APUSH Period 1 Review
*Great Basin* (1.1, I, B) Key Concept 1.1: As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. B) Societies responded to the aridity of the *Great Basin* and the grasslands of the western Great Plains by developing largely mobile lifestyles. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: The Great Basin is the largest area of contiguous endorheic watersheds in North America. It is noted for both its arid climate and the basin and range topography that varies from the North American low point at Badwater Basin to the highest point of the contiguous United States, less than 100 miles (160 km) away at the summit of Mount Whitney. The region spans several physiographic divisions, biomes/ecoregions, and deserts. *Significance to US History*: The aridity and desert-like environment of certain parts of North America forced some groups to adapt to the adverse conditions. The advent of the nomadic group was characteristic of the era, and the large significance of the American buffalo was prevalent in Native American populations.
*Atlantic Seaboard* (1.1, I, C) Key Concept 1.1: As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. C) In the Northeast, the Mississippi River Valley, and along the *Atlantic seaboard* some societies developed mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies that favored the development of permanent villages. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia* Twelve of the original thirteen colonies of Great Britain in North America lay along the East Coast. Two additional U.S. states on the East Coast were not among the original thirteen colonies: Maine (became part of the English colony of Massachusetts in 1677) and Florida (part of New Spain until 1821, though held by the British for 20 years after the French and Indian War). The Middle Colonies (New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York, and Delaware) had been owned by the Dutch as New Netherland, until they were captured by the English in the mid-to-late 17th century. *Significance to US History*: The mid Atlantic Seaboard promoted fishing societies because of its limiting factors in agriculture. Further down the Atlantic Seaboard, in the South, agriculture was prevalent, however, because of the favorable conditions for sedentary agriculture (this led to plantation agriculture in later eras).
*Caste System* (1.2, II, D) Key Concept 1.2: Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. II. The Columbian Exchange and development of the Spanish Empire in the Western Hemisphere resulted in extensive demographic, economic, and social changes. D) The Spanish developed a *caste system* that incorporated, and carefully defined the status of, the diverse population of Europeans, Africans, and Native Americans in their empire. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: A Casta was a hierarchical system of race classification created by Spanish elites (españoles) in Hispanic America during the Spanish colonial period. The sistema de castas or the sociedad de castas was used in 17th and 18th centuries in Spanish America and Spanish Philippines to describe as a whole and socially rank the mixed-race people who were born during the post-Conquest period. These unions produced in the process known as mestizaje. A parallel system of categorization based on the degree of acculturation to Hispanic culture, which distinguished between gente de razón (Hispanics) and gente sin razón (non-acculturated natives), concurrently existed and supported the idea of casta. *Significance to US History*: The development of the Spanish Caste System according to the degree to which an individual could trace roots back to European origins, set a precedent in the New World for nativist policies and the subjugation and discrimination of both Native Americans and enslaved Africans, who were by the definition of the Caste, beneath any European migrant.
*Divergent World Views* (1.2, III, A) Key Concept 1.2: Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. III. In their interactions, Europeans and Native Americans asserted *divergent world views* regarding issues such as religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power. A) Mutual misunderstandings between Europeans and Native Americans often defined the early years of interaction and trade as each group sought to make sense of the other. Over time, Europeans and Native Americans adopted some useful aspects of each other's culture. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: A comprehensive world view or worldview is the fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or society encompassing the entirety of the individual or society's knowledge and point of view. A world view can include natural philosophy; fundamental, existential, and normative postulates; or themes, values, emotions, and ethics. *Significance to US History*: The world views provided by the experiences of Europeans and Native Americans served to further differentiate the goals and motivations of the two groups. These views that differed on major ideological issues such as religion, political stance, and economic policies, created large rifts between the two groups, which perpetuated ideological conflict that escalated significantly both during and after the time period.
*Joint Stock Companies* (1.2, I, C) Key Concept 1.2: Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. I. European expansion into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies. C) Improvements in maritime technology and more organized methods for conducting international trade, such as *joint-stock companies*, helped drive changes to economies in Europe and the Americas. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: A joint-stock company is a business entity where different stocks can be bought and owned by shareholders. Each shareholder owns company stock in proportion, evidenced by his or her shares (certificates of ownership). This allows for the unequal ownership of a business with some shareholders owning a bigger proportion of a company than others do. Shareholders are able to transfer their shares to others without any effects to the continued existence of the company. *Significance to US History*: Joint-Stock Companies allowed groups of wealthy Europeans to finance relatively low risk ventures into the New World, allowing for a diversity in the nature of people making the journey across the Atlantic. Because of the nature of the company, investors and shareholders risked relatively little money, which appealed to many Europeans because of the inherent dangers of the task of relocating to America.
