APUSH Chapter 10 "America's Economic Revolution"

Explain the decline in agricultural productivity in the Northeast (pg.288)

After 1840 agriculture declined, because farmers of the NE could no longer compete with the new and richer soil in the Northwest (Midwest) So centers of production gradually moved westward and important farm goods like hog, cattle, and wheat, made in the NE moved there as well.

Describe the growth of urban areas by internal migration

As the agricultural regions of New England and other areas grew less profitable, more people began to move to more promising agricultural regions in the West, but many moved to eastern cities.

What distinctions between the world of commerce and industry, and the world of the family began to be made?

As the urban household became less important as a center of production, and income earners left home each day to work elsewhere, this created a world of commerce and industry and a world of the family. The world of the family was now dominated not by production, by but housekeeping and child rearing, and so it was dominated by women.

Describe the effect industrialization had on family structures

B/c jobs and not land were the most valued commodity in urban areas, the patriarchal system of fathers controlling their children's future by controlling the distributing of land to them, did not survive. So son's and daughters were much more likely to leave the family in search of work than they had been in the rural world.

What changes were seen in middle class diets and why?

Because of the diversification of American agriculture and the ability of farmers to ship goods to urban markets by rail from longer distances, the variety of food avaliable in cities increased. Items (fruits and vegetables) that were difficult to be shipped over long distances without spoiling could now be kept cool with iceboxes. -A familiar part of urban life, although most did not have them yet Diets were still generally much starchier and middle class people tended to be stout

Describe woman and the "cult of domesticity"

Because of the emerging distinction between public and private worlds and the workplace and home, increasing sharp distinctions between men and women were reinforced. And these distinctions affected factory workers, farmers, and members of the growing middle class.

Describe how unmarried women fit into the ideology of domesticity

By the 1840s few rich women considered working and few employers considered hiring them, but unemployed women dominated teaching and nursing professions. -Jobs that highlight "female qualities" For the most part, unmarried women were dependent on themselves or the generosity of relatives. -Sometimes worked as nannies/companions for widows

Describe the cause of falling birth rates

Changes in economic function accompanied a fall in birth rates. -As well as increased abstinence, birth control access, and abortions. The birth rate fell most quickly in urban areas amongst middle class women.

What locations became breeding grounds of technological discoveries? (pg.270)

Federal armories like those at Springfield and Harpers Ferry. They also became a magnet for craftsmen and factory owners who were looking for ideas that could be useful to them. -By 1840s the factories in the NE were better than most in Europe

Describe the demographic of northwesterners

For the white and sometimes black settlers populating the lands further south, the NW was primarily agricultural. Farming was a lucrative and expanding activity there, in contrast to the NE. And the typical citizen of the NW was not an industrial worker, poor, or a marginalized farmer, instead most owned prosperous family farms

Who was P.T. Barnum and what form of "leisure" did he experiment with?

He exploited public tastes for the wild and exotic using lectures. -People were eager to see unconventional things in their constricted world of familiarity He did so by opening the American Museum in NY in 1842, and he advertised Siamese twins, ventriloquists, and magicians, under his famous circus. (Man "The Greatest Showman" is about)

Describe the invention of the rotary press

In 1846, Richard Hoe invented the steam cylinder rotary press, which made it possible to print newspapers rapidly and cheaply. The development of the telegraph, along with this, made the speedier collection and distribution of news possible.

Why was labor resistance more effective in England than in America? (pg.278)

In England, workers were becoming a powerful economic and social force, transforming the nation's political structure. But in America, there was no effective labor resistance because of... The flood of immigrant laborers who were willing to work for lower wages. -Those that wouldn't were replaced by the loads of other ones who would. The Ethnic divisions and tensions between natives and immigrants. -Focus their attention on the resentment between them and not their grievances against employers And, the sheer strength of the industrial capitalists, who had economic, political, and social power. -Overpower even militant challenges

Describe the changing retail distribution of goods

In larger cities, stores specializing in one or two things like, groceries, dry goods, hardware, and other lines appeared. Although residents still depended on general stores (do not specialize). In less populous areas, citizens did their business by barter

Describe the declining economic role of the family (pg.282)

Income began to be earned outside of the home and into shops, mills, and factories. Previously the family was the principal unit of economy activity. -family farms, family shops etc. But as agricultural became more commercialized and farm owners in need of labor began to rely less on families (not large enough to satisfy demand), income became more independent. Women began to take on domestic tasks, which spared them from heavy labor, but took them away from principal income activities on farms.

Besides increased European demand, what provided the greatest boost to agriculture?

Industrialization in the U.S and in Europe. With the growth of factories and cities in the NE and the domestic market increased dramatically. -Growing demand resulted in increased prices, and in the early 1840s and 50s farmers were prosperous

After 1830, where did substantial shipping begin to grow?

It began from the MS river to the Great Lakes and created new urban centers that gradually superseded the river ports. Ex: Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland etc.

Where did the capital used to finance railroads come from?

It came from many sources. Private American investors provided part of the funding. Railroad companies borrowed large sums from aboard. Local governments, states, counties, cities, and towns, often contributed capital, because they were eager to have railroads serve them. And railroads obtained substantial federal assistance in the form of public land grants. -In 1850 Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas persuaded Congress to grant federal lands to aid IL central, which was building from Chicago to the Gulf of Mexico. By 1860, Congress had allotted 30 million acres to 11 states, to assist railroad construction.

