APUSH Chapters 9-12 review

Nat Turner

*Inspired by his vision of Christ, he led his bloody rebellion against slavery in Virginia.* Taking an eclipse of the sun in August 1831 as an omen, he and a handful of relatives and friends rose in rebellion and killed at least 55 white men, women, and children. He hoped that hundreds of slaves would rally to his cause, but he mustered only 60 men. He died by hanging, still identifying his mission with that of his Savior.

American Colonization Society

*It was founded by a group of influential white Americans.* Slaves had to be freed, Clay and other colonizations argued, and sent back to Africa. Most free blacks strongly opposed such colonization schemes.

Kitchen Cabinet

*Jackson's informal group of advisors that he relied primarily on to make policy* Its most influential members were Kentuckians Francis Preston Blair, who edited the Washington Globe, and Amos Kendall, who wrote Jackson's speeches; Roger B. Taney of Maryland, who became attorney general, treasury secretary, and then chief justice of the Supreme Court; and most important, Martin Van Buren, whom Jackson named secretary of state.

Charles Fourier

*a French reformer who devised an eight-stage theory of social evolution that predicted the imminent decline of individualism and capitalism* According to Arthur Brisbane, the leading disciple of Fourierism in America, Fourier's utopian socialism ---- a forerunner of class-based socialism ---- would free workers from the "menial and slavish system of Hired Labor or Labor for Wages," just as republicanism had freed Americans from slavish monarchical government. In a Fourierist society, men and women would work for the community, in cooperative groups called phalanxes. The members of a phalanx would be its shareholders; they would own its property in common, including stores and a bank, a school, and a library. Fourier and Brisbane saw the phalanx as a humane system that would liberate women as well as women.

Joseph Smith

*The founder of the Latterday Church.* He was born in Vermont to a poor farming and shop-keeping family that migrated to Palmyra in central New York. In religious experiences that began in 1820, he came to believe that God had singled him out to receive a special revelation of divine truth. He proceeded to organize the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Seeing himself as a prophet in a sinful, excessively individualistic society, he revived traditional social doctrines, including patriarchal authority within the family. Like many Protestant ministers, he encouraged practices that led to individual success in the age of capitalist markets and factories: frugality, hard work, and enterprise. But Smith also stressed communal discipline to safeguard the Mormon "New Jerusalem" from individualism and revival religious doctrines. His goal was a church-directed society that would ensure moral perfection. Constantly harassed by hostile anti-Mormons, Smith struggled for years to find a secure home for his new religion. At one point, he identified Jackson County in Missouri as the site of the sacred "City of Zion," and his followers began to settle there. Smith and his growing congregation eventually settled in Nauvoo, Illinois, a town they founded on the Mississippi River. *By the early 1840s, Nauvoo was the largest utopian community in the United States, with 30,000 residents.* The rigid discipline and secret rituals of the Mormons ---- along with their prosperity, hostility toward other sects, and bloc voting in Illinois elections ---- fueled resentment among their neighbors. That resentment turned to overt hostility when Smith refused to abide by any Illinois law of which he disapproved, asked Congress to turn Nauvoo into a separate federal territory, and declared himself a candidate for president of the United States. Moreover, Smith claimed to have a new revelation justifying polygamy, the practice of a man having multiple wives. When leading Mormon men took several wives, they sparked a contentious debate among Mormons and enraged Christians in neighboring towns. In 1844, Illinois officials arrested Smith and charged him with treason for allegedly conspiring to create a Mormon colony in Mexican territory. An anti-Mormon mob stormed the jail in Carthage, Illinois, where Smith and his brother were being held and murdered them.

Transcendentalism

A 19th-century intellectual movement rooted in the religious soil of New England that posited the importance of an ideal world of mystical knowledge and harmony beyond the world of the senses. As articulated by Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, it called for the critical examination of society and emphasized individuality, self-reliance, and nonconformity.

Walt Whitman

A poet who responded to Emerson's call. He worked as a printer, a teacher, a journalist, an editor of the Brooklyn Eagle, and an influencial publicist for the Democratic Party. In Leaves of Grass, a collection of wild, exuberant poems first published in 1855 and constantly revised and expanded, he recorded in verse his efforts to transcend various "invisible boundaries": between solitude and community, between prose and poetry, even between the living and the dead. At the center of Leaves of Grass is in the individual. He believed the collective democracy assumed a sacred character. He wrote about human suffering with passion.

Policies of John Quincy Adams

As president, Adams called for bold national leadership. Adams called for the establishment of a national university in Washington, extensive scientific explorations in the Far West, and a uniform standard of weights and measures. Most important, he endorsed Henry Clay's American System and its three key elements: protective tariffs to stimulate manufacturing, federally subsidized roads, and canals to facilitate commerce, and a national bank to control credit and provide a uniform currency. Manufacturers, entrepreneurs, and farmers in the Northeast and Midwest welcomed Adams's proposals. But his policies won little support in the South, where planters opposed protective tariffs because they raised the price of manufactures. Southern smallholders also feared powerful banks that could lead them into bankruptcy. Other politicians objected to the American System on constitutional grounds. In 1817, President Madison had vetoed the Bonus Bill, which proposed using the national government's income from the Second Bank of the United States to fund improvement projects in the states. Such projects, Madison had argued, were the sole responsibility of the states, a sentiment widely shared among Jeffersonian Republicans. After a trip to Monticello to meet the aging Patriot statesman, Martin Van Buren declared his allegiance to the constitutional "doctrines of the Jefferson School." Now a member of the U.S. Senate, Van Buren joined other Jeffersonian Republicans in defeating most of Adams's proposed subsidies for roads and canals. The farthest-reaching battle of the Adams administration came over tariffs. The Tariff of 1816 had placed relatively high duties on imports of cheap English cotton cloth, allowing New England textile producers to dominate the market for such goods. In 1824, Adams and Clay secured a new tariff that protected manufacturers in New England and Pennsylvania against imports of iron goods and more expensive English woolen and cotton textiles. Without these tariffs, U.S. producers might have shared the fate of India's once world-dominant textile industry, which was destroyed in the early 19th century by cheaper British machine-made imports ---- thanks to the free trade policies by the British imperial regime. Recognizing the appeal of tariffs, Van Buren and his Jacksonian allies hopped on the bandwagon. Ignoring the Jacksonians' support for the Tariff of 1828, most southerners heaped blame on president Adams. They also criticized Adams's Indian policy. A deeply moral man, the president supported the land rights of Native Americans against expansionist whites. In 1825, U.S. commissioners had secured a treaty from one Creek faction to cede Creek lands in Georgia to the United States for eventual sale to the state's citizens. When the Creek National Council repudiated the treaty, claiming that it was fraudulent, Adams called for new negotiations. In response, Georgia governor George M. Troup attacked the president as a "public enemy . . . the unblushing ally of the savages." Joining with Georgia's congressional delegation, Troup persuaded Congress to extinguish the Creeks' land titles, forcing most Creeks to leave the state. Elsewhere in the nation, Adams's primary weakness was his out-of-date political style. The last notable to serve in the White House, he acted the part: aloof, moralistic, and paternalistic. When Congress rejected his activist economic policies, Adams questioned the wisdom of the voters. Ignoring his waning popularity, the president refused to use patronage to reward his supports and allowed hostile federal officials to remain in office.

Force Bill

At Jackson's request, Congress passed it in early 1833, and it authorized the president to use military means to compel South Carolina's obedience to national laws.

