APUSH: Ch1-40

Sloan Wilson

(The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit, 1955) portrayed post-WWII American generation as a pack of conformists due to the new consumerist lifestyle

William H. Whyte, Jr.

(The Organization Man, 1950) portrayed post-WWII American generation as a pack of conformists due to the new consumerist lifestyle

end of the Vietnam War

-Congress denied Ford's plea for sending more American troops -South Vietnam quickly collapsed in 1975 -US evacuated 140,000 S. Vietnamese, who immigrated to the US, adding their culture -US lost face to foreigners, self-esteem, confidence in its own leadership, and econ0mic muscle

Great White Fleet

1907-1909 - Roosevelt sent the Navy on a world tour to show the world the U.S. naval power. Well-received in Japan, leading to the Root-Takahira agreement

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)

1957 group founded by Martin Luther King Jr. to fight against segregation using nonviolent means; mobilized on behalf of black rights the vast power of black churches, which were the largest and best-organized black institutions that had been allowed to flourish

Landrum Griffin Act

1959 - Specially tailored to make labor officials responsible for the union's financial affairs, to prevent bully-boy tactics, ensure democratic voting practices within unions, outlaw secondary boycotts, and restrict picketing; expanded some of the antilabor structures of the Taft-Hartley Act

neoconservatives

A group that championed free-market capitalism liberated from government restraints, anti-Soviet positions in foreign policy, questioned liberal welfare programs, and called for the reassertion of traditional values of individualism and the centrality of the family; *a product of the continued stagflation*

George Creel

A journalists who was the head of the Committee of Public Information. He helped the anti-German movement as well as inspired patriotism in America during the war.

Thirteenth Amendment

Constitutional amendment passed in 1865 after the Civil War prohibiting all forms of slavery and involuntary servitude which former Confederate States were required to ratify; *was foreshadowed by the Emancipation Proclamation; gave the slaves freedom but not full, equal rights*

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty

Arms limitation agreement settled by Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev in 1987 which banned all intermediate-range nuclear missiles from Europe; *marked a significant thaw in the Cold War as well as the end of communist rule in Russia, foreshadowing the splintering of the USSR*

Joseph Heller

Author of Catch-22, which typifies postwar disillusionment by satirizing war.

Credit Mobilier scandal

A scandal in 1872 in which a construction company was formed by owners of the Union Pacific Railroad to build the railroad at highly inflated prices and profits, which was hidden by bribing congressmen and the vice president; *demonstrated the widespread corruption of Grant's administration, revealing Grant's ineptitude as a politician, as well as of much of the rest of the government in the Gilded Age*

Enigma code

A secret German code used during WWII and created with an Enigma machine. almost impossible for the Allies to break, but once Britain did break it, the Allies could determine the locations of German U-boats

Whitewater

A series of scandals during the Clinton Administration that stemmed from a real estate deal from which Clinton was alleged to have illicitly profited while governor of Arkansas. *Though Clinton wasn't formally charged with anything, it mobilized a conservative movement to aggressively pursue any possible scandal, of which Clinton had several, culminating in the Lewinsky affair*

Maine

American battleship dispatched to Cuba in early 1898, ostensibly for a friendly visit but actually to protect Americans there, mysteriously blew up in Havana harbor; *many Americans, already rather eager for war, insisted the ship was blown up by the Spanish, increasing the national war fever, which convinced President McKinley to declare war on Spain, starting the Spanish-American War*

Gilbert Stuart

American artist who painted in Britain for a time before returning to America; painted several portraits of George Washington (including the one on the one-dollar bill)

Hudson River School

American artistic movement in the mid-19th century that produced romantic renditions of local landscapes; leaders included *Thomas Cole* and Asher Durand *helped America find its distinctive national art style in, at least partly, America's wilderness*

John Deere

American blacksmith that was responsible for inventing the steel plow. This new plow was much stronger than the old iron version and was light enough for horses; therefore, it made plowing farmland in the west easier, making expansion faster.

Thurgood Marshall

American civil rights lawyer, first black justice on the Supreme Court of the United States, serving 1967-1991. Marshall was a tireless advocate for the rights of minorities and the poor.

Col. Leonard Wood & William C. Gorgas

American colonels who led a military gov. set up in Cuba until 1902; greatly improved Cuba's gov, education, agriculture, and rate of disease

Loyalists

American colonists who opposed the Revolution and maintained their loyalty to the king; sometimes referred to as "Tories"; *fought as British soldiers in the colonies, served as spies, provoked the Indians against the colonists, and kept Patriot soldiers at home to protect their families*

the Constitution ("Old Ironsides")

American frigate with thicker sides than British ships during the War of 1812

election of 2000

Bush v. Gore; Bush won although Gore won popular vote; controversy over the final vote count in Florida; settled by Supreme Court decision in favor of Bush

Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies

Leading U.S. group advocating American support for Britain in the the fight against Hitler; appealed to both interventionists and some isolationists who felt that giving assistance would ultimately keep the war out of America

Ida Tarbell

Leading muckraking journalist whose articles documented the Standard Oil Company's abuse of power

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Legislation pushed through Congress by President Johnson that prohibited ballot-denying tactics, such as literary tests and intimidation. *a successor to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, it abolished Jim Crow laws and was successful in giving African Americans more power in the South, especially as white southerners began to have to try to win over black votes*

John Anderson

Liberal Republican congressman who ran against Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter on the independent ticket, tallying 7 percent of the popular vote and not a single electoral vote in 1980

Commonwealth v. Hunt

Massachusetts Supreme Court decision in 1842 which upheld the legality of labor unions; *strengthened the labor movement for better working conditions in factories, which became a major issue with the rise of the Industrial Revolution*

James Russel Lowell

Massachusetts man who lamented Massachusetts' involvement with the Mexican War

code talkers

Native American men who served in the military by transmitting radio messages in their native languages, which were undecipherable by German and Japanese spies; *greater Native American participation in US citizenship, along with most moving to the cities, especially in southern California*

insurrectos

Cuban insurgents who sought freedom from colonial Spanish rule in 1895; *their destructive tactics threatened American economic interests in Cuban plantations and railroads, leading Americans to support the Cubans, resulting in the Spanish-American War*

Seventh of March speech

Daniel Webster's impassioned address urging the North to support of the Compromise of 1850 to prevent disunion; argued that topography and climate would keep slavery from becoming entrenched in Mexican Cession territory; *helped turn the tide in the North toward compromise*

George McGovern

Democrat running against Nixon on antiwar platform in 1972 election

XYZ Affair

Diplomatic conflict in 1797 between France and the United States when American envoys to France were asked to pay a hefty bribe for the privilege of meeting with the French foreign minister; *provoked a war hysteria in the US, resulting in the strengthening of its military (especially the navy) and the unofficial warring of American sailors and privateers with French merchants in the Caribbean*

Trent affair

Diplomatic row in 1861 which occurred after a Union warship stopped a British steamer and arrested two Confederate diplomats on board; *threatened to bring the British into the Civil War on the side of the Confederacy, and while this didn't happen, it made Britain more inclined to allow shipbuilders to sell ships such as the Alabama to the South and overall revealed diplomatic tensions between Europe and the US's two sections*

The Man Without a Country

Edward Everett Hale's fictional account of a treasonous soldier's journey in exile which was inspired by Clement Vallandigham's story and published in 1863; *widely read in the North, inspiring greater devotion to the Union*

John Audubon

French-descended naturalist in the 19th century; illustrated wildfowl in Birds of America; the Audubon Society is named after him

Confederate States of America

Government established in 1861 (to 1865) after seven Southern states seceded from the Union and later joined by four more states from the Upper South; *led to Civil War*

Dennis v. US

Government had right to arrest those conspiring to overthrow the government (communist party)

Spiro Agnew

Governor of Maryland who ran as Vice President with Richard Nixon in 1968. He was forced to resign in October 1973 after having been accused of accepting bribes from Maryland contractors while governor and Vice President.

Abraham Lincoln Brigade

Idealistic American volunteers who served in the Spanish Civil War, defending Spanish republican forces from the fascist General Francisco Franco's nationalist coup; *the fact that they were only volunteers reflected the widespread noninterventionism and isolationism in the US, as did the Johnson Debt Default Act, allowing conditions to escalate to make WWII worse when it came*

laissez-faire

Idea that government should play as small a role as possible in economic affairs; increasingly opposed by progressive theorists in the modern machine age with industrialists concentrating power in fewer hands; instead believed that the gov should regulate

American Slavery As It Is

Influential book written by Theodore Dwight Weld which spread the idea of antislavery; influenced Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin

Underground Railroad

Informal network of volunteers that helped runaway slaves escape from the South and reach free-soil Canada; *helped thousands of slaves reach freedom; caused Southerners to push for a stronger fugitive slave law, which they got out of the Compromise of 1850*

Orville and Wilbur Wright

These brothers were bicycle mechanics from Dayton, Ohio who built and flew the first plane at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on December 17, 1903.

Florida Purchase Treaty (Adams-Onis Treaty)

Under the agreement in 1819, Spain ceded Florida and claims to Oregon to the US in exchange for America's claims to Texas, and the two nations agreed on the boundary of the Louisiana Purchase

Lincoln Steffens

United States journalist who exposes in 1906 started an era of muckraking journalism (1866-1936), Writing for McClure's Magazine, he criticized the corrupt alliances between big businesses and municipal gov with a series of articles under the title "The Shame of the Cities"

minstrel shows

Variety shows performed by white actors in black-face. First popularized in the mid-nineteenth century.

Richard Nixon

Vice President under Eisenhower and 37th President of the United States; Checkers speech; pushy

Bartolome de Las Casas

a Dominican friar who lived from 1484-1566, part of which he spent in the New World, and protested Spanish mistreatment of the Indians

Massachusetts Bay Colony

a New England colony founded in 1630 by a group of non-Separatist Puritans who wanted to escape anti-Puritan persecutions in England

Lord North

a Prime Minister of Britain during the American Revolutionary period; George III's "yes man"

Lucretia Mott

a Quaker woman who tried to attend a London antislavery convention in 1840 with some other female delegates; they were not recognized, arousing her anger

Fort Pillow

a fort in Tennessee where several black Union soldiers surrendered but were massacred anyway; became a rally cry for black units ("Remember Fort Pillow")

Albert Bierstadt

a mid-19th-century "luminist" painter who dramatically and sometimes fancifully rendered majestic natural landscapes in the same romantic tradition

city-manager system

a professional city manager who is hired (usually by the city council) to run each department of the city; meant to check the power of the mayor and the city bosses; did take some direct power away from the people; pioneered in Galveston

John Dewey

a professor at Columbia University 1904-1930; one of America's few front-rank philosophers of the time; set forth the principles of "learning by doing" that *formed the foundation of progressive education*

Poort Richard's Almanack

a publication by Benjamin Franklin from 1732-1758 which contained pithy sayings from thinkers of the age that emphasized virtues such as thrift, industry, morality, and common sense

Industrial Workers of the World

a radical organization founded in 1905 that sought to build "one big union" and advocated industrial sabotage in defense of that goal; particularly appealed to migratory workers and miners; *revealed labor reforms that still needed to be made despite some advancements; often anti-war, due to wartime inflation which could negate wage gains, leading to their persecution under the Espionage and Sedition Acts*

Protestant Reformation

a religious movement in the 16th century started by Martin Luther which protested aspects of the Catholic Church, resulting in a schism between Catholics and the new Protestants; Protestantism became dominant in England, especially with the rise of Elizabeth I

Great Awakening

a religious revival in the North American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s that emphasized direct, emotive spirituality; included rousing preachers such as Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield; a threat to the "old lights"; resulted in many conversions across gender and race

Act of Toleration (Maryland)

a religious statute passed in 1649 by the local representative assembly which guaranteed toleration to all Christians but decreed the death penalty for those who denied the divinity of Jesus

Tonkin Gulf Resolution

a resolution adopted by Congress in 1964, giving the president broad powers to wage war in Vietnam

Bacon's Rebellion

a revolt of former and current indentured servants in 1676 led by Nathanial Bacon against Virginian Governor William Berkeley and landowners; initiated due to Berkeley's friendly policies toward the Indians, who had attacked the outlying freemen; *caused planters to look more to African slaves for labor*

George Whitefield

a roaming English parson who contributed to the Great Awakening with his electrifying, moving style of preaching which influenced imitators; emphasized human helplessness and divine omnipotence

primogeniture

a rule of succession which passes on inheritance to eldest sons; was upheld in England in the 16th and 17th centuries, causing many of the younger sons to attempt colonization in the 13 colonies

Second Anglo-Powhatan War

a second war in 1644 between the Virginians and the Powhatans, who made a last effort to dislodge the Virginians; resulted in Indian defeat, and the peace treaty of 1646 prevented any hope of assimilating or peacefully coexisting with each other

Separatists

a sect of Puritans dedicated to breaking away entirely from the Church of England; persecuted in England and eventually sailed to New England in the Mayflower and founded Plymouth colony in 1620

Salem Witch Trials

a series of events in Salem, Masaachusetts against people, mainly upper-class women, accused of witchcraft from 1692-93; resulted in the legal lynching of 20 individuals; eventually ended when the governor prohibited any more trials due to an accusation against his wife

King Phillip's War

a war from 1675-1676 consisting mainly of assaults on English settlements throughout New England by an alliance of Indian tribes; slowed English expansion to the west but inflicted a lasting defeat on New England's Indians

Stephen C. Foster

a white Pennsylvanian who wrote the most famous southern songs in the 1840s-1850s, including "Oh! Susanna"; captured the spirit of the slaves

James Wolfe

a young and skillful British commander who was sent by William Pitt to capture Quebec; won the Battle of Quebec

Harry S. Truman (1945-1953)

a. Atomic bombs dropped (1945) b. Yalta Conference (1945) c. The beginning of the Baby Boom (1945) d. Truman Doctrine (1947) e. Marshall Plan (1947) f. NATO formed (1949) g. Cold War (1946-1991)

Warren G. Harding (1921-1923)

a. Nine-Power Treaty (1922) b. Fordney-McCumber Tariff (1922) c. Teapot Dome Scandal (1923) -like Grant, bad at choosing good officials

Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, and 1937

acts passed to prevent American participation in a European war; among other restrictions, they prevented Americans from selling munitions, sailing on a belligerent ship, or making loans to foreign belligerents; *marked an abandonment of the traditional policy of freedom of the seas, which America had professedly fought WWI for, and it prevented America from possibly stopping WWII before it became worse*

Benjamin Latrobe

added neoclassical elements to the U.S. Capitol and the President's House (White House) in the early 19th century

Royal African Company

an English trading company charted in 1672 which had a monopoly on carrying African slaves to the English colonies until 1698, after which others became involved in transporting and selling slaves in the colonies, resulting in an increase in the the supply of slaves

Pope's Rebellion/Pueblo Revolt

an Indian uprising in 1680 against the Christian missionaries' efforts to suppress native religious customs in colonial New Mexico; the rebels destroyed the Catholic churches, killed hundreds of Spaniards, and built a kiva on the ruins of a Spanish plaza at Santa Fe; *it took the Spanish half a century to fully reclaim New Mexico, but after they did, they became generally more accommodating of native practices*

Oberlin College

an Ohioan college which allowed women to attend beginning in 1837

Roanoke Island

an island off the coast of Virginia where Sir Walter Raleigh first landed in 1585 and made the second English attempt at colonization in the Americas; the colony struggled and eventually vanished

The Invisible Empire

another name for the KKK emphasizing its huge span across the South

Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan

conservative leaders of the 1970s and 1980s; worked to cut welfare and to promote free enterprise; Cold Warriors; worked together, strengthening the Anglo-American alliance against a number of foes, including the Soviets' influence

Nineteenth Amendment

constitutional amendment ratified in 1920 which gave all American women the right to vote; *largely a result of women's active efforts to support the war cause, including by filling jobs left open by men joining the army and by serving as nurses; however, only a partial feminist victory, as women's wartime economic gains did not last, as signified by the Sheppard-Tower Maternity Act*

First Continental Congress

convention of delegates from twelve of the thirteen colonies which convened in 1774 to craft a response to the Intolerable Acts; *established The Association; increased colonial unity*

Horace Mann

secretary of Massachusetts Board of Education; campaigned for a more and better schoolhouses, longer school terms, higher pay for teachers, and an expanded curriculum; influence radiated to other states

Seven Years' War

see *French and Indian War*

voyageurs

see *coureurs de bois*

Samuel de Champlain

the leading figure of the establishment of Quebec in 1608; the "Father of New France"; entered into friendly relations with the nearby Huron Indian tribes and helped them fight the Iroquois, earning the last enmity of the Iroquois

R and D

Research and Development: Business or government activity that is purposely designed to stimulate invention and innovation; Cold War military budget financed much of this

William Fulbright

Senator from Arkansas who was chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee; he began to oppose the Vietnam War; aired a series of antiwar televised hearings of prominent Americans

Rush-Bagot agreement

Signed by Britain and the United States in 1817, it established strict limits on naval armaments in the Great Lakes; *a first step in the full demilitarization of the U.S.-Canadian border, completed in the 1870s, which made the border the longest unfortified boundary in the world*

Anglo-American Convention

Signed by Britain and the United States in 1818, the pact allowed New England fishermen access to Newfoundland fisheries, established the northern border of Louisiana territory and provided for the joint occupation of the Oregon Country for ten years; *peacefully gave both the British and the Americans the benefits of the Newfoundland fisheries and the Oregon Country as well as preventing conflict over the border of Louisiana*

midnight judges

16 federal justices appointed by John Adams through the Judiciary Act of 1801 during the last days of his presidency; *though the newly-elected Republican Congress repealed the Judiciary Act soon after it was created, one midnight judge, William Marbury, tried to sue for his commission, resulting in the Marbury v. Madison case; see "Marbury v. Madison"*

Massachusetts constitution

1780; submitted directly to the people to ratify; precedent for the federal constitution

Alexander Hamilton

1789-1795; First Secretary of the Treasury. He advocated creation of a national bank, assumption of state debts by the federal government, and a tariff system to pay off the national debt.

English Civil War

a war in England between the parliamentarians and the royalists in the 1640s during which the king, Charles I, was beheaded; resulted in the restoration of Charles II to the throne and the royalists to dominance; created decades of relative independence in the colonies, followed by royal tightening

William Penn

a wellborn Englishman who converted to the Quaker faith early in his life and founded the colony of Pennsylvania in 1681 as a haven for the persecuted Quakers; promoted fair treatment of the Indians and freedom of worship

Canadian Shield

a zone in the northeastern corner of North America undergirded by ancient rock which was the first part of the North American landmass to have emerged above sea level

John Kenneth Galbraith

Harvard economist; bemoaned the spectacle of private opulence amidst public squalor; wrote The Affluent Society (1958); called to invest in the public good; warnings fell on deaf ears

Pure Food and Drug Act

A law passed by Congress in 1906 to inspect and regulate the labeling of all foods and pharmaceuticals intended for human consumption; *passed alongside the Meat Inspection Act, it revealed popular outcry against the problems of growing food industries and increasing government regulation to fix such problems*

John Marshall

American jurist and politician who served as the chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1801-1835) and helped establish the practice of judicial review; previously an envoy during the XYZ affair

Margaret Sanger

American leader of the organized movement to legalize birth control during the early 1900's

Maine Law of 1851

Law sponsored by Neal Dow which prohibited the manufacture and sale of alcohol in Maine; *led to other states prohibiting alcohol, which, although mostly repealed within a decade, introduced a prohibitive view in America; part of the larger movement in the 19th to limit alcohol*

Walter Reed

American doctor whose experiments led to the eradication of yellow fever in Cuba at the turn of the century

Douglas MacArthur

American general, who commanded allied troops in the Pacific during World War II.

Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965

Law that changed the national quota system of limits for Eastern and Western immigrants per year, allowing more Eastern immigrants while for the first time limiting Western immigrants; also allowed current citizens' families to immigrate outside the quotas

Clarence Thomas

This man was an African American jurist, and a strict critic of affirmative action. He was nominated by George H. W. Bush to be on the Supreme Court in 1991, and shortly after was accused of sexual harassment by Anita Hill. Hearings were reopened, and he became the second African American to hold a seat in the Supreme Court.

Robert C. Weaver

This man, head of the Department of Housing and Urban Development, was the first black cabinet member, and was such under LBJ

The Age of Reason

Thomas Paine's 1794 anticlerical treatise that accused churches of seeking to acquire "power and profit" and to "enslave mankind"; *showed lessening religious piety in America as the older, orthodox generations died and the Enlightenment influenced an emphasis on reason; reversed by 2nd Great Awakening*

Susan B. Anthony

lecturer for women's rights; progressive women were often called "Suzy Bs"

Elvis Presley

white singer born in 1935 in Tupelo, Mississippi; fused white and black American musical traditions to help create rock n' roll

camp followers

women and children who followed the Continental Army during the Am. Rev., providing services such as cooking and sewing in return for rations; *vital services*

Louisa May Alcott and Emily Dickinson

women writers begin to be successful in America

Francis Scott Key

wrote "The Star Spangled Banner" while watching the British attack on Fort McHenry in Baltimore; quickly gained popularity, displaying nationalism

yuppies

young, urban professionals who wore ostentatious gear such Rolex watches or BMW cars. They came to symbolize the increased pursuit of wealth and materialism of Americans in the 1980s.

Edict of Nantes

(1598) French decree granting limited toleration to French Protestants; *ended religious wars in France, allowing them to become the prominent force in Europe and a prominent force in colonies in the Americas*

Puritans

English religious reformers who promoted purification of English Christianity from Catholic influence; theology based on Calvinism; constantly sought sings of conversion; due to persecution, many emigrated to the Americas, especially Massachusetts and Barbados

Huguenots

French Protestants; dissented from the dominant, state-supported Catholic Church in France; *resulted in decades of internal strife in France, delaying their start of colonization of the New World and causing mass migrations of Huguenots to New France and the British colonies*

coureurs de bois

French fur-trappers in the 17th and 18th centuries; est. trading posts throughout North America; *resulted in strong relationships with the Indians they traded with, despite wreaking havoc on the health and customs of their Native American trading partners, and expansion of New France*

Yamasee Indians

Indians defeated and dispersed by the South Carolinians in 1715, after which virtually all the coastal Indian tribes in the southern colonies were devastated by about 1720

Scots-Irish

Scottish Lowlanders who were transplanted to northern Ireland, where they experienced economic troubles and resentment from the Irish; emigrated to America, where they largely lived restlessly in rickety settlements; led the Paxton Boys and Regulator movement

conquistadores

Spanish conquerors who began after the arrival of Columbus in 1492 to spread across the New World, taking land and gold for the crown and themselves; included the defeat of the large Aztec and Inca empires

Cahokia

a settlement of the Mississippian Native Americans near present-day East St. Louis which at one time supported 25,000 people due to their growing of corn

Treaty of Tordesillas

an agreement between Spain and Portugal in 1494 which divided the New World lands; Spain kept most of the Americas while Portugal received Brazil and some territory in Africa and Asia

Molasses Act

an attempt by Parliament, influenced by the British West Indian planters, to stop the North American colonies' trade with the French West Indies in 1733; unsuccessful as American merchants bypassed the law by bribing and smuggling

Georgia

founded in 1733 as the last of the 13 colonies, it served as a buffer between the more valuable, northern colonies and their French and Spanish rivals in Louisiana and Florida; due to philanthropists like James Oglethorpe, also served as a haven for those in debt

middlemen

in trading systems, those dealers who operate between the original producers of goods and the retail merchants who sell to consumers; after the eleventh century, European exploration was drive in large part by a desire to acquire alluring Asian goods without paying heavy tolls to Muslim middlemen

Blue Laws

laws passed in some areas in the English colonies in North America (especially by Quaker and Puritan groups) which imposed restrictions on "immoral" activities, such as prohibiting dice and cards

Navigation Laws

laws which prevented the English colonies in the Americas from trading with anyone overseas except England itself; resulted in a rise in smuggling in the colonies

North Carolina

originally part of the Carolina grant, it separated from South Carolina in 1712 due to their differences: the poor North Carolinians were regarded as riffraff by the South Carolinians and were more democratic and independent-minded

Moctezuma

the Aztec ruler at the time of Cortes' invasion in 1521; initially treating the Spaniards with hospitality and even believing Cortes to be the god Quetzalcoatl, he drove them away on the *noche triste* in 1520 due to their desire for gold, though they soon came back and conquered Tenochtitlan

Sir Edmund Andros

the autocratic head of the Dominion of New England; his actions such as abolishing popular assembles, taxing the people without the consent of their elected representatives, and enforcing the Navigation Laws prompted a revolt, including a mob in Boston which shipped him to England

Calvinism

the dominant theological philosophy of the New England Puritans; founded by John Calvin, a Protestant reformer who believed in predestination

Great Migration

the emigration of about 70,000 from England in the 1630s due to persecution by the Church of England; settled mainly in New England and the West Indies

Elizabeth I

a Protestant queen who ascended to the English throne in 1558; fiercely crushed an Irish uprising in the 1570-80s; supported English colonization in the face of Spanish opposition

Cotton Mather

a Puritan clergyman and avid scientist of 1663-1728 who became frustrated with Boston residents' opposition to inoculation during the Boston smallpox epidemic of 1721

New York Slave Revolt

a slave uprising in 1712 which cost the lives of 9 whites and caused the execution of 21 blacks, some of them burned at the stake; an example of the several slave uprisings that occurred in colonial America

rock 'n' roll

"Crossover" musical style that rose to dominance in the 1950s, merging black and white American traditional music; *became a defining feature of the 1950s youth culture even in Japan and England, where the Beatles would be inspired by Elvis's music to form*

George Bancroft

"Father of American History"; published a superpatriotic history of the US to 1789 in several volumes

Nathanial Bowditch

18th-19th century mathematician

George Meade

4th commander of the Army of the Potomac; won the Battle at Gettysburg

Alger Hiss

A former State Department official who was accused of being a Communist spy and was convicted of perjury. The case was prosecuted by Richard Nixon.

Birmingham

Alabama city against equal rights; peaceful marches in 1963 were broken up brutally by city police.

H. L. Mencken

Baltimore writer who criticized the supposedly narrow and hypocritical values of American society, including marriage, patriotism, democracy, prohibition, and other contemporary subjects

Billy Graham

Baptist preacher; capitalized on the rising wave of TV to spread the Christian gospel

Dreams from My Father

Barack Obama memoir that explores events of his early years up until his entry into law school in 1988; about navigating racial identity

Bank War

Battle in 1832 between President Andrew Jackson and Congressional supporters (such as Henry Clay & Daniel Webster) of the Bank of the United States over the bank's renewal in 1832; Jackson vetoed the Bank Bill, arguing that the bank favored moneyed interests at the expense of western farmers; *whereas previous presidential vetoes rested on questions of constitutionality, Jackson's veto was based on his personal opinion of the Bank being harmful, amplifying the powers of the presidency; ended the Bank of the US, which was cemented by the use of pet banks*

Battle of San Jacinto

Battle in 1836 between Mexican forces led by Santa Anna and Texan forces led by Sam Houston; resulted in Texan victory and their capture of Santa Anna; *forced Santa Anna to withdraw his troops from Texas and recognize the Rio Grande as Texas's Southwestern border, in effect granting independence to Texas, which then began to angle for annexation by the US, causing further conflict over the balance of slave and free states in the US*

Indian Removal Act

Beginning in 1830, ordered the removal of Indian Tribes still residing east of the Mississippi to newly-established Indian Territory west of Arkansas and Missouri; *tribes were often forcibly removed, such as the Cherokees in the Trail of Tears, causing thousands of Indian deaths, provoking bloody conflicts such as the Black Hawk War, and exiling Indians from their ancestral lands; showed the determination of Jackson and his supporters to spread westward*

Insular Cases

Beginning in 1901 (until 1904), Supreme Court cases that decreed that Puerto Ricans and Filipinos would not necessarily enjoy all American rights nor be subject to all American laws; *enforced the idea of the US's imperialism, despite the US's supposed anti-colonialism, which some Americans, such as the Anti-Imperialist League, opposed but many others supported, such as Teddy Roosevelt*

Toni Morrison

Beloved; portrait of maternal affection amidst the horrors of slavery; first African American woman to win the Nobel Prize for literature

The Feminine Mystique

Best-selling 1963 book by feminist thinker Betty Friedan which criticized the drudgery of suburban housewifery; *helped launch what would become second-wave feminism, urging women to move beyond the "cult of domesticity" that was renewed after WWII*

Meriwether Lewis and William Clark

Captains of the Corps of Discovery sent by President Jefferson to explore the newly acquired Louisiana Territory.

Fletcher v. Peck

Case in 1810 which arose when a Georgia legislature, swayed by bribery, granted millions of acres of land to private speculators and then canceled the transaction; *the Supreme Court ruled against the cancelation, establishing firmer protection for private property and asserting the right of the Supreme Court to invalidate state laws in conflict with the federal Constitution*

Nuremberg war crimes trial

Highly publicized proceedings in 1945-46 against former Nazi leaders for war crimes and crimes against humanity; *part of the Allies denazification program in postwar Germany, the trials led to several executions and long prison sentences and established pattern used for "war criminals" in Japan later*

Francis Parkman

Historian with defective eyes that forced him to write in darkness with the aid of a guiding machine; chronicled the struggle between France and England in colonial times for mastery of North America

ecological imperialism

Historians' term for the spoliation of American western natural resources through excessive hunting, logging, mining, and grazing, which began with the heightened period of western migration in the 1790s-1860s; *these activities made many Americans prosperous and inspired expansion into the West, but they also caused the near-extinction of beavers and buffalo*

Colson Whitehead

The Intuitionist; modern racial uplift among rival schools of elevator operators

Washington Disarmament Conference, 1921-1922

The U.S. and nine other countries discussed limits on naval armaments. They felt that a naval arms race had contributed to the start of WW I. They created quotas for different classes of ships that could be built by each country based on its economic power and size of existing navies. Led to the Nine-Power Treaty

Baron von Steuben

a German immigrant who got the Continental army in shape

judicial review

established by Marbury v. Madison; Supreme Court has last word on question of constitutionality

James Madison

"Father of the Constitution," Federalist leader, and fourth President of the United States.

Samuel Slater

"Father of the Factory System" in America; escaped Britain with the memorized plans for the textile machinery; put into operation the first spinning cotton thread in 1791.

Huey Long

"Kingfish" Rep. senator of LA; pushed "Share Our Wealth" program and make "Every Man a King' at the expense of the wealthy; assassinated bc people feared him being a fascist dictator; *along with Huey Long, raised questions about the link between fascism and economic crisis*

William Marbury

"Midnight Judge" appointed in the Judiciary Act of 1801. Sued government because he was never appointed, which resulted in Marbury v. Madison and Judicial Review.

NINA

"No Irish Need Apply" was a sign commonly posted at factory gates to restrict the increasing hire of Irish Immigrants. People were complaining that they were taking the "white mans" jobs. This public opinion placed the Irish in the basement of America's social class beside the blacks. It resulted in the Irish becoming more independent within an American society and is a trend that repeats habitually every time a new group of immigrants migrates to America (Currently it is the Hispanic community).

