 2001

After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, NATO forces led by the United States entered Afghanistan to dismantle al-Qaeda and eliminate its safe haven by removing the Taliban from power

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) (1993)

Agreement between the United States, Canada, and Mexico that eliminated most tariffs and other trade barriers

Dayton Agreement, 1995

Agreement signed in Dayton, Ohio, by three rival ethnic groups in Bosnia pledged to end a four year-old civil war.

Another linchpin of the Conservative backlash was the Christian Right. The Christian Right had many faces. Fundamentalists such as Jerry Falwell believed in a literal interpretation of the Bible. Pentacostalists such as Pat Robertson claimed the Holy spirit communicated directly with people on a regular basis.

All evangelical leaders agreed that America was experiencing a moral decline. Explained that homosexuality was a crime against God and that a woman's place was in the home in support of her family. They criticized the "liberal" media for corrupting America's youths.

The Congress had expressly forbidden such aid, but high-level Reagan Administration officials had proceeded nonetheless. Documents were shredded to mask the paper trail in the White House. No connection between the scandal and Reagan had ever been proven.

Although no charges were ever raised, the "Teflon President" was somewhat smeared by the ugly mess in the White House.

American troops were used to provide food to starving civilians in war-torn Somalia, to restore a democratically elected President to Haiti, and to bomb suspected terrorist bases in Sudan and Afghanistan.

Americans began to think of themselves as peacekeepers of the world.

In 1998, a scandal that nearly ended Clinton's presidency unfolded in the press. It was reported that Clinton was banging a White House intern named Monica Lewinsky during his first term. Republicans were outraged.

An independent counsel named Kenneth Starr was appointed to gather evidence against Clinton. Clinton admitted that many of the reports were true and that he was ashamed of his behavior.

Not everyone was happy with the social changes brought forth in America in the 60s and 70s. When Roe v. Wade guaranteed the right to abortion, a fervent pro-life movement dedicated to protecting the "unborn child" took root.

Anti-feminists rallied against the Equal Rights Amendment and the eroding traditional family unit. Many who believed homosexuality was sinful lambasted the newly vocal gay rights movement. As the divorce and crime rates rose, an increasing number of Americans began to blame liberal welfare establishment for social maladies.

Terrorism and anticommunism combined to confront Reagan with his worst domestic scandal. In November 1986, the press reported that American military supplies had been secretly sold to arch enemy Iran in exchange for their support for the release of American hostages held in Lebanon.

As the story unraveled, it was revealed that a National Security Council aide named Oliver North diverted proceeds from the Iran deal to support the Nicaraguan Contras, who fought against the communist Sandinista govt.

Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989)

Barrier between West Berlin and Communist East Berlin that was torn down in 1989, marking the end of the Cold War and the beginning of the disintegration of the Soviet Union

The New Right was a combination of Christian religious leaders, conservative business bigwigs who claimed that environmental and labor regulations were undermining the competitiveness of American firms in the global market, and fringe political groups.

Barry Goldwater based his 1964 Presidential campaign on the premise that the New Deal should be reversed. He declared that big government was the greatest threat to American liberty.

President Bush received a large approval rating for his handling of Operation Desert Storm. But the recession that battered the American economy would not go away. As growth remained low and unemployment persisted, some of the shine began to wear off the President. Not since James Monroe's second term in 1820 had a sitting President been re-elected during an economic slump. Enter Bill Clinton.

Bush was a hero of WWII, extensive Washington experience including heading the CIA, Ambassador of the UN, and 8 years as a Vice President. Clinton was born after WWII and did not fight in Vietnam, so he faced constant charges of dodging the draft. He had no experience on the Federal level of government; he simply was the popular governor of Arkansas.

Department of Homeland Security (2001)

Cabinet-level department created after the attacks of September 11 to protect the United States and its territories from terrorist attacks, man-made accidents, and natural disasters

When neither party would blink, a partial shutdown of government services took place. The American public often decides the victors of such battles. Polls showed strong support for the President. Many Americans saw the Gingrich Republicans as mean spirited zealots who wanted to end funds for school lunches.

Clinton saw his approval ratings rise by the time he ran for a second term in 1996, the economy was booming and the huge budget deficit had been controlled. Clinton was re-elected over Republican candidate Robert Dole.