Cotton

Cotton was a demanding crop because of its long growing season. Slaves plowed the land in March; dropped seeds into the ground in early April; and, once the plants began to grow, continually chopped away the surrounding grasses. In between these tasks, they planted the corn and peas that would provide food for them and the plantation's hogs and chickens. When the cotton bolls ripped in late August, the long four-month picking season began. Slaves in the Cotton South, concluded traveler Frederick Law Olmsted, worked "much harder and more unremittingly" than those in the tobacco regions. Moreover, fewer of them acquired craft skills than in tobacco, sugar, and rice areas where slave coopers and engineers made casks, processed sugar, and built irrigation systems. To increase output, profit-conscious cotton planters began during the 1820s to use a rigorous gang-labor system. Previously, many planters had either supervised their workers sporadically or assigned them jobs and let them work at their own pace. Now masters with twenty or more slaves organized disciplined teams, or "gangs," supervised by black drivers and white overseers. They instructed the supervisors to work the gangs at a steady pace, clearing and plowing land or hoeing and picking cotton. Cotton monoculture and little crop rotation depleted the nutrients in the soil and gradually reduced the output per acre. Still, the crop was a financial bonanza. Because a slave working in a gang finished as much work in thirty-five minutes as a white yeoman planter did in an hour, gang labor became ever more prevalent. In one Georgia county, the percentage of slaves working in gangs doubled between 1830 and 1850 and increased further during the 1850s. As the price of raw cotton surged after 1846, the wealth of the planter class skyrocketed. And no wonder: Nearly 2 million enslaved African Americans now labored on the plantations of the Cotton South and annually produced 4 million bales of the valuable fiber. Within the Cotton South, wealthy planters invested in railroads but only to open up new lands for commercial farming; when the Western & Atlantic Railroad entered the Georgia upcountry, the cotton crop quickly doubled. Cotton and agriculture remained King. In some cotton-rich countries, 40 percent or more of the white families owned slaves. Among the privileged minority of 395,000 families who owned slaves in 1860, there was a strict hierarchy. The top one-fifth of these families owned twenty or more slaves. This elite, just 5 percent of the South's white population, dominated the economy, owning over 50 percent of the entire slave population of 4 million, and growing 50 percent of the South's cotton crop. The average wealth of these planters was $56,000; by contrast, the average southern yeoman or northern farmer owned property worth a mere $3,200. Substantial proprietors, another fifth of the slave-owning population, held title to six to twenty bondsmen and women. These middling planters owned almost 40 percent of the slave population and produced more than 30 percent of the cotton. Often they pursued dual careers as skilled artisans or professional men. For example, in Macon County, Alabama, James Tolbert owned a plantation that yielded 50 bales of cotton a year; but Tolbert also ran a sawmill. Dr. Thomas Gale used the income from his medical practice to buy a Mississippi plantation that annually produced 150 bales of cotton. Slaves on cotton plantations were less fortunate. There, the gang-labor imposed a regimented work schedule, and owners prohibited slaves from growing crops on their own. Planters worried constantly that enslaved Africans, a majority of the population in most counties of the Cotton South, would rise in rebellion. Slave owners knew that, legally speaking, they had virtually unlimited power over their slaves.

Policies of Jackson

Following Van Buren's practice in New York, Jackson used patronage to create a disciplined national party. He rejected the idea of "property in office" (that officials held permanent title to an office) and insisted on a rotation of officeholders so that when an administration was voted out, its bureaucratic appointees would also have to leave government service. Rotation would not lessen expertise, Jackson insisted. Using the spoils system, Jackson dispensed available government to reward his friends and win backing for his policies. Jackson's priority was to destroy the American System and all national plans for economic development. Jackson rejected national subsidies for transportation projects, also on constitutional grounds. In 1830, he vetoed four internal improvement bills, including an extension of the National Road. These vetoes represented an indirect attack on the protective tariffs, another controversial part of the American System because Clay proposed funding canals and roads with tariff revenues. The Nullification crisis began in 1832 when high-tariff congressmen ignored southern warnings that they were "endangering the Union" and reenacted the Tariff of Abominations. In response, leading South Carolinians called a state convention, which in November boldly adopted an Ordinance of Nullification declaring the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 to be null and void; prohibiting the collection of those tariffs in South Carolina after February 1, 1833; and threatening secession if federal officials tried to collect them. South Carolina's act of nullification rested on the constitutional arguments developed in the South Carolina Exposition and Protest (1828). *nullification - The constitutional argument that a state legislature or convention could void a law passed by Congress. The concept of nullification was elaborated in John C. Calhoun's South Carolina Exposition and Protest (1828) and in the Ordinance of Nullification (1832).* Jackson hoped to find a middle path between Webster's strident nationalism and Calhoun's radical doctrine of localist federalism. The Constitution clearly gave the federal government the authority to establish tariffs, and Jackson vowed to enforce that power, whatever the cost. He declared that South Carolina's Ordinance of nullification violated the letter of the Constitution. Jackson addressed the South's objections to high import duties by winning passage of a new tariff act that, by 1842, reduced rates to the modest levels of 1816. Having won the political battle by securing a reduction in duties, the South Carolina convention gave up its constitutional demand for the right of nullification. Jackson was satisfied. He had addressed the economic demands of the South while upholding the constitutional principle that no could nullify a law of the United States. *The Second Bank* Although the Second Bank had many enemies, a political miscalculation by its friends brought its downfall. In 1832, Henry Clay and Daniel Webster persuaded Biddle to seek an early extension of the bank's charter (which still had four years to run). They had the votes in Congress to enact the required legislation and hoped to lure Jackson into a veto that would split the Democrats just before the 1832 elections. Jackson turned the tables on Clay and Webster. He vetoed the rechartering bill and issued a masterful veto message that blended constitutional arguments with class rhetoric and patriotic fervor. adopting Thomas Jefferson's position, Jackson declared that Congress had no constitutional authority to charter a national bank. When the Second Bank's national charter expired in 1836, Jackson prevented its renewal. Jackson had destroyed both national banking, the handiwork of alexander Hamilton, and the American system of protective tariffs and internal improvements created by Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams. *The Indian Removal Act* Jackson pushed the Indian Removal Act of 1830 through Congress over the determined opposition of evangelical Protestant men and women. To block removal, Catharine Beecher and Lydia Sigourney dispatched the Ladies Circular, which urged "benevolent ladies" to use "prayers and exertions to avert the calamity of removal." In response, women from across the nation flooded Congress with petitions. Despite their efforts, Jackson's bill squeaked through the House of Representatives by a vote of 102 to 97. The Removal Act created the Indian Territory, outside the bounds of any state. It also promised money and reserved land to Native American peoples who would agree to give up their ancestral holdings east of the Mississippi River. When Chief Black Hawk and his Sauk and Fox followers refused to leave rich, well-watered farmland in western Illinois in 1832, Jackson quickly sent troops to expel them. Following a series of confrontations, the U.S. Army pursued Black Hawk into the Wisconsin Territory and, in the brutal eight-hour Bad Axe massacre, killed 850 of his 1,000 warriors. Over the next five years, American diplomatic pressure and military power forced seventy Indian peoples to sign treaties and move west of the Mississippi.

John Humphrey Noyes

He was both charismatic and religious. He ascribed the Fourierists' failure to their secular outlook and took as his model the pious Shakers, the true "pioneers of modern Socialism." The Shakers' marriageless also appealed to him and inspired him to create a community that defined sexuality and gender roles in radically new ways. He was a well-to-do graduate of Dartmouth College who joined the ministry after hearing a sermon by Charles Grandison Finney. Dismissed as the pastor of a Congregational church for holding unorthodox beliefs, he turned to perfectionism, an evangelical Protestant movement of the 1830s that attracted thousands of New Englanders who had migrated to New York and Ohio. Perfectionists believed that Christ had already returned to Earth (the Second Coming); consequently, according to the Bible, people could aspire to sinless perfection in their earthly lives. Unlike most perfectionists, who lived conventional personal lives, he rejected marriage as the major barrier to perfection. But instead of the Shaker's celibacy, he and his followers embraced "complex marriage." His teachings highlighted the growing debate over legal and cultural constraints on women. He rejected monogamy partly to free women from their status as the property of their husbands, as they were by custom and by common law. To give women the time and energy to participate fully in the community, he urged them to avoid multiple pregnancies. He asked men to assist in this effort by avoiding orgasm during intercourse. To raise the community's children, he set up nurseries run by both sexes. Symbolizing the quest for equality, his women followers cut their hair short and wore pantaloons under calf-length skirts. In 1839, he set up a perfectionist community near his hometown of Putney, Vermont. When, in the mid-1840s, he introduced the practice of complex marriage, local outrage forced him to relocate the community to an isolated area near Oneida, New York.

Battle of Tippecanoe

In November 1811, when Tecumseh went south to seek support from the Chickasaws, Choctaws and Creeks, William Henry Harrison, the governor of the Indian territory, took advantage of his absence and attacked Prophetstown. The governor's 1,000 troops and militiamen traded heavy casualties with the confederacy's warriors at this battle and then destroyed the holy village.