What effect did the rise in journalism have on sectionalism? (pg.267-268)

It helped to feed sectional discord. Most of the major magazines and newspapers were in the North, so the South's sense of subjugation was reinforced. Southern newspapers also tended to have smaller budgets and largely local news, with little impact outside their immediate communities. - The Tribune and Herald circulations exceeded that of all the newspapers in the South put together

What requirements did the U.S need before it could have an industrial revolution

It needed a population large enough to grow its own food and to provide a surplus workforce for an industrial economy. It needed a transportation and communications network capable over sustaining commerce over a long distance. -creates regional, national, and international markets It needed the tech to permit manufacturing on a large scale And it needed systems of business organizations capable of managing large industrial enterprises. By the 1860, the northern regions of the nation had gained at least the beginning of these things.

What system did the new laws regarding corporations permit?

It permitted a system of limited liability, in which individual stockholders only risked the value of their own investment, and not the companies larger losses. This followed a rise in new corporations that made it possible to accumulate capital, and made the creation of much larger manufacturing and business enterprises possible.

Describe leisure time during the Market/Industrial Revolution

Leisure time was scarce and only avaliable to the rich, since most people worked long hours. Vacations (paid or not) were rare, and Sunday was the only day off from work, since it was reserved for religion. -No businesses opened, and entertainment on the Sabbath was frowned upon Because of the lack of leisure time, holidays were incredibly important. And there were very elaborate 4th of July celebrations, that acted as expressions of patriotism and a day off from work.

Describe the rise in commercial agriculture

Like commerce and industry, agriculture also began to become part of a new capitalist economy linked to the national and international market. Where agriculture could compete in flourished and changed, and where it couldn't it declined.

Describe the growing class distinctions (pg.282)

Middle class homes began to differentiate themselves from those of workers and artisans. They were more decorated and furnished. -Victorian era styles Middle class homes were now larger, so it became less common for children to share beds and for family to sleep in the same room. -Parlors and dining rooms also separated from the kitchen (typically only a rich people thing) And by the 1850s some urban middle class homes had indoor plumbing and toilets.

Describe "middle class life" (pg.291)

Middle class life was the most influential cultural form of urban America. Middle class families lived in substantial homes they owned, and workers and artisans were increasingly becoming renters. Middle class women often tended to remain in the home and care for children, although they also began to hire servants (young unmarried women), who worked for long hours with little pay.

Describe the roles working class women took during the changing gender spheres

Middle class woman began to considered work as something of the lower class, but working class women couldn't afford to stay home. So some continued to work in factories in less suitable conditions, and they found employment in middle class homes. -Domestic service was one of the most frequent sources of female employment

Describe the reasons for German and Irish migration

Migrants came from England, France, Italy, Scandinavia etc, but most were German and Irish. In Germany, the economic dislocations of the industrial revolution caused widespread poverty, and the collapse of the liberal revolution there caused many Germans to emigrate. In Ireland, the oppressiveness and unpopularity of English rule, coupled with the Great Potato famine/failure of its most important crop, drove many people out to escape starvation and disease.

Before the War of 1812, what was manufacturing in the U.S like?

Most of the manufacturing done took place in private households or small, individually operated workshops, where men and women made or built products by hand, or with simple machines like hand-operated looms.

Describe the method of transportation used across the Mississippi and Ohio River before the invention of newer ones (pg.263)

Most of the traffic on the Mississippi and Ohio consisted of flat barges that floated downstream with cargo. These barges were broken up at the end of the journey, because they could not navigate back upstream. So to return North, shippers had to send goods by land, or by very slow vessels that took up to 4 months to travel the length of the Mississippi.

Describe women's education in the context of the cult of domesticity

Most women had much less access to education than men, and although they were encouraged to go to school at the elementary level, they were often discouraged and barred from higher education. -Oberlin in Ohio becomes the first college to enroll female students, and critics claim this coeducation promotes "free love" (not many other colleges followed suit with coeducation until long after the civil war)

Where did most new European immigration flow to and what new groups contributed to foreign migration?

Much of the new European immigration flowed into rapidly growing cities in the NE. Migrants from the southern counties of Ireland began to grow. -Marked the beginning of an influx of Irish Catholics

Describe the Erie Canal, that connected the Great Lakes to New York City.

NY was the first to begin the construction of canals. It had the geographical advantage of being a good land route between the Hudson and Lake Erie, through the only real break in the Appl. Mountains. Still, engineering was difficult - 350 mile distance, (largest canal in U.S) and the route was interrupted by high ridges and a wilderness of woods. After a long public debate about the canal, canal advocates eventually won, and governor De Witt Clinton began the construction in 1817. https://youtu.be/8BCYGLBYlz4

What technological breakthroughs did railroads emerge from?

Railroads remained the primary transportation method in the U.S, until the construction of the interstate highway. The invention of the track, the creation of steam-powered locomotives, and the development of railroad cars that could serve as public carriers of passengers and freight, were technological breakthroughs that led to their emergence.

Describe the importance of religion in rural communities (pg.290)

Religion drew farm communities together the most, since many people were of the same ethnic and religious backgrounds. Churches were popular meeting places for services and for social events dominated by women. And in areas with no organized churches, women gathered in each other homes for prayer and bible reading. -Women also shared domestic tasks with each other in "bees" (Farm people also joined in on tasks with other families)

Describe the agricultural specialization of the Northwest

Rising farm prices globally provided an incentive for western farmers to engage in commercial agriculture. So they concentrated on a single crop for the market. The NW was able to profit from this trade because of its good Mississippi water routes, and increased demand due to European disruption of agriculture (Napoleonic wars), and its growing urban population.

Describe the efforts that New York's rivals made at creating canals, and the end results.