Rust Belt

Description for the Northeastern states that have experienced economic decline, population loss, and urban decay due to the loss of industry that moved primarily to the Sun Belt

Gorbachev hoped these changes would be enough to spark the sluggish Soviet economy. Freedom, however, is addictive. The unraveling of the Soviet Bloc began in Poland in 1989.

Despite previous Soviet military interventions in Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Poland itself, Polish voters elected a noncommunist opposition government to their legislature. The world expected the USSR to roll into Poland with tanks and prevent the new government from taking power. Gorbachev, however, refused to act.

Fall of Soviet Union (1991)

Due to the Soviet government's inability to stop the rise of nationalism and the independence of Soviet republics, the Soviet Union formally ceased to exist on December 26, 1991.

Defense of Marriage Act (1996) (DOMA)

Federal law that defined marriage as a legal contract between a man and a woman

Barack Obama

First African American President of the US, elected 2008

Bombing of Yugoslavia, 1999

NATO bombings of Yugoslavia led to the withdrawal of Yugoslav forces from Kosovo and put an end to the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s

When Mikhail Gorbachev assumed the reins of power in the Soviet Union in 1985, no one predicted the revolution he would bring. A dedicated reformer, Gorbachev introduced the policies of glasnost and perestroika.

Glasnost, or openness, meant a greater willingness on the part of Soviet officials to allow western ideas and goods into the USSR. Perestroika was an initiative that allowed limited market incentives to Soviet citizens.

The Presidential election of 2000 hinged on the outcome in Florida. First, the television networks said that Vice President Al Gore had carried the state. Then, the state's election was considered "too close to call". Then, networks declared Texas Governor George W. Bush the winner. The election was so close that it took 5 weeks to determine the winner.

Gore gained half a million more votes than Bush, but Gore lost the Electoral College when he lost Florida. With the Presidency hanging on a few hundred votes in a single state, there were lawsuits and requests for recounts. Bitter disputes centered on confusing ballots, missing names from voting rolls, and subjecting minority voters to multiple requests for identification.

Throughout the campaign, scandal after scandal hit Clinton. Charges of adultery were addressed on television. Rumors of a real estate scandal called Whitewater surfaced from time to time. Clinton was no "Teflon" candidate.

His campaign adviser posted a sign on his desk that read simply: "It's the economy, stupid." Clinton hammered away at the recession and promised new ideas and a break with 12 years of Republicans in the White House.

Dubbed "The Great Communicator", Reagan had a smile and confidence that comforted many. Even an assassination attempt worked in his favor. When John Hinckley put a bullet in his chest, he took it in all in stride - "I hope you're all Republicans"

His popularity soared. Charges that he had little control over his staff and a less than functional understanding of many matters of policy fell mostly on deaf ears. He earned a reputation as the "Teflon President" - no scandal could stick to him.

In the 1970s, many on the right became critical of Keynesianism, which they claimed brought higher inflation without any gains in employment.

However, true Keynesianism, which called for deficit spending during recessions and surplus spending during periods of prosperity, was rarely implemented in its totality in American politics, usually because political considerations overshadowed fiscal policy.

The Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania declared independence. Talks of similar sentiments were heard in Ukraine, the Caucasus, and the Central Asian states. Here Gorbachev wished to draw the line. Self-determination for Eastern Europe was one thing, but he intended to maintain the territorial integrity of the USSR.

In 1991, he proposed a Union treaty, giving greater autonomy to the Soviet republics, while keeping them under central control. That summer, a coup by conservative hardliners took place. Gorbachev was placed under house arrest. Meanwhile, Boris Yeltsin, the leader of the Russian Soviet Republic, demanded the arrest of the hardliners. The army and the public sided with Yeltsin, and the coup failed. Though Gorbachev was freed, he was left with little legitimacy. Nationalist leaders like Yeltsin were far more popular than he could hope to become.

Originally sketched by Art Laffer who later became an advisor in the Reagan Administration. The theory was that, if taxes were too high, government revenues actually dropped by lowering incentives to produce. The rise, rather than the fall, in government deficits during the Reagan era caused many to question to validity of the Laffer Curve.