Fr. Charles Coughlin

"Radio Priest"; proposed monetary reforms; attacked bankers; initially supportive of new deal; grew critical of FDR's treatment of "money powers" -> developed into anti-Semitism and anti-New Deal; *along with Huey Long, raised questions about the link between fascism and economic crisis*

Noah Webster

"Schoolmaster of the Republic"; published widely-used patriotic reading lessons for children; his dictionary helped standardize the American language

Henry Kaiser

"Sir Launchalot"; super fast ship builder; a whole ship in 14 days

Virginia Plan

"large state" proposal for the new constitution, calling for proportional representation in both houses of a bicameral Congress; *the Great Compromise took the Virginia Plan (along with the response to it, the New Jersey Plan) into consideration, coming up with a compromise that included proportional representation in half of legislative branch, the House of Representatives*

New Jersey Plan

"small-state plan" put forth at the Philadelphia convention, proposing equal representation by state, regardless of population, in a unicameral legislature; *the Great Compromise took the New Jersey Plan into consideration, coming up with a compromise that included equal representation in half of the legislative branch, the Senate*

King William's War

(1689-1697) war fought largely between French trappers, British settlers, and their respective Indian allies; *set a precedent for later wars with similar alliances, including Queen Anne's War (see "") and the French and Indian War*

Queen Anne's War

(1702-1713) 2nd in a series of conflict between the European powers for control of North America, notably between Britain, France, and Spain; *along with King William's War, set a precedent for later wars with similar alliances (such as the French and Indian war); the peace treaty caused France to cede Acadia/Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay to Britain*

David Riesman

(The Lonely Crowd, 1950) portrayed post-WWII American generation as a pack of conformists due to the new consumerist lifestyle; Harvard sociologist

War of Jenkin's Ear

(1739) Small scale clash between Britain and Spain in the Caribbean and Georgia; merged with much larger War of Austrian Succession in 1742; *see King George's War*

King George's War

(1744-48) the American sector of the War of Austrian Succession; yet another conflict between Britain and France, along with the French ally of Spain; resulted in Britain capturing the French fortress of Louisbourg; *along with King William's and Queen Anne's Wars, helped set the precedent of French and British competition for the French and Indian war; peace treaty gave Louisbourg back, angering the colonists*

Albany Congress

(1754) North American intercolonial congress summoned by the British gov to foster greater colonial unity and assure Iroquois support in the escalating French and Indian War; *did secure Iroquois support (vital in the war), but also, especially with the showing of only 7 of the 13 colonies, revealed the lack of colonial unity, a problem that weakened them*

French and Indian War

(1756-1763) American part of the Seven Years' War; war between the British and the French in North America along with their respective Indian allies, resulting in a British victory; *resulted in expulsion of the French from the North American mainland, allowing the British colonists to not be as reliant on defense from the British mainland; the war itself resulted in friction between the well-trained British troops and the raw colonial militias as well as a slight strengthening of colonial unity*

Battle of Quebec

(1759) British victory over French forces on the outskirts of the major French settlement of Quebec, causing the surrender of Quebec; *marked the beginning of the end of French rule in North America, which would allow the British colonists to not have to rely as much on the defense of the British mainlanders and, after Pontiac's war, to settle past the Appalachians*

Pontiac's uprising

(1763) a bloody campaign waged by Ottawa chief Pontiac to drive the British out of Ohio Country; crushed by the British, who spread smallpox among the Indians to brutally weaken them; *led to Proclamation of 1763; see "Proclamation of 1763"*

Washington Irving

(1783-1859) born in NYC, the first American to win international recognition as a literary figure; wrote Rip Van Winkle, The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, The Sketch Book, and Knickerbocker's History of New York; did much to interpret America to Europe and vice versa

James Fenimore Cooper

(1789-1851) gained world fame making New World themes respectable; wrote The Spy, Leatherstocking Tales, The Last of the Mohicans; explored the viability and destiny of America's republican experiment; contrasted the purity of "natural men" with the artificiality and corruptibility of modern civilization

William Cullen Bryant

(1794-1878) wrote the poem "Thanatopsis", one of the first high-quality poems produced in the US

Edgar Allen Poe

(1809-1849). Orphaned at young age. Was an American poet, short-story writer, editor and literary critic, and is considered part of the American Romantic Movement. Best known for his tales of mystery and the macabre. Failing at suicide, began drinking. Died in Baltimore shortly after being found drunk in a gutter.

Margaret Fuller

(1810-1850) edited the transcendentalist movement's journal, The Dial, for two years; launched a series of "Conversations", seminars designed to promote scholarly dialogue among local elite women; wrote Woman in the Nineteenth Century

American Anti-Slavery Society

(1833-1870) Abolitionist society founded by William Lloyd Garrison, who advocated the immediate abolition of slavery. By 1838, the organization had more than 250,000 members; *with strict, uncompromising members such as Wendell Phillips and Garrison himself, part of a sector of radical abolitionists, supporting the outbreak of a war*

Caroline

(1837) An American steamer carrying supplies across the Niagara River to Canadian insurgents which was attacked by a British force; *supported hostile relations between Britain and the US in the mid-19th century, along with the incident with the Creole ship, a literary "war," and the Aroostook War, which helped drive Britain to support an independent TX*

John Muir

(1838-1914) Naturalist who believed the wilderness should be preserved in its natural state. He was largely responsible for the creation of Yosemite National Park in California. Advocated against the use of Hetch Hetchy Valley as a reservoir for San Francisco

Aroostook War

(1839-1842) Series of clashes between American and Canadian lumberjacks in the disputed territory of northern Maine, resolved with the Maine Boundary Settlement in 1842; *the Maine Boundary Settlement settled the American and British territory disputes in Maine, with America gaining more land than Britain and Britain gaining the road it sought from its sea port of Halifax to Quebec; by also adjusting the Minnesota border, the US gained an area containing priceless Mesabi iron ore; ate the same time, Britain and the US settled the Caroline affair*

Conscience Whigs

(1840s-50s) Northern Whigs who opposed slavery on moral grounds and sought to prevent the annexation of Texas as a slave state; *expressed a fear of abolitionists that the new slave territory of TX would only serve to buttress the Southern "slave power," an idea which led to greater and greater conflict between abolitionists and supporters of slavery*

Manifest Destiny

(1840s-50s) The belief that the United States was destined by God to spread its "empire of liberty" across North America to the Pacific Ocean; *served as justification for the popular mid-nineteenth-century expansionism, which inspired the election of Democrat James Polk and provoked the Mexican War, out of which the US won a huge expanse of territory, including Texas and California*

Creole (italicized)

(1841) American ship captured by a group of rebelling Virginia slaves, who were offered asylum in the Bahamas by British officials; *raised fears among Southern planters that the British West Indies would become a safe haven for runaway slaves; inflamed the issue of the peculiar institution, which complicated the debate over annexation of TX, a slave-holding region*

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass

(1845) Vivid autobiography of the escaped slave and renowned abolitionist Frederick Douglass; *along with Douglass's other works and efforts (such as lectures), it rallied support for the abolition cause in a way that was touching yet practical, contrasting with William Garrison's militant newspaper, the Liberator; showed increasing trend of abolitionists to look to politics for support*

Wilmot Proviso

(1846) Amendment introduced by Pennsylvanian congressman David Wilmot that sought to prohibit slavery from territories acquired from Mexico; *though the amendment failed, it intensified tensions between North and South over the issue of slavery perhaps more than any other issue*

spot resolutions

(1846) Measures introduced by Illinois congressman Abraham Lincoln which requested that President Polk clarify precisely where Mexican forces had attacked American troops in Texas; *challenged Polk's justification for war with Mexico, reflecting the concerns of other abolitionists that winning a war for TX, a slaveowning area, would give slave states in the US greater influence and support*

Walker Tariff

(1846) Revenue-enhancing measure devised by Robert Walker that lowered tariffs from 1842 levels; was passed despite New England claims that it would ruin American manufacturing; *actually proved to be an excellent revenue producer, largely because it field trade and was followed by boom times and heavy imports*

California Bear Flag Republic

(1846) Short-lived California republic, established by local American settlers who revolted against Mexico; *collaborated with Captain James Fremont and American naval officers to defeat Mexico in California, adding California to the US's gains from the Mexican War*

"Fifty-four forty or fight"

(1846) Slogan adopted by mid-nineteenth century expansionists who advocated the occupation of Oregon territory, jointly held by Britain and the United States; *expressed the popularity of the belief in Manifest Destiny, which helped James Polk win the 1844 election, though he later settled on the 49th parallel as the border to compromise with Britain, avoiding a conflict*

Battle of Buena Vista

(1847) Key American victory against Mexican forces in the Mexican-American War; *elevated General Zachary Taylor to national prominence and helped secure his success in the 1848 presidential election*

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

(1848) treaty signed by Nicholas Trist which ended the Mexican War; Mexico agreed to cede territory reaching northwest from Texas to Oregon in exchange for $18.25 million in cash and assumed debts; *after the Mexican War, the Latin American view toward the US was degraded to distrust and dislike; the War also left a dangerous slavery dispute in the US, leading abolitionists and supporters of slavery closer to massive conflict*

Benito Mussolini

(1883-1945) Italian leader. He founded the Italian Fascist Party, and sided with Hitler and Germany in World War II

Mexican Revolution

(1910-1920 CE) Fought over a period of almost 10 years form 1910; resulted in ouster of Porfirio Diaz from power; opposition forces led by Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata; *resulted in many Mexicans moving to the US, resulting in the US being influenced by Mexican culture, especially near the border; Tampico Incident*

Loyalty Review Board

(1947) federal board set up by President Truman that checked up on government workers, and dismissed those found to be communist.

Dwight D. Eisenhower

(1953-1957) and (1957-1961), when elected President, he was the most popular American; "I like Ike!" button. Modern Republicanism---didn't undo the New Deal of the Democrats; declared that he would personally go to Korea and end the war (which he did within a year); this helped to win the majority in 41 of the lower 48 states. Eisenhower reigned over a period of unstable peace and prosperity. Not huge supporter of civil rights movement; Operation Wetback; Federal Highway Act of 1956; policy of boldness; Hungaran uprising; Battle of Dien Bien Phu; Suez crisis; OPEC; Sputnik

Gerald Ford

(1974-1977), Solely elected by a vote from Congress. He pardoned Nixon of all crimes that he may have committed. Evacuated nearly 500,000 Americans and South Vietnamese from Vietnam, closing the war. We are heading toward rapid inflation.

Jimmy Carter

(1977-1981), Created the Department of Energy and the Depatment of Education. He was criticized for his return of the Panama Canal Zone, and because of the Soviet war in Afghanistan, he enacted an embargo on grain shipments to USSR and boycotted the 1980 Olympics in Moscow and his last year in office was marked by the takeover of the American embassy in Iran, fuel shortages, and the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, which caused him to lose to Ronald Regan in the next election.

Tydings-McDuffie Act

(FDR) 1934, provided for the drafting and guidelines of a Constitution for a 10-year "transitional period" which became the government of the Commonwealth of the Philippines before the granting of Philippine independence, during which the US would maintain military forces in the Philippines; *"freed" America from the Philippines but also gave Japan greater freedom to do as they wished in the Pacific*

detente

(From the French for "reduced tension,") period of "reduced tension" when the United States and the Soviet Union negotiated reduced armament treaties beginning in 1972; *it somewhat slowed the arms race, lessening some of the friction of the Cold War as it department slowly from policies of containment and proportional response*

GI Bill

(Known officially as the Servicemen's Readjustment Act and more informally as the GI Bill of Rights) this 1944 law helped returning WWII soldiers by securing loans to buy homes, farms, and small businesses and by paying for their schooling; *helped returning soldiers reintegrate into civilian life and supported the economic expansion that eventually took hold in the late 1940s*

Yom Kippur War

(RN), , This was a war fought by Israel and neighboring Arab nations where the Arabs launched a surprise attack during Yom Kippur. U.S. support for Israel during the war led to OPEC boycotting the U.S., creating an energy crisis which triggered a major economic recession

Panama Canal

(TR) , The United States built the Panama Canal to have a quicker passage to the Pacific from the Atlantic and vice versa. It cost $400,000,000 to build. Columbians would not let Americans build the canal, but then with the assistance of the United States a Panamanian Revolution occurred. The new ruling people allowed the United States to build the canal. Completed in 1914. *Damaged US relations with Latin America as the US was seen as exploitative; enforced the US as a great world power; made travel of trade and war ships between the Atlantic and Pacific faster*

Bruce Barton

*A founder of the "new profession" of advertising, which used the persuasion ploy, seduction, and sexual suggestion.* He was a prominent New York partner in a Madison Avenue firm. He published a best seller in 1925, The Man Nobody Knows, suggesting that Jesus Christ was the greatest ad man of all time. He even praised Christ's "executive ability." He encouraged any advertising man to read the parables of Jesus.

North African Barbary States

- Made industry of blackmailing and plundering ships that came into the Mediterranean - Federalists earlier forced to pay for protection - included Tripoli - led to Tripolitan War

Herbert Hoover (1929-1933)

-Agricultural Marketing Act (1929) a. Black Tuesday/ Great Depression Began (1929) b. Hawley-Smoot Tariff (1930) c. Reconstruction Finance Corporation (1932) d. "Bonus Army" in DC (1932) -disliked socialism, paternalism -more laissez-faire -some progressive instincts (ex: endorsed labor unions) -highly popular at first but extremely unpopular by the end of his term -tried to solve the Great Depression with trickle-down economics (helped railroads, banks, and credit corporations in hopes that unemployment would be relieved at the bottom)

Big Four legislative achievements

-aid to education -medical care for the elderly and poor -immigration reform -a new voting rights bill

William Lloyd Garrison

1805-1879. Prominent American abolitionist, journalist and social reformer. Editor of radical abolitionist newspaper "The Liberator", and one of the founders of the American Anti-Slavery Society.

Hartford Convention

1814-1815 convention of Federalists from five New England states who opposed the War of 1812 and resented the strength of Southern and Western interests in Congress and in the White House; *their demands arrived in Washington just as the news of the victory at New Orleans did, resigning their complaints to negative popular opinion, therefore confirming the death of the Federalist party*

Cohens v. Virginia

1821 case which pitted the Cohen brothers against the Virginia courts that found them guilty of illegally selling lottery tickets; Virginia won; *reinforced federal supremacy by establishing the right of the Supreme Court to review decisions of state supreme courts in questions involving the powers of the federal government*

Ten Nights in a Barroom and What I Saw There

1854 novel by T. S. Arthur; described how a once-happy village was ruined by a tavern

radical Whigs

18th century British political commentators who agitated against political corruption and emphasized the threat to liberty posed by arbitrary power; *their writings shaped American political thought and, along with republicanism, made colonists especially alert to encroachments on their rights, which would manifest, in the eyes of the colonists, laws like the Stamp Act*

Deism

18th century religious doctrine that emphasized reasoned moral behavior and the scientific pursuit of knowledge; believed in a Supreme Being who had created the universe but not in religious aspects such as the Bible or the divinity of Jesus Christ; *showed lessening religious piety in America as the older, orthodox generations died and the Enlightenment influenced an emphasis on reason; reversed by 2nd Great Awakening*

market revolution

18th- and 19th-century transformation from a separated, subsistence economy to a national commercial and industrial network; *as more people linked themselves to this growing market economy, the traditional self-sufficiency of families on homesteads declined and the gap between the rich and the poor widened*

Pennsylvania coal mine strike

1902 strike of coal miners wanting pay increases and shorter hours; coal supplies dwindled, so Teddy got involved but wasn't impressed with the strike leaders; threatened to operate the mines which federal troops, which made the owners agree to concede some; the workers' union wasn't officially recognized though

Underwood Tariff

1913 tariff which substantially reduced rates and enacted an unprecedented, graduated federal income tax; *by 1917, the income tax began to become a bigger source of revenue than the tariff, a gap that has since been vastly widened; part of Wilson's plan to topple the "triple wall of privilege," specifically, with this act, the high tariff*

Clayton Anti-Trust Act

1914 law extending the anti-trust protections of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, exempting labor unions and agricultural organizations from anti-monopoly constraints, and legalizing strikes; *was, along with the Clayton Anti-Trust Act, meant to crush monopolies as part of Wilson's plan to topple the "triple wall of privilege" and give some protections to laborers*

Federal Trade Commission Act

1914 law which empowered a presidentially appointed commission to investigate illegal business practices in interstate commerce like unlawful competition, false advertising, and mislabeling of goods; *was, along with the Clayton Anti-Trust Act, meant to crush monopolies as part of Wilson's plan to topple the "triple wall of privilege"*

Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti

1920- 2 Italian immigrants believed to be anarchists were accused of murder in MA; found guilty, though evidence against them was disputable; executed in 1927; though many believed they were convicted just b/c of political beliefs; *served as martyrs for communists and other radicals*

Sheppard-Tower Maternity Act

1921 act which provided federally financed instruction in maternal and infant health care; *expanded the responsibility of government for family welfare; emphasizing women's traditional roles as mothers, it was somewhat of a setback for the feminist movement*

Nine-Power Treaty

1922. Treaty that was essentially a reinvention of the Open Door Policy. All members to allow equal and fair trading rights with China and the territorial integrity of China. Signed by (9) US, Japan, China, France, Great Britain, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Portugal; violated by Japan a decade later

The Jazz Singer

1927 - The first movie with sound; this "talkie" was about the life of famous jazz singer; Al Jolson, featured in blackface

Battle of the Coral Sea

1942 World War II battle between American and Japanese carrier-based aircraft only

Joseph McCarthy

1950s; Wisconsin senator claimed to have list of communists in American gov't, but no credible evidence; took advantage of fears of communism post WWII to become incredibly influential; "McCarthyism" was the fearful accusation of any dissenters of being communists

Rebel Without a Cause

1955 film which expressed the restless frustration of many young people; showed that the problem with authority began before the 1960s

Silent Spring

1962 book by Rachel Carson that raised concerns about the use of pesticides in agriculture; credited with starting modern environmental movement; piece of latter-day muckraking

Griswold v. Connecticut

1965 decision that struck down a state law that prohibited the use of contraceptives, even among married couples; ruled that the Constitution implicitly guarantees citizens' "right of privacy," which would form the basis for decisions regarding abortion rights

Milliken v. Bradley

1974 Supreme Court case that ruled that desegregation plans could not require students to move across school district lines; *effectively exempted suburban districts from the process of desegregating (reinforcing "white flight" from inner cities), often pitting the poorest white and black communities against each other*

US v. Wheeler

1978 Supreme Court case that stated that Indian tribes had a "unique" sovereignty and were subject to the will of Congress but not to individual states

tax revolt

1978 movement in California and other states with snowballed into a revolutionary new tax-cutting agenda for the conservative movement nationwide

Bill Clinton

1992 and 1996; Democrat; Don't Ask Don't Tell policy implemented by Congress, Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993, Travelgate controversy; Operation Desert Fox (4 day bombing campaign in Iraq); Scandals: Whitewater controversy, Lewinsky scandal (impeached and acquited), Travelgate controversy, Troopergate; first balanced budget since 1969; *1st baby boomer president*

Welfare Reform Bill

1996 legislation that made deep cuts in welfare grants and required able-bodied welfare recipients to find employment. *widely seen by liberals as an abandonment of key New Deal/Great Society provisions to care for the impoverished, it was a legislative victory for the "Republican Revolution," to which the Contract with America contributed; some parts reflected anti-immigrant sentiment as more and more immigrants came to the US, especially from Mexico*

Matthew F. Maury

19th century oceanographer; wrote on ocean winds and currents

George McClellan

1st general of the Army of the Potomac; graduate of West Point; "Young Napolean"; superb organizer and drillmaster, hated to sacrifice his troops; "Little Mac"; overcautious; led the Peninsula Campaign and was removed; restored and led troops at Antietam, after which he was removed because he didn't chase after Lee; Democrat candidate in the 1864 presidential election

James Fenimore Cooper

1st truly American novelist noted for his stories of Indians and the frontier life; man's relationship w/ nature & westward expansion

A. E. Burnside

2nd commander of the Army of the Potomac; lost the battle at Fredericksburg and was removed from his position

Greer, Kearny, Reuben James

3 US destroyers which escorted lend-lease shipments of arms; the 1st was attacked by a U-boat and, though not harmed, *led FDR to proclaim a shoot-on-sight policy*; the 2nd was attacked and lost some men but was not destroyed; the 3rd was destroyed and lost more than 100 men; *helped to turn popular American opinion away from neutrality, leading Congress to legalize the arming of merchant ships*

Joseph Hooker

3rd commander of the Army of the Potomac; badly beaten (though not crushed) at the battle at Chancellorsville and removed from his position

The Great Train Robbery

A 1903 black and white silent western film that was 14 minutes long and the first film to tell a coherent story. Due to its success it is *credited for the creating Hollywood and the success of the movie industry.*

Federal Reserve Act

A 1913 act establishing twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks and a Federal Reserve Board, appointed by the president, to regulate banking and create stability on a national scale in the volatile banking sector; *carried the nation through the financial crises of World War I in 1914-1918; part of Wilson's plan to topple the "triple wall of privilege," specifically, with this act, the overpowered banks*

Espionage Act

A 1917 law which sought to prosecute "spies," which could include anyone who criticized the government, especially Socialists such as Eugene Debs; *together with the Sedition Act of 1918, which added penalties for abusing the government in writing, it created a climate of almost-hysterical pro-war frenzy that was unfriendly to civil liberties such as freedom of speech and was unfortunately strengthened by Schenck v. US*

Schenck v. United States

A 1919 Supreme Court decision that upheld the Espionage and Sedition Acts, reasoning that freedom of speech could be curtailed when it posed a "clear and present danger" to the nation; *it created a climate of almost-hysterical pro-war frenzy that was unfriendly to civil liberties such as freedom of speech*

Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act

A 1933 New Deal law creating the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, which insured individual bank deposits; *ended a century-long tradition of unstable banking that had reached a crisis in the Great Depression; helped return the public's confidence in the banking system, leading more people to begin to put money in banks again*

Operation Wetback

A 1954 government program to round up and deport as many as 1 million illegal Mexican migrant workers in the United States; *though in part promoted by the Mexican government, which worried that illegal immigrants would undercut the Bracero program, it largely reflected growing concerns about non-European immigration in America*

Freedom Summer

A 1964 voter registration drive in Mississippi spearheaded by the collaboration of both black and white civil rights activists; *marred by the murder of 3 of these activists, it was a short-term setback, along with the Mississippi Freedom Democratic party being denied seats at the Democratic National Convention, but did ultimately help LBJ pass the Voting Rights Act of 1965*

Battle of Antietam

A Civil War battle in Creek, Maryland in 1862 between Union General George McClellan and Confederate General Robert E. Lee that essentially ended in a draw; *demonstrated the prowess of the Union army, forestalling foreign intervention and giving Lincoln the "victory" he needed to issue the Emancipation Proclamation*

Viet Cong

A Communist-led army and guerrilla force in South Vietnam that fought its government and was supported by North Vietnam.

Jacob Riis

A Danish immigrant, he became a reporter who pointed out the terrible conditions of the tenement houses of the big cities where immigrants lived during the late 1800s. He wrote How The Other Half Lives in 1890, which inspired Theodore Roosevelt

Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA)

A New Deal program designed to raise agricultural prices by paying farmers not to farm with the intent to increase farmers' purchasing power and thereby help alleviate the Great Depression; *while it did raise farm income, it also increased unemployment, causing it to be a failure (like several New Deal programs like the NRA) in the short term, but it led to other similar programs like Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936*

Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)

A New Deal-era labor organization led by John Lewis that broke away from the American Federation of Labor (AFL) in order to organize unskilled industrial workers regardless of their particular economic sector or craft; *gave a great boost to labor organizing in the midst of the Great Depression and during World War II, introducing to America the sit-down strike (which prevented the use of strikebreakers) and even being recognized by the US Steel Company*

Fundamentalism

A Protestant Christian movement emphasizing the literal truth of the Bible and opposing religious modernism, which sought to reconcile religion and science; *remained a vibrant force in American spiritual life, being especially strong in the Baptist Church and the Church of Christ, first organized in 1906; led to the conviction of a high school biology teacher in the Scopes Monkey Trial*

Thaddeus Stevens

A Radical Republican who believed in harsh punishments for the South. Leader of the Radical Republicans in Congress. House prosecutor during Johnson's impeachment trial

Plessy v. Ferguson

A Supreme Court case in 1896 that upheld the constitutionality of segregation laws, saying that as long as blacks were provided with "separate but equal" facilities, these laws did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment; *this decision provided legal justification for the Jim Crow system until the 1950s, perpetuating legalized oppression of blacks in the South as facilities were definitely not "equal"*

Lochner v. New York

A Supreme Court decision in 1905 which invalidated a New York state law establishing the limit of a ten-hour day for bakers; *setback for labor reformers*

War Refugee Board

A U.S. agency formed 1944-1945 to help rescue Jews from German-occupied territories and concentration camps; *performed noble work, but it did not begin operations until very late in the war, after millions had already been murdered, especially as the US and other countries turned away Jews due to restrictive immigration laws*

McNary-Haugen Bill

A bill championed by farmers throughout the 1920s which aimed to keep agricultural prices high by authorizing the government to buy up surpluses and sell them abroad; *ultimately vetoed by Coolidge, its failure to be passed showed lack of gov support for farmers in this period of laissez-faire policy in Washington, preventing farmers from getting out of their depression of the 1920s and eventually feeding into the Great Depression*

United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA)

A black nationalist organization founded in 1914 by the Jamaican-born Marcus Garvey in order to promote resettlement of African Americans to their "African homeland" and to stimulate a vigorous separate black economy within the United States; *though most of Garvey's efforts failed financially, he inspired race pride among millions of blacks, helping newcomers to northern cities because of the Great Migration gain self-confidence and self-reliance*

Operation Rolling Thunder

A bombing campaign began in 1965 and authorized by President Johnson. This tactical movement relentlessly bombed Viet Cong-occupied land, decimating the landscape of hundreds of miles of land. However, the intricate and enormously large network of tunnels the guerrilla soldiers had built were largely unharmed, and it failed to stop the Viet Cong from continuing to press on.

McCarthyism

A brand of vitriolic, fear-mongering anti-communism associated with the career of Senator Joseph McCarthy, who baselessly accused Americans, especially writers, actors, and opposing politicians of conspiracy with communism. *The term named after him refers to the dangerous forces of unfairness and fear wrought by anticommunist paranoia; showed how this second red scare was used for political gain against Democrats or anyone slightly different from the conservative, Christian, upright "standard"*

Roosevelt Corollary

A brazen policy of "preventive intervention" advocated by Theodore Roosevelt which stipulated that the United States would retain a right to intervene in the domestic affairs of Latin American nations in order to restore military and financial order; *building upon the Monroe Doctrine, this policy promoted Latin America's view of the US as a "Bad Neighbor" while the US believed they were the Big Sister of Latin America; overall greater involvement of US in foreign affairs*

Marco Polo Bridge Incident

A clash between Japanese and Chinese troops in the outskirts of Beijing on July 7, 1937; in a sense, the curtain-raiser of WWII; led to FDR's Quarantine Speech

Union party

A coalition party of pro-war Democrats and Republicans formed during the 1864 election to defeat anti-war Northern Democrats; *uniting those who supported war helped Lincoln win the election, enabling him to finish the war efficiently, but this party also made Andrew Johnson the VP to tie up Border State and pro-war Democrat votes, putting the less reasonable Johnson in office when Lincoln was killed*

America First Committee

A committee organized by isolationists before WWII, who wished to spare American lives. They wanted to protect America before it went to war in another country. Charles A. Lindbergh (the aviator) was its most effective speaker.

Fordney-McCumber Tariff Law

A comprehensive bill passed in 1922 which raised tariffs to protect domestic production from foreign competitors. *As a direct result, many European nations were spurred to increase their own trade barriers, which hurt both American-made and European goods, deepening the international economic distress*

Helsinki Accords

A conference in Finland in 1975 that was an attempt to improve relations between the East and West; officially ended WWII by legitimizing the Soviet-dictated boundaries of Poland and other Eastern European countries; in exchange, the USSR guaranteed more liberal exchanges between East and West and protecting certain basic human rights (though this part of the agreement was later flouted); *hailed by W. Europeans as a milestone of detente but seen by the American public as an unfair concession to the USSR with little in return, making this only a brief thaw in the Cold War*

Tweed Ring

A corrupt but successful scheme by "Boss" Tweed and his deputies to run the New York City Democratic party in the 1860s, swindling millions of dollars from the city, for which he was eventually jailed; *a symbol of Gilded Age corruption; Tweed's prosecutor, Samuel Tilden, gained the fame that would pave his path to presidential nomination against Hayes in 1877, which would result in the Compromise of 1877*

"Lost Generation"

A creative circle of expatriate American artists and writers, including Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Gertrude Stein, who found shelter and inspiration in post-World War I Europe; *demonstrated some disillusionment with American ways and patriotism, writing novels such as The Great Gatsby (critiquing the possibility of the American self-made man) and The Sun Also Rises*

Harlem Renaissance

A creative outpouring among African American writers, jazz musicians, and social thinkers, centered around Harlem in the 1920s, that celebrated black culture and advocated for a "New Negro" in American social, political, and intellectual life; *blacks began to assert their intellectual and cultural identity in this movement, as they did with jazz and minstrel shows, even among whites*

Anti-Imperialist League

A diverse group formed 1898-1921 to protest the McKinley administration's colonialist expansion, particularly in the Philippines after the Spanish-American War; *reflected the US's hypocrisy in its dealings with territories it acquired, such as the Philippines, which it freed from Spanish rule only to rule over it itself*

Bay of Pigs invasion

A failed CIA plot in 1961 to overthrow Fidel Castro by training Cuban exiles to invade and supporting them with American air power; *a public relations disaster for JFK, it drove Castro to accept further Soviet support, leading the USSR to lend Cuba nuclear missiles, leading to the Cuban missile crisis*

Volstead Act

A federal act enforcing the Eighteenth Amendment, which prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages; *see "Eighteenth Amendment"*

Peace Corps

A federal agency created by President Kennedy in 1961 to promote voluntary service by Americans in foreign countries, especially in the areas of infrastructure, health care, and education; *part of Kennedy's New Frontier vision, the organization represented an effort by postwar liberals to promote American values and influence through productive exchanges across the world*

Federal Housing Administration (FHA)

A federal agency established in 1943 to increase home ownership by providing an insurance program to safeguard the lender against the risk of nonpayment.; *so popular that it was one of the few "alphabetical agencies" to outlast the age of Roosevelt; bolstered by the United States Housing Authority, which caused the slum areas in America to cease growing for the first time*

Homestead Act

A federal law in 1862 that sold settlers land cheaply if they lived on it and developed it; *helped make land accessible to hundreds of thousands of settlers, fueling, along with federal drafts, the westward push during the Civil War*

panic of 1907

A financial crisis that happened when the New York Stock Exchange crashed. Panic spread through the nation, resulting in many runs on banks and bank failures. It led to the creation of the Federal Reserve. Conservative Republicans blamed Teddy, calling it the "Roosevelt Panic"

Big Sister policy

A foreign policy of Secretary of State James G. Blaine in the 1880s aimed at rallying Latin American nations behind American leadership and opening Latin American markets to Yankee traders; *led to Blaine presiding over the first of a series of inter-American meetings; reflected US's belief in being the protector of the liberty of American nations, although in reality, the US often was protecting its own economic or political interests, such as in helping Panama win their revolution in order to build a canal there*

Henry A. Wallace

A former Democratic who ran on the New Progressive Party due to his disagreement on Truman's policy with the Soviets. He caused the Democratic party to split even more during the election season.