*Africans* (1.2, I, A) Key Concept 1.2: Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and *Africans* resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. I. European expansion into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies. A) European nations' efforts to explore and conquer the New World stemmed from a search for new sources of wealth, economic and military competition, and a desire to spread Christianity. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: African-American history is the portion of American history that specifically discusses the African-American or Black American ethnic groups in the United States. Most African Americans are the descendants of black African slaves forcibly brought to, and held captive in the United States (or British controlled territories that would become the United States) from 1555 to 1865. Blacks from the Caribbean whose ancestors immigrated, or who immigrated to the U.S., also traditionally have been considered African-American, as they share a common history of predominantly West African or Central African roots, the Middle Passage and slavery. *Significance to US History*: Enslaved Africans brought in captivity over the Atlantic Ocean to the New World allowed the prominent plantation agriculture system in the Southern portion of the continent to flourish and develop; later moral debates about the subjugation of Africans stimulated debates during the creation of the Constitution.
*Northeast* (1.1, I, C) Key Concept 1.1: As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. C) In the *Northeast*, the Mississippi River Valley, and along the Atlantic seaboard some societies developed mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies that favored the development of permanent villages. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: Anthropologists recognize the "Northeastern Woodlands" as one of the cultural regions that existed in the Western Hemisphere at the time of European colonists in the 15th and later centuries. Most did not settle in North America until the 17th century. The cultural area, known as the "Northeastern Woodlands," in addition to covering the entire Northeast U.S., also covered much of what is now Canada and others regions of what is now the eastern United States. Among the many tribes that inhabited this area were those that made up the Iroquois nations and the numerous Algonquian peoples. In the United States of the 21st century, 18 federally recognized tribes reside in the Northeast. For the most part, the people of the Northeastern Woodlands, on whose lands European fishermen began camping to dry their codfish in the early 1600s, lived in villages, especially after being influenced by the agricultural traditions of the Ohio and Mississippi valley societies. *Significance to US History*: The Northeast was the primary destination (though not always the intended one) of British American settlers. The conditions prohibited most farming techniques, forcing settlers to depend on the sea for sustenance. In addition, the prevalence of Native American tribes in the region promoted hostile and friendly interaction, including trade, subjugation, and cooperative lifestyles.
*Exploration* (1.2, I, A) Key Concept 1.2: Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. I. European expansion into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies. A) European nations' efforts to *explore* and conquer the New World stemmed from a search for new sources of wealth, economic and military competition, and a desire to spread Christianity. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: Exploration is the act of searching for the purpose of discovery of information or resources. Exploration occurs in all non-sessile animal species, including humans. In human history, its most dramatic rise was during the Age of Discovery when European explorers sailed and charted much of the rest of the world for a variety of reasons. Since then, major explorations after the Age of Discovery have occurred for reasons mostly aimed at information discovery. *Significance to US History*: European exploration set off many of the events of early American colonies. The goals of explorers were also reflected in the colonizers' desires to accrue wealth, subsidize the mother country, and spread Christianity.
*European Expansion* (1.2, I, A) Key Concept 1.2: Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. I. *European expansion* into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies. A) European nations' efforts to explore and conquer the New World stemmed from a search for new sources of wealth, economic and military competition, and a desire to spread Christianity. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: Extensive European colonization began in 1492, when a Spanish expedition headed by Christopher Columbus sailed west to find a new trade route to the Far East but inadvertently landed in what came to be known to Europeans as the "New World". European conquest, large-scale exploration, colonization and industrial development soon followed. Columbus' first two voyages (1492-93) reached the Bahamas and various Caribbean islands, including Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Cuba. In 1497, sailing from Bristol on behalf of England, John Cabot landed on the North American coast, and a year later, Columbus's third voyage reached the South American coast. As the sponsor of Christopher Columbus's voyages, Spain was the first European power to settle and colonize the largest areas, from North America and the Caribbean to the southern tip of South America. Spanish cities were founded as early as 1496 with Santo Domingo in today's Dominican Republic. *Significance to US History*: The motivations for European expansionism ranged from wealth to the spread of Christianity. These motivations, combined with experiences in the New World, determined the outcome of various events following the independence of the American colonies, as well as the ways in which those colonies developed.