Rival cities took alarm at NYC's growing market area, but they had limited success in catching up. Boston's canal was blocked by the Berkshire Mnts. and did not even try to connect to the West, so its market remained confined to New England. Philadelphia and Baltimore had to contend with the Allegheny Mnts. and although they made a serious effort at canal building, they had discouraging results. Pennsylvania's effort ended in expensive failure. Maryland constructed part of the Canal in 1828, but it never crossed to the mountains. -incomplete In the South, Richmond and Charleston also aspired to build water routes to the Ohio R valley, but they never completed them.

Describe rural life

Rural life differed depending on farming regions. In more densely populated areas of the NW and the eastern Appalachians farmers were part of vibrant communities with extensive institutions. But as settlement moved farther west, farmers became isolated and struggled to find other people outside of their immediate family. Rural people lived in less contact with popular culture and public social life, yet they valued their separation from urban culture and the autonomy of farm life.

Describe leisure time for different demographic and geographical locations

Since most people still lived in rural America, they had some relief from the busy urban schedule. But men in urban areas gravitated to taverns for game playing and drinking, while women gathering in each other's homes for conversation and sharing work on household tasks. For education people reading became the principal leisure activity, especially for women who created a new genre of sentimental romance/emotional novels.

Describe the new roles for women that emerged out of the changing family structures (pg.282)

Since most women were no longer income producers, they played a more central role in being entrusted with the young, and being companions and helpers to their husbands. Middle class women were also important consumers and place elegance, style, and cleanliness at a high standard/value

How did the transformation of American agriculture effect the industrial labor supply

Since the number of workers required to produce large crops in the West was now much smaller than the number required to produce smaller crops in the NE. Each region no longer had to feed itself entirely from its own farms, and could instead import food from other regions. So farmers and families began to abandon their now unprofitable farming in areas of the East. In the NE especially new England where poor land already placed limits on farm productivity, rural ppl began leaving such areas and went to work in factories. -Can no longer make $ farming, have to work in a factory

Describe the transformation of Northeastern agriculture

Some farmers responded to changes by moving west and establishing their own farms, others moved to mill towns to work, and some managed to maintain their existing farms. But as urban centers increased in population, farmers began to supply food to nearby cities through truck farming, raising vegetables. ex: NY-apple producer (The rise of cities also stimulated dairy faming) But although agriculture still was an important part of the NE economy the rural population still declined.

Describe the women's separate sphere

Some women began developing a female culture, and friendships among woman began to become intense. -Female clubs and associations dedicated to reform There was also an advancement of female literature which met the demands of middle-class women. ex: The Godey's Lady's Books (avoided talking about politics and focused on domestic concerns)

In comparison to English female workers, describe the conditions Lowell working women faced

The English conditions of work were horrible - Women workers crawling naked and filthy in coal mines The Lowell workers were fed and supervised, had generous wages, and lived in clean boardinghouses and dormitories which the factory workers maintained. Because of the New England view that women working was immoral, they wanted to create a proper environment to contradict that. (paternalistic system*) -Even had a strict curfew, church attendance, and women accused of immoral conduct were fired The women even found time to write and publish a monthly magazine-Lowell Offering https://youtu.be/s4iWOm5ZfTs

Describe the importance of the McCormick Reaper, the Thresher, and the steel plow.

The McCormick reaper was the most important grain production invention and it allowed one worker to harvest as much what in a day as 5 could. -Wheat is staple crop (Reaper was made in Chicago by McCormick) The thresher, almost as important, separated the grain from the wheat stalks, which was a task farmers had to do by hand or have animals tread. The cast iron plow was an earlier innovation that remained popular because of its replaceable parts. -And steel plows were made more durable than iron ones

Describe the use of new agricultural technologies

The Northwest increased production by expanding settlement, and adopting new agricultural technologies. These greatly reduced the labor necessary for production and slowed down the exhaustion of the region's soil. Farmers began to cultivate new heartier Mediterranean seeds, and imported better hog and sheep breeds from Spain and England. They also looked to tools like the grain drill, hay rake, steel plow, automatic reapers, and threshers.

Which region considered itself the most democratic?

The Northwest. Yet its democracy was based on the defense of property and economic freedom for white, middle class, men.

Describe industrialization the Old Northwest (pg.288)

The Ohio R valley was a manufacturing region, with Cincinnati as its nucleus. There was also a industrial and commercial area along the shore of Lake Erie. And Chicago acted as the metropolis of the region and the national center of agricultural machinery and meatpacking. - Most industrial activities served agriculture or relied on agricultural products (industry less important than farming) Tribes in the Great Lakes area did not integrate into the commercial economy emerging in other areas of the NW.

Describe the rapidly expanding middle class

The expansion of the economy and the increasing commercial life developed a large middle class. -People could own shops, work in a business, trade, etc. And b/c landownership was no longer the only basis of wealth (now based on capital other than land) rigid distinctions like the ones found in English aristocracies were broken down.

Describe the transformation of the shoe industry

The factory system began to spread into the shoe industry as well. Shoes were still largely handmade, but manufacturers would now employ workers who specialized in one or another parts involved in production. -one person doing one task Some factories also began to produce large numbers of identical shoes without regard for size or left/rights (factory system spreading into other industries, and in the NE as well)

Describe "deskilling"

The factory system threatened the artisan tradition, and although some made successful transitions into industry, others were unable to compete with new factory made goods, sold for a fraction of the price.

Describe the unequal income of the average American

The increasing wealth generated by the industrial revolutions was being distributed unequally. Substantial groups including, slaves, Indians, landless farmers, and the unskilled workers on the fringe of the manufacturing system hardly shared in the economic growth. This followed the rest of the population as well, and disparities in income grew far higher than they were during the Revolutionary War.

