APUSH Period 3

Implied Powers

Powers derived from the enumerated powers and the "necessary and proper" clause. These powers are not stated specifically but are considered to be reasonably implied through the exercise of delegated powers.

Washington's Neutrality Proclamation

President Washington chose to remain neutral in the War between Great Britain and France. In 1793 he issued the Neutrality Act to avoid "permanent alliances" with foreign powers. His calls for neutrality inspired isolationists later on. This sentiment was reflected in his farewell address in 1796.

Fourth Amendment

Protects Americans against unreasonable searches and seizures. No soldier, government agent, or police can search your home without a search warrant, issued by a judge upon evidence of "probable cause."

Third Amendment

Quartering of soldiers

Second Amendment

Right to bear arms

Fifth-Eigth Amendments

Rights of the accused. These amendments keep the powerful, well-funded legal system in check.

Samuel Adams

Samuel Adams was a prominent political activist who argued in favor of resisting taxation without representation, and later, in favor of revolution. He helped found the Sons of Liberty, an anti-British group, and helped the Sons carry out the Boston Tea Party in 1773. He was also involved in established the Committees of Correspondence that eventually functioned as temporary state governments when the colonies first broke away from Britain. Samuel Adams played a major role in convincing the Thirteen Colonies to revolt against Britain.

New Jersey Plan

Small states at the Constitutional Convention advocated for a one-house legislature with each state getting one vote.

Olive Branch Petition

Some members of the Continental Congress, who still hoped for reconciliation, sent this petition to the King George III (who rejected it) in 1775, affirming loyalty to the monarch and blaming current problems on Parliament.

First Committee of Correspondence

Starting in 1764, these committees of opponents of British policies initially spread information and coordinated actions. By the 1770s they had become virtual shadow governments in the colonies, challenging the legitimacy of legislative assemblies and royal governors.

Proclamation of 1763

The end of the French and Indian War left Britain with control of new land that was occupied by Native Americans. British leaders felt it would be better to establish stable trading relationships with those Native Americans than to anger them by settling in their lands. The Proclamation of 1763 was a British law that prohibited colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. The land west of the Appalachians had previously been French territory, but France gave it to Britain as part of the treaty that ended the French and Indian War. However, Britain worried that allowing colonists to settle there would stir up trouble with Native Americans in the region. The Proclamation was extremely unpopular among colonists, many of whom wanted to settle the newly acquired territory. By inspiring backlash against the British government, the Proclamation of 1763 was an early step on the road towards revolution.

Virginia Resolves

The resolves, debated in 1765, called for a degree of colonial self-government that went beyond more moderate proposals.

Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions

These resolutions put forward the idea that the states had the right to nullify a law it found inconsistent with the Constitution. They raised the issue of the relationship between the federal government and the states.

"Critical Period"

Used to describe the 1780s, when the existence of the US was in question

Jay's Treaty

(1794) Britain agreed to withdraw from the west but only after 18 months, and would not compensate American shippers for lost cargoes, nor planters for lost slaves. American planters would be forced to repay debts dating back to the colonial era. The British trade to the West Indies was limited. Following the Treaty, the US and England seemed to have friendly relations.

Pinckney's Treaty

(1795) Treaty with spain allowing the US commercial use of the mississippi river and defined the border between the US and Spanish territory in Western Florida.

Montesquieu

"The Spirit of the Laws"; tried to use scientific method to find natural laws that govern the social and political relationships of human beings; identified 3 types of governments: republics, despotism, and monarchies; invented separation of powers

Declaratory Act

(1766) Stated that the British Parliament had the same power to tax in the colonies as it did in Great Britain. Parliament emphasized its authority to make binding laws on the American colonies.

Vermont Constitution

(1777) Outlawed slavery in its Constitution, citing the language of the Declaration of Independence.

Battle of Saratoga

(1777) Turning point of the American Revolution. It was very important because it convinced the French to give the U.S. military support. It lifted American spirits, ended the British threat in New England by taking control of the Hudson River, and, most importantly, showed the French that the Americans had the potential to beat their enemy, Great Britain.