*European-Native American Interaction and Trade* (1.2, III, B) Key Concept 1.2: Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. III. *In their interactions, Europeans and Native Americans asserted divergent world views regarding issues such as religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power.* B) As European encroachments on Native Americans' lands and demands on their labor increased, native peoples sought to defend and maintain their political sovereignty, economic prosperity, religious beliefs, and concepts of gender relations through diplomatic negotiations and military resistance. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: Interaction is a kind of action that occurs as two or more objects have an effect upon one another. The idea of a two-way effect is essential in the concept of interaction, as opposed to a one-way causal effect. A closely related term is interconnectivity, which deals with the interactions of interactions within systems: combinations of many simple interactions can lead to surprising emergent phenomena. Interaction has different tailored meanings in various sciences. Changes can also involve interaction. *Significance to US History*: Early interactions between Europeans and Native Americans shaped the relationship between the two groups throughout US History. Although there are some positive historical interactions documented between the groups (i.e. the Pilgrims), the vast majority of the interactions involved either voluntary murder of the Native Americans using guns, usually for land benefits, or the involuntary deaths of vast populations of Natives by communicable European diseases such as smallpox. Needless to say, this began a long history of negative relationships between New Americans and Natives.
*Internal Migration* (1.1, I, MIG) Key Concept 1.1: As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. MIG-2.0: Analyze causes of *internal migration* and patterns of settlement in what would become the United States, and explain how migration has affected American life. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: Internal migration refers to human migration within one geopolitical entity, usually a nation. Reasons for internal migration tend to be different from those for cross-border migration; whereas the latter often occurs primarily for political or economic reasons, reasons for internal migration prominently include travel for education and for economical, but not for political, reasons. A general trend of movement from rural to urban areas has also produced a form of internal migration, leading to rapid urbanization in many countries. *Significance to US History*: Internal migration played an important role in the interregional politics and trade of the era. Migration of Native Americans contributed to interactions between tribes and with new European settlers. Attempted migration of European settlers often led to hostile relations with Native Americans as the Europeans encroached onto historically Native land.
*International Trade* (1.2, I, C) Key Concept 1.2: Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. I. European expansion into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies. C) Improvements in maritime technology and more organized methods for conducting *international trade*, such as joint-stock companies, helped drive changes to economies in Europe and the Americas. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: International trade is the exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories, which could involve the activities of the government and individual. In most countries, such trade represents a significant share of gross domestic product (GDP). While international trade has been present throughout much of history (see Silk Road, Amber Road, salt road), its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries. It is the presupposition of international trade that a sufficient level of geopolitical peace and stability are prevailing in order to allow for the peaceful exchange of trade and commerce to take place between nations. *Significance to US History*: International Trade played a vital role in the development of regional colonial economies of various natures, from farming to timber to fishing. International Trade also promoted the import of African slaves to the New World, as well as the export of raw materials and new foodstuffs to the Old World via the Columbian exchange.
*Maritime Technology* (1.2, I, C) Key Concept 1.2: Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. I. European expansion into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies. C) Improvements in *maritime technology* and more organized methods for conducting international trade, such as joint-stock companies, helped drive changes to economies in Europe and the Americas. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: Marine technology is defined by WEGEMT (a European association of 40 universities in 17 countries) as "technologies for the safe use, exploitation, protection of, and intervention in, the marine environment." In this regard, according to WEGEMT, the technologies involved in marine technology are the following: naval architecture, marine engineering, ship design, ship building and ship operations; oil and gas exploration, exploitation, and production; hydrodynamics, navigation, sea surface and sub-surface support, underwater technology and engineering; marine resources (including both renewable and non-renewable marine resources); transport logistics and economics; inland, coastal, short sea and deep sea shipping; protection of the marine environment; leisure and safety. *Significance to US History*: Improvements in maritime technology not only allowed initial exploration of the New World, but also accelerated the development of the Triangular Trade system, allowing economic and cultural influences to travel between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. In addition, maritime technology stimulated the development of regional economic activities in America, such as fishing and shipbuilding.