What advances did railroads see in the 1830s and 40s? (pg.266)

The introduction of heavier iron rails improved the road beds. Steam locomotives became more flexible and powerful. Redesigned passenger cars became more stable, comfortable, and larger.

Describe some new household inventions that improved the standard of living for middle class people

The invention of the cast iron stove began to replace fire as the principal vehicle for cooking and as an important source of heat. Although they were hot, and dirty, by today's standards these stoves in comparison to the open fire hearths, seemed like a great luxury. -Gave cooks more control over the preparation and allowed them to cook several things at once

Describe the important of engaging lectures in the 19th century

The lecture was of one the most popular form of entertainment, and men and women flocked to hear them. -About scientific advancements, exotic places, historical narratives, bashing slavery or alcohol (social reform/justice) Women were particularly eager to hear these as they look for guidance in the jarring changes in the character of family life b/c of industrialization.

Although the use of railroads was becoming more prevalent, why was there not a true railroad system?

The longest of the lines was comparatively short in the 1830s, and most of them served to connect water routes, and not to link one railroad to another. Even when two lines did connect the tracks often differed in width, and so cars from one line could not fit into the tracks of another. Schedules were erratic, and wrecks were also frequent.

What was the 'artisan tradition' and why was it at risk? (pg.277)

The trade of skilled artisans began being displaced by factories. The artisan tradition was an idea part an older republican vision, in which American would be a society made up of independent craftsmen and farmers. Independent craftsmen saw themselves as the embodiment of the American ideal; so they sought to cling to the artisan tradition instead of what was promoted by the new capitalist class. -Valued their independence, stability, and equality in the economic world

Describe how the system of water transportation in NY extended further with the help of Indiana and Ohio. (pg.265)

The two states inspired by the success of the Erie canal, provided water connections between Lake Erie and the Ohio river. These canals helped connect them by an inland water route all the way to NY, although it was still necessary to transfer cargoes between different methods of transportation.

Describe the Urban Poor and the groups that constituted it

The urban poor in emerging urban centers were not ppl poor in the sense of struggling to survive, but they were often entirely without resources. -Surviving on crime, charity, or both These individuals were known as "paupers" and some were recent immigrants who had failed to find work of adjust. Widows and orphans stripped of the family structures that allowed most working class Americans to survive. People suffering from alcoholism or mental illness, unable to work. And other victims of native prejudice, barred from only unskilled means of employment. -Irish faced such prejudice

Describe some public forms of leisure

Theaters were becoming increasingly popular and attracted audiences that crossed social/class lines. Minstrel shows also became popular, and mimicked black people and black culture. Public sporting events were watched as well. -Horse racing, boxing. And although professional leagues were not yet organized, baseball attracted large crowds on the edges of towns.

Further describe the construction process and its economic successes (pg.264-265)

There were hundred of different cuts and fills, some enormous. Stone aqueducts were necessary to carry it across streams, including 88 locks of heavy masonry. Because of the heavy traffic on the canal, within about 7 years tolls had repaid the entire cost of construction. The canal also provided a route to the Great Lake giving NYC access to Chicago, and the growing markets to the West. This allowed NYC to compete with/replace New Orleans as a destination for agricultural goods, particularly wheat and other products of the West, and act as a source for manufactured goods to be sold in the region.

Describe the new revival labor unions artisans began creating in the 1850s

They began creating organizations whose primary purpose was to favor the position of their members in the labor force, by restricting administration to skilled trades. -now had more in common with preindustrial guilds than modern unions EX: National Typographic Union, the Stone Cutters, The Machinists, the Molders

What allowed businesses to grow rapidly in the 1820s and 30s?

They grew rapidly partly because of population growth and the transportation revolution. But also because of a new generation of ambitious, and imaginative entrepreneurs, who had enormous wealth that allowed for lifestyle of "conspicuous consumption"

What did industrial workers try to persuade state legislators to do and with what results?

They tried to persuade them to pass laws setting a maximum 10hr workday, but they did so with little success. Even in states like New Hampshire and PY where ten hour work day laws were passed, employers often could require prospective employees to sign "express contracts", or an agreement calling for more working hours, in order to hired.

How did residents of the Northwest attempt to increase their productive capacities?

They tried to take advantage of the larger uncultivated land and enlarge the area of white settlement in the 1840s. They cleared land and made use of field Indians cleared years earlier, while building a timber industry to make use of remaining forests. -Wheat was the staple crop of the region but livestock and other things were also important

What did the Know Nothings eventually shift towards?

They turned their attention towards party politics and after the election of 1852 they created an organization called the American Party. In the East the new organization gained success in the elections of 1854 and in PY and NY, even wining control of the state government in MA. Elsewhere however, the progress of the Know Nothings/American Party was modest, and after the election of 1854 they declined. -In the West because of the presence of German voters, members of the party, found it expedient not to oppose naturalized Protestants.

Describe the way technological advances affected the textile industry (pg.269)

Typically, even the most developed industries were still immature, in comparison to the fine goods imported by England. But, because of technological advancement, industrialists in Britain and Europe began to travel to the U.S to learn new techniques, instead of the other way around. -Change was so rapid that some manufactures built their new machinery out wood reasoning that by the time the wood wore out, there would be improved technology better than the preexisting ones.

What did western cities benefit from geographically?

Western cities benefited from strategic positions on the Mississippi river or one of its major tributaries. This allowed such cities to become major centers of the growing carrying trade that connected farmers of the Midwest with New Orleans and cities of the NE.