Margaret Fuller

She was exploring the possibilities of freedom for women. Born into a wealthy Boston family, she mastered six languages, read broadly in classic literature, and educated her four siblings. Embracing Emerson's ideas, she started a transcendental "conversation," or discussion group, for educated Boston women in 1839. While editing the leading transcendentalist journal, The Dial, she published Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1844). It proclaimed that a "new era" was changing the relationships between men and women. Her philosophy began from the transcendental principle that all people ---- women as well as men ---- could develop a life-affirming mystical relationship with God. Every woman therefore deserved psychological and social independence: the ability "to grow, as an intellect to discern, as a soul to live freely and unimpeded." She became the literary critic of the New York Tribune and traveled to Italy to report on the Revolution of 1848. Her adventurous life led to an early death; in 1850, she drowned in a shipwreck en route home to the United States. But her life and writings inspired a rising generation of fo women writers and reformers.

Ralph Waldo Emerson

The New England essayist and philosopher that celebrated the liberation of the individual. His vision influenced thousands of ordinary Americans and a generation of important artists; the result was the American Renaissance, a remarkable outpouring of first-class novels, poetry, and essays. He was the leading voice of transcendentalism. In 1832, he resigned his Boston pulpit and rejected all organized religion. The young philosopher argued that people were trapped by inherited customs and institutions. They wore the ideas of earlier times ---- New England Calvinism, for example ---- as a kind of "faded masquerade," and they needed to shed those values. In his view, individuals could be remade only by discovering their "original relation with Nature" and entering into a mystical union with the "currents of Universal Being." His genius lay in his ability to translate such abstract ideas into examples that made sense to middle-class Americans. His essays suggested that nature was saturated with the presence of God, a pantheistic outlook at odds with traditional Christian doctrine. He also warned that the new market society ---- the focus on work, profits, and consumption ---- was debasing Americans' spiritual and material lives. The transcendentalism message of individual self-realization reached hundreds of thousands of people through his writings and lectures. He laced his accounts of transcendence with twinges of anxiety.

William Henry Harrison

The Whigs organized their first national convention in 1840 and nominated William Henry Harrison for president. A military hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe and the War of 1812, Harrison was well advanced in age (68) and had little political experience. Heeding the Whigs' campaign slogan "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too," male voters voted Harrison into the White House with 53 percent of the popular vote and gave the party a majority in Congress. Barely a month after his inauguration, Harrison died of pneumonia.

American System

The mercantilist system of national economic development advocated by Henry Clay and adopted by John Quincy Adams. It had three interrelated parts: a national bank to manage the nation's financial system; protective tariffs to provide revenue and encourage American industry; and a nationally funded network of roads, canals, and railroads.

Causes/reasons for Westward expansion

With the Indian peoples in retreat, slave-owning planters from the Lower South settled in Missouri (admitted to the Union in 1821) and pushed on to Arkansas (admitted in 1836). Simultaneously, yeomen families from the Upper South joined migrants from New England and New York in farming the fertile lands of the Great Lakes basin. Once Indiana and Illinois were settled, land-hungry farmers poured into Michigan (1837), Iowa (1846) and Wisconsin (1848). *To meet the demand for cheap farmsteads, Congress in 1820 reduced the price of federal land from $2.00 an acre to $1.25, just enough to cover the cost of the survey and sale. For $100, a farmer could buy 80 acres, the minimum required under federal law. By the 1840s, this generous policy had enticed about 5 million people to states and territories west of the Appalachians.* In 1822, the Boston Manufacturing Company expanded north from its base in Waltham and built a complex of mills in a sleepy Merrimack River village that quickly became the bustling textile town of Lowell, Massachusetts. The towns of Hartford, Connecticut; Trenton, New Jersey; and Wilmington, Delaware, also became urban centers as mill owners exploited the waterpower of their rivers and recruited workers from the countryside. Western commercial cities such as Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and New Orleans grew almost as rapidly. These cities expanded initially as transit centers, the points at which goods were transferred from farmers' rafts and wagons to boats or railroads. As the midwestern population grew during the 1830s and 1840s, St. Louis, Detroit, and especially Buffalo and Chicago emerged as dynamic centers of commerce. Chicago's merchants and bankers developed the marketing, provisioning, and financial services essential to farmers and small-town shopkeepers in the surrounding countryside. These midwestern commercial hubs quickly became manufacturing centers as well. Capitalizing on the cities' locations as key junctions for railroad lines and steamboats, entrepreneurs built warehouses, flour mills, packing plants, and machine shops, creating work for hundreds of artisans and factory laborers. In 1846, Cyrus McCormick moved his reaper from western Virginia to Chicago to be closer to his midwestern customers. By 1860, St. Louis and Chicago had become the nation's third and fourth largest cities, respectively, after New York and Philadelphia. The old Atlantic seaports, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, and especially New York City, remained important for their foreign commerce and, increasingly, as centers of finance and manufacturing. New York City and nearby Brooklyn grew at a phenomenal rate: Between 1820 and 1860, their combined populations increased nearly tenfold to 1 million people, thanks to the arrival of tens of thousands of German and Irish immigrants. Drawing on this abundant labor, New York became a center of small-scale manufacturing and the ready-made clothing industry, which relied on thousands of low-paid seamstresses. New York's growth stemmed primarily from its dominant position in foreign and domestic trade. It had the best harbor in the United States, and thanks to the Erie Canal, was the best gateway to the Midwest and the best outlet for western grain. Exploiting the city's prime location, in 1818 four Quaker merchants founded the Black Ball Line to carry cargo, people, and mail between New York and the European ports of Liverpool, London, and Le Havre, establishing the first transatlantic shipping service to run on a regular schedule.

Erie Canal

*A 364-mile waterway connecting the Hudson River and Lake Erie.* The first great engineering project in American history, the Erie Canal altered the ecology of an entire region. As farming communities and market towns sprang up along the waterway, settlers cut down millions of trees to provide wood for houses and barns and to open the land for growing crops and grazing animals. Cows and sheep foraged in pastures that had recently been forests occupied by deers and bears, and spring rains caused massive erosion of the denuded landscape. Whatever its environmental consequences, the Erie Canal was an instant economic success. The first 75-mile section opened in 1819 and quickly yielded enough revenue to repay its construction cost. When workers finished the canal in 1825, a 40-foot-wide ribbon of water stretched from Buffalo, on the eastern shore of Lake Erie, to Albany, where it joined the Hudson River for the 150-mile trip to New York City. The Erie Canal brought prosperity to the farmers of central and western New York and the entire Great Lakes basin. Northeastern manufacturers shipped clothing, boots, and agricultural equipment to farm families; in return, farmers sent grain, cattle, and hogs as well as raw materials (leather, wool, and hemp, for example) to eastern cities and foreign markets. 100-ton freight barges, each pulled by two horses, moved along the canal at a steady 30 miles a day, cutting transportation costs and accelerating the flow of goods. *The state of New York rejected federal aid. The people of New York built the Erie Canal. They didn't want the government to profit off of them.* *Effects of the Erie Canal* The spectacular benefits of the Erie Canal prompted a national canal boom. Civic and business leaders in Philadelphia and Baltimore proposed waterways to link their cities to the Midwest. Copying New York's fiscal innovations, they persuaded their state governments to invest directly in canal companies or to force state-chartered banks to do so. They also won state guarantees that encouraged British and Dutch investors. Soon, artificial waterways connected the farms and towns of the Great Lakes region with the great port cities of New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore (via the Erie, Pennsylvania, and Chesapeake and Ohio canals). And every year, 25,000 farmer-built flatboats carried produce to New Orleans, via the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. In 1848, the completion of the Michigan and Illinois Canal, which linked Chicago to the Mississippi River, completed an inland all-water route from New York to New Orleans.

Henry David Thoreau

*A young New England intellectual that heeded Emerson's call and sought inspiration from the natural world.* In 1845, depressed by his beloved brother's death, he built a cabin near Walden Pond in Concord, Massachusetts, and lived alone there for two years. He advocated social nonconformity and civil disobedience against unjust laws ---- a thoroughgoing individuality. He was gloomy about everyday life.