*Maize Cultivation* (1.1, I, A) Key Concept 1.1: As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. A) The spread of *maize cultivation* from present-day Mexico northward into the present-day American Southwest and beyond supported economic development, settlement, advanced irrigation, and social diversification among societies. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: Most historians believe maize was domesticated in the Tehuacan Valley of Mexico. The Olmec and Mayans cultivated it in numerous varieties throughout Mesoamerica, cooked, ground or processed through nixtamalization. Beginning about 2500 BC, the crop spread through much of the Americas. The region developed a trade network based on surplus and varieties of maize crops. After European contact with the Americas in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, explorers and traders carried maize back to Europe and introduced it to other countries. Maize spread to the rest of the world because of its ability to grow in diverse climates. *Significance to US History*: Maize was an essential part of the daily lives of Native Americans. Also, before the introduction of maize to European settlers, death due to starvation was highly common. Maize allowed European settlers to keep permanent agricultural settlements where they could not before.
*Mexico* (1.1, I, A) Key Concept 1.1: As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. A) The spread of maize cultivation from present-day *Mexico* northward into the present-day American Southwest and beyond supported economic development, settlement, advanced irrigation, and social diversification among societies. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica, and surrounding territories. This became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence (compare Latium). It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley which became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result, or vice versa. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital, Mexico City. This was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan. *Significance to US History*: Interactions between Spanish American settlers in Mexico and British and French American settlers in Northern America provided an important corollary to the tensions present in Europe at the time. Additionally, Mexican interactions with Native Americans were especially hostile, even compared to those of other Europeans with indigenous peoples.
*Mississippi River Valley* (1.1, I, C) Key Concept 1.1: As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. C) In the Northeast, the *Mississippi River Valley*, and along the Atlantic seaboard some societies developed mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies that favored the development of permanent villages. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Most were hunter-gatherers or herders, but some, such as the Mound builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the native way of life as first explorers, then settlers, ventured into the basin in increasing numbers. The river served first as a barrier - forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States - then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. In the 19th century, during the height of Manifest Destiny, the Mississippi and several western tributaries, most notably the Missouri, formed pathways for the western expansion of the United States. *Significance to US History*: The Mississippi River Valley was home to many Native American tribes, and the encroachment of European settlers caused the development of agricultural societies rather than the traditional hunter-gatherer Native American societies.
*Natural Resources* (1.1, I, GEO) Key Concept 1.1: As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. GEO-1.0: Explain how geographic and environmental factors shaped the development of various communities, and analyze how competition for and debates over *natural resources* have affected both interactions among different groups and the development of government policies. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: Natural Resources are all that exists without the actions of humankind. This includes all natural characteristics such as magnetic, gravitational, and electrical properties and forces. On earth we include sunlight, atmosphere, water, land (includes all minerals) along with all vegetation and animal life that naturally subsists upon or within the heretofore identified characteristics and substances. *Significance to US History*: Natural Resources during the era introduced competition both between groups of Native Americans and European settlers, and between individual groups of Europeans. Additionally, an abundance of certain types of natural resources directed the development of early settlements toward certain economic activities (e.g. timber in the north creating a large shipping industry).
*Slavery* (1.2, II, C) Key Concept 1.2: Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. II. The Columbian Exchange and development of the Spanish Empire in the Western Hemisphere resulted in extensive demographic, economic, and social changes. C) European traders partnered with some West African groups who practiced *slavery* to forcibly extract slave labor for the Americas. The Spanish imported enslaved Africans to labor in plantation agriculture and mining. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: Slavery is a legal or economic system in which principles of property law are applied to humans allowing them to be classified as property, to be owned, bought and sold accordingly, and they cannot withdraw unilaterally from the arrangement. While a person is a slave, the owner is entitled to the productivity of the slave's labour, without any remuneration. The rights and protection of the slave may be regulated by laws and customs in a particular time and place, and a person may become a slave from the time of their capture, purchase or birth. Such slavery is commonly referred to as chattel slavery or traditional slavery. It is the least prevalent form of slavery in the world today. *Significance to US History*: The development of plantation agriculture, primarily in the South but also prevalent in other parts of the colonies, necessitated a large labor force. This gap in labor was filled by the burgeoning slave trade, which brought enslaved Africans over the Atlantic in a journey that ended up killing a significant portion of the slaves, called the Middle Passage. They were then coerced to work on indigo, tobacco, or rice fields, usually until death.