OJ Simpson Trial

A former football star who was accused of murdering his former wife and a young man in Los Angeles in 1994. He was eventually acquitted in the fall of 1995. This trial brought on a lot of racial tensions because most whites believed he was guilty while most blacks believed he was innocent. Revealed the gap between white and black America

Office of Price Administration (OPA)

A gov wartime agency charged with regulating the consumer economy through rationing scarce supplies, such as tires and sugar, and by curbing inflation by setting ceilings on the price of goods

U.S. Sanitary Commission

A government agency founded in part by Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell during the Civil War to medically assist the Union armies in the field; *hired a lot of women as nurses and workers, helping them acquire organizational skills and confidence that would support the women's movement after the war; along with the jobs opened by men going to war, gave women new opportunities during the war*

Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC)

A government lending agency established under the Hoover administration in 1932 in order to assist insurance companies, banks, agricultural organizations, railroads, and local governments. *It was a precursor to later agencies that grew out of the New Deal and symbolized a recognition by the Republicans that some federal action was required to address the Great Depression.*

Committee on Public Information

A government office during World War I headed by George Creel, it was dedicated to winning Americans' support for the war effort, largely by distributing pro-war propaganda and sending out "four-minute men" to give patriotic speeches; *it largely achieved what it was meant to do, causing a pro-war frenzy among the American people, which helped the war effort but also resulted in the Espionage and Sedition Acts, which severely threatened the civil liberties of antiwar Americans*

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)

A government program created by Congress to hire young unemployed men to improve the rural environment with such work as planting trees, fighting fires, draining swamps, and maintaining National Parks; *a New Deal initiative, the CCC proved to be an important foundation for the post-World War II environmental movement, and it provided work for many young men and their families who might otherwise have been driven to crime*

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

A governmental organization signed into law by Richard Nixon in 1970 designed to regulate pollution, emissions, and other factors that negatively influence the natural environment. *The creation of the EPA marked a newfound commitment by the federal government to actively combat environmental risks and was a significant triumph for the environmentalist movement, accompanied by the establishment of Earth Day in the same year*

Muller v. Oregon

A landmark Supreme Court case in 1908 in which crusading attorney (and future Supreme Court justice) Louis D. Brandeis persuaded the Supreme Court to accept the constitutionality of limiting the hours of women workers; *although it limited the jobs open to women, it also limited an employer's previously laissez-faire control over the workplace, guaranteeing laborers some rights*

Adkins v. Children's Hospital

A landmark Supreme Court decision in 1923 reversing the ruling in Muller v. Oregon, which had declared women to be deserving of special protection in the workplace; *as was typical of the period after WWI, this ruling damaged the success of the progressive reforms of the pre-war period, as the dominant goal of gov officials of the 1920s was to support big businesses with a laissez-faire policy*

Gag Resolution

A law passed by Congress in 1836 which prohibited debate or action on antislavery appeals in Congress; *although overturned with the help of John Q. Adams within a decade, it is an example of how pro-slavery Southerners attempted to restrict free speech to protect the peculiar institution, both from free abolitionists and from slaves who might hear of abolitionist ideas*

Meat Inspection Act

A law passed in 1906 by Congress to subject meat shipped over state lines to federal inspection; *passed as a reaction to the horribly unsanitary conditions of American slaughterhouses, revealed largely by Upton Sinclair's The Jungle, it greatly improved the quality of American canned meat, largely satisfying both American reformers and buyers in other countries, and leading to the passing of the Pure Food and Drug Act alongside it*

Civil Rights Act of 1875

A law promising blacks equal access to public accommodations and banning racism in jury selection; *it provided no means of enforcement and was therefore ineffective, leading to decades more of mostly-unopposed segregation and oppression of blacks, including the Jim Crow laws and being forced into sharecropping, until the 1950s*

Southern Renaissance

A literary outpouring among mid-twentieth-century southern writers, begun by William Faulkner and marked by a new critical appreciation of the region's burdens of history, racism, and conservatism; *departing from the earlier "Lost Cause" literature that had glorified the antebellum South, it created a cultural legacy different from the North's and perceptively wrote of the changes reshaping the postwar South*

D-Day

A massive military operation led by American forces in French Normandy beginning on June 6, 1944; *led to the liberation of France from German control and brought on the final phases of World War II in Europe as the Soviets simultaneously attacked Germany from the east*

McCormick reaper

A mechanical mower-reaper invented by Cyrus McCormick in 1831 which allowed farmers to cultivate larger plot of grains; *the introduction of the reaper in the 1830s fueled the establishment of large-scale commercial agriculture in the Midwest; greater amounts of grain caused a push by the farmers to have better national transportation to access wider markets*

Potsdam conference

A meeting in 1945 between President Harry S Truman and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and British leaders Winston Churchill and later Clement Attlee near Berlin to deliver an ultimatum to Japan: surrender of be destroyed; *ended Japanese hope of a peace with the Soviet Union, which, after the bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, helped overrun Japanese defenses in Manchuria and Korea; alliance would lead to V-J Day*

Bildungsroman

A novel or story whose theme is the moral or psychological growth of the main character, especially a coming of age story; includes The Catcher in the Rye and To Kill a Mockingbird

North American Review

magazine founded in 1815, the long-lived leader of the intellectuals

red scare

A period of intense anti-communism in the US lasting from 1919 to 1920; *caused a nationwide, indiscriminate crusade against socialists, radicals, and some progressives such as strikers, resulting in thousands of deportations of people suspected of "subversive" activities and the criminal syndicalism laws passed in some places, which restricted free speech*

Gideon v. Wainwright

A person who cannot afford an attorney may have one appointed by the government

multiculturalism

A perspective recognizing the cultural diversity of the United States and promoting equal standing for all cultural traditions; emerged after 1970; based on the tradition of early 20th century cultural pluralism; stressed the need to preserve and promote ethnic and racial diversity for its own sake

Battle of Midway

A pivotal naval battle fought between American (under Admiral Chester Nimitz) and Japanese forces near the island of Midway in the middle of the Pacific Ocean in mid-1942, resulting in American victory; *along with the Battle of the Coral Sea, it halted Japanese advances in the Pacific, although Japanese holdings in the north Pacific prompted the US to fortify Alaska and build a road to it through Canada*

detente

A policy of reducing Cold War tensions that was adopted by the United States during the presidency of Richard Nixon. Foundations laid by JFK.

flexible response

A policy, developed during the Kennedy administration, that involved preparing for a variety of military responses to international crises rather than focusing on the use of nuclear weapons. Increased spending on conventional military forces. *potentially lowered the level at which diplomacy would give way to shooting and provided a means for endless stepping-up of the use of force, as seen in Vietnam*

writ of habeas corpus

A privilege requiring law enforcement officers, if requested, to present prisoners before the court to examine the legality of the arrest; suspended by Lincoln during the Civil War; *issued to protect individuals from arbitrary state action, it was one of several high-handed acts by Lincoln which angered many Northerners (as seen in riots such as the New York draft riots) but also allowed Lincoln to act more efficiently during the Civil War, in a way that Davis was not*

recall

A progressive ballot procedure at the turn of the 20th century which allowed voters to remove elected officials from office; *like the referendum and initiative, it brought democracy more directly to the masses and helped foster a shift away from old political "machines," including boss rule and business influence, helping to bring America out of the Gilded Age*

social gospel

A progressive reform movement popular at the turn of the 20th century which used Christian teachings to demand better housing and living conditions for the urban poor. *it did help bring about better conditions for the poor, including through the settlement houses, which helped bring middle-class women into the public sphere*

referendum

A progressive reform procedure at the turn of the 20th century which allowed voters to place a bill on the ballot for final approval, even after being passed by the legislature; *like the initiative and recall, it brought democracy more directly to the masses and helped foster a shift away from old political "machines," including boss rule and business influence, helping to bring America out of the Gilded Age*

Rosie the Riveter

A propaganda character designed to increase production of female workers in the factories. It became a rallying symbol for women to do their part in WWII.

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

A proposed amendment that declared full constitutional equality for women; passed both houses of Congress in 1972 but failed to get a big enough majority of state legislatures to ratify it; *demonstrated rapidly growing support for the feminist movement even in government, as also seen in the Supreme Court's decision in Roe v. Wade, but also a backlash antifeminist movement*

Teller Amendment

A proviso to President William McKinley's war plans in 1898 that proclaimed to the world that when the United States had overthrown Spanish misrule, it would give Cuba its freedom; *ostensibly upheld the US as a defender of liberty worldwide, but although ultimately upheld, similar agreements were not made between the US and areas like Puerto Rico or the Philippines, nor did the US stay entirely out of Cuba's business when it later forced the Platt Amendment, showing the US's own brand of imperialism*

initiative

A reform measure of the progressivism at the turn of the 20th century, allowing voters to petition to have a law placed on the general ballot; *like the referendum and recall, it brought democracy more directly to the masses and helped foster a shift away from old political "machines," including boss rule and business influence, helping to bring America out of the Gilded Age*

grandfather clause

A regulation established in many southern states in the 1890s that exempted from voting requirements (such as literacy tests and poll taxes) anyone who could prove that their ancestors ("grandfathers") had been able to vote in 1860, guaranteeing the right to vote to many whites while denying it to blacks; *a result of Southern backlash to Populist appeals to black votes, it contributed to the extinction of what little black suffrage remained in the South and to the Populists' increased advocacy for black disfranchisement*

Kellogg-Briand Pact

A sentimental triumph of the 1920s peace movement, this 1928 pact, ratified by sixty-two nations, supposedly outlawed war; *this actually did very little as it was full of loopholes and lacked a way to enforce it, but Americans were idealistic about it, showing the false sense of security they adopted, which the Nine-Power Treaty also contributed to*

transportation revolution

A series of 19th-century transportation innovations—turnpikes, steamboats, canals, and railroads—in the US; *linked local and regional markets, creating an interdependent national economy, with each area specializing in a type of economic activity and strongly tied to each other as they provided something they needed*

Wilderness Campaign

A series of brutal clashes between Ulysses S. Grant's and Robert E. Lee's armies in Virginia, with both sides suffering large numbers of casualties; *with the far greater army, numerically, Grant was finally able to wear down Lee and capture him and his army at Appomattox Courthouse in Richmond, ending the war and reuniting the Union*

Open Door note

A set of diplomatic letters in 1899-1900 in which Secretary of State John Hay urged the "Open Door policy", that the great powers of the world respected Chinese rights and free and open competition within their spheres of influence; *ensured access to the Chinese market for the United States, despite the fact that the U.S. did not have a formal sphere of influence in China; tied US interests to China, causing them to help other nations put down the Boxer Rebellion; revealed the dominance of the nations in the Open Door agreement over China*

London Economic Conference

A sixty-six nation economic conference organized in 1933 to stabilize international currency rates to help solve the global depression; *FDR decided to revoke American participation, deepening the world economic crisis and strengthening the global trend toward isolationism and extreme nationalism, making international cooperation more difficult*

Beat Generation

A small circle of mid-twentieth-century bohemian writers and personalities who criticized bourgeois conformity, instead advocating experimentation in life and literature; *including radical writers Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, and William S. Burroughs, this group lived on in many features of the "hippie" movement of the 1960s, including alternative spirituality, authenticity, and sexual liberation*

Miranda warning

A statement of an arrested person's constitutional rights which police officers must read during an arrest due to the Supreme Court's decision in Miranda v. Arizona in 1966; *while seeking to prevent abusive police tactics, it seemed to conservatives to coddle criminals and subvert law and order, making it controversial, which was typical of Supreme Court rulings under Chief Justice Earl Warren and even his successor, Warren Burger*

Homestead Strike

A strike in 1892 at a Carnegie steel plant in Homestead, P.A., that ended in an armed battle between the strikers, three hundred armed "Pinkerton" detectives hired by Carnegie, and federal troops, which killed ten people and wounded more than sixty; *part of a nationwide wave of labor unrest in the summer of 1892 that revealed support for the People's party and farmer's unrest with the capitalist system*

Proposition 13

A successful California state ballot initiative in 1978 that slashed property taxes and forced cuts in government services. *decreased revenue for the state government and signaled the political power of the "tax revolt," which influenced other states and increasingly aligned with rising conservative politics that advocated for smaller for government, which Reagan used to win the election of 1980*

Fordism

A system of assembly-line manufacturing and mass production named after Henry Ford, founder of the Ford Motor Company and developer of the Model T car; *this system made America by far the leading automobile producer of the time and became popular abroad, and it made automobiles more accessible to ordinary Americans, contributing to a new mobility and supported industries such as the oil industry*

Scientific Management

A system of industrial management created and promoted in the early twentieth century by Frederick W. Taylor, emphasizing stopwatch efficiency to improve factory performance; *gaining immense popularity across the United States and Europe, this system, along with Fordism, supported lower consumer prices of industrial goods, such as automobiles, making the products more widespread*

Australian ballot

A system that allows voters privacy in marking their ballot choices which was introduced to the US during the progressive era at the turn of the 20th century; *like the referendum, recall, and initiative, it brought democracy more directly to the masses and helped foster a shift away from old political "machines," including the influence of bosses and big businesses, helping to bring America out of the Gilded Age*

patronage

A system, prevalent during the Gilded Age, in which political parties granted jobs and favors to party regulars who delivered votes on election day; *provided essential support for both parties but bred corruption and was a source of conflict within the Republican party between the Stalwart and Half-Breed factions, leading eventually to the Pendleton Act*

New Democrat

A term created by the Democratic Leadership Council in 1992, it denotes a more conservative, centrist Democrat that was less anti-business and antiwar and more pro-growth, strong defense, and anti-crime.

Gilded Age

A term given to the period 1865-1896 by Mark Twain, indicating both the fabulous wealth and the widespread corruption of the era; *patronage caused backlash, which resulted in some civil-service reform, such as the Pendleton Act; with little political vitality, issues such as currency, labor rights, and tariffs continued to grow*

High Federalists

A term used to describe Alexander Hamilton and some of his less-moderate supporters. They wanted the naval war with France to continue and also wanted to severely limit the rights of an opposition party.

new look

A term used to describe the shift in foreign policy from containment to massive retaliation. This was the new way to look at foreign policy and aimed to roll back communism while cutting military spending, an aim that was hoped to be achieved by a policy of boldness

Hay-Pauncefote Treaty

A treaty signed between the United States and Great Britain in 1901 allowing Americans to build and fortify a canal in Central America; *nullified the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850; reflective of the Great Rapprochement between the US and Britain; allowed the US to build the Panama canal*

League of Nations

A world organization of national governments proposed by President Woodrow Wilson and established by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 which worked to facilitate peaceful international cooperation; *American isolationists, especially the irreconcilables, were staunchly against this, ultimately causing the US Senate to reject the Treaty of Versailles and stay out of the League, which contributed to allowing WWII to come about*

panic of 1873

A worldwide depression that began in the United States because of overreaching development backed by imprudent loans from banks; *especially hurt freedmen, who lost their savings, thus crippling black economic development; intensified debtors' calls for inflationary measures such as the printing of more paper money while "hard-money" supporters such as creditors called for the disappearance of greenbacks, contributing to conflicts over monetary policy which greatly influenced politics in the last quarter of the nineteenth century*

Jack London

A young California writer and adventurer who portrayed the conflict between nature and civilization in his novels; wrote Call of the Wild; reflect popular concern about nature

24th Amendment

Abolishes poll taxes; civil rights achievement

Gettysburg Address

Abraham Lincoln's speech at the dedication of the cemetery at Gettysburg battlefield in 1863 which framed the war as a means to uphold the values of liberty; *although attracting little attention at the time, it became renowned and often-quoted later on*

Gadsden Purchase

Acquired additional land from Mexico in 1853 for $10 million to facilitate the construction of a southern transcontinental railroad; *enabled the South to claim the railroad to the West with greater insistence, claiming that it would be easier to go through the organized territory of New Mexico than the unorganized territory of Nebraska; prompted Northerners to support the organization of Nebraska and provoked the Kansas-Nebraska Act*

Louisiana Purchase

Acquisition of New Orleans and a huge tract of territory to its west by the US from France in 1803 for the relatively low sum of $15 million; *more than doubled the territory of the United States, opening vast tracts for settlement and favoring the agrarian republic envisioned by Jefferson; contributed to making the isolationist principles of Washington's Farewell Address possible by removing another remnant of European power, allowing the US to further disengage from the Old World rivalries*

Impressment

Act of forcibly drafting an individual into military service, employed by the British navy against American seamen in times of war against France, 1793-1815; *continual source of conflict between Britain and the United States in the 1790s-1810s; a British frigate even attacked the US ship the Chesapeake to find deserters who had been impressed; see "Chesapeake affair"*

Alien Laws

Acts passed by a Federalist Congress in 1798 raising the residency requirement for citizenship to fourteen years and granting the president the power to deport dangerous foreigners in times of peace; *along with the Alien Laws, the Sedition Act commanded widespread popular support (partly due to Anti-French hysteria remaining from the XYZ Affair) and struck against the Jeffersonians, leading Jefferson as well as James Madison to draft the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions*

Compromise of 1850

Admitted California as a free state, opened New Mexico and Utah to popular sovereignty, ended the slave trade (but not slavery itself) in Washington D.C., and introduced a more stringent fugitive slave law; *tipped the Senate balance against the South, causing Southerners to attempt to get slave states in the Caribbean; gave the North time to accumulate material and moral strength to aid their victory in the Civil War*

Paul Robeson and Josephine Baker

African American entertainers who toured widely in Europe and Latin America and told about the horrors of Jim Crow laws, helping to raise doubts about America's reputation as the beacon of freedom against Soviet communism; also Gunnar Myrdal's An American Dilemma

Treaty of Greenville

After the Battle of Fallen Timbers, the Miami Confederacy was forced to agree to this treaty in 1795, which ceded territory in the Old Northwest to the US in exchange for cash payment, hunting rights, and formal recognition of their sovereign status; *ended the war with the Miamis, which allowed US settlers to settle further in the Old Northwest, and codified an unequal relationship with the Indians*

Nine-Power Treaty

Agreement coming out of the Washington "Disarmament" Conference of 1921-1922 that pledged 9 countries, including the US, China, Japan, and Britain to abide by the Open Door Policy in China. *Also including the Five-Power Naval Treaty on ship ratios and the Four-Power Treaty to preserve the status quo in the Pacific, the Washington Conference actually did little for the US though Americans were idealistic about it, showing the false sense of security they adopted, which the Kellogg-Briand Pact also contributed to*

Root-Takahira agreement

Agreement in 1908 between the US and Japan to respect each other's territorial possessions in the Pacific and to uphold the Open Door in China. *The agreement eased tensions between the two nations for a while, but the fact that it was necessary at all revealed tensions between Japan and the US that would later resurface; also resulted in a weakened American influence over further Japanese hegemony in China.*

Convention of 1800

Agreement to formally dissolve Franco-American Treaty of 1778; America agreed to pay the damages to American shippers; *the Convention ended a long entanglement with the Frano-American Treaty which contributed to the traditional antipathy of the American people to foreign entanglements; also smoothed over hostilities with France, making Napoleon willing to sell to America the Louisiana Purchase later*

Macon's Bill No. 2

Aimed at resuming peaceful trade with Britain and France, the act in 1810 stipulated that if either Britain or France repealed its trade restrictions, the United States would reinstate the embargo against the nonrepealing nation; *when Napoleon offered to lift his restrictions on British ports, the United States was forced to declare an embargo on Britain, thereby pushing the two nations closer toward war*

corrupt bargain

Alleged deal between presidential candidates John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay to throw the 1824 election, to be decided by the House of Representatives after no candidate received the majority of Electoral votes, in Adams' favor; *became the rallying cry for supporters of Andrew Jackson, who had received the greatest number of popular votes; showed that political deals of this nature were now considered anti-democratic where they had once been accepted*

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

Alliance comprising Middle Eastern states and Venezuela first organized in 1960 to control access to and prices of oil; *wresting some power from Western oil companies and investors, it gradually strengthened the hand of non-Western powers, including Saudi Arabia and Iraq on the world stage*

Missouri Compromise

Allowed Missouri to enter as a slave state in 1820 but carved Maine out of Massachusetts as a free state and prohibited slavery from the rest of the territories acquired in the Louisiana Purchase; *preserved the balance between the Northern and Southern states and provided a temporary legal solution to the question of the legality of slavery*

gasoline-engine tractor

Allowed farmers to produce much more produce, using fewer horses and fewer farmers; *contributed to overproduction, which caused a depression in agricultural districts in the 1920s, causing farmers to push the McNary-Haugen Bill, though Coolidge vetoed it*

A. Philip Randolph

America's leading black labor leader who called for a march on Washington D.C. to protest factories' refusals to hire African Americans, which eventually *led to President Roosevelt issuing an order to end all discrimination in the defense industries and the establishment of the FEPC*

containment doctrine

America's strategy against the Soviet Union based on ideas (of George Kennan) that the Soviet Union and communism were inherently expansionist and had to be stopped from spreading through both military and political pressure. *Provoked by Soviet actions against previous agreements, such as their promise to remove troops from Iran after WWII, the policy guided American foreign policy throughout most of the Cold War, such as supporting South Korea during the Korean war*

Michael Dukakis

American politician and lawyer, former governor of Massachusetts who was the Democratic Party's nominee for president in 1988; lost to George H. W. Bush, partly because he seemed devoid of emotion

Washington Irving

American writer remembered for the stories "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," contained in The Sketch Book (1819-1820); along with Cooper, one of the US's 1st writers of importance to use American themes & scenes

European Economic Community (EEC)

American-encourage free-trade zone in Western Europe this collection of countries originally included France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg; *it demonstrated American interventionism after WWII as the US, as in the Marshall Plan, tried to bolster the war-torn, Western European, capitalistic governments, it eventually expanded to become the European Union, and it showed growing globalization*

New York draft riots

An 1863 uprising, mostly of working-class and antiblack Irish-Americans, in protest of the Union's draft during the Civil War; *particularly a response to the ability of the rich to buy their way out of being drafted, showed how complicated relations were even within sections, with conflicts between economic classes and even between abolitionists and antiblacks*

Pearl Harbor

An American naval base in Hawaii where Japanese warplanes destroyed numerous ships and caused 3,000 casualties on December 7, 1941 (a day that, in President Roosevelt's words, was to "live in infamy."); *the attack officially brought the United States into World War II and provoked and united the American people, virtually destroying isolationist influence and instead causing most Americans to support entering the war*

COINTELPRO

An FBI program begun in 1956 and continued until 1971 that sought to expose, disrupt, and discredit groups considered to be radical political organizations: Targeted antiwar groups during the Vietnam War.

Florence Kelley

An advocate for improving the lives of women and children. (Social Welfare). She was appointed chief inspector of factories in Illinois. She helped win passage of the Illinois factory act in 1893 which prohibited child labor and limited women's working hours.

Teapot Dome scandal

An affair in 1921 involving the illegal lease of priceless naval oil reserves in Teapot Dome, Wyoming and Elk Hills, California to businessmen by Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall; *this scandal, among several others such as Col. Forbes' graft, gave Harding's administration a reputation for corruption, though some Americans excused the wrongdoers, showing weakening morals in a time of prosperity*

ABC-1 agreement

An agreement between Britain and the United States early in 1941, essentially that should the United States enter World War II, the two nations and their allies would coordinate in "getting Germany first"; *held the US back from focusing on attacking Japan despite the popular desire for vengeance after the attack on Pearl Harbor, a strategy which might have allowed Germany to capture Britain, making the Axis powers much more difficult to defeat*

sharecropping

An agricultural system that emerged after the Civil War in which black and white farmers rented land and residences from a plantation owner in exchange for giving him a certain "share" of each year's crop; *the dominant form of southern agriculture after the Civil War, landowners manipulated this system to keep tenants in perpetual debt and tied to their plantations, contributing to the oppression of blacks despite technically having freedom*

Free Speech Movement

An antiestablishment New Left organization that originated in a 1964 clash between students and administrators at the University of California at Berkeley; protest the university's ban on the use of campus space for political debate

Dawes Plan

An arrangement negotiated in 1924 to reschedule German reparations payments, and it opened the way for further American private loans to Germany; *it complicated the financial cycle of debt owed by the Allies to the US with the basis of the system resting in American credit, which when it dried up in 1929 caused the debt cycle to come crashing down, contributing to the Great Depression*

Tampico Incident

An arrest of American sailors by the Mexican government during the Mexican Revolution that spurred Woodrow Wilson to dispatch the American navy to seize the port of Veracruz in April 1914. *Although war was avoided with the help of mediation from the ABC powers, tensions grew between the US and Mexico and would be furthered by rebel Pancho Villa's killings of American civilians*

Keynesianism

An economic theory based on the thoughts of British economist John Maynard Keynes, promoting the use of gov spending and fiscal policy to circulate money into the economy and encourage consumer spending; *became accepted by Roosevelt by 1837 and became the new economic orthodoxy for decades; compromise between conservatives who wanted laissez-faire policies and liberals who wanted direct help for individuals*

abstract expressionism

An experimental style of mid-twentieth-century modern art that strove for spontaneous "action paintings" which made the viewer a participant in creating the painting's meaning; *exemplified by Jackson Pollock's paint-flung canvases, it demonstrated the rise of America worldwide as a cultural influence in art and literature in this era*

Ku Klux Klan

An extremist, anti-black secret society founded in Tennessee in 1866; employed violence and scare tactics against freedmen and their sympathizers; *did typically scare their targets into not voting or running for office despite Congress's Force Acts which tried to stop them, contributing to the effective disenfranchisement of blacks by about 1890 and the restriction of development of black rights during Reconstruction*

Quarantine Speech

An important speech delivered by FDR in 1937 in which he called for efforts to "quarantine" land-hungry dictators, presumably through economic embargoes; *provoked an isolationist angry reaction, intensifying America's isolationist mood and causing FDR to retreat from this policy and to seek less direct means to curb dictators*

World Trade Organization (WTO)

An international body formed in 1995 to promote and supervise liberal trade among nations. *The successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, it demonstrated the increased reality of a globalized market place despite opposition from labor leaders, who were afraid of losing jobs to low-wage Mexican workers, and other protesters who cited the possible human and environmental costs of economic globalization*

American Colonization Society

An organization founded in 1817 for the purpose of transporting black back to Africa, an early abolitionist idea; *established Liberia, a West-African settlement intended as a haven for emancipated slaves; displayed the view even of many abolitionists that black slaves were more African than American even though an African American identity was becoming distinctive*

Boxer Rebellion

An uprising of superpatriotic Chinese in China in 1900 directed against foreign influence; suppressed by an international force of soldiers, including several thousand Americans; *increased support for the Open Door policy; levied huge fines on China, effectively subjugating China to Westerners, the nations who held spheres of influence (such as Russia or Britain) there and to the US*

ABM and SALT treaties

Anti-Ballistic Missile treaty limited each nation to 2 clusters of defensive missiles; Strategic Arms Limitation Talks froze numbers of long-range nuclear missiles for 5 years; constituted long-overdue 1st step toward slowing the arms race; part of detente

contras

Anti-Sandinista fighters in the Nicaraguan civil war who were secretly supported by the US with monetary aid; *the support for them by Reagan's officials (and possibly Reagan himself), despite a congressional ban on military aid to the contras, with money earned from selling arms to Iran, despite Reagan's promise that he wouldn't negotiate with terrorists, ignited the Iran-Contra affair*

Phyllis Schlafly

Anti-feminist who led the campaign to defeat the ERA claiming it would undermine the american family

The Impending Crisis of the South

Antislavery book, written by white Southerner Hinton R. Helper in 1857, arguing that nonslaveholding whites actually suffered most in a slave economy; *though not much of an influence among poorer whites, it fed Southern fears that the nonslaveholding majority might abandon them, and it made the Southerners increasingly unwilling to be in the Union; used by the Republicans as campaign literature*

Free Soil party

Antislavery party in the 1848 and 1852 elections that opposed the extension of slavery into the territories, arguing that the presence of slavery would limit opportunities for free laborers; *foreshadowed the emergence of the Republican party (widely inclusive party organized around the issue of slavery and confined the a single section, the North);*

Liberty party

Antislavery party that ran candidates in the 1840 and 1844 elections; sought eventual abolition, but in the short term hoped to halt the expansion of slavery into the territories and abolish the domestic slave trade; *absorbed about 16,000 votes in NY state which probably would have gone to Henry Clay, causing James Polk to win the election; ironically, this hastened the annexation of Texas though the Liberty party was anti-Texas*

Franz Ferdinand

Archduke of Austria-Hungary assassinated by a Serbian nationalist. A major catalyst for WWI.

International Style

Archetypal, post-World War II modernist architectural style, best known for its massive designs of steel-and-glass corporate high-rises; *exemplified by New York's UN headquarters, it demonstrated the rise of America worldwide as a cultural influence in art and literature in this era*

triangular trade

Atlantic trade between the North American colonies, Africa, and the West Indies which was very profitable; largely consisted of rum, slaves, and molasses

V-J (Victory in Japan) Day

August 15, 1945 heralded the surrender of Japan and the final end to World War II.

Battle of Chateau-Thierry

Battle in 1918 in France between German troops and an alliance of French and newly-arrived American troops; the first significant engagement of American troops in World War I; *the first battle America fought in any European war, breaking its precedent of isolationism; the promise of new, American troops encouraged the Allies and demoralized the Central Powers*

Malcolm X

Black Muslim who argued for separation, not integration, embodying the new militancy of the black struggle; He changed his views, but was assassinated in 1965.

Battle of Shiloh

Bloody Civil War battle on the Tennessee-Mississippi border in 1862 that resulted in the deaths of more than 23,000 soldiers and ended in a marginal victory for Union General Ulysses S. Grant; *the impressive Confederate showing confirmed that there would be no quick end to the war in the West*

Joseph Stalin

Bolshevik revolutionary, head of the Soviet Communists after 1924, and dictator of the Soviet Union from 1928 to 1953. He led the Soviet Union with an iron fist, sending dissidents to death or labor camps

West Africa Squadron

British Royal Navy force formed to enforce the abolition of the slave trade in 1807. It intercepted hundreds of slave ships and freed thousands of Africans; *milestone in abolition of the Atlantic slave trade; however, contrasted with the lack of America's efforts to enforce their own contemporary laws which outlawed the slave trade, with only one of several slave traders being convicted*

George III

British king in the period leading to and including the American Revolution

William Wilberforce

British parliamentarian & abolitionist; touched by George Whitefield's preaching; freed the West Indies slaves; encouraged American abolitionists

Lusitania

British passenger liner that sank after it was torpedoed by Germany in 1915; *it killed over 1000 people, including some Americans, and pushed the United States closer to joining WWI on the side of the Allies, as the Zimmermann note did*

Lord Sheffield

British writer who argued that Britain would ultimately win back America's trade as it followed old channels

Ballinger-Pinchot Controversy

Cabinet members who had fought over conservation efforts and how much effort and money should be put into conserving national resources. Pinchot, head of the Forestry Department, accused Ballinger, Secretary of the Interior, of abandoning federal conservation policy. Taft sided with Ballinger and fired Pinchot. *A major point of contention, along with Taft's approval of the Payne-Aldrich Bill, between the progressive and Old Guard sects of the Republican party, allowing the Democratic Wilson to win the presidency in 1912*

responsorial

Call and response style of preaching practiced by African slaves in the South that melded Christian and African traditions; influenced by the African ringshout dance; *showed emergence of an African American culture distinctive both from African and traditional, Christian, American cultures, especially one that values community*

flappers

Carefree young women with short, "bobbed" hair, heavy makeup, and short skirts. The flapper symbolized the new "liberated" woman of the 1920s. Many people saw the bold, boyish look and shocking behavior of flappers as a sign of changing morals. Though hardly typical of American women, the flapper image *reinforced the idea that women now had more freedom and independence.*

Camp David agreement

Carter's greatest foreign policy achievement. This was when the president of Egypt and the Prime Minister of Israel both agreed to a peace treaty; Israel agreed to withdraw from territory conquered in the 1967 war, and Egypt agreed to respect Israel's borders

Bank of the United States

Chartered by Congress in 1791 as part of Alexander Hamilton's financial program, a private institution in which the fed. gov would be the major stockholder and deposit Treasury funds and by which the fed. gov would print paper money; *because of the Bank, federal funds stimulated business by remaining in circulation, and paper money provided a sound and stable national currency*

Earl Warren

Chief Justice during the 1950's and 1960's who used a loose interpretation to expand rights for both African-Americans and those accused of crimes; despite being a former Republican governor, he was willing to address urgent issues that others wanted to ignore

Earl Warren

Chief Justice during the 1950's and 1960's who used a loose interpretation to expand rights for both African-Americans, those accused of crimes, sexual freedom, and political representation

Jiang Jieshi

Chinese generalissmo; US had given munitions to his armies via the Burma Road to aid his efforts against the Japanese; when Japan cut the Burma Road, America had to send supplies by plane

Second Battle of Bull Run

Civil War battle between Confederate General Robert E. Lee and Union General John Pope, ending in a decisive victory for Lee; *emboldened Lee to push further into the North to attempt to encourage foreign support and to get the Border States; Border States did not join (partially due to the raggedy conditions of the Confederate army); Antietam forestalled hopes of foreign intervention*

Battle of Gettysburg

Civil War battle in Pennsylvania in 1863 between Union General George Meade and Confederate General George Pickett which ended in Union victory; *spelled doom for the Confederacy, which never again managed to invade the North; led Lincoln to deliver his Gettysburg Address; along with the the Union victory at Vicksburg the next day, it quelled Northern peace agitation and Southern hopes for foreign intervention*

Ex parte Milligan

Civil War-era case in which the Supreme Court ruled that military tribunals could not be used to try civilians if civil courts were open.

Bleeding Kansas

Civil war in Kansas over the issue of slavery in the territory, fought intermittently from 1856 until 1861, when it merged with the wider national Civil War.