David Walker

*He published a stirring pamphlet: An Appeal . . . to the Colored Citizens of the World (1829).* Its goal was to protest black "wretchedness in this Republican Land of Liberty!!!!!" He was a free black from North Carolina who had moved to Boston, where he sold secondhand clothes and copies of Freedom's Journal. A self-educated man, he used history and morality to attack racial slavery. His Appeal ridiculed the religious pretensions of slaveholders, justified slave rebellion, and in biblical language warned of a slave revolt if justice were delayed. His pamphlet quickly went through three printings and, carried by black merchant seamen, reached free African Americans in the South. In 1830, he and other African American activists called a national convention in Philadelphia. The delegates refused to endorse his radical call for a slave revolt or the traditional program of uplift for free blacks.

Martin Van Buren

*He was Andrew Jackson's secretary of state.* *Martin Van Buren of New York was the chief architect of the emerging system of party government, at both the state and national levels.* The son of a Jeffersonian tavern keeper, Van Buren grew up in the landlord-dominated society of the Hudson River Valley. To get training as a lawyer, he relied on the powerful Van Ness clan; then, determined not to become a dependent "tool" of a notable family, Van Buren repudiated their tutelage. His goal was to create a new political order based on party identity, not family connections. In justifying governments run by party politicians, Van Buren rejected the traditional republican belief that political factions were dangerous. Between 1817 and 1821, Van Buren turned his "Bucktail" supporters (so-called because they wore a deer's tail on their hats) into the first statewide political machine. He purchased a newspaper, the Albany Argus, and used it to promote his policies and get out the vote. Buren had no reservations about running for office. At Van Buren's direction, the Jacksonians orchestrated a massive publicity campaign. In New York, 50 newspapers declared their support for Jackson on the same day. Elsewhere, Jacksonians used mass meetings, torchlight parades, and barbecues to celebrate the candidate's frontier origin and rise to fame. He took office just as the Panic of 1837 struck. Ignoring the pleas of influential bankers, the new president refused to revoke the Specie Circular or take actions to stimulate economic activity.

Charles G. Finney

*He was a Presbyterian minister that found a new way to spread religious values.* Finney was not part of the traditional religious elite. Born into a poor farming family in Connecticut, he had planned to become a lawyer and rise into the middle class. But in 1823, Finney underwent an intense conversion experience and chose the ministry as his career. Beginning in towns along the Erie Canal, the young minister conducted emotional revival meetings that stressed conversion rather than doctrine. Repudiating Calvinist beliefs, he preached that God would welcome any sinner who submitted to the Holy Spirit. Finney's ministry drew on and greatly accelerated the Second Great Awakening, the wave of Protestant revivalism that had begun after the Revolution. Finney's central message was that "God has made man a moral free agent" who could choose salvation. This doctrine of free will was particularly attractive to members of the new middle class, who had already chosen to improve their material lives. But Finney also had great success in converting people at both ends of the social spectrum, from the haughty rich who had placed themselves above God, to the abject poor who seemed lost to drink and sloth. Finney celebrated their common fellowship in Christ and identified them spiritually with pious middle-class respectability. Finney's most spectacular triumph came in 1830, when he moved his revivals from small towns to Rochester, New York, now a major milling and commercial city on the Erie Canal. Preaching every day for six months and promoting group prayer meetings in family homes, Finney won over the influential merchants and manufacturers of Rochester, who pledged to reform their lives and those of their workers. They promised to attend church, give up intoxicating beverages, and work hard. To encourage their employees to do the same, wealthy businessmen founded a Free Presbyterian church, "free" because members did not have to pay for pew space. Meanwhile, Finney's wife, Lydia, and other middle-class women carried the Christian message to the wives of the unconverted, set up Sunday schools for poor children, and formed the Female Charitable Society to assist the unemployed. Finney's efforts to create a community of morally disciplined Christians were not completely successful. Skilled workers who belonged to strong craft organizations ---- boot makers, carpenters, stonemasons, and boatbuilders ---- protested that they needed higher wages and better schools more urgently than sermons and prayers. Poor people ignored Finney's revival, as did the Irish Catholic immigrants who had recently begun arriving in Rochester and other northeastern cities, bringing with them a hatred of Protestants as religious heretics and political oppressors. Nonetheless, revivalist from New England to the Midwest copied Finney's evangelical message and techniques. In New York City, wealthy silk merchants Arthur and Lewis Tappan founded a magazine, The Christian Evangelist, which promoted Finney's ideas. The revivals wept through Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Indiana.

Nicholas Biddle

*He was the third and last president of the Second Bank of the United States.* Some politicians opposed the Second Bank because of his arrogance. Fearing his influence, bankers in New York and other states wanted the specie owned by the federal government deposited in their own institutions rather than in the Second Bank. Expansion-minded bankers, including friends of Jackson's in Nashville, wanted to escape supervision by any central bank.

Moby Dick

*Herman Melville's most powerful statement written in 1851. It is about the story of Captain Ahab's obsessive hunt for a mysterious white whale that ends in death for Ahab and all but one member of his crew.* Here, the quest for spiritual meaning in nature brings death, not transcendence, because Ahab, the liberated individual, lacks inner discipline and self-restraint. It was a commercial failure. The middle-class audience that devoured sentimental American fiction refused to follow Melville into the dark, dangerous realm of individualism gone mad.

Federal government and transportation improvements

*In 1806, Congress approved funds for a National Road, constructed of compacted gravel, to tie the Midwest to the seaboard states.* The project began in Cumberland in western Maryland in 1811; reached Wheeling, Virginia, on the Ohio River in 1818; and ended in Vandalia, Illinois in 1839. The national and other interregional highways carried migrants and their heavily loaded wagons westward; along the way, these migrants passed livestock herds heading in the opposite direction, destined for eastern markets. *Federal government postal system* The national government created a vast postal system, the first network for the exchange of information. Thanks to the Post Office Act of 1792, there were more than eight thousand post offices by 1830, and the mails safely delivered thousands of letters and banknotes worth millions of dollars.

Francis Cabot Lowell

*In 1811, he was a wealthy Boston merchant, who toured British textile mills, secretly making detailed drawings of their power machinery.* In 1814, he joined with merchants Nathan Appleton and Patrick Tracy Jackson to form the Boston Manufacturing Company. Having raised the staggering sum of $400,000, they built a textile plant in Waltham, Massachusetts, the first American factory to perform all the operations of clothmaking under one roof.

Tariffs

*In 1816, 1824, and 1828, Congress passed tariff bills that taxed imported cotton and woolen cloth.* But in the 1830s, Congress reduced the tariffs because southern planters, western farmers, and urban consumers demanded access to inexpensive imports. In an era before federal taxes on individual and corporate income, the U.S. Treasury raised most of its revenue from tariffs, regressive taxes on textiles and other imported goods purchased mostly by ordinary citizens.

Waltham Plan

*In the 1820s, the Boston Manufacturing Company recruited thousands of young women from farm families, appealing to the women by providing them with rooms in boardinghouses and with evening lectures and other cultural activities.* To reassure parents about their daughters' moral welfare, the mill owners enforced strict curfews, prohibited alcoholic beverages, and required church attendance. At Lowell (1822), Chicopee (1823), and other sites in Massachusetts and New Hampshire, the company built new cotton factories that used this labor system.

American Anti-Slavery Society

*It was founded by Garrison, Theodore Weld, and sixty other abolitionists, black and white, in 1833.* *Tactics of the society* Using new steam-powered presses, it printed thousands of pieces of literature in 1834. In 1835, the society launched a "great postal campaign" to flood the nation, including the South, with a million pamphlets. The abolitionists' second tactic was to aid fugitive slaves. They provided lodging and jobs for escaped blacks in free states and created the Underground Railroad. The Fugitive Slave law (1793) allowed owners and their hired slave catchers to seize suspected runaways and return them to bondage. To thwart these efforts, white abolitionists and free blacks in northern cities formed mobs that attacked slave catchers, released their captives, and often spirited them off to Canda, which refused to extradite fugitive slaves. A political campaign was the final element of the abolitionists' program. In 1835, the society bombarded Congress with petitions demanding the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, an end to the interstate slave trade, and a ban on admission of new slave states. By 1838, petitions with nearly 500,000 signatures had arrived in Washington.