*Technological Innovation* (1.2, I, C) Key Concept 1.2: Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. I. European expansion into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies. C) *Improvements* in maritime *technology* and more organized methods for conducting international trade, such as joint-stock companies, helped drive changes to economies in Europe and the Americas. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: Technological change, technological development, technological achievement, or technological progress is the overall process of invention, innovation and diffusion of technology or processes. In essence technological change is the invention of technologies (including processes) and their commercialization via research and development (producing emerging technologies), the continual improvement of technologies (in which they often become less expensive), and the diffusion of technologies throughout industry or society (which sometimes involves disruption and convergence). In short, technological change is based on both better and more technology. *Significance to US History*: Technological Innovation created easier access to the New World; improved maritime technology and navigation technology made the journey far easier. Additionally, technological innovation within the New World created regional economic change in fields of agriculture, production, etc.
*Columbian Exchange* (1.2, I, B) Key Concept 1.2: Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the *Columbian Exchange* and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. I. European expansion into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies. B) The *Columbian Exchange* brought new crops to Europe from the Americas, stimulating European population growth, and new sources of mineral wealth, which facilitated the European shift from feudalism to capitalism. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: The Columbian Exchange or Grand Exchange was the widespread transfer of animals, plants, culture, human populations, technology and ideas between the American and Afro-Eurasian hemispheres in the 15th and 16th centuries, related to European colonization and trade after Christopher Columbus' 1492 voyage. Although unlikely to be intentional at the time, communicable diseases were a byproduct of the Exchange. *Significance to US History*: The Columbian Exchange was the transfer of goods, materials, and slaves from Europe, Africa, and the Americas. It stimulated economic activity in all three of the involved continents, and served to develop specific economic contributions to the Exchange from each colony in the New World. The developing Slave Trade was also prominent during the era, and introduced the idea of plantation agriculture to the Southern British Colonies.
*Great Plains* (1.1, I, B) Key Concept 1.1: As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. B) Societies responded to the aridity of the Great Basin and the grasslands of the western *Great Plains* by developing largely mobile lifestyles. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: The Great Plains is the broad expanse of flat land, much of it covered in prairie, steppe and grassland, that lies west of the Mississippi River tallgrass prairie states and east of the Rocky Mountains in the United States and Canada. This area covers parts, but not all, of the states of Colorado, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, Iowa, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas, and Wyoming, and the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Manitoba and Saskatchewan. The region is known for supporting extensive cattle ranching and dry farming. *Significance to US History*: Similarly to the Great Basin mentioned above, adverse conditions of certain parts of the land forced groups to adopt new lifestyles, including nomadism and temporary settlements.
*Northwest* (1.1, I, D) Key Concept 1.1: As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. D) Societies in the *Northwest* and present-day California supported themselves by hunting and gathering, and in some areas developed settled communities supported by the vast resources of the ocean. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: The Pacific Northwest has been occupied by a diverse array of Native American peoples for millennia. The Pacific Coast is seen by a growing number of scholars as a major migration route for late Pleistocene peoples moving from northeast Asia into the Americas. Archaeological evidence for these earliest indigenous peoples is sketchy—in part because heavy glaciation, flooding, and post-glacial sea level rise have radically changed the landscape—but fluted Clovis-like points found in the region were probably left by Paleoindians at least 13,000 years ago. Even earlier evidence for human occupation dating back as much as 14,500 years ago is emerging from Paisley Caves in south-central Oregon. *Significance to US History*: Northwestern Native American societies developed hunting and gathering techniques in order to survive in conditions not conducive to settled agriculture or nomadic pastoralism.