Describe the trend of railroad consolidation

Within railroad development short lines began to be consolidated into longer lines known as "trunk lines" And by 1853, 4 major trunk lines crossed the Appalachian Mnts, connecting the NE with the NW. From the terminals at PY, Philadelphia, and Pittsburgh other railroads into the interior touched the Mississippi at 8 points. Chicago also became a the rail center of the West, was served by 15 lines and more than 100 daily trains. These trunk lines also tended to divert traffic from the main water routes (Erie Canal, Mississippi R.) So they lessened the dependence of the West on the Mississippi, and helped to further weaken the connection between the northwest and the south.

Describe some examples of the woman's cult of domesticity

Women had long denied the right to vote, and traditionally had to bow to the desires and demands of their husbands/fathers. It was practically impossible for a woman to divorce her husband, and men often got custody of children. Husbands retained absolute authority over the property and persons of their wives. Wife beating was only illegal in a few areas and the law did not acknowledge martial rape. And traditionally women didn't have access to the worlds of business or politics. -Customs claimed they weren't to speak in male dominated settings

Describe the benefits and costs of the cult of domesticity (pg. 286)

Women were considered to be moral custodians who provided religious and moral instruction to counter the secular impulses of their husbands. So the cult of domesticity allowed them to live lives of greater material comfort than in the past and it placed a higher value on female virtues as a wife and mother. BUT It left them increasing detached from the public world, with few outlets for their other interests and energies.

Describe the significance of Commonwealth V. Hunt

It was a legal victory for industrial workers in 1842, where the supreme court of MA declared that unions were lawful organizations, and that strikes were lawful weapons. Other courts also began accepting the principles of the decision.

Describe the Native American Party

Out of the nativist tensions and prejudices new secret societies emerged to combat the "alien menace" Most of them originated in the NE and later spread the West and South. The first of these was the Native American Party, and it began working against immigration in 1837, after holding a convention in Philadelphia.

Describe how the popularity/improvements of steamboats revolutionized transportation and shipping across the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers

As steamboats grew in number and size they became more important than the flat barges previously used by the 1820s. The new boats carried the corn and wheat of NW farmers and the cotton and tobacco of SW farmers to New Orleans in a fraction of the time. -From New Orleans the ships took the cargoes to eastern ports Steamboats also developed a large passenger traffic, and many companies built lavish vessels to compete for this trade.

Describe the impact new energy sources had on industry in the 1820s.

As the use of coal replaced wood and water power as fuel for factories, mills could now locate away from running streams and expand further. -Industry expanding more widely following a increase in the mining of coal

What laws did industrial workers try to enact in regards to child labor, and with what results?

3 states enacted laws regulated child labor (MA, NH, PY) but the results were limited and only shorted the workday to 10 hours for children unless their parents consented to more hours. -Most did not

What made recruiting a labor force difficult in the early years of the factory system?

90% of Americans still worked and lived on farms, and urban residents were skilled artisans who owned and managed their own shops. -not likely to flock to factory jobs The avaliable unskilled workers were also not numerous enough to form a reservoir from which the new industries could draw.

What is nativism?

A defense of the native born people and a hostility to the foreign born, usually combined with a desire to stop or slow immigration.

Describe early railroad operations

American entrepreneurs especially those in northeastern cities sought better communication with the West and grew interested in the "English experiment" The first company to begin actual operations was the Baltimore and Ohio, which opened a 13 mile track in 1830. In NY the Mohawk and Hudson, also began running trains along the 16 mile between Schenectady and Albany in 1831. By 1836, there were more than 1,000 miles of track laid in 11 states.

What was the Western Union Telegraph Company

After the opening of the Pacific telegraph between NY city and San Francisco, nearly all independent lines joined together into one organization by 1860. -Western Union Telegraph Company

Describe the harsh working conditions factory workers faced

Although conditions were not as bad as in Europe/England. Industrial areas were large, noisy, and unsanitary places. The average workday was also being extended from 12 to 14 hours, and wages were declining for even skilled male laborers. -Women and children, whatever their skills, earned less than men

What factors helped to limit discontent/class conflicts between the wealthy and poor?

Although the economic position of some workers was declining, their standard of living was improving and was usually better than conditions on farms or in European societies they may have came from. -Better clothed, housed, and had greater access to consumer goods And because there was a significant amount of social mobility for the working class.

Describe the character of the wealthy class in the 19th century

Because of the industrial revolution the extent and character of the wealthy class changed. Merchants and industrialists accumulated great wealth and because there was now a significant number of rich people in cities a distinctive culture emerged. Ex: NYC Wealthy people built great mansions, created clubs, patronized elegant establishments, and developed social rituals etc.

Describe how immigrant laborers were often taken advantage of

Because they were unfamiliar with their new country, they had less leverage than the women they displaced. So they encountered far worse working conditions and "construction gangs" (made up of Irish immigrants) preformed unskilled work on canals and turnpikes under intolerable conditions. They also made wages so low, because of prejudice and a lack of marketable skills, they were unable to support their families and had to live in shanties that endangered their health.

Describe the character and rise of New York City

By 1810, NYC was the largest city in the U.S. This was partly the result of its superior natural harbor and the completion of the Erie Canal. -Gave city unrivaled access to the interior But it was also the result of liberal state laws that made the city attractive for both foreign and domestic commerce

Describe the impact of the market economy on the U.S

By the mid 19th century, the U.S developed the beginnings of a modern capitalist economy and an advanced industrial capacity. This emerging wealth changed the face of SOME areas of the nation, but it did not benefit/affect everyone equally. -Some classes and regions benefited far more from the economic development than others.