Brigham Young

*Joseph Smith Jr's leading disciple and an energetic missionary. He led about 6,500 Mormons to flee the United States.* Beginning in 1845, they crossed the Great Plans into Mexican territory and settled in the Great Salt Lake Valley in present-day Utah. Using cooperative labor and an irrigation system based on communal water rights, the Mormon pioneers quickly spread planned agricultural communities along the base of the Wasatch Range. Many Mormons who rejected polygamy remained in the United States. When the United States acquired title to Mexico's northern territories in 1848, the Salt Lake Mormons petitioned Congress to create a vast new state, Deseret, which would stretch from Utah to the Pacific Coast. Instead, Congress set up the much smaller Utah Territory in 1850 and named him its governor. He was the governor of the Utah Territory. He and his associates ruled in an authoritarian fashion, determined to ensure the ascendancy of the Mormon Church and its practices. By 1856, he and the Utah territorial legislature were openly vowing to resist federal laws. Pressed by Protestant churches to end polygamy and considering the Mormon's threat of nullification "a declaration of war," the administration of President James Buchanan dispatched a small army to Utah. As the "Nauvoo Legion" resisted the army's advance, aggressive Mormon militia massacred a party of 120 California-bound emigrants and murdered suspicious travelers and Mormons seeking to flee his regime. Despite this bloodshed, the "Mormon War" ended quietly in June 1858. President Buchanan, a longtime supporter of the white South, feared that the forced abolition of polygamy would serve as a precedent for ending slavery. So he offered a pardon to Utah citizens who would acknowledge federal authority, an offer accepted by him and other leaders in order to prolong Mormon rule.

New techniques and technologies

*Outwork system - a model that divided small portions of the production process throughout different locations* *Outwork system example* During the 1820s and 1830s, merchants in Lynn, Massachusetts, undermined the business of New England shoemakers by introducing an outwork system and a division of labor. The merchants hired semiskilled journeymen and set them up in large shops cutting leather into soles and uppers. They sent out the upper sections to dozens of rural Massachusetts towns, where women binders sewed in fabric linings. The manufacturers then had other journeymen attach the uppers to the soles and return the shoes to the central shop for inspection, packing, and sale. The new system turned employers into powerful "shoe bosses" and eroded workers' wages and independence. But the expansion of shoe production created jobs, and the division of labor both increased output and cut prices. *Division of labor* For products not suited to the outwork system, manufacturers created the modern factory, which concentrated production under one roof. For example, in the 1830s, Cincinnati merchants built large slaughterhouses that processed thousands of hogs every month. The technology remained simple: A system of overhead rails moved the hog carcasses past workers. The division of labor made the difference. One worker split the animals, another removed the organs, and others trimmed the carcasses into pieces. Packers then stuffed the pork into barrels and pickled it to prevent spoilage. *New inventions, inventors, etc.* In the 1780s, Oliver Evans, a prolific Delaware inventor, built a highly automated flour mill driven by waterpower. His machinery lifted the wheat to the top of the mill, cleaned the grain as it fell into hoppers, ground it into flour, and then cooled the flour as it was poured into barrels. It needed only six men to mill 100,000 bushels of wheat a year, perhaps ten times as much as they could grind in a traditional mill. By the 1830s, a new "mineral" economy began to emerge. Manufacturers increasingly ran their machinery with coal-burning stationary steam engines rather than with water power. And they now fabricated metal products: iron, brass, and copper as well as pork, leather, wool, cotton, and other agricultural goods. In Chicago, Cyrus McCormick used power-driven machines to make parts for farm reapers, which workers assembled on a conveyor belt. In Hartford, Connecticut, Samuel Colt built an assembly line to produce his invention, the six-shooter revolver. Francis Cabot Lowell, Nathan Appleton, and Patrick Tracy Jackson built a textile plant in Waltham, Massachusetts that was the first American factory to perform all the operations of clothmaking under one roof. Samuel Sellars Jr. invented a machine for twisting worsted woolen yarn to give it an especially smooth surface. His son John improved the efficiency of the waterwheels powering the family's sawmills and built a machine to weave wire sieves. John's sons and grandsons ran machine shops that turned out riveted leather fire hoses, papermaking equipment, and eventually locomotives. Using his expertise in making hatpins, he built a simple machine that separated the seeds in a cotton boll from the delicate fibers, work previously done by hand in a labor-intensive process. *Eli Whitney* Still seeking his fortune, Whitney decided in 1798 to manufacture military weapons. He eventually designed and built machine tools that could rapidly produce interchangeable musket parts, bringing him the wealth and fame that he had long craved. After Whitney's death in 1825, his partner John H. Hall built an array of metal-working machine tools, such as turret lathes, milling machines, and precision grinders. *Mechanics* Mechanics in the textile industry invented lathes, planers, and boring machines that turned out standardized parts for new spinning jennies and weaving looms. Richard Garsed nearly doubled the speed of the power looms in his father's Delaware factory and patented a cam-and-harness device making it possible for damask and other elaborately designed fabrics to be machine woven. The mechanics employed by Samuel W. Collins built a machine for pressing and hammering hot metal into dies, or cutting forms. Using this machine, a worker could make 300 axe heads a day, compared to twelve using traditional methods. In Richmond, Virginia Welsh- and American-born mechanics at the Tredegar Iron Works produced great quantities of low-cost parts for complicated manufacturing equipment at a rapid rate. *Transportation* In 1807, engineer-inventor Robert Fulton built the first American steamboat, the Clermont, which he piloted up the Hudson River. To navigate shallow western rivers, engineers broadened steamboats' hulls to reduce their draft and enlarge their cargo capacity. These improved vessels halved the cost of upstream river transport and, along, with the canals, dramatically increased the flow of goods, people, and news. In 1830, a traveler or a latter from New York could reach Buffalo or Pittsburgh by water in less than a week and Detroit or St. Louis in two weeks. By the 1850s, railroads another technological innovation were on their way to replacing canals as the core of the national transportation system. In 1852, canals carried twice the tonnage transported by railroads. Then, capitalists in Boston, New York, and London invested heavily in railroad routes; by 1860, railroads were the main carriers of wheat and freight from the Midwest to the Northeast. The railroad boom of the 1850s expanded commerce into a vast territory around Chicago. Trains carried huge quantities of lumber from Michigan to the treeless prairies of Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri, where settlers built 250,000 new farms and hundreds of small towns. The rail lines moved millions of bushels of wheat to Chicago for transport by boat or rail to eastern markets. Increasingly, they also carried livestock to Chicago's slaughterhouses. *Midwest* By the 1840s, midwestern entrepreneurs were also producing goods such as machine tools, hardware, furniture, and especially agricultural implements. Working as a blacksmith in Grand Detour, Illinois, John Deere made his first steel plow out of old saws in 1837; ten years later, he opened a factory in Moline, Illinois, that mass-produced the plows. Stronger than the existing cast-iron models built in New York, Deere's steel plows allowed midwestern farmers to cut through the thick sod of the prairies. Other midwestern companies McCormick and Hussey, for example, mass-produced self-raking reapers that enabled farmers to harvest 12 acres of grain a day (rather than the 2 acres that could be cut by hand). With the harvest bottleneck removed, midwestern farmers planted more acres and shipped vast quantities of wheat and flour to the East and Europe.

Patronage/Spoils system

*Patronage - The power of elected officials to grant government jobs and favors to their supporters; also the jobs and favors themselves.* Patronage was an important tool. When Van Buren's Bucktails (supporters) won control of the New York legislature in 1821, they acquired a political interest much greater than that of the notables: the power to appoint some six thousand of their friends to positions in New York's legal bureaucracy of judges, justices of the peace, sheriffs, deed commissioners and coroners. The spoils system was fair, Van Buren suggested because it "would operate sometimes in favor of one party, and sometimes of another." Party government was thoroughly Republican, he added, as it reflected the preferences of a major of the voters. To ensure the passage of the party's legislative program, Van Buren insisted on disciplined voting as determined by a caucus. *Spoils system - The widespread award of public jobs to political supporters after an electoral victory.* In 1829, Andrew Jackson instituted the system on the national level, arguing that the rotation of officeholders was preferable to a permanent group of bureaucrats. The spoils system became a central, and corrupting, element in American political life.