*Spanish Empire* (1.2, II, A) Key Concept 1.2: Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. II. The Columbian Exchange and development of the *Spanish Empire* in the Western Hemisphere resulted in extensive demographic, economic, and social changes. A) Spanish exploration and conquest of the Americas were accompanied and furthered by widespread deadly epidemics that devastated native populations and by the introduction of crops and animals not found in the Americas. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: The Spanish Empire (Spanish: Imperio Español) was one of the largest empires in world history and one of the first of global extent. It reached the peak of its military, political and economic power under the Spanish Habsburgs through the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, and its greatest territorial extent under the Bourbons in the 18th century when it was the largest empire in the world. The Spanish Empire became the foremost global power of its time, and was the first to be called the empire on which the sun never sets. The empire, administered from Madrid by the Spanish Crown, comprised territories and colonies in Europe, the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania. It originated during the Age of Exploration after the voyages of Christopher Columbus and lasted until the late 19th century. *Significance to US History*: The evolution of the Spanish Empire into a major European power provided a corollary between tensions in Western Europe between the major colonizers of the New World, and the colonies themselves. In addition, the advent of Spanish colonies created competition between those and other European colonies.
*Enconomienda System* (1.2, II, B) Key Concept 1.2: Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. II. The Columbian Exchange and development of the Spanish Empire in the Western Hemisphere resulted in extensive demographic, economic, and social changes. B) In the *encomienda system*, Spanish colonial economies marshaled Native American labor to support plantation-based agriculture and extract precious metals and other resources. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: The encomienda was a dependency relation system, that started in Spain during the Roman Empire, where the stronger people protected the weakest in exchange for a service. It was later used during the Spanish colonization of the Americas and the Philippines. The Spanish monarch would assign a Spaniard with the task of "protecting" a specific group of Native Americans. In the encomienda, the Spanish crown granted a person a specified number of natives of a specific community, with the indigenous leaders in charge of mobilizing the assessed tribute and labor. In turn, encomenderos were to take responsibility for instruction in the Christian faith, protection from warring tribes and pirates, instruction in the Spanish language and development and maintenance of infrastructure. In return, the natives would give tributes in the form of metals, maize, wheat, pork or any other agricultural product. In the first decade of Spanish presence in the Caribbean, Spaniards divided up the natives, who in some cases were worked relentlessly. *Significance to US History*: The enconomienda system was the first form of organized coercive labor in the New World: it set the stage for later forms of coerced labor such as indentured servitude and African slavery. The eventual decline of the enconomienda system also perpetuated the need for African slavery as plantation agriculture continued to grow and require a greater labor source.
*Europeans* (1.2, I, A) Key Concept 1.2: Contact among *Europeans*, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. I. European expansion into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies. A) European nations' efforts to explore and conquer the New World stemmed from a search for new sources of wealth, economic and military competition, and a desire to spread Christianity. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: The ethnic groups in Europe are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various ethnic groups that reside in the nations of Europe. According to German monograph Minderheitenrechte in Europa co-edited by Pan and Pfeil (2002) there are 87 distinct peoples of Europe, of which 33 form the majority population in at least one sovereign state, while the remaining 54 constitute ethnic minorities. The total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of 770 million Europeans. *Significance to US History*: Europeans were the dominant source of immigrants to the New World during the era. Interactions between the newcomers and indigenous populations influenced political and geographic dynamics for centuries after the first Europeans landed on the eastern coast of North America.
*California* (1.1, I, D) Key Concept 1.1: As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. D) Societies in the Northwest and present-day *California* supported themselves by hunting and gathering, and in some areas developed settled communities supported by the vast resources of the ocean. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: The first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed an undefined portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila Galleons on their return trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565. The first Asians to set foot on what would be the United States occurred in 1587, when Filipino sailors arrived in Spanish ships at Morro Bay.[45] Sebastián Vizcaíno explored and mapped the coast of California in 1602 for New Spain. After the Portolà expedition of 1769-70, Spanish missionaries began setting up 21 California Missions on or near the coast of Alta (Upper) California, beginning in San Diego. During the same period, Spanish military forces built several forts (presidios) and three small towns (pueblos). Two of the pueblos grew into the cities of Los Angeles and San Jose. *Significance to US History*: Western societies depended mainly on hunting and gathering, but some fishing communities developed in the region, and settled agriculture, while uncommon, was somewhat relevant to the populations present.