In addition, although the Laffer Curve was used to justify tax cuts, its main emphasis was on showing how to maximize government revenues through fiscal policy; because this conflicted with the aim of conservatives to reduce spending as well as revenues, the Laffer Curve has more recently been deemphasized by conservatives in recent years.

Iran-Contra Scandal (1987)

In an effort to back Contra forces wanting to overthrow Nicaragua's leftist and pro-Soviet government, the Reagan administration secretly sold weapons to the anti-American government in Iran to help secure the release of American hostages in Lebanon, transferring profits from the Iranians illegally to the Contras in Nicaragua.

The punch card ballots posed a major problem - they were vulnerable to voter error. Many ballots were called into question because voters failed to punch a hole all the way through the ballot.

In an extraordinary late night decision, the US Supreme Court halted a recount ordered by the Florida Supreme Court. A narrow majority of the justices said that the recount ordered by the Florida Supreme Court violated the principle that "all votes must be treated equally".

The House Judiciary Committee drew up articles of impeachment on four counts including abuse of power and obstruction of justice. The house decided that two articles of impeachment were in order, and in 1998, Clinton Joined Andrew Johnson as the only Presidents to be impeached (so far).

In such proceedings, the Senate has the final word and acts as a judge and jury. 2/3 of the Senators must vote guilty to remove a President from office. Clinton survived this final vote.

Nonetheless, Federal Government tax revenues did increase significantly following the t cuts of the Reagan years; it was the dramatic increase in spending that produced the budget deficits of that era.

Laffer Curve graph - horizontal axis represents tax rates, vertical axis represents revenues.

Reagan and the economy (Supply Side Economics the foundation)

Increase Production --> Full Employment and a decrease in the Price of Goods---> More Consumers--> Increase in Demand ---> Increase Production (Process repeats) * Contrast with the Demand Side Economics of Keynesian Theory

Traditionally, working-class Americans, Southerners, Catholics, and urban dwellers had strong ties to the Democratic Party. The Republicans relied heavily on support from rural Midwest, Protestant leaders, and wealthier voters. Reagan built a new coalition for the Republican Party in his quest for the Presidency in 1980.

Inflation and unemployment was high. Reagan promised to reduce the level of misery with sound fiscal policy. Southerners disgruntled by affirmative action and busing found friendly ears in the Reagan campaign.

Impact of "Reaganomics" by 1984

Inflation drops from 11.83% to 3.8% ● 16 million jobs added to the economy ● GDP (Gross Domestic Product) grows at an average rate of 3.4% ● Total family wealth and income surge

Bush, remembering the lessons of Vietnam, sought public support as well. Although there were scant opponents of the conflict, the vast majority of Americans supported the President's actions. When all forces were in place, the United States issued an ultimatum to Saddam Hussein: leave Kuwait by January 15, 1991, or face a full attack by a multinational force.

January 15 came with no response. The next night Desert Shield became Desert Storm. Bombing sorties pummeled Iraq's military targets for the next several weeks. Iraq responded by launching Scud missiles at American military barracks in Saudi Arabia and Israel. Attacking Israel was a tactic to persuade all neighboring Arab nations to join the Iraqi cause. After intense diplomatic pressure and negotiation, the Arab nations remained in opposition to Iraq.

Patriot Act (2001)

Law that reduced constraints on the Justice Department and other law-enforcement agencies in dealing with individuals who were suspected of being linked to terrorists - Civil Liberties groups argued that the Patriot Act overextended the Government's Constitutional authority and violated the rights of American Citizens

Immigration Act of 1990

Law that reformed the Immigration Act of 1965, increasing the number of immigrants allowed annually into the United States. The law gave preference to skilled workers and those with families already living in the United States.

Election Day belonged to Bill Clinton.

Much of Clinton's support came from baby boomers. Clinton's victory marked an end to the domination of politics by the World War II generation. Americans who had come of age during the turbulent 60s and 70s now had a representative in the White House.

weapons of mass destruction

Nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons that have the potential to kill large numbers of people. The U.S. invaded Iraq in 2003 saying that Iraqis had weapons of mass destruction. The weapons were never found.