John C Calhoun

*Secretary of War for President James Monroe Jackson's running mate in the Election of 1828* South Carolina's act of nullification rested on the constitutional arguments developed in The South Carolina Exposition and Protest (1828). Written anonymously by Vice President John C. Calhoun, the Exposition gave a localist (or sectional) interpretation to the federal union. He was an obsessive defender of the interests of southern planters. In developing his interpretation of the Constitution, Calhoun used the arguments first advanced by Jefferson and Madison in the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions of 1798. Because the Constitution had been ratified by conventions in the various states, the resolutions had suggested, sovereignty lay in the states, not in the people. Beginning from this premise, Calhoun developed a states' rights interpretation, aruging that a state convention could declare a congressional law to be unconstitutional and therefore void within the state's borders. He recognized William Crawford of Georgia's appeal in the South so he withdrew from the presidential race and endorsed Andrew Jackson.

Seneca Falls/Women's Rights

*Seneca Falls* In 1848, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott organized a gathering of women's rights activists in the small New York town of Seneca Falls. Seventy women and thirty men attended the meeting, which issued a rousing manifesto that extended the egalitarian republican ideology of the Declaration of Independence to women. "All men and women are created equal," the Declaration of Sentiments declared, "[yet] the history of mankind is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations on the part of man toward woman [and] the establishment of an absolute tyranny over her." To persuade Americans to right this long-standing wrong, the activists resolved to "employ agents, circulate tracts, petition the State and national legislatures, and endeavor to enlist the pulpit and the press on our behalf." By staking out claims for equality for women in public life, the Seneca Falls reformers repudiated both the natural inferiority of women and the ideology of separate spheres. In 1850, delegates to the first national women's rights convention in Worcester, Massachusetts, hammered out a program of action. The women called on churches to revise notions of female inferiority in their theology. Addressing state legislatures, they proposed laws to guarantee the custody rights of mothers in the event of divorce or a husband's death and to allow married women to institute lawsuits and testify in court. Finally, they began a concerted campaign to win the vote for women. The most prominent political operative was Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906), who came from a Quaker family and, as a young woman, had acquired political skills in the temperance and antislavery movements. Joining the women's rights movement, she worked closely with Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Anthony created an activist network of political "captains", all women, who relentlessly lobbied state legislatures. In 1860, her efforts secured a New York law granting women the right to control their own wages (which fathers or husbands had previously managed); to own property acquired by "trade, business, labors, or service"; and, if widowed, to assume sole guardianship of their children. *Women's Rights* During the 1840s, women's rights activists tried to strengthen the legal rights of married women, especially to allow them to own property. This initiative won crucial support from affluent men, who feared bankruptcy in the volatile market economy and desired to put some family assets in their wives' names. Fathers also wanted to ensure that married daughters had property rights to protect them (and their inheritances) from financially irresponsible sons-in-law. These considerations prompted legislatures in three states ---- Mississippi, Maine, and Massachusetts ---- to enact married women's property laws between 1839 and 1845. Three years later, women activists in New York won a comprehensive statute that became the model for fourteen other states. The New York statute of 1848 gave women full legal control over the property they brought to a marriage. *Separate sphere - expectation that women had different roles in society*

Harriet Tubman

*She was a conductor of the Underground Railroad.* She and other runaways risked re-enslavement or death by returning repeatedly to the South to help others escape.

Targets of reform: Suffrage, Abolition, Temperance, Religion, etc.

*Suffrage* The right to vote. Between 1810 and 1860, state constitutions extended the vote to virtually all adult white men and some free black men. In the mid-1800s the women's suffrage movement would see more success in the Western states & territories. Ernestine Potowsky Rose, the daughter of a wealthy rabbi, wanted universal suffrage for women. Delegates to the 1851 convention declared that suffrage was "the corner-stone of this enterprise, since we do not seek to protect woman, but rather to place her in a position to protect herself." *Abolition* Like other reform movements, abolitionism drew on the religious enthusiasm of the Second Great Awakening, and the language of protest changed accordingly. Around 1800, antislavery activists had assailed human bondage as contrary to republicanism and liberty. By the 1830s, white abolitionists were condemning slavery as a sin. Beginning in the 1790s, leading African Americans in the North advocated a strategy of social uplift. They encouraged free blacks to "elevate" themselves through education, temperance, and hard work. By securing "respectability," they argued, blacks could become the social equals of whites. To promote that goal, black leaders ---- men such as James Forten, a Philadelphia sailmaker; Prince Hall, a Boston barber; and ministers Hosea Easton and Richard Allen founded an array of churches, schools, and self-help associations. Capping this effort in 1827, John Russwurm and Samuel D. Cornish of New York published the first African American newspaper, Freedom's Journal. The most determined abolitionist was William Lloyd Garrison. A Massachusetts-born printer, Garrison had worked in Baltimore during the 1820s helping to publish the Genius of Universal Emancipation, an antislavery newspaper. In 1831, Garrison moved to Boston, where he started his own weekly, The Liberator, and founded the New England Anti-Slavery Society. Women abolitionists established separate organizations, including the Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society, founded by Lucretia Mott in 1833, and the Anti-Slavery Conventions of American Women, a network of local societies. The women raised money for The Liberator and carried the movement to the farm villages of the Midwest, where they distributed abolitionist literature and collected thousands of signatures on antislavery petitions. In 1837, Theodore Weld published The Bible Against Slavery, which used passages from Christianity's holiest book to discredit slavery. Women were central to the antislavery movement. One of the first abolitionists recruited by William Lloyd Garrison was Maria W. Stewart, an African American, who spoke to mixed audiences of men and women in Boston in the early 1830s. As abolitionism blossomed, scores of white women delivered lectures condemning slavery, and thousands more made home "visitations" to win converts to their cause. In her autobiography, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, black abolitionist Harriet Jacobs described being forced to have sexual relations with her white owner. In her best-selling novel, Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852), Harriet Beecher Stowe charged that one of the greatest moral failings of slavery was the degradation of slave women. *Temperance* A long-term reform movement that encouraged individuals and governments to limit the consumption of alcoholic beverages. Temperance reformers denounced the German fondness for beer. In 1844, the American Republican Party, with the endorsement of the Whigs, swept the city elections by focusing on the culturally emotional issue of temperance. The disciplined rejection of alcohol by the Shakers and the Mormons found a parallel in the Washington Temperance Society and other urban reform organizations. A leading Protestant minister and spokesman for the Benevolent Empire, Lyman Beecher conceived of drunkenness as a sin. His Six Sermons on . . . Intemperance (1829) condemned the recklessness of working-class drunkards and called on members of the middle class to lead the way to a temperate society. In Baltimore in 1840, a group of reformed alcoholics formed the Washington Temperance Society, which turned the anti-drinking movement in a new direction. By talking publicly about their personal experiences of alcoholic decline and spiritual recovery, they inspired thousands to "sign the pledge" of total abstinence. In 1851, the Maine legislature enacted a statute prohibiting the sale of alcoholic beverages in the state. The Maine Supreme Court upheld the statute declaring the legislature's "right to regulate by law the sale of any article, the use of which would be detrimental of the morals of the people," The American Temperance Magazine became a strong advocate of legal prohibition and, within four years,, had won passage of "Maine Laws" in twelve other states. *Religion* The first wave of American reformers, the benevolent religious improvers of the 1820s, championed regular church attendance, temperance, and a strict moral code. Unlike most Christians, Unitarians believed that God was a single being, not a trinity of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Mary Walker Ostram's convictions were as firm at the age of 58 as they had been in 1816 when she helped to found the first Sunday school in Utica, New York. Married to a lawyer-politician and childless, Ostram had devoted her life to evangelical Presbyterianism and its program of benevolent social reform. *Moral Reform* In 1834, a group of middle-class women in New York City founded the Female Moral Reform Society and elected Lydia Finney, the wife of revivalist Charles Grandison Finney, as its president. The society tried to curb prostitution in New York City and to protect single women from moral corruption. Rejecting the sexual double standard, its members demanded chastity for men as well as for women. By 1840, the Female Moral Reform Society had grown into a national association, with 555 chapters and 40,000 members throughout the North and Midwest. Employing only women as agents, the society provided moral guidance for young women who were living away from their families and working as factory operatives, seamstresses, or servants. Society members visited brothels, where they sang hymns, offered prayers, searched for runaway girls, and noted the names of clients. They also founded homes of refuge for prostitutes and won the passage of laws in Massachusetts and New York that made seduction a crime. *Education* Both as reformers and teachers, other northern women transformed public education. From Maine to Wisconsin, women vigorously supported the movement led by Horace Mann to increase elementary schooling and improve the quality of instruction. As secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education from 1837 to 1848, Mann lengthened the school year; established teaching standards in reading, writing, and arithmetic; and recruited well-educated women as teachers. The intellectual leader of the new women educators was Catharine Beecher, who founded academies for young women in Hartford, Connecticut, and Cincinnati, Ohio. By the 1850s, most teachers were women, both because local school boards heeded Beecher's arguments and because they could hire women at lower salaries than men.