Yitzhak Rabin and Yasir Arafat

Clinton negotiated another Middle East peace treaty with these two. The second was head of the controversial Palestinian Liberation Organization. However, Rabin was assassinated, and the peace did not hold

Manhattan Project

Code name for the American commission established in 1942 which successfully developed the atomic bomb; *atomic bombs dropped on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan, resulting in thousands of casualties and ultimately forcing Japan to "unconditionally surrender," ending the war with Japan and resulting in V-J Day*

Sam Houston

Commander of the Texas army at the battle of San Jacinto; later elected president of the Republic of Texas

New Harmony

Communal society of around one thousand members, established in New Harmony, Indiana by Robert Owen in 1825 which fell apart after just 2 years due to confusion and fighting among its various members; *part of a period of emergence of utopian communities in the 19th century, such as also the Brook Farm, Oneida, and Shaker communities, reflecting the reformist spirit of the age largely because of the 2nd Great Awakening; virtually all of these communities failed because of free enterprise*

Fidel Castro

Communist dictator of Cuba who came into power in 1959; repelled the Bay of Pigs invasion; accepted help from the USSR

holding companies

Companies that own part or all of other companies' stock in order to extend monopoly control; *the Clayton Anti-Trust Act of 1914, as part of Wilson's plan to topple the "triple wall of privilege," sought to clamp down on these companies when they obstructed competition*

Merrimack and Monitor

Confederate and Union ironclads, respectively, who fought in the Chesapeake Bay in 1862 to a standstill; *though their battle was relatively inconsequential, their successes against wooden ships signaled an end to wooden warships*

Chesapeake affair

Conflict between Britain and the United States in 1807 that developed when a British ship, in search of deserters who had been impressed, fired on the American Chesapeake off the coast of Virginia; *inspired anger among the Americans, which caused Jefferson to propose the Embargo Act of 1807 to avoid a war; see "Embargo Act"*

Tripolitan War

Conflict in 1801-1805 between the American Navy, which noninterventionist Jefferson reluctantly deployed, and the North-African nation of Tripoli over piracy in the Mediterranean; *eventually securing a peace treaty with Tripoli; showed that ideals such as nonintervention in European affairs were difficult to put into practice and that not having a real army or navy, as Jefferson wanted, was dangerous*

Pendleton Act

Congressional legislation in 1883 that established the Civil Service Commission, which granted federal government jobs on the basis of examinations instead of political patronage; *helped rein in the patronage system but instead led politicians to now seek "marriages of convenience" with big-business leaders, giving big businesses more sway in politics, as seen in the election of Benjamin Harrison*

Federal Farm Loan Act (1916)

Congressional measure making credit available to farmers at low rates of interest; long demanded by Populists

Fourteenth Amendment

Constitutional amendment ratified in 1868 that extended civil rights to freedmen and prohibited states from taking away such rights without due process; *while a step forward for black rights, it still wasn't highly effective at the time due to Southern circumvention of it through Black Codes, the KKK, and usually denying blacks the right to vote; point of contention between Johnson and Congress, contributing to Johnson's impeachment trial and leading Johnson to campaign against election of Republican Congressmen, though his speeches were unrestrained, gaining support for the Republicans instead*

Congress of Vienna

Convention from 1814-1815 of major European powers to redraw the boundaries of continental Europe after the defeat of Napoleonic France; *preoccupied with this meeting, the British were more inclined to settling the Treaty of Ghent with America after the War of 1812 instead of being more aggressive in the diplomatic process*

Clement L. Vallandigham

Copperhead congressman from Ohio; tempestuous character; Southern partisan who was convicted of treason; went to Canada and ran for governorship of Ohio from there, polling a substantial but insufficient vote; then returned before the war ended but was not further prosecuted; his story inspired Edward Everett Hale to write *The Man Without a Country*, which helped stimulate devotion to the Union

Freedmen's Bureau

Created by Congress 1865-1872 to aid newly emancipated slaves by providing food, clothing, medical care, education, and legal support. Its achievements were uneven and its administrators often corrupt; *part of a pattern following the Civil War in which Republicans attempted to truly free African Americans but were hindered by Andrew Johnson, the South, and some moderate Republicans, leading to little advancement in the status of blacks; one source of friction between Johnson and the majority-Republican Congress*

National Banking System

Created during the Civil War (in 1863), it was a network of member banks that could issue currency backed by purchased government bonds; *helped to establish a stable national currency and stimulate the sale of war bonds; the first significant step toward a unified banking network since the death of the Bank of the US*

Battle of Fredericksburg

Decisive 1862 victory in Virginia for Confederate Robert E. Lee, who successfully repelled a Union attack on his lines by General A. E. Burnsides; *proved Burnside's inadequacy to be the commander of the main Union army, causing him to be replaced by Joseph Hooker, which demonstrated the lack of good Union generals*

Battle of Fallen Timbers

Decisive battle in 1794 between the Miami confederacy and the U.S. Army after which British forces refused to shelter the routed Indians; *forced the Miamis to agree to the Treaty of Greenville with the US; see "Treaty of Greenville"*

Emancipation Proclamation

Declaration by Abraham Lincoln in 1863 that all slaves in rebelling states (but not in the loyal Border States) were to be free; *while it didn't actually formally free any slaves right away, it closed the door on possible compromise with the South, encouraged thousands of Southern slaves to flee to Union lines, led to the the 13th Amendment which would pass after the war, and gave the North a moral cause to fight for*

Freeport Doctrine

Declared in the few years prior to the Civil War that since slavery could not exist without laws to protect it, territorial legislatures, not the Supreme Court, would have the final say on the slavery question; *given its name due to Douglas using it as an answer to Lincoln's "Freeport question" in the Lincoln-Douglas debates, it won Douglas the Illinois Senate seat but made Southern Democrats unwilling to support him in the 1860 election, dividing the Democratic party and helping Lincoln win*

General "Mad Anthony" Wayne

Defeated Miamis at the Battle of Fallen Timbers when British refused to shelter them.

Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1945)

Democratic president during most of the Great Depression and most of WWI; championed the New Deal along with substantial help from his wife, Eleanor

John F. Kennedy

Democratic president elected in 1960 who served during part of the Cold War and especially during the superpower rivalry and the Cuban missile crisis; other events during his terms included the building of the Berlin wall, the space race, early events of the Vietnamese war, and much of the most vigorous years of the 1960s civil rights movement (which he supported)

Walter Mondale

Democratic presidential candidate in 1984; *made history by naming as his VP running mate Congresswoman Geraldine Ferraro, the first woman ever to appear on a major-party presidential ticket*; still lost

war hawks

Democratic-Republican Congressmen who pressed James Madison to declare war on Britain in 1811-1812. Largely drawn from the South and West, the war hawks resented British constraints on American trade and accused the British of supporting Indian attacks against American settlements on the frontier; *influenced the attack which began the Battle of Tippecanoe; "see Battle of Tippecanoe"; helped push President James Madison towards war with Britain*

baby boom

Demographic explosion from about 1946-1964 from births to returning soldiers and others who had put off starting families during the war. *This large generation of new Americans forced the expansion of many institutions such as schools and universities and increased competition in the job market*

carpetbaggers

Derogatory term used by former Confederates for Northern businessmen and politicians who came to the South after the Civil War to work on Reconstruction projects or invest in Southern infrastructure; *source of Northern influence in the South, even helping to vote blacks and other Republicans into government positions, although they were also in some cases sources of corruption, complicating Southern Reconstruction; angered former Confederates*

scalawags

Derogatory term used by former Confederates for pro-Union Southerners accused of plundering the resources of the South in collusion with Republican governments after the Civil War; *source of Northern influence in the South, even helping to vote blacks and other Republicans into government positions; angered former Confederates*

Black Power

Doctrine of militancy and separatism that rose in prominence after 1965; *rejecting Martin Luther King's pacifism and integrationism, it promoted pride in African heritage and an often militant position in defense of their rights, as demonstrated in the Black Panther party and the many urban riots after 1965*

Land Act of 1820

Driven by those in the West, it lowered the price of land in the new territories; *fueled the settlement of the Northwest and Missouri territories, leading to the admission of Missouri as a state, which caused conflict over whether or not it would be a slave state, eventually settled in the Missouri Compromise*

Wendell Willkie

Dynamic dark horse Republican 1940 liberal presidential nominee who attacked FDR only on domestic policy; agreed with FDR's concepts of interventionism (in terms of aid, not outright war) and a New Deal but not his means

17th Amendment

Established the direct election of senators (instead of being chosen by state legislatures)

romanticism

Early 19th century movement in European and American literature and the arts that, in reaction to the hyper-rational Enlightenment, emphasized imagination over reason, nature over civilization, intuition over calculation, and the self over society; *as an emotionalism began to appeal more to Americans (as seen also in the 2nd Great Awakening), this ideology inspired the flowering of American literature with such authors as James Fenimore Cooper, Washington Irving, and Ralph Waldo Emerson; influenced development of transcendentalism*

Federal Style

Early national style of architecture that borrowed from neoclassical models and emphasized symmetry, balance, and restraint. Famous builders associated with this style included Charles Bulfinch and Benjamin Latrobe; *suggest ancient models for America's republican experiment; showed America's difficulty in finding its own distinctive national style in art*

panic of 1837

Economic crisis triggered by overspeculation, elevated grain prices, and Jacksonian finance (including the Bank War and the Specie Circular); *caused the collapse of hundreds of banks, including some pet banks, leading President Martin Van Buren to propose the "Divorce Bill," (the Independent Treasury Bill) which pulled treasury funds out of the banking system altogether, contracting the credit supply*

Square Deal

Economic policy by Roosevelt that favored fair relationships between companies and workers; pursued 1) control of the corporations, 2) consumer protection, 3) conservation of natural resources; *he ultimately made the owners of a Pennsylvania coal mine make concessions to the workers, and he more broadly created the Department of Commerce and Labor, which helped break up monopolies and trusts*

supply-side economics

Economic theory which held that lower taxes and decreased regulation would increase productivity, stimulate new investment, and eventually boost rather than deplete tax revenues; *Contrary to Keynesianism, it underlay Ronald Reagan's tax and spending cuts, but the policy, paired with Reagan's huge increases in military spending, ultimately resulted in an unprecedented national debt, which would actually slow the development of social programs for decades past Reagan*

Orders in Council

Edicts issued by the British Crown from 1806-1807 closing French-owned European ports to foreign shipping; *the French responded by ordering the seizure of all vessels entering British ports, thereby cutting off American merchants from trade with both parties; caused the US to attempt the Embargo Act*

Voter Education Project

Effort in the 1960s by SNCC and other civil rights groups to register the South's historically disenfranchised black population. *The project typified a common strategy of the civil rights movement, which sought to counter racial discrimination by empowering people at grassroots levels to exercise their civic rights through voting.*

dynamic conservatism

Eisenhower's philosophy of being liberal in all things human and being conservative with all things fiscal or governmental. Appealed to both Republicans and Democrats.

cotton gin

Eli Whitney's invention in 1793 that greatly sped up the process of harvesting cotton; *the gin made cotton cultivation more profitable, revitalizing the Southern economy and increasing the importance of slavery in the South, and producing more cotton (which supported the North's emerging textile factories)*

Sedition Act

Enacted by the Federalist Congress in 1797 in an effort to clamp down on Jeffersonian opposition, the law made anyone convicted of defaming government officials or interfering with government policies liable to imprisonment and a heavy fine; *along with the Alien Laws, the Sedition Act commanded widespread popular support (partly due to Anti-French hysteria remaining from the XYZ Affair) and struck against the Jeffersonians, leading Jefferson as well as James Madison to draft the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions*

Embargo Act

Enacted in 1807 in response to British and French mistreatment of American merchants, the Act banned the export of all goods from the United States to any foreign port; *placed great strains on the American economy while only marginally affecting its European targets, and was therefore repealed in 1809 and replaced with the Non-Intercourse Act, actions which revealed America's lack of control over its foreign trade*

Esch-Cummins Transportation Act of 1920

Encouraged private consolidation of the railroads and pledged the Interstate Commerce Commission to guarantee their profitability; Congress's alternative to retaining control of the railroads after WWI

Treaty of Ghent

Ended the War of 1812 in 1814 in a virtual draw, restoring prewar borders; *failed to address any of the grievances that first brought America into the war, but restored America to peaceful status, allowing the nationalism surge from the War of 1812 to be applied to other efforts such as the Tariff of 1816 and the seizing of the Florida Purchase*

Frederick Douglass

Escaped slave and great black abolitionist who fought to end slavery through political action

Treaty of Kanagawa

Established an American consulate in Japan in 1854 and secured American coaling rights in Japanese ports; *ended Japan's two-hundred year period of economic isolation, both from the US and other nations around the world; part of US push to establish trading relations in Asia with a new window on the Pacific Ocean*

Congressional Committee on the Conduct of the War

Established by Congress during the Civil War to oversee military affairs, it was largely under the control of Radical Republicans, who agitated for a more vigorous war effort and pressed Lincoln on the issue of emancipation; *demonstrated political infighting even in Lincoln's own Republican party, burdening him during the war*

Oklahoma City bombing

Explosion that killed 168 people in a federal office building on April 19, 1995 in Waco, TX after a standoff between federal agents and a Fundamentalist sect known as the Branch Davidians; *demonstrated an extreme version of the common antigovernment mood of the nation due to the disasters of the Vietnam War and Watergate and due to the fact that the Baby Boomers, who had not lived through the gov's relative successes in the Great Depression and WWII, now made up most of the population*

managed currency

FDR took the country off the gold standard and then inflated the currency by buying gold at higher prices. To relieve the misery of the debtor.

Cordell Hull

FDR's Secretary of State; believed that trade was a two-way street, that a nation can sell abroad only as it buys abroad, that tariff barriers choke off foreign trade, and that trade wars beget shooting wars. He was one of the main contributors to the reciprocal trade policy of the New Dealers.

election of 1932

FDR's victory over Hoover; began the distinct shift of blacks to the Democratic party

Eleanor Roosevelt

FDR's wife; the "conscience of the New Deal"; very active in FDR's political career; *brought unprecedented number of women activists to Washington*; zealous human rights and civil rights activist

Crittenden amendments

Failed constitutional amendments proposed in 1860 that would have given federal protection for slavery in all territories south of 36°30' where slavery was supported by popular sovereignty; *proposed in an attempt to appease the South after South Carolina seceded from the Union, it was vetoed by President Lincoln, destroying all hopes of compromise between the North and South*

Operation Dixie

Failed effort by the CIO after World War II to unionize southern workers, especially in textile factories; *reflected both conservative backlash against the many strikes after WWII due to an economic slump after the war as well as white workers' lingering prejudice against racial mixing*

Harpers Ferry

Federal arsenal in Virginia seized by abolitionist John Brown in 1859; *though Brown's effort failed, his raid alarmed Southerners, who believed that Northerners shared in Brown's extremism, and made Brown a martyr, rallying even more Northerners to abolitionism*

Patent Office

Federal government bureau that grants patents, which gives the inventor of something exclusive rights to his/her invention for a period of years; *by 1860, the number of registered patents had exploded, showing the impact and support of the Industrial Revolution*

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Federal law that banned racial discrimination in public facilities and in hiring practices and that strengthened the federal government's power to fight segregation in schools; *it was a major legislative victory for the civil rights movement, along with LBJ's Voting Rights Act of 1965, but it didn't end racism and violence and didn't content a more militant faction of black civil rights activists that supported the doctrine of Black Power*

Chinese Exclusion Act

Federal legislation in 1882 that prohibited most further Chinese immigration to the United States; *the first major legal restriction on immigration in U.S. history, it demonstrated the influence of the anti-Chinese movement, led mainly by Irish immigrants such as Denis Kearney*

Federal Highway Act of 1956

Federal legislation signed by Dwight D. Eisenhower to construct thousands of miles of modern highways in the name of national defense. (Officially called the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act); *speeded suburbanization; created countless jobs in related industries, including oil and travel, but also robbed the railroads of business*

Ruth Bader Ginsburg

Female Supreme Court justice appointed by Bill Clinton; served alongside Sandra Day O'Connor

Catherine Beecher

Female reformer that pushed for female employment as teachers; still embraced the role of a good homemaker for women; an example of the fact that not all women were pushing for radical reforms.

panic of 1857

Financial crash brought on by gold-fueled inflation, overspeculation, and excess grain production; *raised calls in the North for higher tariffs and for free homesteads on western public lands; gave Republicans two surefire economic issues for the election of 1860: protection for Northern manufacturing and free homesteads; inflated Southern overconfidence in the strength of its economy, which was not as hard-hit as the North's*

Korean War

First conflict of the Cold War between armed forces between Soviet- and Chinese-backed North Korea, who first invaded, and and UN-backed South Korea; ended in stalemate in 1953; *supported the premise of the "containment doctrine" that the American military required strong funding, leading to the NSC-68; the American public's support for Gen. MacArthur's preference for attacking China as well revealed popular passions against communist nations during the Cold War*

Anti-Masonic party

First founded in New York in ca. 1826, it gained considerable influence in New England and the mid-Atlantic during the 1832 election, campaigning against the politically-influential Masonic order, a secret society of which Jackson was a part; *participated in innovations in the election of 1832, including being the first third party in a presidential election, adopting formal party platforms (along with the National Republicans), and (along with the other two parties) calling national nominating conventions to name party candidates*

George Catlin

First painted portraits of American Indian Life. First person to envision the idea of a national park

Border States

Five slave states-Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia-that did not secede during the Civil War; *to keep the states in the Union, Lincoln was obliged to declare that the war was about preserving the union, not antislavery; denied the South access to a huge amount of whites and manufacturing, and compared to the Union, the Confederacy was deficient in soldiers and manufactured goods*

Trail of Tears

Forced march of fifteen thousand Cherokee Indians from their Georgia and Alabama homes to Indian Territory in 1838-1839; *this and similar forced removals of Indians because of the Indian Removal Act caused thousands of Indian deaths, provoked bloody conflicts such as the Black Hawk War, and exiled Indians from their ancestral lands; showed the determination of Jackson and his supporters to spread westward*

policy of boldness

Foreign policy objective in 1954 of Dwight Eisenhower's Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, who believed in changing the containment strategy to one that more directly engaged the Soviet Union; *led to a build-up of America's nuclear arsenal to threaten "massive retaliation" against communist enemies, launching the Cold War's arms race, although this threat proved too big to be used in anything but a huge conflict, as seen in the US not helping Hungary in the Hungarian uprising*

Constitutional Union party

Formed by moderate Whigs and Know-Nothings in an effort to elect a compromise candidate and avert a sectional crisis in 1860; *its status as a minority party and its reputation as a "Do Nothing" or "Old Gentleman's" party showed the popularity of North-South aggression and decreasing pushback against secession*

Robert Owen

Founded New Harmony, Indiana in 1825

General Oliver O. Howard

Former Union general who headed the Freedmen's Bureau; later founded Howard University (historically black) in Washington, D.C.

Berlin Wall

Fortified and guarded barrier between East and West Berlin erected on orders from Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev in 1961 to stop the flow of people to the West. *Until its destruction in 1989, the wall was a vivid symbol of the divide between the communist and capitalist worlds which was typical during the Cold War*

Alamo

Fortress in Texas where two hundred Texan/American volunteers were slain by Santa Anna in 1836 in the Texan War for Independence; *delayed the Mexican advance, giving the rebels more time to organize, and the battle cry "Remember the Alamo" as well as the death of heroes such as Davy Crockett and Jim Bowie rallied support of Americans and other Texans for Texan independence*

War of 1812

Fought between Britain and the United States from 1812-1815 largely over the issues of trade and impressment. *Though the war ended in a relative draw, it demonstrated America's willingness to defend its interests militarily, earning the young nation newfound respect from European powers. American manufacturing also prospered while trade with Britain was blocked, contributing to American manufacturing independence.*

Battle of Bull Run (Manassas Junction)

Fought in 1861 near Washington, D.C., it was the first major battle of the Civil War and a victory for the South; *it dispelled Northern illusions of swift victory, focusing the North, and made the South overconfident, decreasing their enlistments and preparations for a long conflict*

American Legion

Founded in Paris in 1919 by Colonel Theodore Roosevelt. Was distinguished for its militant patriotism, conservatism, and zealous anti-radicalism, but was notorious for aggressive lobbying for veterans' benefits, arguing for "adjusted compensation." Led to Congress eventually passing an Adjusted Compensation Act in 1924 despite its $3.5 billion cost

Francis Willard

Founded the Women's Christian Temperance Union, the largest organization of women in the world; allied with the Anti-Saloon League

Good Neighbor Policy

Franklin D. Roosevelt policy in which the U.S. pledged that the U.S. would no longer intervene in the internal affairs of Latin American countries. This reversed Teddy Roosevelt's Big Stick Policy. Foundation for this laid by Herbert Hoover, who withdrew marines and made peace treaties with Latin American countries

Court-packing plan

Franklin Roosevelt's scheme in 1937 to add a new justice to the Supreme Court for every member over seventy in an attempt to overcome the Court's objections to New Deal reforms; *this plan brought much criticism on Roosevelt by both parties, causing few New Deal reforms to be passed through Congress after 1937, but it ironically also motivated the Court to be more sympathetic to New Deal reforms, upholding the Wagner and Social Security Acts*

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

Free trade zone encompassing Mexico, Canada, and the United States since 1993. *A symbol of the increased reality of a globalized market place, the treaty passed despite opposition from protectionists and labor leaders who were afraid of losing jobs to low-wage Mexican workers, a fear which also led to significant anti-immigrant sentiment*

Exodusters

Freedmen who migrated from the South to the North and Midwest, especially Kansas, after the Civil War for better opportunities; *example of upending of the social structure and former slaves' economic status; this also led to dependence on churches and the formation of the Freedman's Bureau*

Louis Agassiz

French Swiss immigrant to America; biologist in the 19th century; taught at Harvard; insisted on original research, deploring the overemphasis on memory work

Philippe Bunau-Varilla

French engineer who advocated an American canal through Panama and helped instigate a Panamanian rebellion against Colombia in 1903

Charles Maurice de Tallyrand

French foreign minister involved in the XYZ affair; later invited American diplomats back to France in order to avoid war.

Marquis de Lafayette

French nobleman who helped the colonists in the Revolutionary War; helped secure further help from France

Alexis de Tocqueville

French political writer noted for his analysis of American institutions (1805-1859)

Edmond Genet (Citizen Genet)

French representative, landed in South Carolina, bolstered by Democratic-Republicans, began to go over Washington's head to do unneutral activity

Acadians

French residents of Nova Scotia who were subjugated by Britain in 1713; *uprooted by the British in 1755 and scattered as far as Louisiana, where their populous descendants became known as "Cajuns"*

"Don't Ask, Don't Tell"

From 1993 to 2010, the policy regarding homosexual in the military; prohibited military authorities from asking about orientation and soldiers from revealing homosexual orientation. *It emerged as a compromise--though still a very controversial one--between the standing prohibition against homosexuals in the armed forces and President Clinton's push to allow all citizens to serve regardless of sexual orientation.*

Woman's Rights Convention at Seneca Falls

Gathering of feminist activists, including Elizabeth Cady Stanton in Seneca Falls, NY in 1848 which demanded rights for women, such as suffrage; *launched the modern women's rights movement; women's rights movement yielded some results even early on as some colleges were admitting women and some states permitted wives to own property after marriage*

Emergency Banking Relief Act of 1933

Gave the president the power to regulate banking transactions and reopen solvent banks; *helped return public confidence in the banking system, causing more banks to unlock their doors as more people put money in banks*

Farewell Address

George Washington's address at the end of his presidency in 1796, warning against "permanent alliances" with other nations; *wise advice for the weak, young nation in order to prevent further vexatious alliances like the Franco-American Treaty of 1778; his decision to resign after 2 terms contributed to the est. of a two-term tradition for Am. presidents*

Kristallnacht

German for "night of broken glass," it refers to the pogrom that destroyed Jewish businesses and synagogues and sent thousands to concentration camps on the night of November 9, 1938; *refugees from this night to the US were ultimately turned away due to restrictive immigration laws, allowing around 6 million Jews to be killed, though FDR created the War Refugee Board, which saved only around 150,000 Jews*

U-boats

German submarines used widely during World War I; *proved deadly for Allied ships in the war zone; U-boat attacks, such as on the Lusitania, played an important role in drawing the United States into World War I*

Hessians

German troops hired from their princes by George III to aid in putting down the colonial insurrection in the American Revolution; *hardened the resolve of American colonists, who resented the use of paid foreign fighters*

Central Powers

Germany and Austria-Hungary, later joined by Turkey and Bulgaria, made up this alliance against the Allies in World War I.

Joseph Lieberman

Gores running mate and the first Jewish American ever to run for Vice President on a major party ticket; outspoken critic of Clinton's behavior in the Lewinsky affair

War Production Board (WPB)

Gov agency established in 1942 to direct all war production to maximize the nation's war machine; *with great powers over the US economy, such agencies helped produce the necessary amounts of goods such as rubber and food for the war and drastically decreased unemployment, but it also caused issues such as inflation, leading to the OPA*

National War Labor Board (NWLB)

Gov wartime agency established to mediate labor disputes that might have undermined the war effort and to adjust wages in an attempt to control inflation; *such restrictions on wages angered laborers and led to several labor walkouts, a problem which Congress attempted to solve with the Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act*

Reform Bill of 1867

Granted suffrage to all male British citizens, dramatically expanding the electorate; *demonstrated the global influence of the success of the American democratic experiment, reinforced by the Union victory in the Civil War; a significant step towards Britain becoming a true political democracy*

Allies

Great Britain, Russia, and France, later joined by Italy, Japan, and the United States, formed this alliance against the Central Powers in World War I.

Dust Bowl

Grim nickname for the Great Plains region devastated by drought and dust storms during the 1930; *worsening the already-severe conditions of farmers during the Great Depression, the disaster led to the migration into California of thousands of displaced "Okies" and "Arkies," and its severity was made known to the rest of the nation by Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath*

Frank Gehry

Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, Spain; architectural postmodernism; "less is a bore" sort of mentality

Charles Evans Hughs

Harding's secretary of state; at the Washington Naval Conference, he urged that no more warships be built for 10 years, suggested that United States, Great Britain, Japan, France, and Italy scrap many of their battleships, cruisers, and aircraft carriers.

Uncle Tom's Cabin

Harriet Beecher Stowe's widely-read novel, published in 1852, that dramatized the horrors of slavery; *it heightened Northern support for abolition and abhorrence for the Fugitive Slave Act, escalated the sectional conflict, and eventually inspired some of the Northern soldiers to fight in the Civil War*

Herbert Croly

He favored the regulation (but also allowed the consolidation) of trusts and labor unions with a strong national government and wrote the book The Promise of American Life; Teddy Roosevelt used as support for his New Nationalism program

Milton Friedman

He was a famous American economist. He strongly promoted the idea of free trade and condemned government regulation and socialism. Wrote Free to Choose in 1979. Critic of Keynesian and activist gov

Fulgencio Batista

He was a pro-American dictator of Cuba before Castro. His overthrow led to Castro and communists taking over Cuba, who was now friendly to the Soviets.

J. Strom Thurmond

He was nominated for president on a States' Rights Party (Dixiecrats) in the 1948 election. Split southern Democrats from the party due to Truman's stand in favor of Civil Rights for African American. He only got 39 electoral votes.

Henry Demarest Lloyd

He wrote the book "Wealth Against Commonwealth" in 1894. It was part of the progressive movement and the book's purpose was to show the wrong in the monopoly of the Standard Oil Company.

John Collier

Head of the Bureau of Indian Affairs who promoted the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, which encouraged tribes to establish local self-gov and to preserve their native crafts and traditions; helped to stop the loss of Indian lands and revived tribes' interest in their identity and culture; supported by most tribes but not by a significant portion still

War Industries Board

Headed by Bernard Baruch, this federal agency founded in 1917 coordinated industrial production during World War I; *although it was feeble and quickly disbanded after the war, it set a precedent for the federal gov to take a central role in economic planning in moments of crisis along with the expansion of the federal gov as it took control of the railroads and ordered daylight savings time*

Public Works Administration (PWA)

Helped construction workers get jobs doing public projects (highways, bridges, sewers); built the Grand Coulee Dam, which seemed like folly

Henry Cabot Lodge

Henry Cabot Lodge was a Republican who disagreed with the Versailles Treaty, and who was the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. He mostly disagreed with the section that called for the League to protect a member who was being threatened.

American System

Henry Clay's three-pronged system in the 1820s which advocated a strong banking system, a protective tariff, and a federally funded transportation network; *the system aimed to support the trend of protecting and developing American industry, which was promoted by several transportation projects, including the Erie Canal*

one-China policy

Implied a lessened American commitment to the independence of Taiwan.

Battle of Tippecanoe

In 1811, a battle between Shawnee chief Tenskwatawa, "the Prophet", and an army led by William Henry Harrison in the Indiana wilderness, resulting in Indian defeat; *made Harrison a national hero; discredited the Prophet, discouraging Indian unity; drove the Prophet's brother, Tecumseh, to forge an alliance with the British against the United States*

Spanish-American War

In 1898, a conflict between the United States and Spain, in which the U.S. supported the Cubans' fight for independence; spread to a fight for the Philippines; *US gained Puerto Rico & the Philippines, the latter of which would later be burdensome; improved America's global reputation as a great power; helped further unite the North and South as both served in the war*

Scopes Monkey Trial

In 1925, Tennessee teacher John T. Scopes willfully violated a state statute prohibiting the teaching of evolution in public schools. Prosecutor William Jennings Bryan and Scopes's lawyer Clarence Darrow faced off during the highly publicized trial, and although Darrow lost the case he made a fool out of Bryan, *substantially weakening the anti-evolution cause throughout the U.S.*

Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World

Incendiary abolitionist track published in 1829 by David Walker, a Southern-born free black, which advocated the violent overthrow of slavery; *part of a sector of radical abolitionists, supporting the outbreak of a war*

David Foster Wallace

Infinite Jest; dystopian future

California gold rush

Inflow of thousands of miners to Northern California after the discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in early 1848; *the onslaught of migrants prompted Californians to organize a government and apply for statehood in 1849 with a constitution that prohibited slavery, alarming proslaveryites and leading to the Compromise of 1850*

Greek Revival

Inspired by the contemporary Greek independence movement, this building style, popular between 1820 and 1850, imitated ancient Greek structural forms in search of a democratic architectural vernacular; *suggest ancient models for America's republican experiment; showed America's difficulty in finding its own distinctive national style in art*

IBM

International Business Machines; *computers transformed age-old business practices like billing and inventory control and opened new frontiers in areas like airline scheduling, high-speed printing, and telecommunications*

United Nations (U.N.)

International body formed in 1945 to bring nations into dialogue in hopes of preventing further world wars as well as encouraging scientific cooperation, with its Big Five Powers consisting of Britain, China, France, the Soviet Union, and the US. *Though similar to the former League of Nation in its purpose, the UN was more realistic in recognizing the authority of the Big Five Powers, and it established Israel as well as agencies such as UNESCO and WHO but failed to regulate nuclear weapons*

Suez crisis

International crisis launched in 1956 when Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the previously mostly British- and French-owned Suez canal, leading to their attack on Egypt, which failed without aid from the United States; *marked an important turning point in the post-colonial Middle East as an economically and strategically important provider of oil and highlighted the rising of oil in world affairs*

Earth Day

International day of celebration and awareness of global environmental issues launched by conservationists on April 22, 1970; *helped to raise awareness and encourage leaders to act with environmental awareness, causing Congress to pass the Clean Air Act of 1970 and other environmental legislation alongside the establishment of the EPA*

"10 percent" Reconstruction plan

Introduced by President Lincoln in 1863 and supported by Johnson, it proposed that a state be readmitted to the Union once 10 percent of its voters had pledged loyalty to the United States and promised to honor emancipation; *it was a very forgiving plan, causing radical Republicans to propose the Wade-Davis Bill, which Lincoln vetoed, angering the Republicans and revealing conflict over the treatment of the defeated South*

mechanical cotton picker

Invention during WWII. Made the Cotton South's need for cheap labor disappear. As a result of this, millions of blacks moved north (a 2nd Great Migration greater than the one during WWI). Along with the movement of blacks due to their seeking jobs in war plants, this migration made race relations now a national, not regional, issue.