Like dominoes, Eastern European communist dictatorships fell one by one. By the fall of 1989, East and West Germans were tearing down the Berlin wall with pickaxes. Communist regimes were ousted in Hungary and Czechoslovakia.

On Christmas day, the brutal Romanian dictator Nicole Ceausescu and his wife were executed on live television. Yugoslavia threw off the yoke of communism only to dissolve quickly into a violent Civil War. Demands for freedom soon spread to the Soviet Union.

Clinton had everything going for him. He became the first Democratic President since Jimmy Carter. He had a Democratic House and Democratic Senate both ready to work with him.

One of the first major initiatives he began was healthcare reform. Many Americans were concerned about spiraling medical costs. Medicare did not cover prescription drugs and only paid a portion of health care costs. Over 20 million Americans had no health insurance whatsoever. Clinton assembled a task force to study the problem and assigned his wife Hillary to head the committee.

The Tax Reform Act of 1986, which had broad bipartisan support, partly implemented the principles of supply-side economics. It drastically cut the top tax rate, which Congressional Democrats criticized because it seemed to benefit on the wealthiest Americans. It also simplified the tax code and eliminated tax loopholes, which had the support of Congressional Democrats.

Part of what Reagan implemented was in fact not supply side economics, but rather his own version of Keynesianism. Reagan advocated initiating deep tax cuts and simultaneous increases in military spending, while at the same time claiming that the Federal deficit would be erased.

Contract with America (1994)

Pledge taken by Republican candidates for Congress who promised to reduce the size and scope of the federal government and to balance the federal budget. Led to a Republican takeover of both houses of Congress in the midterm 1994 elections.

Sagebrush Rebellion

Political movement in the western states that opposed federal regulations governing land use and natural resources, favoring state jurisdiction instead

She became the most politically active first lady since Eleanor Roosevelt. Eventually Clinton presented a plan to limit costs and insure each American citizen to the Congress.

Powerful interest groups representing doctors and insurance companies opposed Clinton. Many in the Congress thought the program too costly. Conservatives compared the plan to socialized medicine. Despite a "friendly" Democratic Congress, the Clintons' proposal was defeated.

Reaganomics - The term Reaganomics was used to describe, and decry, the economic policies of US President Ronald Reagan during the 1980s.

Reagan had inherited an economy with high inflation and unemployment from President Carter, and his economic theories are claimed by his supporters to have eventually led to a strong recovery.

Another international menace was state-sponsored terrorism. In October 1983, 239 Marines were killed in Lebanon by a suicide bomber. Governments such as Syria, Libya, and Iran were suspected of training terrorist groups on their own soil.

Reagan warned the nations of the world that if the US could ever prove a link between an act of terrorism and a foreign government, there would be serious consequences.

Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START)

Reagan-era plan to draft treaties with the Soviet Union to reduce the number of nuclear weapons and their delivery systems

In December 1991, Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia itself declared independence and the USSR dissolved. Gorbachev was a President without a country.

Republicans were quick to claim credit for winning the Cold War. They believed the military spending policies of the Reagan-Bush years forced the Soviets to the brink of economic collapse. Democrats argued that the containment policy was a bipartisan policy for 45 years begun by the Democrat Harry Truman.

Before Reagan's election, Reaganomics was considered extreme by the liberal wing of the Republican Party. While running against Reagan for the Presidential nomination in 1980, George Bush had derided Reaganomics as "voodoo economics".

Similarly in 1976, Gerald Ford had severely criticized Reagan's proposal to turn back a large part of the Federal budget to the states. After the Reagan election, however, most Republicans endorsed Reaganomics, including Bush, who became his VP.

Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992)

Supreme Court decision that upheld the right to an abortion, overturning Pennsylvania restrictions on abortion.

Increase in the Budget Deficit and National Debt

Tax cuts and increases in defense spending let to an explosion of the federal deficit and national debt during the 1980s and early 1990s

It also ruled that there was not enough time to conduct a new count that would meet constitutional muster.

The 2000 election was the first in 112 years in which a Presidential candidate lost the popular vote but won via the electoral vote.

Ronald Reagan's policies had an impact on the relationship between the federal and state governments.