Grimke Sisters

*The Grimkes had left their father's plantation to South Carolina, converted to Quakerism, and taken up the abolitionist cause in Philadelphia.* Theodore Weld married Angelina Grimke. In American Slavery as It Is: Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses (1839), Weld and the Grimkes addressed a simple question: "What is the actual condition of the slaves in the United States?" Using reports from southern newspapers and firsthand testimony, they presented a mass of incriminating evidence. *Angelina Grimke told of a treadmill that South Carolina slave owners used for punishment. Filled with such images of pain and suffering, the book sold more than 100,000 copies in a single year.* In 1836, Congregationalist clergymen in New England assailed Angelina and Sarah Grimke for addressing mixed male and female audiences. *For justification, Sarah Grimke turned to the Bible:* "The Lord Jesus defines the duties of his followers in his Sermon on the Mount . . . without any reference to sex or condition," she wrote. "Men and women are CREATED EQUAL! They are both moral and accountable beings and whatever is right for man to do is right for woman." In a pamphlet debate with Catharine Beecher (who believed that women should exercise authority primarily as wives, mothers, and schoolteachers), *Angelina Grimke pushed the argument beyond religion by invoking Enlightenment principles to claim equal civic rights for women.*

John Tyler

*The Whigs organized their first national convention in 1840 and nominated him for vice president.* Ignoring his Whig associates in Congress, who wanted a weak chief executive, he took the presidential oath of office and declared his intention to govern as he pleased. *As it turned out, that would not be like a Whig.* He had served in the House and the Senate as a Jeffersonian Democrat, firmly committed to slavery and states' rights. He had joined the Whigs only to protest Jackson's stance against nullification. On economic issues, he shared Jackson's hostility to the Second Bank and the American System. He, therefore, vetoed Whig bills that would have raised tariffs and created a new national bank. *Outraged by this betrayal, most of his cabinet resigned in 1842, and the Whigs expelled him from their party. "His Accidency," as he was called by his critics, was now a president without a party.*

Shakers

*The first successful American communal movement.* They got their name from the ecstatic dances that were part of their worship. After Mother Ann's death in 1784, the Shakers honored her as the Second Coming of Christ, withdrew from the profane world, and formed disciplined religious communities. Members embraced the common ownership of the property; accepted strict oversight by church leaders; and pledged to abstain from alcohol, tobacco, politics, and war. Shakers also repudiated sexual pleasure and marriage. Their commitment to celibacy followed Mother Ann's testimony. The Shakers' theology was as radical as their social thought. They held that God was "a dual person, male and female." This doctrine prompted Shakers to repudiate male leadership and to place community governance in the hands of both women and men ---- the Eldresses and the Elders. *Shaker communities* Shakers had founded twenty communities, mostly in New England, New York, and Ohio. Their agriculture and crafts, especially furniture making, acquired a reputation for quality that made most Shaker communities self-sustaining and even comfortable. Because the Shakers disdained sexual intercourse, they relied on conversions and the adoption of thousands of young orphans to increase their numbers. During the 1830s, three thousand adults, mostly women, joined the Shakers, attracted by their communal intimacy and sexual equality. As the supply of orphans dried up during the 1840s and 1850s (with the increase in public and private orphanages), Shaker communities began to decline. By 1900, the Shakers had virtually disappeared, leaving as their material legacy a distinctive plain but elegant style of wood furniture.

African Methodist Episcopal Church

*a new religious denomination that was headed by Bishop Richard Allen and founded in 1816 in Philadelphia*

Mormons

*a religious group that embrace concepts of Christianity as well as revelations made by their founder, Joseph Smith* Many of them who rejected polygamy remained in the United States and didn't flee with Brigham Young. Led by Smith's son, Joseph Smith III, they formed the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and settled throughout the Midwest.

Complex marriage

*all members of the community are married to one another* It was embraced by John Humphrey Noyes and his followers.

"Resistance to Civil Government" -HDT

*an essay published by Henry David Thoreau in 1848 urging individuals to follow a higher moral law*

Plantation aristocracy

*planter aristocracy - large-scale planters in the South who owned over 50 slaves* *Plantation elite* The westward movement split the plantation elite into two distinct groups: the traditional aristocrats of the Old South, and the upstart capitalist-inclined planters of the cotton states. The Old South gentry, having gained their wealth from tobacco and rice, dominated the Tidewater region of the Chesapeake and the low country of South Carolina and Georgia. During the 18th century, these planters built impressive mansions and adopted the manners and values of the English landed gentry. Their aristocratic culture survived the revolution of 1776 and soon took on a republican character. Classical republican theory had its roots in the slave-owning societies of Greece and Rome, and had long identified political tyranny (not slavery) as the major threat to liberty. That variety of republican ideology appealed to southern aristocrats, who feared government interference with their property in slaves. To prevent despotic rule by democratic demagogues or radical legislatures, planters demanded that authority rest in the hands of incorruptible men of "virtue." Affluent planters cast themselves as the embodiment of this ideal, a republican aristocracy. To maintain their privileged identity, aristocratic planters married their sons and daughters to one another and expected them to follow in their footsteps; the men working as planters, merchants, lawyers, newspaper editors, and ministers, and the women hosting plantation balls and church bazaars. To confirm their social preeminence, they lived extravagantly and entertained graciously. James Henry Hammond built a Greek Revival mansion with a center hall 53 feet by 20 feet, its floor embellished with stylish Belgian tiles and expensive Brussels carpets. Rice planters remained at the top of the plantation aristocracy. In 1860, the fifteen proprietors of the vast plantations in All Saints Parish in the Georgetown district of South Carolina owned 4,383 slaves, nearly 300 apiece, who annually grew and processed 14 million pounds of rice. As inexpensive Asian rice entered the world market in the 1820s and cut their profit margins, Carolina planters sold some slaves and worked the others harder, allowing them to sustain their luxurious lifestyle. *There was much less hypocrisy and far less elegance among the second group of elite planters: the market-driven entrepreneurs of the Cotton South.* *Planter aristocracy (tobacco-growing regions)* In tobacco-growing regions, the lives of the planter aristocracy followed a different trajectory, in part because slave ownership was widely diffused. In the 1770s, about 60 percent of white families in the Chesapeake region owned at least one African American slave. As many wealthy tobacco planters moved their plantations and slaves to the Cotton South, middling planters (who owned between five and twenty slaves) came to dominate the Chesapeake economy. The descendants of the old tobacco aristocracy remained influential, but increasingly as slave-owning grain farmers, lawyers, merchants, industrialists, and politicians. They either hired out slaves they didn't need for their businesses or sold them south or allowed them to purchase their freedom. *Defense of slavery* Although the genteel planter aristocracy flourished primarily around the periphery of the South, in Virginia, South Carolina, and Louisana, its members took the lead in defending slavery. Ignoring the old Jeffersonian response to slavery as a "misfortune" or a "necessary evil" southern apologists began in the 1830s to argue that slavery was a "positive good" that allowed a civilized lifestyle for whites and provided tutelage for genetically inferior Africans. Apologists depicted planters and their wives as aristocratic models of "disinterested benevolence," who paternalistically provided food and housing for their workers and cared for them in old age. Those planters who embraced Christian stewardship tried to shape the behavior of their slaves. Some built cabins for their workers and insisted slaves whitewash the cabins regularly. Many others built churches on their plantations, welcomed evangelical preachers, and often required their slaves to attend services. a few encouraged African Americans with spiritual "gifts" to serve as exhorters and deacons. The motives of the planters were mixed. Some acted from sincere Christian belief, while others wanted to counter abolitionist criticism or to use religious teachings to control their workers. Indeed, religion served increasingly as a justification for human bondage. Protestant ministers in the South pointed out that the Hebrews, God's chosen people, had owned slaves and that Jesus Christ had never condemned slavery.