House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)

Investigatory body established in 1938 to root out "subversion." Sought to expose communist influence in American government and society, in particular through the trial of Alger Hiss. *Very often taken too far, just as in McCarthyism, making it a tool for Republicans to use against their more liberal enemy party, the Democrats, or by anyone against anyone slightly different from the conservative, Christian "standard", making it a blow to freedom of speech*

Neutrality Proclamation

Issued by George Washington in 1793, it proclaimed America's formal neutrality in the escalating conflict between England and France; *as part of a wider policy of the early presidents to avoid war, it gave the young US time to grow in population and power so that when it did engage in later wars, it could do so from a position of strength*

Treaty of Versailles

It established the terms of settlement of WWI between Germany and the Allies, saddling Germany with heavy reparations to the Allied victors but also freeing some minority peoples, such as the Poles, from imperial dynasties; *Germans detested the treaty as too harsh, leading to a bitterness that Adolf Hitler would use in his rise to power; ultimately upheld few of Wilson's Fourteen Points but did establish the League of Nations, although the US didn't join it*

John C. Calhoun

John Q. Adams' VP; secretly wrote The South Carolina Exposition (proposed that the states should nullify the Tariff of Abominations)

The Grapes of Wrath

John Steinbeck's 1939 novel about a struggling farm family during the Great Depression. Gave a face to the violence and exploitation that migrant farm workers faced in America; the Uncle Tom's Cabin of the Dust Bowl

Battles of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson

Key victory for Union General Ulysses S. Grant on the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers in 1862; *it secured the North's hold on Kentucky, paved the way for Grant's attacks deeper in Tennessee (such as the Battle of Shiloh), and revealed Grant's impressive skill as a general, a rare asset for the Union*

Barry Goldwater

LBJ's Republican opponent in the 1964 election; anti-New Deal programs, anti-civil rights legislation, anti-nuclear test-ban, anti-Great Society; intensely conservative; made some headway in the once-solidly Democratic South but lost the election by a huge margin

Roe v. Wade

Landmark 1973 Supreme Court decision that forbade states from barring abortion by citing a woman's constitutional right to privacy. *Seen as a victory for feminism and civil liberties by some, the decision provoked a strong counter-reaction by opponents to abortion, galvanizing the Pro-Life movement and some of the antifeminists who had struck down the ERA*

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas

Landmark Supreme Court decision in 1954 that abolished racial segregation in public schools, determining that segregation in public schools was "inherently unequal"; *reversing Plessy v. Ferguson, it rejected the foundation of the Jim Crow system of racial segregation in the South; the first major step toward the legal end of racial discrimination and a major accomplishment for the Civil Rights Movement*

Americans with Disabilities (ADA)

Landmark law signed in 1990 by President George W. Bush that prohibited discrimination against people with physical or mental handicaps. *Part of Bush's pledge for a "kinder, gentler America," it represented a legislative triumph for champions of equal protections to all, in which women and minorities had been gaining ground*

Jones Act

Law in 1916 according territorial status to the Philippines and promising independence as soon as a "stable government" could be established; *the Philippines were not actually granted independence during Wilson's presidency, revealing a conflict between Wilson's anti-imperialism and racism*

War Powers Act

Law passed by Congress in 1973 limiting the President's ability to wage war without Congressional approval by requiring the President to notify Congress within 48 hours of committing troops to a foreign conflict. *An important consequence of the Vietnam War, this piece of legislation sought to reduce the President's unilateral authority in military matters and was an expression of "New Isolationism," a mood of caution and restraint in foreign affairs after the Vietnam War*

Elkins Act

Law passed in 1903 by Congress to impose penalties on railroads that offered rebates and customers who accepted them; *one of the laws passed at the turn of the 20th century to manage railroads, it was Congress's first effective attempt to regulate railroad companies, signaling the end of the Gilded Age as Congress sided less and less with big businesses over the masses*

Jim Crow

Laws in the South from the end of Reconstruction to the 1960s which segregated blacks and whites (with blacks having to use inferior facilities) and enacted voter requirements targeted to keep blacks from voting; *made blacks not free in practice, despite the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments as blacks were violently intimidated and legally robbed of many rights*

Black Codes

Laws passed 1865-1866 throughout the South to restrict the rights of emancipated blacks, particularly with respect to negotiating labor contracts, to ensure a stable labor force and restore pre-emancipation race relations; *contributed to blacks advancing in status only minimally after the Civil War, despite being technically free; increased Northerners' criticisms of President Andrew Johnson's lenient Reconstruction policies, such as the 10 percent plan he supported*

Emilio Aguinaldo

Leader of the Filipino independence movement against Spain (1895-1898) in alliance with the US; later also led the independence movement against the US in 1899, but his movement was crushed and he was captured by the United States Army in 1901

Reinhold Niebuhr

Leading American theologian who advocated Christian realism and the use of force if necessary to maintain justice against Nazi or Stalinist evil; divided the world into "children of light" or "children of darkness"; but also emphasized dangers of fallibility and the limits of power; *showed how religious belief post-WWII was often seen as the "American Way" as opposed to the atheistic communist way

irreconcilables

Led by Senators William Borah of Idaho and Hiram Johnson of California, this was a hard-core group of militant isolationists who opposed the Wilsonian dream of international cooperation in the League of Nations after World War I; *their influence ultimately caused the US Senate to reject the Treaty of Versailles and stay out of the League, which contributed to allowing WWII to come about*

Sandinistas

Leftwing anti-American revolutionaries in Nicaragua who launched a civil war in 1979; *opposed by the contras, who were secretly supported by the US, despite a congressional ban on military aid to the contras, with money earned from selling arms to Iran, despite Reagan's promise that he wouldn't negotiate with terrorists, igniting the Iran-Contra affair*

loose construction

Legal doctrine that the federal government can use powers not specifically granted or prohibited in the Constitution because it permits whatever it does not forbid; *strongly supported by Chief Justice John Marshall's ruling in McCulloch v. Maryland that the Bank of the US was constitutional*

limited liability

Legal principle introduced in the US in the 19th century which offers protection for individual investors, who, in cases of legal claims or bankruptcy, cannot be held responsible for more than the value of their individual shares; *facilitated capital investment, causing more people to invest in industries and domestic improvements such as railroads and canals*

Employment Act of 1946

Legislation declaring that the government's economic policy should aim to promote maximum employment, production, and purchasing power, as well as to keep inflation low. *Though it was more general than its liberal creators had wished, it did create the Council of Economic Advisers, which provided the president with data and recommendations to make economic policy*

transcendentalism

Literary and intellectual movement in the mid-19th century that emphasized individualism and self-reliance, predicated upon a belief that each person possesses an "inner-light" that can point the way to truth and direct contact with God; *showed influence of romanticism; emphasis on self-reliance influenced hostility to authority, formal institutions, and conventional wisdom; exaltation of the individual influenced humanitarian reforms*

Ernest Hemingway

Lost Generation writer; spent much of his life in France, Spain, and Cuba during WWI; notable works include A Farewell to Arms and The Sun Also Rises; wrote about his experience as an American soldier during WWI, responding to propaganda and overblown patriotism

Tariff of 1857

Lowered duties on imports in response to a high Treasury surplus and pressure from Southern farmers; *angered Northerners, who blamed the panic of 1857 partly on this tariff; gave Republicans support in the 1860 presidential election as their platform included support higher protective tariffs*

Triangle Shirtwaist Fire

March 1911 fire in New York factory that trapped young women workers inside locked exit doors; nearly 50 ended up jumping to their death; while 100 died inside the factory; *led to the establishment of stronger laws regulating the hours and conditions of factories, including increasing safety precautions for workers and workers' compensation laws*

Awful Disclosures

Maria Monk's sensational 1836 expose of alleged horrors in Catholic convents; *its popularity reflected nativist fears of Catholic influence and contributed to the Know-Nothing party's anti-immigrant propaganda*

March on Washington

Massive civil rights demonstration led by MLK in August 1963 in support of Kennedy-backed legislation to secure legal protections for American blacks. *One of the most visually impressive manifestations of the Civil Rights Movement, the march was the occasion of Martin Luther King's inspirational "I Have a Dream" speech, and it demonstrated the mainly peaceful methods of the civil rights activists as opposed to the severe violence of many anti-black white Americans, especially in the South*

glasnost

Meaning "openness," a policy of Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev aimed at decreasing the secretive and repressive nature of Soviet society by introducing free speech and some political liberty; *a cornerstone, along with Perestroika, of Gorbachev's reform movement in the USSR in the 1980s which resulted in greater market liberalization, access to the West, ultimately the end of communist rule, and the INF treaty with the US, which significantly thawed the Cold War*

perestroika

Meaning "restructuring," a policy of Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev aimed at reviving the Soviet economy by introducing some of the free market practices of the West; *a cornerstone, along with Perestroika, of Gorbachev's reform movement in the USSR in the 1980s which resulted in greater market liberalization, access to the West, ultimately the end of communist rule, and the INF treaty with the US, which significantly thawed the Cold War*

Bretton Woods Conference

Meeting in 1944 of Western allies to establish a postwar international economic order to avoid crises like the one that spawned World War II. *Led to the creation of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, designed to regulate currency levels and provide aid to underdeveloped countries; US took the lead in developing these agencies, in contrast to their isolationism prior to WWII*

Yalta conference

Meeting of the Big Three in February 1945 to lay the foundations for the postwar division of power in Europe, including a divided Germany, territorial concessions to the Soviet Union, self-determination for Poland, and a plan for the creation of the United Nations; *while mainly just general intentions, not the more comprehensive plan that would come after the war ended, many assailed FDR for the "sell-out" of Poland and Chinese Manchuria to Stalin, issues that would worsen with the coming Cold War*

Peter Cartwright

Methodist "circuit rider"/preacher; converted thousands of souls; knocked out people who tried to break up his meetings

The Liberator

Militantly antislavery newspaper published from 1831-1865 by William Lloyd Garrison, who called for the immediate emancipation of all slaves; *more stubbornly principled than practical, Garrison was part of a sector of radical abolitionists, supporting the outbreak of a war; founded the American Anti-Slavery Society*

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

Military alliance of Western European powers and the United States and Canada established in 1949 to defend against the common threat from the Soviet Union; *a giant stride forward for European unity and American internationalism, as was the formation of the UN, but also for militarization of the Cold War*

Six-Day War

Military conflict in 1967 between Israel and its Arab neighbors, including Syria, Egypt, and Jordan, which ended with an Israeli victory and territorial expansion into the Sinai Peninsula, the Golan Heights, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank; *a humiliation for several Arab states, it caused territorial disputes and formed the basis for continued conflict in the region, including a standoff between Israel and Palestine*

Vietnamization

Military strategy launched by Richard Nixon in 1969 to reduce the number of American combat troops in Vietnam and instead supply the South Vietnamese with money and supplies; *while somewhat responding to the antiwar, "counterculture" movement, it didn't satisfy it, and antiwar protests continued, leading to Nixon's appeal to the "silent majority"*

Battle of Dien Bien Phu

Millitary engagement in 1954 in French Colonial Vietnam in which French forces were defeated by Viet Minh nationalists loyal to Ho Chi Minh. *With this loss, the French ended their colonial involvement in Indochina, paving the way for the entry of America, who tried to support the pro-Western southern half of Vietnam*

West Virginia

Mountainous region consisting mainly of nonslaveowning farmers and miners that broke away from Virginia in 1861 to form its own state after Virginia seceded from the Union; *along with Border States*

Emmett Till

Murdered in 1955 for whistling at a white woman in Mississippi; lynched by a mob; *his death helped lead to the American Civil Rights movement*

dollar diplomacy

Name for President Taft's policy of supporting U.S. investments and political interests abroad; *strengthened the US by making money and increasing the dependence of Latin American countries on the US, leading the US to intervene militarily in these countries, such as in Nicaragua during a revolution*

muckrakers

Named by the resentful Theodore Roosevelt, these were reporters at the turn of the 20th century who boosted the circulations of their magazines by writing exposés of widespread corruption in American society; *wanting change but not revolution, they inspired popular public support for fixing issues such as labor injustices and corruption of politics by big businesses, helping to bring about reforms such as the Australian ballot and the direct election of senators*

The Blithedale Romance

Nathanial Hawthorne's novel in 1852 about the Brook Farm experiment

National Security Council Memorandum Number 68 (NSC-68)

National Security Council recommendation in 1950 to quadruple defense spending and rapidly expand peacetime armed forces to address Cold War tensions. *approved by Congress only after the start of the Korean War, which showed the US its need for strong defense, it reflected a new militarization of American foreign policy, and the huge costs seemed not to interfere with the illusion of limitless postwar prosperity*

malaise speech

National address by Jimmy Carter in the wake of the 1979 oil crisis in which he chided American materialism and urged a morality and spirituality in the face of economic hardships. *intended to improve both public morale and Carter's standing as a leader, it was actually a political disaster for Carter as he was criticized for losing touch with the popular mood of the country, contributing to the rise of popularity of the New Right and neoconservatives*

Checkers Speech

Nationally televised address by 1952 vice-presidential candidate Richard Nixon during which he defended himself against allegations of corruption by saying the only campaign gift he had received was a cocker spaniel named Checkers; *saved his place on the ticket; showed that television was now a viable political tool which allowed candidates to bypass traditional campaigning and political machinery and speak directly to voters*

Know-Nothing party

Nativist political party, also known as the American party, which emerged in the 1850s and argued for rigid restrictions on immigration and naturalization; *formed in response to the mass migrations of Europeans, especially the Irish and Germans, developed an anti-immigrant attitude among many Americans, sometimes leading to violence (burning of Catholic convents) and propaganda (Awful Disclosures)*

Jay's Treaty

Negotiated by Chief Justice John Jay in 1794 in an effort to avoid war with Britain, the treaty included a British promise to evacuate outposts on U.S. soil and pay damages for seized American vessels, in exchange for which Jay bound the United States to repay pre-Revolutionary war debts; *primary issue which vitalized the Dem-Rep party (even becoming one of their primary arguments later against Hamilton as a presidential candidate), drove Spain (fearful of an Anglo-American alliance) to accept the generous Pinckney's Treaty, and provoked the French to seize American ships*

Works Progress Administration (WPA)

New Deal agency that helped create jobs for those that needed them. It created around 9 million jobs working on bridges, roads, and buildings. Mainly focused on infrastructure but also hired artists to create posters and murals. *Provided nearly 9 million people with jobs, preserving self-respect*

Fair Labor Standards Act

New Deal labor legislation that in 1938 regulated minimum wages and maximum hours for workers involved in interstate commerce and outlawed labor by children under sixteen. *Building upon the precedent set by labor-sympathetic actions during the Great Depression such as the Wagner Act, it contributed to better working conditions for many, but the exclusion of agricultural, service, and domestic workers meant that many blacks, Mexican Americans, and women did not benefit from the act's protection*

Erie Canal

New York state canal completed in 1825 that linked Lake Erie to the Hudson River; *part of the transportation revolution; it dramatically lowered shipping costs, fueling an economic boom in upstate New York and increasing the profitability of farming in the Old Northwest, which attracted more immigrants and Americans to move there*

"Dr. Win-the-War"

Nickname for Franklin D. Roosevelt during WWII; replaced "Dr. New Deal", *reflecting the end of the era of New Deal reform and the revitalization of conservative forces during the WWII era*

silent majority

Nixon administration's term to describe generally content, law-abiding Americans who supported both the Vietnam War and America's institutions; *a political tool, the concept attempted to divisively distinguish between believers in "traditional" values and the vocal minority of civil rights agitators, student protesters, counterculturalists, and other seeming disruptors of the social fabric*

southern strategy

Nixon reelection campaign strategy to stress law and order issues and remain noncommittal on civil rights in order to appeal to conservative whites in the historically Democratic south. *This strategy typified the regional split between the two parties as white Southerners became increasingly attracted to the Republican party in the aftermath of the Civil Rights Movement*

Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)

Nonviolent civil rights organization founded in 1942 and committed to the "Double V" of the WWII era—victory over fascism abroad and racism at home; *reflected how the war helped to embolden blacks in their struggle for equality, and they even made some progress the previous year with the establishment of the FEPC*

Copperheads

Northern Democrats, especially in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, who obstructed the war effort by attacking Abraham Lincoln, the draft and, after 1863, emancipation; *included such people as Clement Vallandigham, whose story inspired The Man Without a Country, which inspired greater devotion to the Union; raised considerable opposition to Lincoln in the 1864 election, revealing the lack of harmony even in the supposedly unified North*

popular sovereignty

Notion advanced before the Civil War that the sovereign people of a given territory should decide whether to allow slavery; *the main principle behind the Compromise of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act, it was largely opposed by northern abolitionists, who feared it would promote the spread of slavery to the territories*

Black Monday

October 19, 1987, the date of the largest single-day decline to that point, which occurred in the leading stock-market index; *indicated instability in the booming business culture of the 1980s and widened the gap between the rich and the less well-off but did not lead to a serious economic recession as some predicted*

the Alabama

One of many British-built and manned Confederate warship that raided Union shipping during the Civil War; *revealed overarching diplomatic tensions between Europe and the US's two sections (with European elites generally supporting the South while the masses supported the North); angered Northerners, influencing some of them to raid Canada, causing the British government to establish the Dominion of Canada; crippled Northern ocean-carrying trade*

Oneida Community

One of the more radical utopian communities established in the nineteenth century, it advocated "free love," birth control, and eugenics; *part of a period of emergence of utopian communities in the 19th century, such as also the Brook Farm, Oneida, and Shaker communities, reflecting the reformist spirit of the age largely because of the 2nd Great Awakening; virtually all of these communities failed because of free enterprise*

Executive Order 9981

Order issued in 1948 by President Truman to desegregate the armed forces; *resulted from a pressure on the US to uphold the democratic ideals it professed to be spreading in contrast to the Soviets' communism during the Cold War, though agitators for civil rights were often branded as communists*

New England Emigrant Aid Company

Organization founded in 1854 to facilitate the migration of free laborers to Kansas in order to prevent the establishment of slavery in the territory; *led to increasingly greater and often violent attempts by both the North and South, including figures such as John Brown, to claim Kansas, leading to the civil war of Bleeding Kansas*

American Temperance Society

Organization founded in Boston in 1826 which encouraged limitation of alcohol consumption; *as excessive drinking was a problem in early America, reform efforts such as this, influenced by the 2nd Great Awakening, grew in the 19th century as people saw the negative effects on families and business; influenced even prohibition efforts like the Maine Law of 1851*

Black Panther party

Organization of armed black militants formed in Oakland, California, in 1966 to protect black rights; *represented a growing dissatisfaction with the non-violent wing of the civil rights movement despite its legislative victories and signaled a shift to a more militant civil rights movement, as embodied by the doctrine of Black Power*

Democratic Leadership Council (DLC)

Organization of centrist Democrats founded in the mid-1980s which attempted to push the Democratic party toward pro-growth, strong defense, and anti-crime policies. *helped the Democratic party gain the presidency with Bill Clinton in 1992 after decades of almost entirely Republican presidents; friendliness toward business demonstrated how market-oriented American politics became in the last decades of the 20th century*

Rough Riders

Organized by Theodore Roosevelt in 1898, a motley regimen of Cuban war volunteers consisting largely of western cowboys; *Roosevelt used his experience in this to help him win the nomination for McKinley's VP*

Freedom Riders

Organized mixed-race groups who rode interstate buses deep into the South to draw attention to and protest racial segregation, beginning in 1961. *This effort by northern young people to challenge racism proved a political and public relations success for the civil rights movement, especially as JFK sent federal marshals to protect them, beginning a trend of protection which would continue in later movements such as the Voter Education Project*

Judiciary Act of 1789

Organized the federal legal system, establishing the Supreme Court, federal district and circuit courts, and the office of the attorney general; *created effective federal courts*

greenbacks

Paper currency issued by the Union Treasury during the Civil War which was inadequately supported by gold and thus fluctuated in value throughout the war; *caused growing inflation, which hit the working class especially hard and which, along with unreliable bankers, led Congress to establish the National Banking System to establish a stable national currency*

Force Acts

Passed 1870-1871 by Congress following a wave of Ku Klux Klan violence, the acts banned clan membership, prohibited the use of intimidation to prevent blacks from voting, and gave the U.S. military the authority to enforce the acts; *mostly ineffective as the KKK had already done most of its intimidation and continued in the guise of other organizations; showed the ineffectiveness of Congress in securing significant rights and protections for blacks*

Fugitive Slave Law

Passed as part of the Compromise of 1850, it set high penalties for anyone who aided escaped slaves and compelled all law enforcement officers to participate in retrieving runaways; *greatly antagonized the North, shocking moderates into becoming antislaveryites and strengthening the antislavery cause in the North*

Force Bill (aka the "Bloody Bill")

Passed by Congress alongside the compromise Tariff of 1833, it authorized the president to use the military to collect federal tariff duties.

Tenure of Office Act

Passed by Congress, motivated to protect secretary of war Edwin Stanton's job as he served as a radical Republican spy, which required the president to seek approval from the Senate before removing appointees; *when Andrew Johnson removed Stanton anyway, he was impeached by the House but not by the Senate, thus avoiding a precedent which would have weakened the presidency*

Wade-Davis Bill

Passed by Congressional Republicans in response to Abraham Lincoln's "10 percent plan," it required that 50 percent of a state's voters pledge allegiance to the Union, and set stronger safeguards for emancipation; *reflected divisions between Congress and the President, and between radical and moderate Republicans, over the treatment of the defeated South, a conflict which would continue with Johnson*

criminal syndicalism laws

Passed by many states 1919-1920 during the red scare, these laws outlawed the mere advocacy of violence to secure social change; *limited the traditional value of freedom of speech and specially targeted some labor groups such as the IWW, hurting labor organization as did advocacy for the American plan*

Judiciary Act of 1801

Passed by the departing Federalist Congress, it created sixteen new federal judgeships in an attempt to ensure a Federalist hold on the judiciary; *see "midnight judges"*

Reconstruction Act

Passed by the newly-elected Republican Congress in 1867, it divided the South into five military districts, disenfranchised former confederates, and required that Southern states both ratify the Fourteenth Amendment and write state constitutions guaranteeing freedmen the franchise before gaining readmission to the Union; *resulted in the Fifteenth Amendment, just as the Civil Rights Bill resulted in the Fourteenth Amendment*

Non-Intercourse Act

Passed in 1809 alongside the repeal of the Embargo Act, it reopened trade with all but the two belligerent nations, Britain and France; *continued Jefferson's policy of economic coercion, still with little effect, and, along with Macon's Bill No. 2 which replaced it, it showed America's lack of control over its foreign trade*

compromise Tariff of 1833

Passed in 1833 as a measure to resolve the Nullification Crisis, it provided that tariffs be lowered gradually, over a period of ten years, to the relatively mild 1816 levels; *resulted in no conclusive victor in the debate over whether the states had the right to nullify federal legislation, leaving open later attempts at nullification*

Morrill Tariff Act

Passed in 1861 by the Union, it increased duties by 5-10% back up to the levels of the Walker Tariff of 1846; *raised some revenue, though much less than bonds, for the Civil War and stimulated Northern manufacturing, making the North prosperous after the War; caused a protective tariff to become identified with the Republican party, the dominant party of the North at the time*

Pacific Railroad Act

Passed in 1862, it helped fund the construction of the Union Pacific transcontinental railroad with the use of land grants and government bonds; *one of the bills Congress had been able to pass due to its vast Republican majority during the Civil War; dread of losing this ability led Republicans to deny Southerners seats in Congress during Reconstruction, especially since the South would have more seats now that slaves counted fully for representation*

Civil Rights Bill

Passed in 1866 over Andrew Johnson's veto, the bill aimed to counteract the Black Codes by conferring citizenship on African Americans and making it a crime to deprive blacks of their rights to sue, testify in court, or hold property; *one of many points of contention between Johnson and Congress, it, along with disagreement over the 10 percent plan and the Freedman's Bureau, led to Johnson's impeachment trial as well as leading Congress to pass the 14th amendment to preserve the statues of the bill*

Hawley-Smoot Tariff

Passed in 1930, the highest protective tariff in the peacetime history of the United States, raising the duty to nearly 60%. *to the outside world, it seemed like economic warfare and plunged both America and other nations deeper into the depression which had already begun, increasing international financial chaos and helping to trigger the Great Depression*

National Security Act

Passed in 1947 in response to perceived threats from the Soviet Union after WWII. It established the Department of Defense and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and National Security Council.

Workingmen's Compensation Act

Passed under Woodrow Wilson in 1916, this law granted assistance to federal civil-service employees during periods of disability; *a result of the wave of progressivism in the US as supported by Woodrow Wilson, who passed several acts that gave protections to laborers, including also the Clayotn Anti-Trust Act and the Adamson Act*

Lend-Lease Bill

Patriotically numbered 1776, this 1941 law allowed Americans to sell unlimited supplies of arms to any nation defending itself against the Axis Powers; *effectively an economic declaration of war, it ended any pretense of US neutrality in WWII, leading Germany to begin destroying American ships such as the Robin Moor; as a side effect, prepared US factories for all-out war production*

Benjamin Spock

Pediatrician in the 1940s whose book "The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care" influenced the upbringing of children around the world; families became more distanced, making this kind of advice less passed down from grandparent to parent

Oral Roberts

Pentecostal Holiness preacher; capitalized on the rising wave of TV to spread the Christian gospel

Marshall Plan

Plan beginning in 1947 for massive transfer of aid money to help rebuild postwar Western Europe, intended to bolster capitalist and democratic governments and prevent domestic communist groups from riding poverty and misery to power. (The plan was first announced by Secretary of State George Marshall at Harvard's commencement in June 1947.) *supporting the efforts of the US to fight communist influences during the Cold War, as also seen in the Truman Doctrine, it successfully helped Western European nations' economies improve, warding off communist parties in Italy and France who might have preyed on bad times*

racketeers

People who obtain money illegally by fraud, bootlegging, gambling, or threats of violence; *invaded the ranks of labor during the 1920s, a decade with prevalent gambling and gangsterism, with organized crime growing to be one of the nation's biggest businesses*

cult of domesticity

Pervasive 19th-century cultural creed that venerated the customary domestic role of women; *gave married women greater authority to shape home life but limited opportunities outside the domestic sphere; along with factory girls, revealed a rising question over the role of women in society*

funding at par

Plan proposed by Hamilton and passed by Congress in 1790 which meant that the federal gov would pay off its debts at face value plus accumulated interest; *bolstered the national credit, evoking public confidence in the gov which allowed it to secure more bonds and international loans (such as from the Netherlands) to support the young federal gov*

New Nationalism

Platform of reforms advocated by Theodore Roosevelt in the presidential campaign in 1912 which did not object to continued consolidation of trusts and labor unions but rather sought to increase the national gov's regulatory power to ward against economic and social abuses; *the New Nationalism program clashed with Wilson's New Freedom program, becoming a major point of contention in the presidential election of 1912, which Wilson ultimately won*

New Freedom

Platform of reforms advocated by Woodrow Wilson in his first presidential campaign in 1912, including stronger antitrust legislation to protect small business enterprises from monopolies but not increasing government regulation of markets; *the New Freedom program clashed with Roosevelt's New Nationalism program, becoming a major point of contention in the presidential election of 1912, which Wilson ultimately won*

spoils system

Policy of rewarding political supporters with public office, first widely employed at the federal level by Andrew Jackson; *widely abused by unscrupulous office seekers and led to scandal (such as the theft of $1 million by Samuel Swartwout), but also helped cement party loyalty in the emerging two-party system*

Solidarity

Polish trade union created in 1980 to protest working conditions and political repression. Led Poland's USSR to impose a military, causing Reagan to impose economic sanctions on Poland and the USSR, degrading relations further with the USSR; in 1989 touched off a whirlwind of Eastern European countries toppling their communist governments, including in East Germany, which heralded an imminent end to the Cold War with the collapse of the USSR in 1991

Moral Majority

Political action committee founded by evangelical Reverend Jerry Falwell in 1979 to promote traditional Christian values and oppose feminism, abortion, and gay rights. *The group was vital to the resurgent religious right of the 1980s but ironically paralleled the left-wing protesters of the 1960s in many ways, such as making the personal (such as homosexuality and prayer) political, practicing a form of identity politics (such as defining themselves as Christian or pro-life voters) and using civil disobedience*

Mississippi Freedom Democratic party

Political party organized in 1964 by civil rights activists to challenge Mississippi's delegation to the Democratic National Convention, who opposed the civil rights; *were denied seats at the convention, which, like the Freedom Summer, was both a setback to civil rights activism in the South and a motivation to continue to struggle for black voting rights, which culminated in LBJ's Voting Rights Act of 1965*

Lewinsky affair

Political sex scandal in which Bill Clinton was discovered to have lied under oath about having an affair with White House intern Monica Lewinsky; resulted in Clinton's impeachment and trial by Congress. *Although Clinton was ultimately not convicted by the Senate, the scandal put a lasting blemish on his presidential legacy and reinvigorated the anti-government sentiment that had grown from the disasters of the Vietnam War and Watergate*

Burned-Over District

Popular name for Western New York, a region particularly swept up in the religious fervor of the Second Great Awakening.

Era of Good Feelings

Popular name for the period from 1816-1824 of one-party, Republican, rule during James Monroe's presidency; obscures bitter conflicts over internal improvements, slavery, and the national bank; *the fact of issues such as the panic of 1819 being ignored by the term shows the strength of emerging popular nationalism*

Seward's Folly

Popular term for Secretary of State William Seward's purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867; *Alaska ended up providing the US with several natural resources, including oil and gas*

pet banks

Popular term for pro-Jackson state banks that received the bulk of federal deposits when Andrew Jackson moved to dismantle the Bank of the United States in 1833; *without a central bank in control, these smaller banks flooded the country with unreliable paper money, causing Jackson to authorize the Specie Circular; see "Specie Circular"*

Whiskey Rebellion

Popular uprising of whiskey distillers in 1794 in southwestern Pennsylvania in opposition to an excise tax on whiskey; *Washington's response--sending a 13 thousand soldiers to put down the rebellion and then pardoning the minor convicted culprits--commanded a respect among the American people for the strength of the new government, discouraging more frequent rebellions*

Tammany Hall

Powerful New York political machine est. in 1789 which Irish immigrants gained control of and thus received political patronage from; *a notable example of how Irish immigrants added another body of poor, anti-elitist, and even mostly-landless voters to the political arena, causing politicians to pursue their vote and supporting the power of the common man and the landless; Irish (& German) immigrants led to the Know-Nothing party*

Johnson's "round the circle" speeches

President Johnson's speech tour against election of Republican Congressmen due to his contention with the Republican Congress's Reconstruction plan, including the 14th Amendment; *due to Johnson's temper during the speeches, he ended up gaining support for the Republicans instead, earning them two-thirds of Congress and making them veto-proof*

New Frontier

President Kennedy's term for his domestic policy agenda which worked for new challenges that would help fulfill America's potential for greatness; *characterized by an optimism which helped him gain support for his programs, it included proposals for the Peace Corps, efforts to improve education and health care, and success on the Apollo mission, although his programs were often held back by conservative congressmen*

Great Society

President Lyndon Johnson's term for his domestic policy agenda, including his "War on Poverty," support for civil rights, social programs, and investments in education and the arts; *billed as a successor to the New Deal, it made impressive achievements in LBJ's "Big Four" legislation, including direct educational aid to students, Medicare and Medicaid, the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965*

Nixon Doctrine

President Nixon's plan for "peace with honor" in Vietnam, stating that the United States would honor its existing defense commitments, but, in the future, countries would have to fight their own wars; *while somewhat responding to the antiwar, "counterculture" movement, it didn't satisfy it, and antiwar protests continued, leading to Nixon's appeal to the "silent majority"*

Fair Deal

President Truman's extensive social program introduced in his 1949 message to Congress, with such lofty goals as improved housing, full employment, national health insurance, and new TVAs. *Republicans and Southern Democrats kept much of his vision from being enacted, except for raising the minimum wage, providing for more public housing, and extending old-age insurance to many more beneficiaries under the Social Security Act*

Truman Doctrine

President Truman's universal pledge of support for any people fighting any communist or communist-inspired threat, issued in 1947. *provoked by fear of Greece and Turkey giving in to Soviet-backed communist regimes, the doctrine reflected the efforts of the US to fight communist influences during the Cold War, as also seen in the Marshall Plan*

Slobodan Milosevic

President of Serbia from 1989 to 1997 and of Yugoslavia 1997 to 2000. A key figure in the ethnic conflicts in the Balkans in the 1900's.