The Conservative Political Philosophy of Reagan prompted a re-evaluation of the size and role of government in the economy and society

In 1990, Saddam Hussein, the dictator of Iraq, ordered his army across the border into tiny Kuwait. Iraq's army was well equipped. The US had provided massive military aid to Iraq during their eight year war with Iran, giving them the fourth largest army in the world. Kuwait was a massive supplier of oil to the United States.

The Iraqi takeover posed a threat to neighboring Saudi Arabia, another major exporter of oil. If Saudi Arabia fell to Saddam, Iraq would control 1/5 of the world's oil supply. President Bush would not allow for this to stand.

United States v. Windsor (2013)

The Supreme Court ruled it unconstitutional for the federal government to deny federal benefits of marriage to married same-sex couples, if the marriage is recognized or performed in a state that allows same-sex marriage

The collapse of Yugoslavia allowed centuries of hatred between rival ethnic groups to bubble to the surface. The term "ethnic cleansing" was applied to the process of removing an entire nationality out of a particular territory by threats, violence, or genocide.

The United States contributed blue-helmet peacekeeping troops to Bosnia to end ethnic cleansing and committed air support to Kosovar Albanians who faced the same fate.

As the year 2000 approached, partisan politics were as toxic as ever. Republicans claimed that they fixed the economy and Clinton got the credit. Regardless of who gets the credit, the 1990s were a decade of steady economic growth.

The crippling budget deficits of the 1980s were finally brought under control, and Americans enjoyed low inflation, low unemployment, low interest rates and a booming stock market.

The Persian Gulf War was a television event. CNN broadcast round-the-clock coverage of unfolding events. Americans saw footage from cameras placed on smart bombs as they struck Iraqi targets. The stealth fighter, designed to avoid radar detection was put into use for the first time. General Norman Schwarzkopf and General Colin Powell became household names as citizens watched their direction of the conflict.

The United States passed its first test of the post-cold war world. Skillful diplomacy proved that the United Nations could be used as an instrument of force when necessary. Although Moscow did not contribute troops to the operation, they gave tacit approval for the attack. The potential for multinational cooperation was demonstrated. The largest American military operation since Vietnam was successful. Bush declared that the "new world order had begun" and Americans felt confident in their military and technological edge once more.

Before he became President, Reagan set the tone for relations with the USSR by labeling it as an "Evil Empire". Around the world, Communism seemed to be spreading. Soviet troops were in Afghanistan. Nicaragua was led by a Soviet-backed Sandinista government. Communist guerillas threatened to take over El Salvador. Cuban-backed troops waged a successful insurgency in Angola.

The age of detente was over. Reagan hoped to negotiate with the USSR, but believed he could only achieve concessions if dealing from a position of superiority. His increase in military spending would force a similar increase on the part of the Soviet rivals.

Social politics of the time forged connections between Catholic and Protestant leaders. Abortion and "Family Rights" were seen as areas of common ground.

The appointment of the conservative John Paul II in 1979 marked an end to the reform spirit within the Church.

Critics argued that while Keynesian economics promoted the idea of consumers creating jobs by increasing the demand for goods and services, Reaganomics relied on giving more money to producers by giving tax cuts especially to the wealthiest citizens, who would then create jobs that would find demand. This type of economic theory has been referred to derisively as "trickle-down economics"

The belief of Reaganomics that the tax cuts would more than pay for themselves was influenced by the so-called Laffer curve, a theoretical taxation model that was particularly in vogue among some American Conservatives during the 1970s.

cultural pluralism

The coexistence of many cultures in the United States without any one culture dominating a locality or region. The idea of cultural pluralism seeks to reduce racism, sexism, and other forms of discrimination.

When the midterm Congressional elections took place in 1994, the Republicans thought they had a chance to capture at least one house. Led by Representative Newt Gingrich, Republicans in Congress signed a Contract with America.

The contract was simply a list of ten promises each signatory pledged to pursue if the Republicans won. The strategy worked brilliantly. The Senate votes narrowly awarded a Republican majority. The Democrats had controlled the House of Rep since 1954, but this time the Republicans took over.

Soon Iraq agreed to terms for a ceasefire, and the conflict subsided. Iraq did not leave Kuwait untouched. Millions of dollars of valuables were plundered by the occupying troops. As Iraq retreated, they detonated explosives at many of Kuwait's oil wells.