Describe the hurdles that were once put in place of corporations, and their advantages/advancement once such hurdles were removed.

Corporations began to develop rapidly in the 30s when the legal obstacles in their way were removed. Previously, corporations could obtain a charter only by a special act of the state legislature. -Cumbersome process However, some states began to pass general incorporation laws, under which a group could secure a charter, simply by paying a fee.

Describe the demographic of German and Irish migrants

Irish migrants settled into eastern cities, and swelled the ranks of unskilled labor. Most German migrants moved onto the Northwest, where they became farmers or went into business in western towns. -German migrants arrived with some money, Irish arrived with none so they had different prospects. Most German migrants were also often members of family groups or single men, with the prospect of moving to the agricultural frontier attractive and possible. Irish migrants were young, single women, for whom westward movement was less plausible. So they were more likely to stay in eastern cities where factory and domestic work was available

Describe the concept of "freedom" many held in the 19th century

Despite the obstacles northern workers faced, they considered their personal freedom most important. They considered themselves "sovereign individuals" who were free to make choices and change their lives. (Women, blacks, etc were often exempt from this in some way) The idea of personal liberty grew exponentially, and by the mid-19th century most white Americans considered themselves "free" individuals regardless of their occupations.

Despite the new pattern of trade developed by steamboats, why were farmers/merchants still unsatisfied, and what alternative did they turn to?

Farmers would pay less to transport their goods, and eastern consumers would play less to consume them, if they could ship them directly eastward to markets, rather than by river-sea routes. Northern merchants would also be able to sell larger quantities of manufactured goods if they could transport them more directly and economically to the West. New highways across the mountains served as a partial solution, but the costs of hauling goods over them were too high. -Although they were lower than before. So merchants/entrepreneurs turned to canals.

Describe the growing character of the industrial Northeast

First the first time the value of manufactured goods was equal to that of agricultural goods. -billions Northeastern plants were so large that the region produced more than 2/3s of the nation's manufactured goods. And most workers in manufacturing were employed in the mills and factories in the region.

What result did the creation of these new transportation routes have on white settlement?

It increased white settlement in the Northwest, because the canals made it easier for migrants to make the westward journey and to ship their goods back to eastern markets.

Describe the bitter competition between canals and railroads

For a time, the Chesapeake and Ohio canal company blocked the advance of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, through a narrow gorge of the Potomac which it controlled. NY also prohibited railroads from hauling freight in competition with the Erie Canal and its branches. But railroads had so many advantages they when they were able to compete freely, they almost always prevailed.

How did northern views on freedom impact their opinion on slavery?

For most northerners freedom meant the absence of slavery. Although the lives of some in the north were worse materially than slaves, they still believed their lives were better than those who lacked freedom. So they abhorred slavery b/c it was the antithesis of freedom, and because they feared that slavery threatened the jobs of free laborers..

What issues did the use of water as an energy source present for factories?

For the technological innovations that characterized the early factory system, most American industry remained dependent on water as a energy source. So some of the most important factories had to located near natural water falls, but had to close during the winter when rivers froze. (Lowell, Lawrence factories) So owners soon began to rely on wood, coal, and later petroleum as an energy source

What type of mobility was more common than social mobility, describe it

Geographical mobility was very extensive in America following the open settlement of the American West. Some workers would save money and move westward to farm, but few urban workers could afford to make the move, or even have the expertise of work the land. So geographical mobility was often limited to the movement of laborers to different industrial jobs, after being laid off and in search of work. -This was the large segment of the population, but b/c it was rootless it made organization and protest difficult

Describe the gradual changes seen in the textile manufacturing industry in the 1820s and 30s

Gradually, improvements in technology and increasing demand produced a change in the home operated workshops. The change first came in New England, where entrepreneurs were beginning to use larger machines driven by water power that would allow them to bring textile operations under a single roof. This was known as the factory system, and it spread rapidly in the 20s and began it make serious progress into the old home-based system of textile manufacturing.

Who was David Thoreau and in what ways did he advocate for the northern notion of freedom?

He was a philosopher of the 19th century who argued that the independence of the individual required people to escape from the market economy and enter into nature. So he tried to do a retreat to live alone in a cabin in MA.....

Who was Peter Cooper?

He was a successful iron manufacturer who designed and built in the first steam-powered locomotive in the U.S in 1830 for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. He raced his locomotive (Tom Thumb) against a horse-drawn railroad car, and his locomotive overtook the horsecar.

Why was westward expansion compared to a safety valve, and what other element acted as a safety valve?

Historian Frederick Turner referred to the availability of western lands as a safety valve for discontent. -Discontent ppl could move westward so there's a lack of social conflict Politics also acted as a safety valve, because of the expanding of the ballot. -White men now felt like they were helping guide their communities and society (less discontent when you play an active role)

What was the Associated Press?

In 1846, newspaper publishers from around the nation formed the Associated Press, to promote cooperative news gathering by wire. -No longer had to depend on the cumbersome exchange of newspapers for out-of-town reports

What effect did the industrial revolution have on inequality and social interactions?

It made its more economically developed regions more wealthy, and it made society more unequal. -Transformed social relationships at every level, from the workplace to the family

What did freedom mean to Northerners?

It meant the ability to leave jobs they didn't want, to move to new areas of the country, and to seek opportunities to change their lives.

After the 1840s who acted as the labor force for industrial firms?

In the 20s and 30s it was primarily native populations. In the 40s it was the growing immigrant population

What action did artisans take to fight against de-skilling?

In the face of this threat/competition, craftsmen began to form organizations/workingmen's political parties, and the first American labor unions, to resist the economic change and protect their positions. Printers and cordwainers took the lead, and members of other trades followed.