Boris Yeltsin

President of the Russian Republic in 1991. Helped end the USSR; signed the START II accord with the US, committing both powers to reduce their long-range nuclear arsenals by two-thirds within ten years

Nicholas Biddle

President of the Second Bank of the United States; he struggled to keep the bank functioning when President Jackson tried to destroy it; known for bribes and corruption

Charles ("Champagne Charley") Townshend

Prime Minister of Britain who could deliver brilliant speeches in Parliament even while drunk; passed the Townshend Act, which included a tax on tea

George Grenville

Prime Minister of Britain who passed the Sugar Act, the first Quartering Act, and the Stamp Act

turnpike

Privately funded, toll-based public roads constructed in the early 19th century to facilitate commerce; introduced in the US with the Lancaster Turnpike in Pennsylvania; *turnpikes were rather profitable ventures, causing more people to invest in them and thus more to be built, which facilitated western advancement; part of the transportation revolution*

affirmative action

Program designed to redress historic racial and gender imbalances in jobs and education; originally referred to JFK's 1961 mandate that projects paid for with federal funds could not discriminate based on race in their hiring practices; *supported by LBJ as characteristic of his Great Society program, the meaning change slightly in the late 1960s, with President Nixon's Philadelphia Plan requiring attention to certain groups, rather than protect individuals against discrimination*

Philadelphia Plan

Program established by Richard Nixon in 1969 to require construction trade unions to work toward hiring more black apprentices. *altered Lyndon Johnson's concept of "affirmative action" to focus on groups rather than individuals, opening broad employment and education opportunities for minorities and women*

Bracero program

Program established in 1942 by agreement with the Mexican government to recruit temporary Mexican agricultural workers to the United States to make up for wartime ag labor shortages; persisted two decades after the war; *greater numbers of Mexicans in the US just as blacks and Native Americans were newly moving to urban areas, causing great race friction throughout the US, which sometimes culminated in violence and killing*

Apollo

Program of manned space flights from 1961-1975 run by America's National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), especially the landing of Apollo 11 on the moon on July 20, 1969; *part of JFK's "New Frontier" vision, it was also a successful ploy to restore trust in American dominance in the space race after the Soviet's success with Sputnik*

Contract with America

Program offered by Republican politicians, led by Newt Gingrich, in the 1994 midterm election which proposed smaller government, lower budget deficits, term limits, radical reductions in welfare programs, and a general repudiation of the Democratic party; *a significant blow to the Clinton administration and led to the Republican party's takeover of both houses of Congress for the first time in half a century, leading to Welfare Reform Bill and the full integration of boll-weevils into the Republican party*

Ruth Benedict

Prominent 1930s social scientist who argued that each culture produced its own type of personality in her work Patterns of Culture; *women in the 1930s began to carve a larger space for themselves in the nation's political and intellectual life*

Tallmadge amendment

Proposal in 1819 to prohibit the importation of slaves into Missouri territory and pave the way for gradual emancipation; *received and eventually defeated by Southerners with vehemence, leading the conflict between the North and South over the legality of slavery, which was legally settled for a time by the Missouri Compromise*

Lecompton Constitution

Proposed Kansas constitution, whose ratification in 1857 by proslaverites was unfairly rigged so as to guarantee slavery in the territory, causing it to later be voted down when Congress required that the entire constitution be put up for a vote; *contributed to the civil war of Bleeding Kansas; supported by President Buchanan, antagonizing the Douglas Democrats in the North, which divided the Democratic party, the only remaining national party and thus an important strand of unity*

Kansas-Nebraska Act

Proposed by Stephen Douglas and passed in 1854, it provided that the issue of slavery be decided by popular sovereignty in the Kansas and Nebraska territories in an effort to pave the way for a northern transcontinental railroad; *decreased Northern and Southern willingness to compromise, weakened the Democratic party, and gave rise to the purely sectional Republican party*

Tariff of 1842

Protective measure passed by Congressional Whigs, raising tariffs to pre-Compromise of 1832 rates (roughly 32% on dutiable goods)

Montgomery bus boycott

Protest in 1955 by black Alabamians against segregated seating on city buses, sparked by Rosa Parks's defiant refusal to move to the back of the bus. *one of the foundational moments of the civil rights movement, it led to the rise of Martin Luther King, Jr., and ultimately to a Supreme Court decision opposing segregated busing*

lyceum

Public lecture hall that hosted speakers such as Ralph Waldo Emerson on topics such as science, literature, and philosophy; *as a platform for intellectual sharing (such as Emerson's sharing of transcendentalism), part of a broader flourishing of higher education in the mid-nineteenth century*

John Greenleaf Whittier

Quaker poet; poet laureate of the antislavery crusade; important in influencing social action; cried out against inhumanity, injustice, and intolerance; was undeterred by insults and stoning; aroused America over slavery; poet of human freedom

Herbert Hoover

Quaker-humanitarian head of the Food Administration during WWI; preferred to rely on voluntary compliance rather than compulsory edicts, an approach which worked due to fervent patriotic wartime spirit, which Hoover supported himself through a campaign of propaganda

George Wallace

Racist gov. of Alabama in 1962 ("segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever"); runs for pres. In 1968 on American Independent Party ticket of racism and law and order, loses to Nixon; his relative success for a third party demonstrated the continuing power of "populist" politics, which appealed to voters' fears and resentments rather than to the better angels of their nature

Freeport question

Raised during one of the Lincoln-Douglas debates by Abraham Lincoln in 1858, who asked whether the people of a territory could ban slavery, contrary to the Dred Scott decision; *was answered by Douglas with the Freeport Doctrine, which won Douglas the Illinois Senate seat but made Southern Democrats unwilling to support him in the 1860 election, dividing the Democratic party and helping Lincoln win*

"The American Scholar"

Ralph Waldo Emerson's address at Harvard College in 1837, in which he declared an intellectual independence from Europe, urging American scholars to develop their own traditions; *shows struggle for distinctive American identity, also seen culturally in the Hudson River School, and intellectual respectability in the world*

Fifteenth Amendment

Ratified in 1870, it prohibited states from denying citizens the franchise on account of race; *a result of the Reconstruction Act, just as the Fourteenth Amendment was the result of the Civil Rights Bill; it disappointed feminists who wanted the Amendment to include guarantees for women's suffrage*

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)

Reagan administration plan announced in 1983 to create a missile-defense system over American territory to block a possible nuclear attack, especially from the USSR. *Derided as "Star Wars" by critics, the plan typified Reagan's commitment to vigorous defense spending in order to force USSR concessions as the US negotiated from a position of power even as he sought to limit the size of government in domestic matters.*

Reaganomics

Reagan's economic policy; tax cuts, arms build up, budget cuts; *smaller gov, less bureaucracy, and freer markets*

Union League

Reconstruction-Era African American organization that worked to educate Southern blacks and to support their civic life, representation, and rights (partly by campaigning for Republicans) and to recruit militias to protect them from white intimidation; *it helped integrate African Americans as citizens, with all the rights and duties that went with that, especially as it was an organization by blacks, not whites, for blacks, an initiative that was also seen as black men such as Hiram Revels were elected to government positions*

"smoking gun" tape

Recording made in the Oval Office in June 1972 that proved conclusively that Nixon knew about the Watergate break-in and endeavored to cover it up. *destroyed congressional support for Nixon even in his own party, forcing Nixon to resign as president; turned public opinion, which had been mostly favorable up to this point, against Nixon*

black belt

Region of the Deep South with the highest concentration of slaves; from about South Carolina to Louisiana; emerged in the 19th century; *result of the rising profitability of cotton production and therefore the expansion of slavery; made the Deep South an ardent defender of slavery while abolitionism grew in the North, increasing sectional conflict over slavery*

Mormons

Religious followers of Joseph Smith, who founded a communal, oligarchic religious order in the 1830s, officially known as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints; *disliked because they voted as a unit and practiced polygamy, they moved to Utah in 1847; their swelling population contributed to the settlement of Utah, though their polygamy also delayed statehood for Utah*

Second Great Awakening

Religious revival characterized by emotional mass "camp meetings" and widespread conversion in the early decades of the 19th century; *reorganized Protestant churches, creating new denominations such as Methodists and Baptists; encouraged evangelicalism, which contributed to numerous reforms (inc. women's movement, prison reform, and abolition); reinforced a religious core in the US*

21st Amendment

Repealed the 18th amendment (prohibition)

Calvin Coolidge (1923-1929)

Republican Domestic Affairs: Laissez-faire Immigration Act of 1924 Opposed: Veteran's Bonus Act Farm Relief Laws Foreign Affairs: Kellogg-Briand Pact Assertive influence in Latin America

Thomas Dewey

Republican presidential nominee in 1944 who failed in his effort to deny FDR a fourth term; regarded as a liberal; governor of New York; anti-New Deal; lost the election

Taft-Hartley Act

Republican-promoted, anti-union legislation passed in 1947 over President Truman's veto that banned the closed shop, required union leaders to take a noncommunist oath, and other strategies that helped unions organize. *weakened many of labor's New Deal gains and purged the union movement of many of its most committed and active organizers in the period of many strikes after WWII due to an economic slump after the war*

Iran-Contra affair

Revealed to the public in 1986, it was an illicit arrangement by the Reagan administration of selling "arms for hostages" with Iran and using the money to illegally support the contras in Nicaragua. *Major political scandal of Ronald Reagan's second term, the scandal deeply damaged the credibility of Reagan, who said he would never negotiate with terrorists, though he still remained among the most popular presidents in modern American history*

Stonewall Jackson

Robert E. Lee's right-hand man; led troops at First Bull Run, the Peninsula Campaign, and Chancellorsville; died at Chancellorsville after one of his own men mistakenly shot him

Fulton J. Sheen

Roman Catholic priest; ; capitalized on the rising wave of TV to spread the Christian gospel

Northern Securities Company

Roosevelt's legal attack on the Northern Securities Company, which was a railroad holding company owned by James Hill and J.P. Morgan. In the end, the company was "trust-busted" and paved the way for future trust-busts of bad trusts.

Webster v. Reproductive Health Services and Planned Parenthood v. Casey

SC decisions that imposed restrictions on abortions; conservative SC result; galvanized the pro-choice and pro-life movements alike

Kent State University

Scene of the massacre of four college students, who had been protesting Nixon's expansion of the Vietnam War into Cambodia, by National Guardsmen on May 4, 1970, in Ohio; *similar protests occurred across the country, another one of which resulted in two other students being killed at Jackson State College, resulting in an even greater backlash against war in Cambodia, causing Nixon to quickly withdraw from Cambodia*

Ostend Manifesto

Secret Franklin Pierce administration proposal in 1854 to purchase or, that failing, to wrest militarily Cuba from Spain; *once leaked, it was quickly abandoned due to vehement opposition from the North; showed how the slavery issue checked territorial expansion in the 1850s*

Pentagon Papers

Secret U.S. government report detailing early planning and policy decisions regarding the Vietnam War under Presidents Kennedy and Johnson which was leaked to the New York Times in 1971; *revealing instances of governmental secrecy, lies, and incompetence in the prosecution of the war, it fueled the protests of the antiwar "doves"*

Molly Maguires

Secret organization of Irish miners that campaigned, at times violently, against poor working conditions in the Pennsylvania mines in the 1860s and 1870s; *Irish (& German) immigrants led to the Know-Nothing party*

Salmon Chase

Secretary of Treasury during the Civil War; led a group critical of Lincoln, like many in Lincoln's own party (Republican)

Andrew Mellon

Secretary of Treasury under President Harding, Coolidge and Hoover, who instituted a Republican policy of reduced government spending, lower taxes, and higher tariffs

Gerald Nye

Senator from North Dakota, headed the Nye Committee to investigate munition manufacturers; sensationalized evidence regarding America's entry into WWI, shifting the blame from German submarines to American bankers and arms manufacturers, leading people to believe that strict neutrality, as in the Neutrality Acts of 1935-37, could keep the US out of wars

Daniel Webster

Senator of Massachusetts; famous American politician & orator; advocated renewal & opposed the financial policy of Jackson; many of the principles of finance he spoke about were later incorporated in the Federal Reserve System; later pushed for a strong union.

Hungarian uprising

Series of 1956 demonstrations in Hungary against the Soviet Union which were violently crushed by leader Nikita Khrishchev; *highlighted the strategic limitations of America's policy of boldness's threat of "massive retaliation" of nuclear weapons as it was too big to use in any but the greatest conflicts*

Black Hawk War

Series of clashes in Illinois and Wisconsin in 1832 between American forces and Indian chief Black Hawk of the Sauk and Fox tribes, who unsuccessfully tried to reclaim territory lost under the 1830 Indian Removal Act; *showed the anger of the Indians at being brutally exiled from their ancestral lands, such as the Cherokees in the Trail of Tears, which caused thousands of Indian deaths; showed the determination of Jackson and his supporters to spread westward*

Lincoln-Douglas debates

Series of debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas in 1858 during the U.S. Senate race in Illinois; *although causing Douglas to win the election, also gained Lincoln national prominence, and he emerged as the leading candidate for the 1860 Republican presidential nomination; made the Freeport Doctrine more widely known*

Watergate

Series of scandals that resulted in President Richard Nixon's resignation in August 1974 amid calls for his impeachment. *Confirmed the viability of impeachment in such cases and the principle that no person is above the law; hurt the public's faith in the gov, deepening Americans' disillusionment along with rising stagflation*

parity prices

Set prices by the AAA four basic farm commodities, including corn, wheat, hogs, cotton, rice, and dairy products. The concept was based on purchasing power that farmers had enjoyed during the prosperous years of 1909 to 1914.

panic of 1819

Severe financial crisis brought on primarily by the efforts of the Bank of the United States to curb overspeculation on western lands; *it disproportionately affected the poorer classes, especially in the West, sowing the seeds of Jacksonian Democracy, and the rising number of debtors brought attention to the inhumanity of imprisoning debtors*

Hoovervilles

Shantytowns where impoverished victims of the Great Depression slept under newspapers and in makeshift tents. *Their visibility (and sarcastic name) tarnished the reputation of the Hoover administration, making way for the Democratic party's Franklin Roosevelt to win the next election, and their existence demonstrated the degrading effects and terrible conditions for many people during the Great Depression*

McKinley Tariff

Shepherded through Congress by President William McKinley in 1890, this tariff raised duties on Hawaiian sugar; *set off renewed efforts by American planters to secure the annexation of Hawaii to the United States, which succeeded despite protests from the Hawaiian natives, including their Queen Liliuokalani*

Industrial Revolution

Shift toward mass production and mechanization that included the creation of the modern factory system which in the US occurred in the 19th century; *increased productivity, leading to a more market-oriented economy which caused a much greater regional division of labor, creating an interdependent national economy; also caused more and more people to work for someone in a factory rather than to work independently on a farm*

Pony Express

Short-lived, speedy mail service in 1860-1861 between Missouri and California that relied on lightweight riders galloping between closely placed outposts; *its success, however short-lived, showed the great extent to which the West was expanding; showed trend of transportation revolution; its failure showed how machines (like the telegraph) were used more and more for communication*

Nullification Crisis

Showdown between President Andrew Jackson and the South Carolina legislature, which declared the 1832 tariff null and void in the state and threatened secession if the federal government tried to collect duties; *going a step past the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, it raised further debate over whether the states had the right to nullify federal legislation; resolved by the compromise Tariff of 1833 (which was accompanied by the Force Bill), it had no conclusive victor, leaving open later attempts at nullification*

Tripartite Pact

Signed between the Axis powers in 1940 (Italy, Germany and Japan) where they pledged to help the others in the event of an attack by the US

Executive Order No. 9066

Signed by FDR in 1942, it authorized the forcing of Japanese Americans into concentration camps for fear that they might serve as saboteurs for Japan; later repealed and in 1988 the camp survivors were modestly compensated; *reflected the post-Pearl Harbor, anti-Japanese hysteria and the historical anti-Japanese prejudice in America*

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty

Signed by Great Britain and the United States in 1850, it provided that the two nations would jointly protect the neutrality of Central America and that neither power would seek to fortify or exclusively control any future isthmian waterway; *showed US and British interest in Central America and a Atlantic-to-Pacific transportation route, which would give whoever controlled it imperial sway over all maritime nations*

Treaty of Wanghia

Signed by the U.S. and China in 1844, it assured the United States the same trading concessions granted to other powers; *greatly expanded America's trade with the Chinese, inspired attempts to establish trade with Japan (Treaty of Kanagawa), and caused thousands of American missionaries to go to China to try to convert the Chinese, breaking down China's cultural integrity*

Pinckney's Treaty

Signed with Spain in 1795 which, fearing an Anglo-American alliance, granted Americans free navigation of the Mississippi and the disputed territory of western Florida; *was a major concession of Spain to the US, and, around the same time as the Treaty of Greenville, it added yet more territory to the rapidly growing US*

Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlavi

Since the 1940s, Iran had been ruled by Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi. Ousted by a democratically elected parliament in the early 1950s, the shah (king) sought and received the assistance of the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), which helped him reclaim power in 1953; *his repressive rule caused him to be overthrown and led to a chaos in Iran; as Iranian slowed, OPEC raised prices again, again leading to an oil shortage in America, this time under Jimmy Carter*

Appomattox Courthouse

Site where Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant in April 1865 after almost a year of brutal fighting throughout Virginia in the "Wilderness Campaign"; *ended the war, reuniting the Union, forcing the South to accept the Emancipation Proclamation, and laying to rest the issues of nullification and secession, which showed the world that American democracy was viable*

breakers

Slave drivers who employed the lash to brutally "break" the spirits of strong-willed slaves in the 19th century; *demonstrated the lack of rights for blacks to protect them from abuse; the cruel means such as these that slaveowners used on slaves inspired greater abolitionism, as portrayed in organizations such as the American Colonization and Anti-Slavery Societies*

Haitian Revolution

Slave uprising from 1791-1804 against in French control in Saint Domingo, resulting in an independent Haitian Republic; *without the plantations to support in Santo Domingo, France didn't need Louisiana's food supplies and was thus more willing to sell the Louisiana Purchase to the US*

Double V

Slogan used by many African Americans who were calling for social change during the war. It stood for victory abroad against Germany and Japan and at home against racism; *the war helped embolden blacks in their struggle for equality*

clipper ships

Small, American sailing vessels used in the 1840s and 1850s which were faster than steamships; *though made largely obsolete by the advent of sturdier, roomier, and thus more profitable steamers (such as British "teakettles"), they gave American shippers an advantage in the carrying trade in the 1840s and 1850s; part of the transportation revolution*

Nelson Mandela

South African statesman who was released from prison to become the nation's first democratically elected president in 1994 (born in 1918); symbol of the end of racist apartheid rule

Fort Sumter

South Carolina fort that, when the first 7 states seceded in 1861, was still controlled by the federal gov in the North; Lincoln sent supplies to it, which provoked the South to fire on Northern soldiers; *began the Civil War; angered the North and rallied it to support war as a response to secession; the fact that the South fired first was part of what influenced the Border States to join the North*

Sputnik

Soviet satellite launched into Earth orbit on October 4, 1957, the first time human beings had put a man-made object into orbit; *raised American fears of Soviet superiority both in the Space Race, for which Eisenhower redoubled the US's efforts in part by est. NASA, and in education, causing Congress to pass the National Defense Education Act, which promoted science, engineering, and languages*

Francisco Franco

Spanish general who began the Spanish Civil War against the Loyalist gov; his armies took control of Spain in 1939 and who ruled as a dictator until his death (1892-1975); aided by Hitler and Mussolini

Amistad

Spanish slave ship dramatically seized off the coast of Cuba by the enslaved Africans aboard in 1839 which was driven ashore in Long Island; after a trial before the Supreme Court, the slaves were released and returned to Africa; *showed a rising abolitionist cause, especially among New Englanders such as John Quincy Adams and even in the American government; their return to Africa demonstrated the idea, also embodied by the American Colonization Society, of returning African Americans to Africa despite their increasingly distinctive culture*

Brain Trust

Specialists in law, economics, and welfare, many of them young university professors, who advised President Franklin D. Roosevelt and helped develop the policies of the New Deal

Cuban missile crisis

Standoff in 1962 between JFK and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev over Soviet lending of nuclear missiles to Cuba that could be used in the case of US attack; *although ultimately settled in America's favor, the near fall into nuclear war provoked anxieties in both the US and the USSR that led to a nuclear test-ban treaty, indicating the first relief of the Cold War*

Great Depression

Starting with collapse of the US stock market in 1929, period of worldwide economic stagnation and depression. Heavy borrowing by European nations from USA during WWI contributed to instability in European economies. Overproduction. Employers using profits to buy more factories instead of raising salaries, which would have made more people who could buy products. Widespread unemployment, countries raised tariffs to protect their industries. America stopped investing in Europe. Lead to loss of confidence that economies were self adjusting, HH was blamed for it

Monroe Doctrine

Statement delivered by President James Monroe in 1823, warning European powers to refrain from colonizing further in the Americas and from interfering in the new Spanish American republics; *although America didn't have an adequate military to back up the doctrine, the doctrine it revealed and influenced further American feelings of kinship with new democracies like itself, and it deepened the illusion of isolationism in the American people by making it seem like they were insulated from European intrusion*

Virginia and Kentucky resolutions

Statements secretly drafted by Jefferson and Madison in 1798 for the legislatures of Kentucky and Virginia. Argued that states were the final arbiters of whether the federal government overstepped its boundaries and could therefore nullify, or refuse to accept, national legislation they deemed unconstitutional; *though not accepted by any other states, the presented compact theory was a brilliant formulation of the view of extreme states' rights*

railroads

Steamships and _______ were the major transportation developments of the 19th century; the latter were cheaper, faster, and more reliable than canals and developed especially in the North

SALT II

Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty agreement between Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev and American president Jimmy Carter to limit lethal weapons in both countries. *ultimately failed in the U.S. Senate following the beginning of the Iranian hostage crisis and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979; one of Jimmy Carter's disasters which caused his failure to be reelected in 1980*

Levittown

Suburban communities with mass-produced houses built in the New York and Philadelphia metropolitan areas in the 1950s by William Levitt and Sons. *Typically inhabited by white middle-class people, it helped to solidify racial and economic separation as non-whites, typically less well-off than whites, stayed in the city center*

Gibbons v. Ogden

Suit in 1824 over whether New York could grant a monopoly to a ferry operating on interstate waters, which the Supreme Court ruled they couldn't do; *reasserted that congress had the sole power to regulate interstate commerce, once again striking a blow at states' rights*

Marbury v. Madison

Supreme Court case brought up in 1801 when former midnight judge William Marbury tried to sue for the delivery of his commission; Chief Justice John Marshall dismissed Marbury's suit, saying the part of the Judiciary Act of 1789 on which Marbury based his appeal was unconstitutional; *established the principle of "judicial review"—the idea that the Supreme Court had the final authority to determine constitutionality*

Mculloch v. Maryland

Supreme Court case in 1819 that ruled against Maryland's attempt to destroy a branch of the Bank of the US by imposing a tax on its notes; *strengthened federal authority and upheld the constitutionality of the Bank of the United States by establishing that the states did not have power to tax the bank*

Dartmouth College v. Woodward

Supreme Court case in 1819 that sustained Dartmouth University's original charter against changes proposed by the New Hampshire state legislature; *protected corporations from domination by state governments but also created a precedent that allowed corporations in later years to operate without needed public control*

Dred Scott v. Stanford

Supreme Court decision in 1857 that extended federal protection to slavery by ruling that Congress did not have the power to prohibit slavery in any territory. Also declared that slaves, as property, were not citizens of the United States; *increased support for abolitionism in the North; important in Freeport question*

Tariff of 1816

Tariff created primarily to shield New England manufacturers from the inflow of British goods after the War of 1812; *first protective tariff in American history, contributing to a strong protective trend which made the protected come to expect and want more protection*

excise tax

Tax on goods produced domestically; imposed by Congress (encouraged by Hamilton) on a few items, such as whiskey, to increase revenue to pay off the federal gov's debt; *inspired the Whiskey Rebellion; see "Whiskey Rebellion"*

tariff

Taxes levied on imports; first passed in the US by Congress in 1789 and then encouraged by Hamilton to be increased; *raised revenue to help pay off the massive national debt accrued by the Rev. War & Hamilton's funding at par and assumption plans, helped protect the young US industries*

Corps of Discovery

Team of adventurers from 1804-1806, lead by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, sent by Thomas Jefferson to explore the Louisiana Purchase and find a water route to the Pacific; *brought back detailed accounts of the West's flora, fauna, and native populations, and their voyage demonstrated the viability of overland travel to the west.*

kitchen debate

Televised exchange in 1959 between Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev and US VP Richard Nixon, who debated the merits of capitalist consumerism versus Soviet state planning; *Nixon won American praise for his defense of American capitalism, helping lead him to the Republican nomination for president in 1960, a position which he lost to Kennedy but later won in 1968*

Reign of Terror

Ten-month period of brutal repression when some forty thousand individuals were executed from 1793-1794 as enemies of the French Revolution. *While many Jeffersonians maintained their faith in the French Republic, Federalists withdrew their already lukewarm support once the Reign of Terror commenced.*

New Right

Term for a loose network of conservative political activists and organizations that emerged in the 1970s and 1980s; espoused a nationalist foreign policy that rejected detente and international treaties. *More populist in tone than previous generations of conservatives, the New Right emphasized hot-button cultural issues like abortion, busing, and prayer in school, contributing to the conservative backlash after liberal victories such as Roe v. Wade and the election of Jimmy Carter*

boll weevils

Term for conservative southern Democrats who voted increasingly for Republican issues during the Carter and Reagan administrations; *continued the shift of the formerly solidly Democratic South to a more Republican-dominated area, especially among white southerners who agreed with many of the principles of the New Right*

Bill of Rights

Term for the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution ratified in 1791; secure key rights for individuals and reserve to the states all powers not explicitly delegated or prohibited by the Constitution; *the main reason for many states' ratification of the Constitution; provided the Jeffersonians with a legal document from which to draw arguments for states' rights in conflicts with the Federalists*

military-industrial complex

Term popularized by President Dwight Eisenhower in his 1961 Farewell Address, referring to the political and economic ties between arms manufacturers, elected officials, and the U.S. armed forces that created self-sustaining pressure for high military spending during the Cold War. *supported partially by JFK's flexible response program, this complex was also made difficult to deconstruct by the fact that many Americans' jobs relied on military industries that had developed during WWII*

Goliad

Texas outpost where American volunteers, having laid down their arms and surrendered, were massacred by Mexican forces in 1836 for their support of the Texan War of Independence; *along with the slaughter at the Alamo, fueled American support for Texan independence, eventually leading to the rebels' victory at San Jacinto*

To Secure These Rights

The 1947 report by the Presidential Committee on Civil Rights that called for robust federal action to ensure equality for African Americans. President Truman asked Congress to make all of the report's recommendations — including the abolition of poll taxes and the restoration of the Fair Employment Practices Commission — into law, leading to discord in the Democratic Party; Truman est. the Executive Order 9981

Cold War

The 45 year diplomatic tension from 1946 to 1991 between the United States and the Soviet Union which divided much of the world into polarized camps, capitalist against communist, and which largely involved the threat of nuclear warfare. *Most of the international conflicts during that period, particularly in the developing world, can be traced to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union, including (at least the extension of) the Korean War; led to establishment of the National Security Act*

Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA)

The Act was the first direct-relief operation under the New Deal and was headed by Harry L. Hopkins, a New York social worker who was one of Franklin D. Roosevelt's most influential advisers. The law provided money for food and other necessities for the unemployed. Affected the people in trying to aid people feeling the effects of the depression.

Big Four

The Big Four were the four most important leaders at the Paris Peace Conference after WWI. They were Woodrow Wilson- USA, David Lloyd George- UK, George Clemenceau- France, and Vittorio Orlando- Italy.

Godey's Lady's Book

magazine founded in 1830, survived until 1898 and circulation 150,000; was read by millions of women

Compromise of 1877

The agreement that finally resolved the 1876 election, allowing Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes to win in exchange for withdrawing the last of the federal troops from the former Confederate states; *officially ended Reconstruction, effectively completing the southern return to white-only, Democratic-dominated electoral politics and signaling the Republicans' abandonment of its commitment to racial equality, allowing the Jim Crow laws*

Mason-Dixon line

The boundary between Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania and Virginia beginning in the 1760s; *it came to symbolize the divide between the North and South, especially over the issue of slavery*

Hubert Humphrey

The democratic nominee for the presidency in the election of 1968. He was LBJ's vice president, and was supportive of his Vietnam policies. This support split the Democratic party, allowing Nixon to win the election for the Republicans.

New Deal

The economic and political policies of Franklin Roosevelt's administration in the 1930s, which aimed to solve the problems of the Great Depression with relief, recovery, and reform of the economy and working conditions; *the New Deal built on reforms of the progressive era to expand greatly an American-style welfare state, but it didn't end the Great Depression and increased conservatism in reaction to many Americans' feeling that the federal gov was getting too involved*

Hetch Hetchy Valley

The federal government allowed the city of San Francisco to build a dam here in 1913; *a blow to preservationists, who wished to protect the Yosemite National Park, it demonstrated conflict between conservationists, people who wanted to exploit land without restraint, and people like Teddy Roosevelt who felt there was a pragmatic middle ground*

Sunbelt

The fifteen-state crescent through the American South and Southwest that experienced huge population and productivity expansion during World War II and particularly in the decades after the war; *these shifts of population and wealth eclipsed the old industrial Northeast (the "Frostbelt") as the political power of the country, with more presidents and congressmen coming from the South than ever*

Jackie Robinson

The first African American player in the major league of baseball. His actions helped to bring about other opportunities for African Americans.

Hundred Days

The first hundred days of Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration, beginning in March 1933, when an unprecedented number of reform bills were passed by a Democratic Congress to launch the New Deal; *passed several progressive reforms which would expand an American-style welfare state, such as the Social Security Act and Wagner Act*

Army of the Potomac

The main army of the Union near Washington; under several different generals before Ulysses S. Grant

Great Migration

The movement of millions of African Americans from the rural South to the urban North and West, beginning in the 1910s; *the appearance of blacks in previously all-white areas often sparked interracial conflict, even leading to violence that led to both blacks and whites being killed, such major riots in East St. Louis and Chicago*

Black Tuesday

The panic-induced day of October 29, 1929 when over 16 million shares of stock were sold on Wall Street; *this huge collapse triggered the Great Depression, the worst depression both in the US and abroad in world experience, lasting until WWII and in the meantime plunging many American families into poverty and causing fewer babies to be born*

Appeasement

The policy prior to WWII of Western European democracies as well as the US of acceding to some of Hitler's demands in hopes of staying out of war; *followed by leaders of Britain and France at the 1938 conference in Munich, allowing Germany to take the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia and later to take Poland, making the Axis powers more difficult to defeat when WWII did break out and doing lasting damage to the conquered areas even before then*

rendezvous

The principal marketplace of the Northwest fur trade, which peaked in the 1820s and 1830s, in which traders set up camps in the Rocky Mountains to exchange manufactured goods for beaver pelts; *led to ecological imperialism, which had a detrimental effect on the natural resources of the West, such as the near-extinction of beavers and buffalo*

Bible Belt

The region of the American South, extending roughly from North Carolina west to Oklahoma and Texas, where belief in literal interpretation of the Bible were traditionally strongest; *fostered Fundamentalism and traditional Christian belief, keeping it as a vibrant force in American spiritual life and leading to conflicts between traditionalists and progressive thinkers, such as in the Scopes Monkey Trial*

Bolshevik Revolution

The second stage of the Russian Revolution in November 1917 when Vladimir Lenin and his Bolshevik party seized power and established a communist state; *helped to precipitate the red scare of 1919-1920; see "red scare"*

V-E (Victory in Europe) Day

The source of frenzied rejoicing, May 8, 1945 marked the official end to the war in Europe, following the unconditional surrender of what remained of the German government.

Eugene McCarthy and Robert Kennedy

The two antiwar candidates whose strong political showing forced Johnson to withdraw from the 1968 presidential race

"waving the bloody shirt"

The use of Civil War imagery by political candidates and parties to draw votes to their side of the ticket; *first used in the presidential election of 1868, winning Grant the presidency; elected people less based on political competency*

WACs (Women's Army Corps)

The women's branch of the U.S. Army established during World War II to employ women in noncombatant jobs. *Women now participated in the armed services in ways that went beyond their traditional roles as nurses, but after the war, most women left the labor force, some by choice and some by force, and a change in women's status was not yet substantial*

SPARs (U.S. Coast Guard Women's Reserve)

The women's branch of the U.S. Coast Guard established during World War II to employ women in noncombatant jobs. *Women now participated in the armed services in ways that went beyond their traditional roles as nurses, but after the war, most women left the labor force, some by choice and some by force, and a change in women's status was not yet substantial*

WAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service)

The women's branch of the US Navy established during WWII to employ women in noncombatant jobs. *Women now participated in the armed services in ways that went beyond their traditional roles as nurses, but after the war, most women left the labor force, some by choice and some by force, and a change in women's status was not yet substantial*

Hepburn Act

This 1906 law severely restricted free passes by railroad companies; on the heels of the Elkins Act

Adamson Act

This 1916 law established an eight-hour day for all employees on trains involved in interstate commerce, with extra pay for overtime; *the first federal law regulating the hours of workers in private companies, it was a result of the wave of progressivism in the US as supported by Woodrow Wilson, who passed several acts that gave protections to laborers, including also the Clayotn Anti-Trust Act and the Adamson Act*

Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act

This 1934 act allowed the president to negotiate lower tariffs with trade partners without Senate approval; *reversed traditional high-protective-tariff policies that had persisted since the Civil War, increase US foreign trade and bettering economic and political relations with Latin America, as the Good Neighbor policy did*

Social Security Act

This 1935 New Deal law provided for unemployment and old-age insurance financed by a payroll tax on employers and employees; *has long remained a pillar of the New Deal's programs which lasted and showed how the US gov began to recognize its responsibility for its citizens' welfare due to their increasing dependence on urban, rather than independent agricultural, jobs*

Wagner Act

This 1935 law protected the right of labor to organize in unions and bargain collectively with employers, and established the National Labor Relations Board to monitor unfair labor practices on the part of employer; *its passage marked the culmination of decades of labor protest, and it provided the security needed for unskilled workers to organize into effective unions such as the CIO (Congress of Industrial Organizations)*

Agricultural Marketing Act

This act in 1929 established the Federal Farm Board, a lending bureau for hard-pressed farmers, and aimed to help farmers help themselves through new producers' cooperatives. *As the depression worsened in 1930, the Board tried to bolster falling prices by buying up surpluses, but it was unable to cope with the flood of farm produce to market.*

Neutrality Act of 1939

This act stipulated that European democracies might buy American munitions, but only if they could pay in cash and transport them in their own ships, known as "Cash-and-Carry" terms; *was actually an unneutral act, as the British and French controlled the Atlantic, thereby preventing the Axis powers to trade with America; represented an effort to avoid war debts and protect American arms-carriers from torpedo attacks; demonstrated overseas demands for war goods, which ultimately solved the unemployment crisis in the US*

Ross Perot

This billionaire was a third-party candidate in the 1992 presidential election won 19 percent of the popular vote. His strong showing that year demonstrated voter disaffection with the two major parties and economic unease.