The disaster to the environment grew as Iraq dumped oil into the Persian Gulf. The costs were enormous. Although thousands of Iraqi deaths were counted during the conflict, only 148 Americans were killed in battle. This was primarily because of the technological advances of the US.

With the Soviet Union out of the picture and the Cold War over, American diplomats sought to create a "New World Order" based on democracy, free-market capitalism and the Western lifestyle. Challenges from abroad did not disappear with the end of the Cold War.

The invasion of Kuwait by Saddam Hussein's Iraq threatened a major percentage of the world's oil reserves. In the largest military operation since the Cold War, the United States led a multinational force in the liberation of Kuwait.

On February 24, the ground war began. Although the bombing lasted for weeks, American ground troops declared Kuwait liberated just 100 hours after the ground attack was initiated. American foot soldiers moved through Kuwait and entered Southern Iraq. This posed a dilemma for the United States.

The military objectives were complete, but Saddam, the perpetrator of the rape of Kuwait, was still ruling Iraq from Baghdad. President Bush feared that the allies would not support the occupation of Baghdad. Concerns were raised that if Saddam's regime were toppled, the entire nation could disintegrate into a civil war.

Bush faced a challenge by his own party's nomination by Patrick Buchanan, a journalist and former Nixon aide. Buchanan voiced concern about immigration, free trade, abortion, and appealed to the social conservatives in the Republican party. Although Bush defeated Buchanan in the primaries, he was forced to spend resources in the effort.

The most successful third party candidate since Teddy Roosevelt in 1912 emerged in the form of Ross Perot, a Texas billionaire. Perot brought the problem of the nation's growing national debt to the campaign. His campaign commercials attacked both Republicans and Democrats for reckless spending and immense deficits.

They chided the Courts for taking religion out of the public schools and supported private Christian academies and homeschooling as alternatives. Many Catholic Americans agreed with the sentiments of the New Right.

The reforming spirit of the Catholic Church reached its high water mark in the 1960s with a convention called Vatican II. Latin was dropped as a requirement for the mass. Lay people were given a greater role in Church services. Support was given for ecumenical outreach to other Christian denominations and Jewish Synagogues.

Within hours of Reagan's inauguration, Iran released the American hostages that had been held for 444 days.

The same hostages that Carter failed to rescue in the months leading to the 1980 election.

When Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in the USSR in 1985, proclaiming a new policy of openness, Reagan believed it was time to act.

The two leaders agreed in principle to an Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty in 1987, which for the first time eliminated an entire class of existing nuclear weapons.

New Right leaders were highly organized and understood the potential of mass telecommunications. Pat Robertson formed the Christian Broadcasting Network to send his message. The PTL (Praise the Lord) Club led by Jim Bakker transmitted faith healing and religious revival to the largest viewing audience of any daily program in the world.

They built massive databases containing names and addresses of potential financial contributors and regularly solicited funds.

In 1979, Jerry Falwell formed the Moral Majority, Inc. This group and hundreds of others raised money to defeat liberal senators, representatives, and governors.

They sought to control school boards on the local level to advance their conservative agenda. Ronald Reagan freely accepted contributions from the New Right on his way to the Presidency in 1980.

In addition to upgrading all three branches of the American strategic defense, he proposed a bold new scheme to defend the US mainland from nay incoming ballistic missiles.

This Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) nicknamed Star Wars drew criticism from Liberal Democrats who deemed it too costly and from scientists who questioned its feasibility.

Reagan supported supply side economics. Supply side policies offer one theory on how to improve the functioning of the economy and productive capacity. The large, across the board tax cuts initiated by Reagan at the start of his administration, are an example of supply side economics.

This is contrary to "demand-side" economics of traditional Keynesianism, which tries to bring the economy to its existing full capacity by means of increasing demand, primarily through fiscal policy.

In the last months of 1990, the US participated in the defense of Saudi Arabia in a deployment known as Operation Desert Shield. American troops were placed in Saudi Arabia in case of an Iraqi attack on the Saudis. The US further sought multilateral support in the United Nations Security Council.