Describe the changing organization of businesses (pg.268)

Individual or limited partnerships continued to operate most businesses, and the dominate figures were still the great merchant capitals, who generally held the sole ownership of their enterprises. BUT In some larger businesses, the individual merchant capitalist began to give way to the corporation.

Describe the use of interchangeable parts in American industry

Interchangeable parts were an idea that Eli Whitney and Simeon North had tried to introduce into gun factories. But interchangeability instead revolutionized clock and watch making, and the manufacturing of locomotives, farm tools, and steam engines It also made newer inventions possible -typewriter, bikes, cash register, the automobile

Describe the issue banks and corporations faced with inadequate credit pg.268

Investments provided too little capital to meet the demands of ambitious businesses. So such businesses began relying heavily on credit, and their borrowing often created instability. Credit merchants were crude in the 19th century so only the government alone could issue official currency, which was typically backed by gold and silver. -difficult to obtain credit - Did have paper certificates but there was too little of it to support the demand - Under pressure from such businesses, banks issued large quantities of bank notes that were of less stable value than federal ones. Often, notes only had value to the degree the bank could sustain public confidence in their value. (bank's reputation) And some banks often issued so many notes their reserves couldn't cover them. -deposits insecure, frequent bank failures, impeded economic growth

Describe some of the early uses of railroads

John Stevens ran a locomotive and cars around a circular track on his NJ estate in 1820. In England, the Stockton and Darlington Railroad in England, opened a short length of track and became the first line to carry general traffic. (1825)

Describe the rise in journalism during the 1840s and 50s

Major metropolitan newspapers began to appear in the larger cities of the Northeast. Ex: Tribune, Herald, Times These newspapers gave serious attention to national and even international events and had circulations even beyond the city.

Describe the Supreme Order of the Star Spangled Banner

Many nativist groups combined in 1850 to create this order. It endorsed a list of demands that included.. banning Catholics or the foreign born from holding office and more restrictive naturalization laws, and literacy tests for voting. The order also adopted a strict code of secrecy and a secret password used in lodges -"I know nothing" Members of this movement became known as the "Know Nothings"

What forms did the emerging nativism take?

Many nativists argued that the new migrants were inherently inferior to old-stock Americans, and some viewed them with the same contempt as African Americans and natives. They also argued that they were socially unfit to live alongside people of the old-stock, and that they did not bring with sufficient standards of civilization, often using the urban and rural slums they lived with as examples of that.

Describe the importance of Central Park in NYC

New Yorkers in 1857 tried to make the city as important as London and so they decided to create an elegant park to draw New Yorkers to the upper part of the city. Fredrick Olmsted and Calvert Vaux developed a vast part of Manhattan and displaced people from their houses in the process. Central Park began as a place for wealthy New Yorkers to show off their carriages and affluence, but it later became important to everyone else as well.

What systems of recruitment emerged to bring the new labor supply to expanding textile mills?

One common in the Mid-Atlantic states and in manufacturing centers like NY and Philadelphia, brought whole families from the farm to the mill -Parents tended looms alongside kids some of whom no more than 5 - The second system was common in MA and enlisted young women, often farmer's daughter in their late 20s. This system was known as the Lowell or Waltham System, after the factory towns were it first emerged. Many of the women involved in the system would work for several years, save wages, and return home to marry or raise children. Others married men they met in the factories or towns and remained part of the industrial world, often stopping work in the mills to take up domestic roles instead.

Describe the social mobility that existed for the working class

Opportunities for one to work their way up the ladder were modest and only few workers did manage to do so. But it was enough to support the dreams of those watching them. -Most workers were able to transition from being unskilled to skilled laborers within their lifetime though.

Describe the creation of female protective unions

Since all early craft unions excluded women, even though female workers were numerous in every industry and craft, women began establishing their own by the 1850s with the support of middle-class female reformers. These unions had little success, like male ones, but they served as mutual aid societies for women and workers.

In spite of the relatively pleasant conditions the Lowell girls gained why was their readjustment sometimes difficult?

Since they were uprooted from everything familiar and forced to live among strangers in a regimented environment many women found the transition difficult. -Lonely and disoriented Others also faced difficulty adjusting to the repetition of fixed tasks, day after day. However, even though the women found such changes uncomfortable they had few options, since they were barred from jobs like construction work and becoming sailors, since society considered it unthinkable for a woman to travel alone. - Work in the mills was the only option for these women, they couldn't look elsewhere for opportunities like men, and can't go back to the farms that no longer supported them.

Describe some of the trade unions artisans created

Skilled workers in cities like NY, Boston, Baltimore, and Philadelphia formed craft societies for mutual aid. In the 1820s and 30s craft societies began combining on a city wide basis and set up central organizations known as trade unions. -Recognized there were advantages in joining forces b/c of the interconnectedness of city economies thanks to the widening market In 1834 they established the National Trade's Union but it fared poorly against hostile laws and courts. -Common law viewed the unions as illegal conspiracies & the Panic of 1837 weakened the movement further

Describe the kinds of people that welcomed the new European immigration (pg.259)

Some welcomed the migration because they believed it would provide a large supply of cheap labor that would help keep wage rates low. Land speculators and other with investments in sparsely populated Western lands hoped migrants would move into the region and help expand the population and thus the market for land and goods. Political leaders in the West wanted migrants to swell their population to increase the political influence of the region. Ex: WI permitted foreign born residents to become voters as soon as they sought citizenship Urban political organizations eagerly courted immigrant voters, hoping to enhance their own political strength.