Eighteenth Amendment

This constitutional amendment in 1919 prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages, ushering in the prohibition era; *aroused strong opposition, especially among immigrants from countries used to drinking such as Ireland or Germany, leading to smuggling and illegal "speakeasies"; but also increased savings, decreased work absences, and decreased deaths*

Norris-La Guardia Anti-Injunction Act

This law in 1932 banned "yellow-dog," or antiunion, work contracts and forbade federal courts from issuing rulings to quash strikes and boycotts. *an early piece of labor-friendly federal legislation, it was part of Hoover's efforts which introduced a precedent for the government helping needy citizens, which Franklin Roosevelt would further pursue*

Common Sense

Thomas Paine's pamphlet published in 1776 urging the colonies to declare independence and establish a republican gov; widely read; *helped convince colonists to support the cause for independence rather than reconciliation with Britain and to support republicanism (gov officials derive their authority from popular consent)*

Brook Farm

Transcendentalist commune founded in 1841 by a group of intellectuals, who emphasized living plainly while pursuing the life of the mind; collapsed in 1846; *part of a period of emergence of utopian communities in the 19th century, such as also the Brook Farm, Oneida, and Shaker communities, reflecting the reformist spirit of the age largely because of the 2nd Great Awakening; virtually all of these communities failed because of free enterprise*

Russo-American Treaty

Treaty between America and Tsar Alexander I which fixed the line of 54°40' as the southernmost boundary of Russian holdings in North America in 1824; *allowed the US to continue its attempt to reach the Pacific; contributed to the illusion of many Americans that the Monroe Doctrine protected the US from European intrusion*

Hitler-Stalin pact

Treaty signed on August 23, 1939 in which Germany and the Soviet Union agreed not to fight each other; *paved the way for German aggression against Poland and the Western democracies, causing Germany to conquer Poland, which provoked Britain and France to finally take action against Germany, launching WWII*

"Point Four"

Truman's bold new program to lend money and technical aid to under developed countries so that they would not succumb to communism; brought badly-needed assistance

John Updike, John Cheever

Two postwar American fiction writers who explored the problems and anxieties of affluence and suburban life

Laird rams

Two well-armed ironclad warships with iron rams constructed for the Confederacy by a British firm in 1863 which the British gov instead purchased for the royal navy to avoid war with the Union

siege of Vicksburg

Two-and-a-half month siege of a Confederate fort on the Mississippi River in Tennessee which finally fell to Union General Ulysses S. Grant in July of 1863; *along with the capturing of New Orleans and Port Hudson, it gave the Union control of the Mississippi, dividing the Confederacy in two; along with the Union victory at Gettysburg the previous day, it quelled Northern peace agitation and Southern hopes for foreign intervention*

Martin Luther King Jr.

U.S. Baptist minister and civil rights leader. A noted orator, he opposed discrimination against blacks by organizing nonviolent resistance and peaceful mass demonstrations. March on Washington. Birmingham. He was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee. Nobel Peace Prize (1964)

Frances Perkins

U.S. Secretary of Labor from 1933 to 1945, and the first woman ever appointed to the cabinet; *women in the 1930s began to carve a larger space for themselves in the nation's political and intellectual life*

Specie Circular

U.S. Treasury decree in 1836 requiring that all public lands be purchased with "hard," or metallic, currency; issued after pet banks flooded the market with unreliable paper currency; *it drastically decreased speculation in the West, a sudden change which contributed to the panic of 1837*

Harry Daugherty

U.S. attorney general and a member of Harding's corrupt "Ohio Gang" who was forced to resign in administration scandals; clamped down on strikers

Stimson doctrine

U.S. policy calling for the non-recognition of international territorial changes that were executed by force; targeted at Japan's invasion of Manchuria

Operation Desert Storm

U.S.-led multicountry military engagement in 1991 that drove Saddam Hussein's Iraqi army out of neighboring Kuwait. *helped undo the "Vietnam Syndrome," a feeling of military uncertainty that plagued many Americans after the failure of the Vietnam War; more deeply ensnared the US in the conflicts of the Middle East*

Mitchel Palmer

US attorney general who, during the red scare, rounded up suspects with zeal, about 6000; his nerves were shattered when his home was bombed, making him the "Quaking Fighter" whereas he had previously been the "Fighting Quaker"

Guatanamo Bay

US military base in Cuba set up as part of the Platt Amendment

Dominion of Canada

Unified Canadian government created by Britain in 1867 to bolster Canadians against potential attacks or overtures from the United States; *established in response to invasions between the Confederacy (coming from Canada) and the Union, revealed diplomatic tensions between Europe and the US during the Civil War; created a strong, united Canada*

Peninsula Campaign

Union General George B. McClellan's failed effort in 1862 to seize Richmond, the Confederate Capital; *ensured an end to slavery as if McClellan had won the war at this point, the Union would have been restored with little disruption to the peculiar institution; because of McClellan's overcaution, Lincoln revoked his position temporarily, gave it back, and revoked it again, demonstrating Lincoln's difficulty in finding a reliable general*

Sherman's march

Union General William Tecumseh Sherman's destructive march through Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina in 1864-1865; *an early instance of "total war," it purposely targeted infrastructure and civilian property, diminishing morale and undercutting the Confederate war effort; brutal but probably shortened the struggle, saving lives*

John Pope

Union general; lost the Second Battle of Bull Run

David Farragut

Union naval commander who captured New Orleans, which along with victories at Vicksburg and Port Hudson gave the Union control of the Mississippi River

Sojourner Truth

United States abolitionist and feminist who was freed from slavery and became a leading advocate of the abolition of slavery and for the rights of women (1797-1883)

Margaret Mead

United States anthropologist noted for her claims about adolescence and sexual behavior in Polynesian cultures (1901-1978); *helped popularize cultural anthropology, achieving a celebrity status rare among social scientists; women in the 1930s began to carve a larger space for themselves in the nation's political and intellectual life*

Charles Lindbergh

United States aviator who in 1927 made the first solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic Ocean (1902-1974); when his son kidnapped for ransom and killed, it shocked the nation, *leading to the passing of the Lindbergh Law in 1932, which made interstate abduction in certain circumstances a death-penalty offense; Lindbergh's achievement did much to dramatize and popularize flying, while giving a strong boost to the infant aviation industry*

Rosa Parks

United States civil rights leader who refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white man in Montgomery (Alabama) and so helped trigger the national civil rights movement; sparked other black boycotts of buses

Denmark Vesey

United States freed slave and insurrectionist in South Carolina who was involved in planning an uprising of slaves and was hanged (1767-1822); increased tensions about abolition

Samuel Morse

United States portrait painter who patented the telegraph and developed the Morse code (1791-1872); connected the nation, increasing communication

Tariff of Abominations (aka Black Tariff)

Unprecedentedly high duties on imports imposed in 1828; vehemently opposed by Southerners, who resented having to pay higher prices for manufactured goods without benefitting from a tariff themselves; *provided an issue for the Southerners to rally behind against federal interference, which they feared might impact the peculiar institution; led South Carolina into the Nullification Crisis, during which they nullified the tariff within the state*

Stonewall Rebellion

Uprising in support of equal rights for gay people sparked by an assault by off-duty police officers at a gay bar in New York. *The rebellion led to rise in activism and militancy within the gay community and furthered the sexual revolution of the late 1960s.*

Battle of New Orleans

Victory of American forces led by Andrew Jackson against the British in 1815 in the Mississippi Valley after mostly-British wins; *restored American confidence and fueled an outpouring of nationalism; made Jackson a national hero; the angry Royal Navy retaliated with a final ruinous naval blockade and raiding parties, crippling American economic life for a time and bankrupting the Treasury*

Revolution of 1800

Victory of Thomas Jefferson in the 1800 presidential election; victory of Democratic Republicans over the Federalists in the Congress and presidency; *peaceful transfer of power between rival parties solidified faith in America's political system; however, quickly taught the Dem-Reps that criticizing the party in power was far easier than actually enacting their own plans*

My Lai

Vietnamese village that was the scene of a military assault in 1968, in which American soldiers murdered hundreds of unarmed Vietnamese civilians, mostly women and children; *produced outrage and reduced support for the war in America and around the world, increasing the trend of the war becoming increasingly unpopular for peace "doves," which included many college students and counterculturalists*

Nat Turner's rebellion

Virginia slave revolt in 1831 led by black preacher Nat Turner that resulted in the deaths of sixty whites; *though quickly put down, it raised fears among white Southerners of further uprisings, discouraging the relatively numerous antislavery societies that had existed in the South prior to the 1830s; Southerners even argued that slavery was actively good, especially compared to the North's factory system*

Opium War

War between Britain and China over trading rights, particularly Britain's desire to continue selling opium to Chinese traders; concluded in 1842 with British victory; *the resulting trade agreement prompted Americans to seek similar concessions from the Chinese, leading to the Treaty of Wanghia*

Saddam Hussein

Was a dictator in Iraq who tried to take over Iran and Kuwait violently in order to gain the land and the resources. He was defeated in Kuwait by Operation Desert Storm, but ironically, he built his power earlier largely with US support, who had assumed that because Iraq was enemies with Iran, Iraq was friends with the US

Liberia

West African nation founded in 1822 by the American Colonization Society as a haven for freed blacks, fifteen thousand of whom made their way back across the Atlantic by the 1860s; *demonstrated growing proactive efforts to abolish slavery but also displayed the view even of many abolitionists that black slaves were more African than American even though an African American identity was becoming distinctive*

Payne-Aldrich Bill

While intended to lower tariff rates, this bill, passed in 1909, was eventually revised beyond all recognition, retaining high rates on most imports; *President Taft praised the bill glowingly, which, along with his dismissal of Pinchot in the Ballinger-Pinchot quarrel, angered Rooseveltian and progressive sectors of the Republican party, causing a party division which enabled Democratic Woodrow Wilson to win the presidential election of 1912*

Redeemers

White Southern Democratic politicians who regained control from Republican regimes in the South after Reconstruction; *demonstrated a pattern of the Republicans' work for black rights being mostly reversed, as seen also in the Black Codes and the KKK*

Allan Bakke

White student who was denied admission to University of California medical school because slots were reserved for minority students--brought his case to the supreme court, where it was ruled that preference couldn't be given to groups on the basis of ethnic or racial identity only (Reverse Discrimination)

peculiar institution

Widely used term for the institution of American slavery in the South; *its use in the first half of the 19th century reflected a growing division between the North, where slavery was gradually abolished, and the South, where slavery became increasingly entrenched, a conflict which led to a temporary solution in the Missouri Compromise*

Army-McCarthy hearings

Widely-televised congressional hearings in 1954 called by Senator Joseph McCarthy to accuse members of the army of communist ties. *exposed the Senator's extremism and led to his eventual disgrace*

Neal S. Dow

a mayor of Portland, Maine and employer of labor; "Father of Prohibition"; sponsored the Maine Law of 1851

triple wall of privilege

Wilson's term for the banks, trusts, and tariffs; Wilson sought to topple it

Robert "Fighting Bob" La Follette

Wisconsin governor; ardent progressive Republican who meant to drive corporations out of politics, especially railroads

Woman's Loyal League

Women's organization formed 1863-1865 to help bring about an end to the Civil War and encourage Congress to pass a constitutional amendment prohibiting slavery; *women suffragists supported groups like this to support black rights, putting their own campaigns on hold during the war, and were thus displeased when the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments did not help women's status at all, and many even resisted the passing of the 14th Amendment*

Fourteen Points

Woodrow Wilson's proposal to ensure peace after World War I, calling for an end to secret treaties, widespread arms reduction, changing colonial claims, national self-determination, and a new league of nations, among several other things; *helping to inspire the Allies and demoralize the Central Powers, at the end of WWI, it influenced the making of the Treaty of Versailles, although few of the Fourteen Points were completely upheld in the end*

Berlin airlift

Year-long mission in 1948-49 of flying food and supplies to blockaded West Berliners, whom the Soviet Union cut off from access to the West; *the first major crisis of the Cold War, it helped provoke the USSR to build the Berlin Wall and, along with the Soviets' failure to withdraw troops from Iran as promised after the war, it made Americans see the USSR's unwillingness to cooperate in partnership*

factory girls

Young women employed in the growing factories of the early 19th century; *caused many women to live in socially new conditions away from farms and families and gave them greater economic independence; along with the cult of domesticity, revealed a rising question over the role of women in society*

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

Youth organization founded by southern black students in 1960 to promote civil rights; *drawing on its members' youthful energies, SNCC in its early years coordinated demonstrations, sit-ins, and voter registration drives and was more hot-blooded than the more stately SCLC or the legalistic NAACP*

Bonus Army

[Officially known as the Bonus Expeditionary Force (BEF)] a rag-tag group of 20,000 veterans who marched on Washington in 1932 to demand immediate payment of bonuses earned during World War I but failed to get them; *were brutally dispersed by General Douglas MacArthur with tear gas and bayonets, bringing additional disapproval on Hoover, making way for the Democratic party's Franklin Roosevelt to win the next election*

Randolph Bourne

a "cultural pluralist;" an intellectual who championed alternative conceptions of the immigrant role in American society, advocated greater cross-fertilization among immigrants, believed cosmopolitan interchange was destined to make America "not a nationality but a trans-nationality"; US should serve as the vanguard of a more international and multicultural age

Horace Kallen

a "cultural pluralist;" an intellectual who championed alternative conceptions of the immigrant role in American society, defended newcomer's right to practice their ancestral customs; vision=the US should provide a protective canopy for ethnic and racial groups to preserve their cultural uniqueness, stressed the preservation of identity, believed pluralism

Watts riot

a 1965 race riot in Watts, a black ghetto in Los Angeles, caused by frustrations about poverty, prejudice, and police mistreatment; *symbolized the transition of the black struggle from the nonviolent, integrationist "classical phase" of the movement to a new radical, violent, separatist phase*

Edward Braddock

a British general in the French and Indian War; was sent to Virginia with British regulars and attempted to capture Fort Duquesne but was defeated and killed by a French and Indian army

Al Capone

a Chicago gangster who distributed bootleg alcohol during the prohibition, netting him millions of dollars which he defended in gang warfare; eventually convicted for tax evasion; *characteristic of the big-city gangs built on distributing bootleg alcohol during prohibition and later expanding to racketeering in general*

George Pickett

a Confederate commander whose charge at Gettysburg (the "high tide of the Confederacy") failed, marking the northernmost point reached by Southern forces and the last real chance for the Confederates to win the war

Mohammed Reza Pahlevi

a Shah that was placed in Iran by the CIA in 1953 and he planned to westernize and secularize Iran. He was overthrown in January 1979 by Muslim Fundamentalists. When he was overthrown Iran was left in chaos and Iranian oil production was stopped which ironically led to higher oil prices for Americans.

Massasoit

a Wampanoag chieftain who signed a treaty with the Plymouth Pilgrims in 1621 and helped them celebrate the first Thanksgiving; his son, Metacom, later led an alliance of Indians in King Phillip's War

Battle of Acoma

a battle in 1599 between a group of Spaniards led by Don Juan de Onate and the Pueblo peoples in the Rio Grande valley; resulted in Spanish victory and the founding of the province of New Mexico in 1609

Meuse-Argonne offensive

a battle of over a million US troops led by General John J. "Black Jack" Pershing against German troops in 1918 which lasted over a month; *although it was one of the few major battles that Americans participated in during the entire war, the promise of new, endless, American troops encouraged the Allies and demoralized the Central Powers*

Glorious Revolution

a bloodless revolution in 1688-89 of the English people which dethroned despotic James II and enthroned the rulers of the Netherlands, William III and Mary II; resulted in the collapse of the Dominion of New England and a revolt in Boston, with few positive results for the colonists, instead getting a more restrictive charter

American plan

a campaign by employers during the red scare which advocated against the "closed," or all-union, plan laborers called for; *stunted the growth of unions; its name revealed popular belief that America should have nothing to do with socialism or communism, which some people saw in labor unions*

Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)

a campus-based political organization founded in 1961 that became an iconic representation of the "counterculture" movement; *emerged at the forefront of the civil rights, antipoverty, and antiwar movements during the 1960s but by the end of the decade had created the terrorist group the Weather Underground, a degradation that occurred in many counterculture movements*

John Smith

a captain who took over the Virginia colony in 1608 and saved it from collapse with the help of his alliance with the local chieftain Powhatan and his daughter Pocahontas

Anne Hutchinson

a challenger of Puritan orthodoxy who lived from 1591-1643; among other heresies, she supported antinomianism; brought to trial in 1638 and banished from Puritan communities

Boston Massacre

a clash between British soldiers and Boston protestors in 1770 which resulted in the deaths or injuries of eleven citizens; *invoked anger in the colonists, who believed the British were being aggressive*

civic virtue

a component of republicanism which began in America before the Revolution; stressed willingness on the part of citizens to sacrifice personal self-interest for the public good; *contributed to the idea of republican motherhood; see "republican motherhood"*

postmodernism

a condition characterized by a questioning of the notion of progress and history, the replacement of narrative within pastiche, and multiple, perhaps even conflicting, identities resulting from disjointed affiliations; replaced modernism's faith in certainty and objectivity with celebration of diverse outlooks

Saratoga

a decisive colonial victory in 1777 in upstate New York; *revived the faltering colonial cause; helped secure French support for the Revolutionary cause, which helped ensure American independence*

"Declaration of Sentiments"

a declaration read by E. C. Stanton at the Woman's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls which declared that "are men and women are created equal"

iron curtain

a division of secrecy and isolation between the democratic nations and communist nations, symbolized by the Berlin Wall between Soviet-occupied East Germany and western-occupied West Germany

Arminianism

a doctrine preached by Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius that individual free will, not divine decree, determined a person's eternal fate, and that all humans, not just the "elect," could be saved; a threat to the Calvinist doctrine of predestination in the Puritan Church

Fundamental Orders

a document drafted by settlers of the new Connecticut River colony in 1639; in effect a modern constitution, it established a regime democratically controlled by its citizens; later influenced Connecticut's colonial charter and state constitution

(colonial) charter

a document which guaranteed colonists the rights of Englishmen; often used as colonial constitutions; could be used as political tools by the English crown, such as when Charles II granted a charter to Connecticut which merged the Puritan community of New Haven with their democratic neighbors because they sheltered judges who had condemned Charles I to death

(colonial) charter

a document which guaranteed overseas settlers the same rights of Englishmen as if they had stayed in England; first extended for a settlement in the New World to the Virginia Company by King James I

Black Legend

a false concept that the Spanish conquerors only brought misery to the New World, including torturing and killing the Indians, stealing their gold, and infecting them with diseases; the Spanish also established a huge empire to which they brought their culture, laws, religion, and language

Spanish Armada

a fleet of over 100 Spanish warships sent against England in 1588 by King Philip II which was defeated by the faster English sea dogs and a devastating storm; marked the beginning of the end of Spain's dominance as an imperial power in the New World

Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC)

a gov agency intended to monitor compliance with an executive order in 1941 forbidding racial discrimination in all defense plants operating under contract with the federal government; *a response to a threat by black leader A. Philip Randolph of a massive "Negro March on Washington" to demand equal war-realted opportunities, reflecting how the war helped to embolden blacks in their struggle for equality, as also seen in the CORE*

soccer moms

a label given to stay-at-home moms who tend to vote more conservatively and usually base their opinions on family issues and religious affiliations; both presidential candidates in 1996 tried for their votes, among other groups of "swing voters"

Quartering Act

a law passed by Parliament in 1765 which required certain colonies to provide food and quarters for British troops; *one of several acts which the colonists saw as an infringement on their rights, angering them and leading to protests and eventually events like the Boston Massacre*

Sugar Act

a law passed by Parliament in the colonies in 1764 which, among other provisions, increased the duty on foreign sugar imported from the West Indies to raise money for their debt after the 7 Years War; *the first of several acts which attempted to tax the colonists, angering them and leading to protests*

Patrick Henry

a leader of the American Revolution and a famous orator who spoke out against British rule of the American colonies (1736-1799); radical, antifederalist

Thomas Cole

a leading light of the Hudson River School in the 1830s; British-born; painted "The Oxbow", which portrayed the ecological threat of human encroachment on once-pristine environments; painted "The Course of Empire", which depicted the cyclical rise and fall of human civilization

Zenger Trial

a legal case in 1734-1735 which charged John Peter Zenger with seditious libel against the corrupt royal governor of New York in his newspaper; though the judges told the jury not to consider the veracity of Zenger's statements, his lawyer, Andrew Hamilton, convinced the jury to judge him not guilty; an achievement for freedom of the press and democracy

Tet offensive

a massive surprise attack by the Vietcong on South Vietnamese towns and cities in early 1968; made LBJ's claim that the Vietnam War was close to an end seem even less credible, leading to greater antiwar agitation in the US

Shakers

a movement of communities first transplanted to America from England by Mother Ann Lee which counted six thousand members by 1840 and emphasized simple, communal living and celibacy; *part of a period of emergence of utopian communities in the 19th century, such as also the Brook Farm, Oneida, and Shaker communities, reflecting the reformist spirit of the age largely because of the 2nd Great Awakening; virtually all of these communities failed because of free enterprise*

Crispus Attucks

a mulatto; the first to die in the Boston Massacre

Al Qaeda

a network of Islamic terrorist organizations, led by Osama bin Laden, that carried out the attacks on the US embassies in Tanzania and Kenya in 1998, the USS Cole in Yemen in 2000, and the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in 2001; radical, anti-American

jeremiad

a new form of sermon beginning in Puritan churches in the mid-17th century; preachers scolded parishioners for their waning piety, a growing trend after the initial religious zeal of the first generation

Half-Way covenant

a new type of membership in Puritan churches begun in 1662; the children of baptized but not-yet-converted existing members could also be baptized; weakened the distinction between the "elect" and others as well as the spiritual purity of the early American Puritans

tobacco

a nicotine-rich plant of the Americas which the Virginians first began to plant; a demand for the product by colonists and people back home established Virginia's economic prosperity and created a demand for African slaves

John Singleton Copley

a painter who lived 1738-1815; originally colonial, he had to move to England to succeed as an artist due to a lack of colonial patrons; regarded as a Loyalist during the Revolutionary War

Jonathan Edwards

a pastor who first ignited the Great Awakening in Northampton, Massachusetts; proclaimed colorfully about the folly of believing in salvation through good works and affirmed the need for complete dependence on God's grace; learned and reasoned preaching style

Iranian hostage crisis

a period of over a year in which American embassy workers were held captive by Iranian revolutionaries beginning in 1979 when militant Muslim fundamentalists overthrew the US-backed shah and later stormed a US embassy in Tehran, Iran; *triggered an energy crisis by cutting off Iranian oil, prermanently damaged relations between Iran and the US, and greatly contributed to the failure of Carter, who was the president during the crisis, to be reelected in 1980 (along with conservative backlash to other developments)*

nation-state

a political unit of people with a shared culture and identity; while South and Central America had nation-states such as the Aztecs, no major nation-states existed in North America at the time of the Europeans' arrival, facilitating their invasion

"Intolerable Acts"

a series of punitive measures passed in 1774 in retaliation for the Boston Tea Party, including closing the port of Boston and expanding the Quartering Act; *in response, the colonists convened the First Continental Congress and called for a complete boycott of British goods through the Association*

Stono Revolt

a slave revolt in South Carolina in 1739 in which more than 50 blacks along the Stono River tried to march to Spanish Florida but were stopped by the local militia

James Oglethorpe

a soldier-statesman and one of the founders of Georgia, saving it with his leadership and personal fortune; interested in debtors' prison reform and repelled Spanish attacks

encomienda

a system of control established by the Spanish early in their conquering of the New World which involved the government giving colonists Indians in return for Christianizing them

three sister farming

a system of farming utilized by many Native North Americans which involved growing corn, beans, and squash together due to their compatibity; produced a lot of food, which supported high population densities

plantation system

a system of large-scale commercial agriculture utilized by the Europeans in the New World, the Atlantic islands, and Africa from the late 15th century to the 19th century which was based on the exploitation of slave labor

William H. McGuffrey

a teacher-preacher from Ohio; his grade-school readers, first published in the 1830s, sold 122 million copies; McGuffrey's readers taught lessons in morality, patriotism, and idealism

predestination

a tenet of Calvinism which held that from the moment of creation, some souls, the "elect," were destined for heaven and others for hell

joint-stock company

a type of partnership perfected by the early 1600s in which several investors pooled their capital; used to fund early English colonization in the New World

caravel

a type of ship developed by the Portuguese around the beginning of the 15th century which could sail more closely into the wind; played a huge part in making sailing around Africa possible for the first time for the Europeans

Dominion of New England

a union imposed on New England, New York, and East and West Jersey by royal authority from London in 1686; aimed at bolstering colonial defense and promoting efficiency in administration of the English Navigation Laws

Pequot War

a war between English settlers in the Connecticut River valley and the Pequot Indian tribe; reached its height in 1637 and resulted in the annihilation of the Pequot tribe

Tuscarora War

a war between the North Carolinians and the Tuscarora Indians in 1711; resulted in victory of North Carolinians, who sold hundreds of Indians into slavery and left the survivors to seek Iroquois protection

Sarah and Angelina Grimke

advocated for antislavery

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

advocated for suffrage for women; mother of seven; a leader of the Woman's Rights Convention at Seneca Falls, where she read a "Declaration of Sentiments"

Salutary Neglect

after a series of small revolts against royal authority in the colonies inspired by the Glorious Revolution, a policy of relaxed royal control of colonial trade and weak enforcement of the Navigation Laws

Atlantic Charter

agreement signed in 1941 between Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill which outlined the future path toward self-determination and a permanent system of general security; *suggestive of Wilson's 14 Points; arguing for the rights of individuals rather than nations, it laid the groundwork for later advocacy on behalf of universal human rights*

Rome-Berlin Axis

alliance signed in 1936 between Nazi Germany, under Adolf Hitler, and Fascist Italy, under Benito Mussolini; *precursor to the support the rising dictators in Germany, Italy, and Japan would lend each other, becoming the Axis powers of WWII*

Quebec Act

allowed the French residents of Quebec to retain their traditional political and religious institutions and extended Quebec's boundaries; *mistakenly perceived by the colonists to be part of Parliament's response to the Boston Tea Party and provoked anger from multiple colonial perspectives, including Protestants and land speculators*

Declaratory Act

an act passed in 1766 alongside the repealing of the Stamp Act which reaffirmed Parliament's absolute sovereignty over the North American colonies; *one of several acts which the colonists believed infringed on their rights, angering them, accentuating the common belief that they should have a good degree of autonomy, and leading to protests*

Mayflower Compact

an agreement drawn up by the Pilgrim leaders to form a crude government and to submit to the will of the majority under the regulations agreed upon; a step towards self-government which wasn't allowed in mainland England at the time

Iroquois Confederacy

an alliance of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca Indians in present-day New York State which was established before the arrival of the English; allied mainly with the British in the American Revolution and fell apart soon after

Platt Amendment

an amendment which the US pressured the Cuban government to write into its constitution in 1901; limited Cuba's treaty-making abilities, controlled its debt, and stipulated that the United States could intervene militarily to restore order when it saw fit; *along with measures such as helping the Panamanian revolution, the Roosevelt Corrollary, and the taking of Puerto Rico, it enforced the US's idea that it was the leader of the Americas while also enforcing the rising belief among other American nations that the US was a hypocritical "bad neighbor"*

Paxton Boys

an armed march led by the Scots-Irish on Philadelphia in 1764, protesting the Quaker oligarchy's lenient policy toward the Indians

Antinomianism

an assertion supported by Anne Hutchinson that a holy life wasn't a definite sign of salvation and that the truly saved need not bother to obey the law of God or man; a heresy in Puritan beliefs which contributed to their decision to ban Hutchinson from their communities

capitalism

an economic system based on a *free market* controlled by *private entities* for *profit*; grew in Europe at least in part due to the flood of precious metals (especially silver) into Spain from South America

Roger Williams

an extreme Separatist who challenged the legality of the Bay Colony's charter and the authority of civil government to regulate religious behavior; was banished and fled to Rhode Island, where he founded a community and ideals which spread throughout Rhode Island to make it one of the most liberal New England colonies

Leisler's Rebellion

an insurgence from 1689-1691 in New York City against lordly landholders due to their animosity with poorer citizens; showed the growing social stratification in the colonies as they developed

Regulator Movement

an insurrection in North Carolina from 1768-1771 against domination of North Carolina's affairs by the eastern American colonies; spearheaded by the Scots-Irish

Stamp Act Congress

an intercolonial assembly in 1765 which gathered to discuss the Stamp Act and which drew up a statement of their rights and grievances to present to the British gov; *while having little effect on the British gov's policies, it did bring together leaders from different colonies, a step toward intercolonial unity*

William Gilmore Simms

ardently promoted Southern literature and won the esteem of many northern writers

Shays's Rebellion

armed uprising in 1786 of western Massachusetts debtors seeking lower taxes and an end to property foreclosures; *inspired fears of "mob rule" which influenced the Constitutional Convention to create measures which mostly prevented direct, popular choosing of federal officials, including the election of the president by the Electoral College*

Josiah Strong

author of Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis; trumpeted the superiority of Anglo-Saxon civilization & summoned Americans to spread their religion and values to the "backward" peoples; *inspired several missionaries to do so; reflective of the attitude of the time*

Captain Alfred T. Mahan

author of The Influence of Sea Power upon History; argued that control of the sea was the key to world dominance; *helped stimulate the naval race between the great powers in the turn of the century; inspired the American people's support of a navy*

Warehouse Act (1916)

authorized loans on the security of staple crops, as long demanded by Populists

Battle of Long Island

battle for the control of New York in 1776 between the British and the American colonists; British troops overwhelmed the colonial militias; *British retained control of the city for most of the war, using it as a central position from which to send out their armies*

Bunker Hill

battle fought on the outskirts of Boston on Breed's Hill in 1775, ending in the colonial militia's retreat; *devastated British numbers*

Chancellorsville

battle soon after the battle at Fredericksburg; Union Joseph Hooker vs. Confederate "Stonewall" Jackson; Hooker was badly beaten but not crushed; Stonewall was mistakenly killed by one of his soldiers; *prompted Lee to move further North, leading to the battle at Gettysburg*

Battles of Lexington and Concord

battles between the colonial militia and the British in 1775 near Boston, the first won by the British and the second by the colonists; *first battles of the Revolutionary War; showed that the colonists were capable of war*

William H. Taft

became civil governor of the Philippines in 1901; formed an attachment to the Filipinos; later became a president

Atlanta, GA

captured and burned by William Sherman in 1864; occurred right before the election of 1864, increasing people's confidence in Lincoln, along with other such victories, and helping Lincoln win the election; beginning of Sherman's marches

Blanche K. Bruce

black Mississippi Senator

civil law

body of written law enacted through legislative statutes or constitutional provisions; in countries where civil law prevails, judges must apply the statutes precisely as written

conversion

by Calvinist philosophy, an intense, identifiable personal experience in which God revealed to the elect their heavenly destiny; Puritans who showed signs of this were highly regarded and usually held leadership positions in their communities

Tehran

capital of Iran; location of a meeting between the "Big Three" (FDR, Churchill, Stalin) in which they agreed on a broad plan for Britain and America to attack Germany on the western front (started by first liberating France) while the Soviets attacked from the east

William Tecumseh Sherman

captured Atlanta; lead a march of victories throughout Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina, leaving destruction behind; brutal but probably shortened the struggle, saving lives; destroyed supplies destined for the Confederate army

John Trumbull

captured scenes of the Revolutionary War in paintings

New Lights

clergymen who defended the Awakening for its role in revitalizing American religion, embracing the emotionalism of the movement

The Federalist

collection of federalist, persuasive essays written by John Jay, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton and published during the ratification debate in New York; *with strong arguments for the Constitution, it served as propaganda which influenced the citizens of New York to finally ratify the Constitution*

nonimportation agreements

colonial boycotts against British goods adopted in response to the Stamp Act in 1765; *a step toward intercolonial unit and an outlet for popular protest, mobilizing even the common classes of the colonies*

Trenton

colonial victory in 1776; Washington surprised and captured a garrison of sleeping Hessians; *raised the morale of his army, settled the stage for his victory at Princeton a week later; revealed Washington's cunning*

Yorktown

colonial victory in 1781; Washington and the French army and navy besieged Cornwallis at Yorktown, forcing him to soon surrender; *dealt a heavy blow to the British war effort; made Britons tired of war, paving the way for the Whigs, who eventually recognized American independence, to overtake Lord North's Tory regime*

Patriots

colonists who supported the American Revolution; aka "Whigs"; *though actually only a minority among the mostly apathetic American colonists, they served as effective militiamen and army men against the British and eventually gained independence from Britain*

Commodore George Dewey

commander of the American forces in Hong Kong; was commanded by then-secretary Teddy Roosevelt to attack Spain's Philippines to distract them from Cuba; captured Manila Bay and then Manila itself in 1898; *focused attention on Hawaii, which the US wanted to use as a half-way coaling station between California and the Philippines--> annexation of Hawaii in 1898*

Robert E. Lee

commander of the Confederate forces; launched a counterattack against the Peninsula Campaign, driving it back to the sea; won the 2nd Battle of Bull Run; lost Antietam; lost the Wilderness Campaign (mostly bc lack of numbers) and was captured at the Appomattox Courthouse

Olive Branch Petition

conciliatory measure adopted by the Continental Congress in 1775, professing American loyalty and seeking an end to the hostilities; *King George III rejected the petition (and thus hope of reconciliation) and proclaimed the colonies in rebellion and the rebels traitors*

Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996

congressional initiatives passed bc of Republican majorities that restricted welfare benefits for both legal and illegal immigrants; reflected rising tide of anti-immigrant sentiment, especially toward Mexican migrants in the Southwest

admirality courts

courts in which juries were not allowed and the defendants were assumed guilty until proven innocent and in which offenders of the Sugar and Stamp Acts were tried; *became a target of colonial anger at what the colonists viewed as restrictions on their rights, contributing to rebellious acts such as the Stamp Act Congress and nonimportation agreements*

Declaration of the Rights of Man

declaration of rights adopted during the French Revolution in 1789; modeled after the American Declaration of Independence; *showed the influence and inspiration of the American Revolutionary War*

Proclamation of 1763

decree issued by Parliament in the wake of Pontiac's uprising, prohibiting settlement beyond the Appalachians; *contributed to rising resentment of British rule in the American colonies, causing them to openly defy their British rulers and move west anyway, which also angered the British*

republicanism

defined a just society as one in which all citizens willingly subordinated their private, selfish interests to the common good; the quality of the society and gov therefore depended on the virtue of the citizenry; opposed to authoritarian institutions like aristocracy and monarchy; *along with the radical Whigs, made colonists especially alert to encroachments on their rights, which would manifest, in the eyes of the colonists, laws like the Stamp Act*

Congregational Church

democratic government in Puritan church communities which led to democracy in their political government, including town meetings in which adult males voted

Charles Bulfinch

designed the Massachusetts State House in 1798

Ronald Reagan

determined to assert the US's dominance in the Caribbean (Nicaragua, Grenada) just like Teddy Roosevelt

Amelia Bloomer

donned a short skirt with Turkish trousers which became called "Bloomers"

Hampton Roads Conference

due to the Wilderness Campaign, Confederates tried to negotiate a truce; Lincoln met with representatives on a Union ship at Hampton Roads, VA, but neither side would compromise; *demonstrated how desperate and close to defeat the Confederacy was; the fact that neither side would compromise foreshadowed a difficult Reconstruction with much stubbornness*

Thorstein Veblen

economist, wrote Theory of the Leisure Class, condemned conspicuous consumerism, where status is displayed and conveyed through consumption.