Traditionally, Iraq was an ally of the USSR, who held a veto power over any potential UN military action. Looking westward for support of their democratic internal changes, the USSR did not block the American Plan. The UN condemned Iraq and helped form a coalition to fight Saddam militarily.

Intermediate Nuclear Force Treaty (1987)

Treaty that provided for the destruction all U.S. and Soviet medium-range missiles in Europe

Trickle Down Economics

Trickle-down economics, or "trickle-down" theory, states that tax breaks and benefits for corporations and the wealthy will trickle down to everyone else. It argues for income and capital gains tax breaks or other financial benefits to large businesses, investors and entrepreneurs to stimulate economic growth * People said only benefited rich

When the CIA linked the bombing of a West Berlin discotheque to the government of Libya, Reagan sprang into action.

US planes retaliated in April 1986 by bombing Libya, including the home of its leader, Muammar El-Qaddafi.

Like most movements, the New Right contained an extremist element. Racial hatred groups like the KKK and the American Nazi Party joined the outcry against American moral decline.

Ultra-libertarian militia groups formed in many states dedicated to attacking the American government they believed had become too invasive. They steadfastly supported the right to bear arms as a means to defend themselves from Tyranny. Some groups began stockpiling arsenals. These organizations interpreted the term "cultural war" in the most literal, ominous sense.

Kyoto Agreement, 1997

United Nations agreement to reduce emissions rates of carbon dioxide and other industrial produced gases linked to climate change

Gingrich was rewarded for his efforts by being named Speaker of the House. Even though voter turnout was low, Clinton accepted the Republican victory and pledged to work with the House leadership. Gingrich and his cohorts took a tough stand with the President.

Unless President Clinton agreed to accept deep cuts in social spending programs in 1995, they threatened to shut down the government and appropriate no funds. It was a classic standoff - Clinton versus Gingrich.

The endorsement of Reagan by the Protestant establishment did not deter devout Catholics from voting Republican, since Reagan promised to oppose abortion rights and promote family values. Crime-plagued city dwellers looked to Reagan for comfort as he portrayed himself as the law and order candidate. Americans were warmed by his promises for a stronger America.

Very quickly, these "Reagan Democrats" crumbled the old alignment. Reagan won by landslide against Carter. The Republicans also captured a majority of the Senate for the first time since 1954.

"Morning in America" (Reagan Revolution) - The US was filled with hardworking, God fearing citizens who cared about their fellow Americans. Inflation and unemployment were problems of government, not the national character.

Vietnam was over; America was the most powerful nation in the world. The USSR was an evil empire. These themes soothed a nation sick with malaise in the 1970s. When all had seemed lost, Ronald Reagan stepped up and optimistically reassured Americans that the age-old beliefs they held about the grandeur of the US were not myths. Reagan understood the spirit of the times, and his message, personality, and politics dominated the 80s.

Social spending and welfare needed to be cut to reduce the tax burden on individuals and families. Government regulations were inhibiting economic growth and personal freedoms.

When foreign competition made inroads against American corporations in the 1970s, many people began to believe Goldwater had been right. Big business wielded its financial resources as a backbone of the New Right Movement.

Reagan Revolution in a nutshell part 1

a resurgence of Conservatism in the 1980s that would last for decades ● rejection of the change and reform of the 1960s ● belief in tradition, stability, and status quo

Reagan Revolution in a nutshell part 2

a return to "modern" conservative principles of governing ● rejection of the New Deal and Great Society ● belief in small government

Reagan Revolution in a nutshell part 3

a return to supply side economics ● rejection of Keynesian economic theory and demand side economics

"The Third Way"

centrist approach to governance advocated by Clinton that sought to achieve liberal objectives (equal opportunity and making work pay) through conservative means (minimal government regulation and government support of business)

Medicare Modernization Act of 2003

law passed under George W Bush that overhauled the Medicare system, providing benefits for prescription drugs

Boomburbs

rapidly growing area that remains essentially suburban in character even as it reaches populations more typical of a large city (Sugar Land is an example of a Boomburb and Katy is on its way to becoming one)

information technology

the management and processing of information with computers and other forms of telecommunications - created an economic boom in the 1990s, providing the United States with the longest period of economic expansion in its history.