Despite some legal victories, why was the union movement of the 1840s and 50s ineffective?

Some workers were reluctant to think of themselves as part of a permanent laboring force and resisted joining unions. And unions that DID manage to recruit large numbers of industrial workers, were not large or strong enough to stage strikes, and win them.

What unions were organized to combat the deterioration of conditions for Lowell mill workers?

The Factory Girls Association organized a strike to protest a wage cut, and an increase in rent. (both failed & a recession destroyed the organization) The Female Labor and Reform Association led by Sarah Bagley demanded a 10 hour work day and improvement of mill conditions. -They even turned to state gov and asked for legislative investigations.

Describe the change in the way employers paid their employees

The arrival of the Irish workers accelerated the deterioration of working conditions in New England. Since there was less social pressure on owners to provide a decent environment and wage, employers began paying by piece rates, rather than daily wages. -Piece rate pay (began paying by how much a worker produced) So by the mid 1840s the conditions in the town of Lowell were like that of a slum, and other miserable working class neighborhoods emerged in other NE cities.

Describe urban growth in western regions of the U.S during this time

The booming agricultural economy of the West contributed to urban growth. Communities in Saint Louis, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and Louisville, that had once been small villages or trading post became major cites.

Describe the characteristics of surging migration (pg.259)

The enlarged urban population also reflected the growing national population. By 1860 America's population was greater than Great Britain's and approaching France's. Half the residents in NYC were recent migrants In St. Louis, Chicago, and Milwaukee, the foreign born outnumbered the native born. But few migrants settled in the South.

Describe the labor conditions in the early years of the American factory system compared to those in the English industry (pg.271)

The labor conditions in the American factory system was better than those in English industry. Although the employment of young girls did create hardships, the misery was not as great as in England since working children in the U.S usually remained under the supervision of their parents. In England too, asylums authorities would hire out orphans to factory owners who showed little concern for their welfare, and kept them practically into slavery.

Describe the relationships between the telegraph and railroads, and the telegraph's effects.

The magnetic telegraph was crucial to railroads. Telegraph lines extended along the tracks, and connected one station with another, aiding the scheduling and routing of trains. When permitting instant communication between distant cities, the telegraph tied the nation closer together. BUT It also reinforced the schism/divide, between the North and South. Like railroads, telegraph lines were more extensive in the North than the South, so they helped to link the North to the Northwest, and separate the Northwest further from the South.

What was an important contribution to manufacturing, and how was it supported?

The manufacturing of machine tools-the tools used to make machinery parts- was an important contribution. The government supported much of the research and development of machine tools, often in connection with supplying the military. EX: Turret lathe (used for cutting screws and other metal parts), universal milling machine, precision grinding machine (used for sewing machines, made by army to produce rifle parts)

Where did railroads see the greatest growth?

The most comprehensive and efficient system was in the Northeast, which had twice as much trackage as the Northwest and the South. However, no region was left untouched by the expansion of railroads. -Railroads even reached west of the Mississippi

Describe the transformation of American agriculture in the 19th century

The opening of the vast, fertile, new farmlands in the Midwest, the improvement of transportation systems, and the development of new farm machinery, all combined to increase food production. -New farming methods were also less labor-intensive than old ones

Describe the decline of the Lowell system

The paternalistic system did not last for long because as the competitive textile market fell victim to booms and bust, manufacturers found it difficult to maintain the high living standards and attractive working conditions they started with. So wages declined, work hours lengthened, and the conditions of the boardinghouses deteriorated as overcrowding increased buildings decayed.

Describe the American population and reason for growth from 1820-1840

The population was increasing rapidly and much of it moved from the countryside and into industrializing cities in the NE and NW, while much of it also migrated westward. Reasons- Improvement in public health and a decline in the ferocity and number of epidemics such a cholera. -Usually decimated urban and even rural areas High birth rates, although there was a decline from the 18th century, they were still high enough to produce rapid population increases (especially since children could now survive longer) A revival of immigration once choked off from wars, and reduced transportation costs and more economic opportunities encouraging immigration. -Poor economic conditions present in some areas of Europe

Describe the creation/development of the Telegraph

The telegraph was created by Samuel F. Morse. (wasn't the only one that made it but he was the most commercially successful) After several years of experimentation it succeeded in transmitting from Baltimore to Washington, the news about James Polk's nomination for the presidency. The low cost of constructing the wire systems, made the Morse telegraph system the ideal answer to the problem of long-distance communication.

What change was seen in the character of factory work once again by the 1840s?

The young women who had worked in the mills gradually moved to other occupations. - teaching or domestic service, or they got married. So textile manufacturers turned to immigrants.

Describe the poverty free black workers faced

They were looked at as rivals by white craftsmen in the North, and were given unskilled jobs as domestic servants. -Still were not able to vote and not considered citizens, no access to public schools But most still preferred such lives in comparison to life in the South

Describe the economic advantages of canals, and the expense

When compared to turnpikes, four horses could take more when next to canals and yoked to barges. This economic advantage generated an interest inn expanding the water routes to the West. However, canal building was too expensive for public enterprise, and so the digging fell to the states. -The state governments in the NE were the first to begin

What economic, religious, and political interests did nativists feel migrants infringed on?

Workers complained that since foreigners were willing to work for low wages, they were stealing jobs from the native labor force. Protestants who saw the success of Irish Catholics in establishing footholds in urban politics warned that the Catholic Church and the pope would gain a foothold in the federal government. Whigs politicians were outraged because the newcomers voted Democratic. Others complained that migrants corrupted politics by selling their votes. And older-stock Americans of both parties feared that immigrants would bring in new, radical ideas.