*American Southwest* (1.1, I, A) Key Concept 1.1: As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments. I. Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure. A) The spread of maize cultivation from present-day Mexico northward into the present-day *American Southwest* and beyond supported economic development, settlement, advanced irrigation, and social diversification among societies. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: The first European intrusion into the region came from the south. In 1539, a Jesuit Franciscan named Marcos de Niza led an expedition from Mexico City which passed through eastern Arizona. The following year Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, based on reports from survivors of the Narváez expedition (1528-36) who had crossed eastern Texas on their way to Mexico City, led an expedition to discover the Seven Golden Cities of Cíbola. The 1582-3 expedition of Antonio de Espejo explored New Mexico and eastern Arizona; and this led to Juan de Oñate's establishment of the Spanish province of Santa Fe de Nuevo México in 1598, with a capital founded near Ohkay Oweenge Pueblo, which he called San Juan de los Caballeros. Oñate's party also attempted to establish a settlement in Arizona in 1599, but were turned back by inclement weather. In 1610, Santa Fe was founded, making it the oldest capital in United States. *Significance to US History*: While not exceedingly relevant during the time period, the Southwest did serve as an exemplification of specifically Spanish motivations for exploration and discovery. The focus on material wealth in the form of gold, and the expansion of the Roman Catholic faith is significant because of its implications about the values of Spanish explorers.
*Native Americans* (1.2, I, A) Key Concept 1.2: Contact among Europeans, *Native Americans*, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. I. European expansion into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies. A) European nations' efforts to explore and conquer the New World stemmed from a search for new sources of wealth, economic and military competition, and a desire to spread Christianity. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North and South America, and their descendants. Pueblos indígenas (indigenous peoples) is a common term in Spanish-speaking countries. Aborigen (aboriginal/native) is used in Argentina, whereas "Amerindian" is used in Quebec and The Guianas but not commonly in other countries. Indigenous peoples are commonly known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, which include First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples. Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. *Significance to US History*: Native American interactions with early European immigrants shaped their status with later American leaders and constituents. Although many early interactions were positive, some negative impressions of Native Americans resonated with European settlers due mainly to European encroachment onto Native American land.
*Subjugation* (1.2, III, C) Key Concept 1.2: Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. III. In their interactions, Europeans and Native Americans asserted divergent world views regarding issues such as religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power. C) Extended contact with Native Americans and Africans fostered a debate among European religious and political leaders about how non- Europeans should be treated, as well as evolving religious, cultural, and racial justifications for the *subjugation* of Africans and Native Americans. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*: The interaction between indigenous and non-indigenous societies throughout history has been complex, ranging from outright conflict and subjugation to some degree of mutual benefit and cultural transfer. A particular aspect of anthropological study involves investigation into the ramifications of what is termed first contact, the study of what occurs when two cultures first encounter one another. The situation can be further confused when there is a complicated or contested history of migration and population of a given region, which can give rise to disputes about primacy and ownership of the land and resources. *Significance to US History*: The issue of subjugation of Native Americans was prevalent in Spanish American colonies, and an eventual political movement in the mother country of Spain eliminated the practice of the enconomienda system to enslave Native Americans. Unfortunately, the majority of the damage was already done, as vast populations of indigenous peoples were killed by diseases or worked to death. Perhaps more unfortunately, however, the elimination of the subjugation of Native Americans led to an enormous increase in the African Slave Trade, as plantation owners in Spanish and British colonies increased the importation of slaves to work their ever increasing fields of cash crops.
*Conquering* (1.2, I, A) Key Concept 1.2: Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. I. European expansion into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies. A) European nations' efforts to explore and *conquer* the New World stemmed from a search for new sources of wealth, economic and military competition, and a desire to spread Christianity. (Source: 2015 Revised College Board Content Outline for AP US History)
*Definition from Wikipedia*:Extensive European colonization began in 1492, when a Spanish expedition headed by Christopher Columbus sailed west to find a new trade route to the Far East but inadvertently landed in what came to be known to Europeans as the "New World". European conquest, large-scale exploration, colonization and industrial development soon followed. Columbus' first two voyages (1492-93) reached the Bahamas and various Caribbean islands, including Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Cuba. In 1497, sailing from Bristol on behalf of England, John Cabot landed on the North American coast, and a year later, Columbus's third voyage reached the South American coast. As the sponsor of Christopher Columbus's voyages, Spain was the first European power to settle and colonize the largest areas, from North America and the Caribbean to the southern tip of South America. Spanish cities were founded as early as 1496 with Santo Domingo in today's Dominican Republic. *Significance to US History*: Desire to overcome Native American empires was a significant motivational factor in the expansionism and exploration of many Western European countries. This fueled conflict in Southern North America and regions of South America in the continents early European history.