Nathaniel Hawthorne

A great novelist that was influenced by Emerson's writings. He had a pessimistic world view. He elicited a powerful warning that unrestricted egoism could destroy indivdiuals and those around them.

Roger B Taney

Attorney general, treasury secretary, and chief justice of the Supreme Court. He was a strong opponent of corporate privilege, and he was appointed as the head of the Treasury Department by Andrew Jackson. He withdrew the government's gold and silver from the Second Bank. During his long tenure as chief justice (1835-1864), Taney partially reversed the nationalist and vested-property-rights decisions of the Marshall Court and gave constitutional legitmiacy to Jackson's policies of states' rights and free enterprise. In the landmark case Charles River Bridge Co. v. Warren Bridge Co. (1837), Taney declared that a legislative charter ---- in this case, to build and operate a toll bridge ---- did not necessarily bestow a monopoly, and that a legislature could charter a competing bridge to promote the general welfare. This decision directly challenged Marshall's interpretation of the contract clause of the Constitution in Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819), which had stressed the binding nature of public charters. By limiting the property claims of existing canal and turnpike companies, Taney's decision allowed legislatures to charter competing railroads that would provide cheaper and more efficient transportation. The Taney Court also limited Marshall's nationalistic interpretation of the commerce clause by enhancing the regulatory role of state governments. For example in Mayor of New York v. Miln (1837), the Taney Court ruled that New York State could use its "police power" to inspect the health of arriving immigrants. The Court also restored to the states some of the economic powers they had exercised before 1787. In Briscoe v. Bank of Kentucky (1837), the justices allowed a bank owned by the state of Kentucky to issue currency, despite the wording of the U.S. Constitution (Article 1, section 10) that prohibits states from issuing "bills of credit."

Oneida Community

By the mid-1850s, the Oneida settlement had 200 residents; it became financially self-sustaining when the inventor of a highly successful steel animal trap joined the community. With the profits from trap making, the Oneidians diversified into the production of silverware. When Noyes fled to Canada in 1879 to avoid prosecution for adultery, the community abandoned complex marriage but retained its cooperative spirit. Its members founded Oneida Community, Ltd., a jointly owned silverware manufacturing company that remained a communal venture until the middle of the 20th century.

Dorothea Dix

Emotionally abused as a child, she grew into a compassionate young woman with a strong sense of moral purpose. She used money from her grandparents to set up charity schools to "rescue some of America's miserable children from vice" and became a successful author. By 1832, she had published seven books, including Conversations on Common Things (1824), an enormously successful treatise on natural science and moral improvement. In 1841, she took up a new cause. Discovering that insane women were jailed alongside male criminals, she persuaded Massachusetts lawmakers to enlarge the state hospital to accommodate indigent mental patients. Exhilarated by that success, she began a national movement to establish state asylums for those with mental illnesses. By 1852, she had raveled more than 30,000 miles and had visited 18 state penitentiaries, 300 county jails, and more than 500 almshouses in addition to innumerable hospitals. Issuing dozens of reports, she prompted many states to expand their public hospitals and improve their prisons.

Second Bank of the United States

Founded in Philadelphia in 1816, it was privately managed and operated under a twenty-year charter from the federal government, which owned 20 percent of its stock. *The bank's most important role was to stabilize the nation's money supply, which consisted primarily of notes and bills of credit ---- in effect, paper money ---- issued by state-chartered banks.* Those banks promised to redeem the notes on demand with "hard" money ---- that is, gold or silver coins (also known as specie). By collecting those notes and regularly demanding specie, it kept the state banks from issuing too much paper money and depreciating its value. This cautious monetary policy pleased creditors ---- the bankers and entrepreneurs in Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, whose capital investments were underwriting economic development. However, ordinary Americans worried that it would force the closure of state banks, leaving people holding worthless paper notes.

Free masons

Freemasonry arose in 18th century Europe among men who opposed their monarchical governments and espoused republicanism; it operated as a secret society with complex rituals to avoid police spies. The order spread rapidly in America and attracted political leaders including George Washington, Henry Clay, and Andrew Jackson, and ambitious businessmen. In New York State alone by the mid-1820s, there were more than 20,000 Masons, organized into 450 local lodges. But after the kidnapping and murder in 1826 of William Morgan, a New York Mason who had threatened to reveal the order's secrets, the Freemasons fell into disrepute.

Trail of Tears

General Winfield Scott's army rounded up some 14,000 Cherokees and marched them 1,200 miles to the Indian Territory. Along the way, 3,000 Indians died of starvation and exposure. Context In 1835, Americans officials negotiated the Treaty of New Echota with a minority Cherokee faction and insisted that all Cherokees move to the new Indian Territory. When only 2,000 of 17,000 Cherokees had moved by the May 1838 deadline, President Martin Van Buren ordered General Winfield Scott to enforce the Treaty of New Echota.

Benjamin Banneker

He was an African American mathematician and surveyor who published an almanac and helped lay out the new capital in the District of Columbia.

Paul Cuffee

He was an African American merchant who acquired a small fortune from his business enterprises.

Robert Fulton - The Clermont

He was an engineer and inventor who built the first American steamboat. In 1807, he piloted it up the Hudson River.

Walden

Henry David Thoreau's account of his search for meaning betond the artificiality of civilized society published in 1854. The most famous metaphor in the account provides an enduring justification for independent thinking: "If a man does not keep pace with his companions, perhaps it is because he hears a different drummer."

Declaration of Rights and Sentiments

It was drafted by Elizabeth Cady Stanton in 1848, and it was modeled after the United States Declaration of Independence. "All men and women are created equal"

Franklin Institute of Philadelphia

It was founded in 1824 by the Sellars family and other mechanics in Philadelphia. Named after Benjamin Franklin, whom the mechanics admired for his work ethic and scientific accomplishments, the institute published a journal; provided high-school-level instruction in chemistry, mathematics, and mechanical design; and organized exhibits of new products.

The Book of Mormon

It was published in 1830 by Joseph Smith; he claimed to have translated from ancient hieroglyphics on gold plates shown to him by an angel named Moroni. It told the story of ancient civilizations from the Middle East that had migrated to the Western Hemisphere and of the visit of Jesus Christ, soon after his Resurrection, to one of them. Smith's account explained the presence of native peoples in the Americas and integrated them into the Judeo-Christian tradition.

The Scarlet Letter

Nathaniel Hawthorne's novel written in 1850. It brilliantly explored the theme of excessive individualism. The two main characters, Hester Prynne and Arthur Dimmesdale, blatantly challenged their 17th-century New England community by committing adultery and producing a child. Their decision to ignore social restraints results not in liberation but in degradation: a profound sense of guilt and condemnation by the community.

American Temperance Society

The temperance movement proved to be the most successful evangelical social reform. Soon after evangelical Protestants took over the American Temperance Society in 1832, the organization boasted two thousand chapters and more than 200,000 members. The society employed the methods of the revivals ---- group confession and prayer, a focus on the family and the spiritual role of women, and sudden emotional conversion ---- and took them to northern towns and southern villages. On one day in New York City in 1841, more than 4,000 people took the temperance "pledge." Throughout America, the annual consumption of spirits fell dramatically, from an average of 5 gallons per person in 1830 to 2 gallons in 1845.

Caucus

a meeting of party leaders

Underground Railroad

an informal network of whites and free blacks in Richmond, Charleston, and other southern towns that assisted fugitives from the Lower South Thanks to the network, about 1,000 African Americans reached freedom in the North each year.

Specie/Specie Circular

money in the form of coins rather than notes *Specie Circular* Democrats criticized Jackson for destroying the Second Bank and directing the Treasury Department to issue a Specie Circular in 1836. The Treasury's document required western settlers to use gold and silver coins to buy farms in the national domain and was believed, although mistakenly, to have been primarily responsible for the drain of specie from the economy.

Pet banks

various state banks

Arthur Lewis & Lewis Tappan

wealthy silk merchants in New York City that provided financial support to the American Anti-Slavery Society