Armed Neutrality

loose alliances of nonbelligerent naval powers, organized by Russia's Catherine the Great, to protect neutral trading rights during the war for American independence

Valley Forge

encampment where George Washington's army spent a winter without sufficient supplies, causing hundreds of deaths and thousands to desert; *reflected the main weakness of the American army: a lack of stable supplies and munitions, which was a factor in their allying with France*

Catherine Beecher

encouraged women to seek employment as teachers

National Recovery Administration (NRA)

established 1933, was an early New Deal program designed to assist industry, labor, and the unemployed by establishing codes for "fair competition", monitoring workers' earnings and working hours to distribute work; *the most complex and far-reaching effort by the New Dealers, it combined immediate relief (like the FERA) with long-range recovery (like Glass-Steagall Act), and though it largely failed, it helped inspire enough confidence in workers to allow more assertive actions by labor unions, supported by the Wagner Act*

Emma Willard and Mary Lyon

established Troy Female Seminary and Mount Holyoke Seminary (respectively); helped women's schools at the secondary level gain some respectability

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

established at the Bretton Woods Conference; encouraged world trade by regulating currency exchange rates

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)

established at the Bretton Woods Conference; founded to promote economic growth in war-ravaged and underdeveloped areas

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

established at the Bretton Woods Conference; reduced trade barriers among member nations and helped to form the basis for the transformative spread of economic globalization in the latter half of the 20th century

Society of the Cincinnati

established in 1783, an exclusive, hereditary organization of former officers in the Continental Army; *became a source of resentment by most Americans in the period of intensified pursuit of equality following the American Revolution, along with issues like separation of church and state, which resulted in the disestablishment of the Anglican Church and the passage of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom*

Immigration Act of 1924

established quotas for immigration to the United States, most significantly curtailing immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe and cutting off Japanese immigrants; *while America had been largely formed from unrestricted immigration, now departed from that policy, limiting further diversity; caused resentment among Southern Europeans and Japanese*

Roger Morris

example of Loyalist property confiscated, this man's large New York estate cut up into 250 parcels

John Hancock

famous colonial smuggler

Articles of Confederation

first American constitution that established the United States as a loose confederation of states under a weak national Congress, which was not granted the power to regulate commerce or collect taxes; *prevented Congress from collecting sufficient funds for the new nation and from regulating commerce between the states, which often led to conflicting policies; eventually led to the creation of the federal, effective Constitution of 1787*

Hiram Revels

first black US senator

H-bomb

first developed and detonated by the US in the Marshall Islands in 1952, a thousand times more powerful than the atomic; led to the USSR to develop and test its on H-bomb in 1953; *though opposed by Oppenheimer and Einstein, it led to a nuclear arms race spurred by massive state support for defense-related scientific research in both countries; peace saved only by mutual terror*

Sandra Day O'Connor

first woman supreme court justice; appointed by Reagan in 1981; conservative

disestablish

following the Revolution, it was the separation of the Anglican Church and, in some New England states, the Congregational Churches from their connection with the gov; *along with the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, it was a notable step in the fight for separation of church and state, a fight which became more prominent in the period of intensified pursuit of equality following the American Revolution*

Declaration of Independence

formal pronouncement of independence drafted by Thomas Jefferson and approved by the 2nd Continental Congress on July 4, 1776; *allowed Americans to appeal for foreign aid and served as an inspiration for later revolutionary movements and statements worldwide, such as the Declaration of the Rights of Man*

American Peace Society

formed in 1828 in period of growing agitation for peace; one leader=William Ladd (his ideas bore some fruit in the international organizations for collective security of the 20th century); set back by Crimean and American Civil Wars

Alexander Stephens

former vice president of the Confederacy who claimed a seat in Congress during reconstruction under Johnson; the Republican Congress denied him and other Confederates seats in Congress

William Miller

founded Millerites/Adventists, who believed Christ would return to earth in 1844; their movement continued when this didn't happen

unconditional surrender

giving up to an enemy without any demands or requests; practice by the US and British forces in their attack on North Africa and then Italy; attempted to reassure the Soviets that they were helping on the European front so they wouldn't make a separate alliance with Germany; by helping to destroy the German gov. completely, it forced a thorough postwar reconstruction

National Woman's party

group of women pacifists, led by Alice Paul; organized marches and hunger strikes against Germany

Charles R. Forbes

head of the Veterans Bureau, was caught stealing $200 million from the government in 1923, chiefly in connection with the building of veterans' hospitals; sentenced to 2 years in prison

Mary McLeod Bethune

highest ranking African American in Roosevelt's administration as director of the Office of Minority Affairs in the National Youth Administration; *women in the 1930s began to carve a larger space for themselves in the nation's political and intellectual life*

compact theory

idea that the fed. gov was created by the states and therefore the states were the judges of whether the fed. gov oversteps its granted authorities, so a state could nullify a fed. act; supported by Jefferson & Madison; didn't hold up

republican motherhood

ideal after the American Revolution which stressed the role of women in guiding family members toward republican virtue; *elevated women's role in society and expanded their educational opportunities in the expectation that educated women could better cultivate civic virtue*

Booth shoots Lincoln

in Ford's Theater in Washington, D.C.; pro-Southern actor John Wilkes Booth shot Lincoln; *set the stage for a more tumultuous Reconstruction without the reasonableness and strong leadership of Lincoln*

Robert Fulton

installed a steam engine in the Clermont, which made the trip from NYC up the Hudson River to Albany in record time; led to a steamboat craze, which lowered shipping costs

Elias Howe

invented the sewing machine; boost to northern industrialization, increased number of women in factories

"oil shocks"

it was a period of time in the 1970s when OPEC raised oil prices after their strict embargo on the us from helping Israel in both the Six-Day War and the Yom Kippur war; *taught Americans a lesson: that they could never consider a policy of economic isolation; the country was increasingly dependent on OPEC and vulnerable to any possible shifts in the Arab oil states.*

Louis XIV

king of France from 1643 to 1715; under his rule, France blossomed into the mightiest and most feared nation on the European continent; took a deep interest in overseas colonies

Stephen F. Austin

known as the Father of Texas, led the second and ultimately successful colonization of the region by bringing 300 families from the United States; Americans clashed with Mexicans, leading to the TX war for independence

committees of correspondence

local committees established in Massachusetts in 1772 and later all of the 13 colonies which maintained colonial opposition to British policies; *important in stimulating sentiment in favor of united action; evolved directly into the first American congresses*

Queen Liluokalani

last queen of Hawaii; insisted that native Hawaiians should control the islands; *caused a revolt of white settlers, which resulted in her dethronement in 1893; later resulted in annexation of Hawaii in 1898*

stamp tax

law passed by Parliament in 1765 in the colonies mandating the use of stamped paper or the affixing of stamps, certifying payment of tax; *became the biggest target of colonial anger at what the colonists viewed as restrictions on their rights, leading to rebellious acts such as the Stamp Act Congress and nonimportation agreements*

Barbados slave code

laws passed in the English Caribbean in 1661 which denied slaves fundamental rights and gave their masters virtually complete control over them; brought with displaced English settles to the Carolinas in 1670, inspiring similar statutes throughout the mainland colonies

common law

laws that originate from court rulings and customs, as opposed to legislative statutes; *the United States Constitution grew out of the Anglo-American common law tradition and thus provided only a general organizational framework for the new federal government in the Constitution of 1787*

James R. "Jimmy" Hoffa

leader of the Teamsters Union who was convicted of jury tampering; corruption was often a quality of organized labor in the late 1950s

"Self-Reliance"

lecture-essay written by Ralph Waldo Emerson's in America in 1841 about the need for individuals to avoid conformity and rely on their own instincts; *its popularity reflected the spirit of individualism pervasive in American popular culture during the 1830s and 1840s*

Draft Goldwater movement

led by writers like William Buckley and his staff at National Review magazine, conservative activists volunteered for this movement

General Dwight D. Eisenhower

led the Allied invasion of North African and planned and executed the D-Day invasion at Normandy and the Battle of the Bulge

Brigham Young

led the Mormans to Utah in 1847; had 27 wives

"America letters"

letters from immigrants in the United States to friends and relatives in the old country, which spurred further immigration

Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom

measure enacted by the Virginia legislature in 1786 prohibiting state support for religious institutions and recognizing freedom of worship; *along with the disestablishment of the Anglican Church, it was a notable step in the fight for separation of church and state, a fight which became more prominent in the period of intensified pursuit of equality following the American Revolution*

Gertrude Stein, Eliza Pound, T. S. Eliot, e. e. cummings

modernist writers who experimented radically with poetry and prose

Religious Society of Friends

more commonly known as the Quakers; a group of religious dissenters which arose in England in the mid-1600s; refused to support the Church of England with taxes; deeply passive and democratic; many immigrated to Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, North Carolina, and New Jersey

Declaration of Constitutional Principles

more than a hundred southern congressional representatives and senators signed this in 1956, pledging their unyielding resistance to desegregation

Charles Grandison Finney

moving 2nd Awakening orator/preacher; led revivals in Rochester and NYC; preached old-time religion with innovations ("anxious bench," encouraged women to pray aloud in public)

Upton Sinclair

muckraker who shocked the nation when he published The Jungle, a novel that revealed gruesome details about the meat packing industry; caused the public, as well as Roosevelt, to push for government regulation of food, leading to the Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drug Act

The Association

nonimportation agreement crafted during the First Continental Congress calling for the complete boycott of British goods; *turning point; caused the British to openly send troops against the colonists at Lexington and Concord, the beginning of the Rev. War*

Dey of Algiers

north african leader who took advantage of the weakness of the articles of confederation to attack american shipping; influenced creation of a central gov with more power

three-fifths compromise

passed in 1787 by Congress, determined that each slave would be counted as three-fifths of a person for the purpose of apportioning taxes and representation; *although somewhat appeasing the Northern states, still granted disproportionate political power to southern slave states*

Lowell, MA

one of the 1st factory girl factories; model

radical Republicans

opposed the 10 percent plan, instead proposing the Wade-Davis Bill; felt the Southern states had seceded, contrary to Lincoln and moderate Republicans; denied former Confederates seats in Congress

Old Lights

orthodox clergymen skeptical of and threatened by the Great Awakening due to its emotionalism instead of their intellectualism

Charles Willson Peale

painted about 60 portraits of Washington

Northwest Ordinance

passed in 1787, it created a policy for administering the Northwest Territories: a territory would be under federal governance until it reached a high enough population, after which it would become a state; *avoided the problem Britain had faced in being perceived as unfair overlords of the territories, preventing another revolution, and the scheme's principles were used to expand in later frontier areas*

Sons & Daughters of Liberty

patriotic, sometimes aggressive colonial groups which *played a central role in agitating against the Stamp Act and enforcing nonimportation agreements*

Treaty of Paris

peace treaty signed by Britain and the American colonists in 1783, ending the Rev. War; *favored the Americans, as the British formally recognized American independence and ceded a large area of territory east of the Mississippi while the Americans, in turn, promised to restore Loyalist property and repay debts to British creditors*

mestizos

people of mixed Indian and European heritage; largely the result of the exploitation of Indian women; more common in Latin America (causing the development of a very distinct society) then among the colonized areas in North America

indentured servants

people who exchanged a period of time laboring for passage to the New World colonies and for some goods, received "freedom dues" at the end of their time working; employed by landowners as a relatively cheap source of labor in the 17th century

federalists

people who favored a strong national government, believing that the checks and balances put in place between the branches of gov would keep it under control; *ultimately produced a Constitution which gave comparatively strong powers to the central gov, causing lasting conflict with the antifederalists and delaying and complicating the ratification of the Constitution in a third of the states*

antifederalists

people who objected to the subordination of the states to the central government; *cast the 1787 Constitution as antidemocratic, largely because of the absence of a bill of rights, causing lasting conflict with the federalists and delaying and complicating the ratification of the Constitution in a third of the states*

Louis Daguerre

perfected the invention of a crude photograph known as the daguerrotype in 1839

Benjamin Silliman

pioneer American chemist and geologist in the 19th century; taught at Yale College

Good Neighbor policy

policy of nonintervention in Latin America; begun by Herbert Hoover but associated mainly with Franklin D. Roosevelt, who withdrew much of US influence in Cuba, Panama, Haiti, and Mexico; *a departure from the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, it decreased bitterness from Latin American countries, who might have sided with the rising dictators in Europe and Asia against the US*

Great Compromise (aka the Connecticut plan)

popular term for the measure that reconciled the New Jersey and Virginia Plans at the Constitutional Convention, giving states proportional representation in the House and equal representation in the Senate; *broke the stalemate at the convention and paved the way for several other compromises, including over slavery (in the three-fifths compromise) and the method of electing the president (indirectly, by the Electoral College)*

privateers

privately owned armed ships authorized by Congress to prey on enemy shipping during the Rev. War; *more numerous than the tiny American navy, they inflicted heavy damages on British ships, brought in gold, and raised American morale; brought increasing pressure from British shippers on Parliament to end the war*

Proposition 209 and Hopwood v. Texas

prohibited affirmative action preferences in gov. and higher education in California and Texas, respectively; # of minority students in the states' public universities temporarily plummeted

Title IX of the Education Amendments

prohibited sex discrimination in any federally assisted educational program; *created opportunities for girls' and women's athletics at school and colleges, giving birth to a new "Title IX generation" of professional women's sports*

Boston Tea Party

protest in 1773 against the British East India Co's newly-acquired monopoly on the American tea trade in which protestor dumped hundreds of chests of tea into Boston harbor; *prompted harsh sanctions from the British Parliament; provided a symbol that colonists of all walks of life could rally around; provoked conservative reactions as well*

Land Ordinance of 1785

provided that the lands in the Old Northwest should be divided into townships and sold; *orderly expansion in the Old Northwest, defrayed some of the national debt, and supported education in the Northwest by setting aside a section of each township to benefit public schools*

Asa Gray

published over 350 writings about American botany; published a new standard of textbooks

Robert La Follette

ran for president in 1924, leading a new Progressive party (which was only a shadow of the progressivism in prewar days); supported mainly by the AF of L, the Socialist party, and especially farmers

Model Treaty

sample treaty drafted by the 2nd Continental Congress as a guide for American diplomats in France in 1776; *reflected the Americans' desire to foster commercial partnerships rather than political or military entanglements; infused a persistent element of idealism into American attitudes toward foreign affairs*

Zimmermann note

secret note sent by German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmerman to Mexico proposing a German-Mexican alliance against the United States, out of which Mexico would regain TX, AZ, and NM; *when the note was intercepted and published in March 1917, it caused an uproar that made some Americans more willing to enter the war, as the torpedoing of the Lusitania did*

Warfare-Welfare State

refers to the dependence of America on military spending in WWII to get it out of the depression

"Home Rule" regimes

regimes of the Redeemers

Robert Frost, Carl Sandburg, Sherwood Anderson, William Faulkner

regionalist-style writers who were both celebratory and critical

Townshend Acts

regulations passed in 1767 by the British Parliament which imposed import duties on goods such as tea; *led to many protests throughout the North American colonies; caused the British to send more soldiers who came in conflict with the colonial civilians, leading to the Boston Massacre; led to Boston Tea Party*

Second Continental Congress

representative body of delegates from all thirteen colonies during the Rev. War who managed the war effort; *drafted the Declaration of Independence, wisely appointed George Washington as the general of the Continental Army*

Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993

requires employers to provide up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave for family and medical emergencies

Lucy Stone

retained her maiden name after marriage; women who do this are called "Lucy Stoners"

Ancient Order of Hibernians

semi-secret society founded in Ireland which which was brought to the US by Irish immigrants and there as a benevolent organization for the downtrodden in the mid-1800s; *showed how the Irish immigrants kept some of their culture in America; also, since it's for the poor, showed how destitute most Irish immigrants were, causing Irish-nativist conflicts as the Irish filled cities and would take jobs for low wages*

slave codes

set of laws beginning in 1662 defining racial slavery; they established the hereditary nature of slavery and limited the rights and education of slaves

Lyndon B. Johnson

signed the civil rights act of 1964 into law and the voting rights act of 1965. he had a war on poverty in his agenda. in an attempt to win, he set a few goals, including the great society, the economic opportunity act, and other programs that provided food stamps and welfare to needy famillies. he also created a department of housing and urban development. medicare, medicaid.

Ulysses S. Grant

significant Union general, one of the few distinguished ones; fought first in the West at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, Shiloh, and Vicksburg; captured Chattanooga, opening the way for an invasion of Georgia by William Sherman; became the 5th and final commander of the Army of the Potomac, successful in his Wilderness Campaign and captured Lee at Appomattox Courthouse

progressives

sought to modernize American institutions to: 1) use the state to curb monopoly power and 2) to improve the common person's conditions of life and labor

Engel v. Vitale and School District of Abington Township v. Schempp

the First Amendment's separation of church and state meant that public schools could not require prayer or Bible reading

Samuel Chase

supreme court justice of whom the Democratic-Republican Congress tried to remove in retaliation of the John Marshall's decision regarding Marbury; was not removed due to a lack of votes in the Senate; victory for separation of powers

palmetto

symbol of the "nullies" in South Carolina

pink collar ghetto

term given to the jobs assumed by women in roles such as clerical workers and service work; often lower in prestige and in pay

"Black Forties"

term used to describe the 1840s, when the potato famine struck Ireland and caused the mass immigration of Irish to America.

Old Northwest

territories acquired by the federal government from the states, encompassing land northwest of the Ohio River, east of the Mississippi River, and south of the Great Lakes; *the well-organized management and sale of the land in the territories under the land ordinances of 1785 and 1787 established a precedent for handling future land acquisitions and expanded the new nation*

William Pitt

the "Great Commoner", loved by the people; as the prime minister of Britain, he was the "Organizer of Victory" in the Seven Years War; he focused less on the West Indies (which were bleeding away British strength), concentrated on the vital Quebec-Montreal area, and picked young and energetic leaders; dispatched an expedition which captured Louisbourg (the first major British victory of the war); sent James Wolfe to Quebec, which he won

William H. Prescott

the American historian who published classic accounts of the conquests of Mexico and Peru in the 1840s.

American Expeditionary Forces (AEF)

the U.S. Army force deployed to Europe in World War I composed mostly of conscripts and including some women and blacks; *though the US entered the war too late to be involved in most of the fighting, the AEF's only major battles being at St. Mihiel and the Meuse-Argonne, the promise of US troops demoralized the German troops*

Havana Conference of 1940

the United States agreed to share with its twenty New World neighbors the responsibility of upholding the Monroe Doctrine to keep Germany out of the conquered Netherlands', Denmark's, and France's colonies in Latin America; *made the Monroe Doctrine a multilateral policy, upheld by the Latin American countries as well as the US, at least in theory*

Great Rapprochement

the beginning of the cultivation of close, cordial relations between America and Great Britain at the end of the 19th century; *made both nations more able to focus on other nations, such as America focusing on Spain in the Spanish-American War and both focusing on trade with China; made Britain more open to agreements with the US, such as the Hay-Paunceforte Treaty*

"fall of China"

the collapse of Nationalist China to communists under Mao Zedong; the worst defeat for America and its allies up to this point in the Cold War

Samuel Adams

the cousin of John Adams; a brilliant politician; zealous supporter of the American Revolution; started the committees of correspondence

Columbian Exchange

the exchange of diseases, plants, and animals between the Old World (smallpox, horses, cattle, swine, sugar cane, yellow fever, malaria) and the New World (maize, tobacco, beans, potatoes, tomatoes, syphilis) beginning in 1492; Old World diseases devastated the New World population while New World crops caused a population increase in the Old World

Elizabeth Blackwell

the first female graduate of a medical college

John Winthrop

the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, believing he had a calling from God; helped the colony prosper but fought democracy and partook in the banishment of Anne Hutchinson

Jamestown

the first permanent English settlement in the Americas which was founded on the banks of the James River in 1607 by the Virginia Company; plagued by disease and starvation; saved by Captain John Smith and his alliance with the Indian chieftain Powhatan but later under the harsh control of Lord De La Warr, who attacked the Indians

First Anglo-Powhatan War

the first war between the Powhatan Indians and the Virginia colonists, led by Lord De La Warr in vicious campaigns against the Indians from 1610 until a peace settlement in 1614 which was sealed by the marriage of Pocahontas to colonist John Rolfe

Thomas Hutchinson

the governor of Massachusetts who refused to let British ships carrying tea to leave the Boston harbor, leading to the Boston Tea Party

National American Woman Suffrage Association

the larger part of the suffrage movement; supported American participation in WWI

George "Babe" Ruth

the most popular baseball player of the 1920s; a national figure, more popular than most politicians, *revealing America's new focus on leisure and consumerism rather than politics and the frugality of their ancestors (also seen in the development of buying on credit, which created debt which made the economy more vulnerable)*

ABC movement

the movement that started in the Democratic party (Carter's own party) to nominate "anyone but Carter"

Lord De La Warr

the new governor of Virginia in 1610; imposed a harsh regime on the colony and took military action against the Indians using "Irish tactics"; initiated the First Anglo-Powhatan War

the new Missouri Compromise

the nomination of Senator Harry S. Truman of Missouri as FDR's VP running mate in the election of 1944 (FDR's 4th term); had gained national visibility as the efficient chairman of a Senate committee conducting an investigation of wasteful war expenditures; no one had much against or on him

Middle Passage

the passage of African slaves from Africa across the Atlantic to the Americas; terrifying and often deadly for the slaves

Lord Dunmore

the royal governor of Virginia who offered freedom to blacks who joined the British army during the Revolutionary War

Ohio fever

the rush of people going West because of cheap land, especially European immigrants (Irish and German mainly)

stagflation

the simultaneous occurrence of low employment growth and high inflation in the national economy. *characterized the economic troubles of the 1970s and posed a challenge to Democratic, liberal officials, especially Jimmy Carter, whose failure to relieve the crisis contributed to a conservative backlash, as seen in the rise of the New Right and neoconservatives*

Samuel Swartwout

the system under Jackson of giving jobs to political friends led to corruption. This New York customs agent was the first man to steal $1 million from the federal government

mercantilism

the theory that wealth was power and that a country's economic wealth (and thus its power) could be measured by the amount of gold or silver in its treasury; a country needed to export more than it imported; *influenced the British gov to pass laws which restricted the colonists' trade such as the Sugar Act, irritating them and causing many to engage in illegal trade with other countries, which threatened their previously-strong ties with Britain*

assumption

the transfer of the states' Revolutionary War debts to the federal gov in 1790; *shifted the attachment of wealthy lenders, whose support was crucial in Hamilton's strategy of strengthening the central gov, from the states to the federal gov; also, as part of a compromise, the federal District of Columbia was located in Virginia, which had low debt, when it occurred*

Johnson Debt Default Act

this 1934 act prevented debt-ridden nations from borrowing further from the US; *reflecting the US's disillusionment born of WWI, it demonstrated deep and widespread isolationism in the US as well as delusions of being safe in America; drove European Allies to intensify demands of reparation payments from Germany, increasing Germany's resentment*

Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act

this 1943 law allowed the federal government to seize and operate factories threatened by labor disputes and criminalized strike action against government-run industry; *passed due to worries about the effects that labor strikes, which were often due to the NWLB's ceilings on wages, would have on war production, even though the strikes were not very common; showed great anxiety over the consequences of losing the war*

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)

this New Deal, gov-controlled agency operated a system of dams and power plants in the Tennessee River Valley beginning in 1933; *brought economic improvements, such as cheap electric power and full employment, as well as environmental improvements to Americans in the Tennessee Valley, bringing them out of poverty, but proliferation of this type of system in other places was restricted by conservatives who feared it was socialistic*

"Little Phil" Sheridan

this Union general laid waste the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia so thoroughly that "a crow could not fly over it without carrying his rations with him"; one of the victories close to the 1864 election which helped raise the public opinion of Lincoln

Foraker Act

this accorded Puerto Ricans a limited degree of popular government in 1900; *the first comprehensive congressional effort to govern territories acquired after the Spanish American War; served as a model for a similar act adopted for the Philippines in 1902*

modernism

this early 20th century artistic and cultural movement questioned traditional social conventions and traditional authorities; *a response to the demanding conditions of modern life, the movement included many writers and artists who produced works that criticized traditional values and the conditions of the industrial life, such as Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby or Theodore Dreiser's An American Tragedy*

royal colonies

those of the thirteen colonies whose governors and upper house were appointed by the crown; New Jersey, Georgia, Massachusetts Bay, South Carolina, New Hampshire, Virginia, New York, and North Carolina

proprietary colonies

those of the thirteen colonies whose governors and upper house were appointed by the proprietor; Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware

regulars

trained soldiers commanded by British generals in the French and Indian War; *aided their victory but accentuated the contempt of the British generals for the untrained colonial militiamen, a source of conflict between the colonists and the mainland Britons even after the war, especially as the colonial commanders weren't allowed to keep their high ranks*

Dorothea Dix

travelled around US and assembled damning reports on the conditions of insane asylums; petitioned the Massachusetts legislature in 1843; persistent prodding resulted in improved conditions and in a gain for the concept that the demented weren't willfully perverse but mentally ill

Treaty of Fort Stanwix

treaty signed by the American colonists and the pro-British Iroquois (forced by the Americans) granting Ohio Country to the Americans in 1784 after the British were defeated

William R. Hearst & Joseph Pulitzer

used "yellow journalism" to *inflate the anger of the American people* over the crisis in Cuba; tried to outdo each other; Hearst even published a private letter of the Spanish minister in Washington (Dupuy de Lome) which insulted McKinley

Headright system

used in some of the English colonies (including Virginia and Maryland) to encourage the importation of servant workers; whoever paid the passage of a laborer received the right to 50 acres of land; resulted in huge estates for some

patroonships

vast feudal estates fronting the Hudson River; granted to promoters in New Netherland who agreed to settle 50 people on them

New England Confederation

weak union of the colonies in Massachusetts and Connecticut led by Puritans for the purposes of defense and organization; an early attempt at self-government during the benign neglect of the English Civil War

Theodore Dreiser

wrote An American Tragedy in 1925, which explored the pitfalls of social striving (like The Great Gatsby) by dealing with the murder of a pregnant working girl by her socially ambitious young lover

Walt Whitman

wrote Leaves of Grass in 1855; highly emotional and unconventional, dispensing with titles, stanzas, rhymes, and at times even regular meter; "Poet Laureate of Democracy"

Kurt Vonnegut Jr.

wrote Slaughterhouse Five, a complex, darkly comic war tale; typified postwar disillusionment, causing the typical realistic war writings to fall out of favor

Michael Harrington

wrote The Other America (1962); revealed that 20% of America's population lived in poverty; *impetus for JFK & LBJ's "War on Poverty," an antipoverty campaign which was incorporated into the Great Society program*

F. Scott Fitzgerald

wrote This Side of Paradise and The Great Gatsby, both of which captured the society of the "Jazz Age," including odd mix of glamour and the cruelty; the former was eagerly read by the young, especially flappers; the latter commented on the illusory American ideal of the self-made man

Tennessee Williams

wrote dramas about people trying to hold themselves together amid the disintegrating forces of modern life; wrote A Streetcar Named Desire and Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, both of which critiqued restrictions on women's lives

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

wrote narratives based on American traditions; immensely popular in Europe, the first American to be enshrined in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey

Nathaniel Hawthorne and Herman Melville

wrote novels (The Scarlet Letter and Moby Dick, respectively) concerned with the continuing Calvinist obsession with original sin and with the never-ending struggle between good and evil

Arthur Miller

wrote plays that explored American values, including the dream of material success (Death of a Salesman) and warnings against McCarthyism (The Crucible)

Louis D. Brandeis

wrote the book Other People's Money and How the Bankers Use it. Further showed the problems of the American banking system. Wilson nominated him to the supreme court making him the first Jew in that position.