Treaty of Paris (French and Indian War)

1763-France surrendered virtually its entire North American Empire (everything in Canada and east of the Mississippi River to England, and all of the territory west of the Mississippi to Spain)

Gaspee Affair

1772-Local men in Rhode Island boarded a British ship, looted it and burned it. It represented a shift towards more militant tactics by colonial protestors

Fighting at Lexington and Concord

1775-"the shot heard around the world," beginning of fighting between colonists and British troops. The event represented a shift in the colonial situation from resistance to rebellion

Redcoats

"Redcoat" was a name for a British soldier during the Revolutionary War. Though well trained and well equipped, British soldiers had trouble responding to the guerilla tactics of American militias. In addition, the Americans were spread out over a huge region, and there were not enough redcoats in North America to control the whole territory at once. These factors contributed to Britain's eventual defeat.

Townshend Revenue Acts

1767-These acts imposed additional external taxes (on imports) on the colonists.

The Federalist Papers

A highly influential political tract outlined, by Madison, Jay, and Hamilton, the failure of the Articles of Confederation and the benefits of a powerful government, with checks and balances.

Loyalists

A percentage of the colonial population that remained loyal to Great Britain during the Revolution. The British offered freedom to slaves that joined the British. Some American Indians also supported the British. Many sides did not choose a side in the conflict.

Indian Wars

A series of military conflicts that ensued in the 1790s in the Ohio River territory.

National Bank of the United States

Alexander Hamilton, Washington's secretary of the treasury, proposed a series of economic measures to stabilize the new nation's economy. Central to his plans was the national bank, which would hold tax revenues and act as a stabilizing force. He proposed that it would be 20% publicly controlled and 80% privately controlled. He believed it was important to have wealthy investors financially and psychologically invested in the new government. Jefferson argued that the constitution did not permit the creation of a national bank, which began the debate over strict vs. loose interpretations (construction) of the constitution. Washington signed the bank law in 1791.

XYZ Affair

At the time of the XYZ Affair, France and Britain were at war. France viewed Jay's Treaty of 1794 as evidence of an American- British alliance. In response, France began harassing American merchant ships and seizing their goods. Relations between the U.S. and France became tense; it was during negotiations intended to ease this tension that the XYZ Affair occurred. In 1798, the U.S. was on tense terms with France, in part because France was harassing American merchant ships. The U.S. and France set out to negotiate a peace treaty, but during the negotiations the French ministers demanded the U.S. pay a huge sum just to continue the talks. The incident was called the XYZ Affair because newspapers referred to the French officials who made the infamous demand as "Ministers X, Y and Z." Outrage over the incident led to the Quasi-War of 1798- 1800.

Benjamin Franklin

Benjamin Franklin was a cultural icon in 18th century America. He was a scientist, an inventor, a popular author, and an ambassador. In 1754 he proposed the Albany Plan of Union, an early call for unity between colonies. The plan was never put into practice. Franklin also played a key role in the American Revolution: as ambassador to France, he helped convince France to send its navy to fight on the side of the Americans. Franklin helped ensure the success of the Revolution by securing French military assistance.

Virginia Plan

Bigger states at the Constitutional Convention advocated for a representation system that pegged the the number of representatives from each state to the population of the state.

Minuteman

Colonial militia volunteers who were prepared to fight the British at a minute's notice.

Actual vs. Virtual Representation

Colonists began to demand actual representation in response to Parliament imposing new taxes (e.g. the Stamp Act) on the colonies. Actual representation means having representatives in the government. The American colonists had no representatives in the British Parliament - thus, they did not have actual representation. When Britain started taxing the colonies in the 1760s, colonists argued that they shouldn't be taxed by a government in which they had no representatives. British leaders countered that colonists had "virtual representation," because Parliament acted in the interest of all British subjects, including colonists.

First Amendment

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

March of the Paxton Boys

During 1764, it protested the quaker oligarchy's lenient policy towards the Indians, lead by the Scots-Irish. Many participants of this evetually joined the embattled American Revolutionists.

French Revolution

Events in Europe greatly impacted the newly formed US. In 1789, the French Revolution began and Americans debated the role of the US in the world. Federalists=england, anti-federalists=french

Eighth Amendment

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Articles of Confederation

From the start of the Revolutionary War to 1781, the Second Continental Congress acted as the nation's central government. In 1781 the Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation and renamed itself the Confederation Congress, but it was basically the same legislative body as before. The Articles of Confederation, adopted in 1781, were America's first try at establishing a new federal government. The Articles established no executive branch and no judiciary branch, only a legislature. The federal government couldn't establish taxes - to raise money, it had to sell publically owned land (e.g. unsettled land to the west) or ask for loans from the states. Also, laws required a large majority to pass, and the government had no way to enforce the few laws it did pass. Two important laws were passed by the Confederation Congress: the Land Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance. These laws basically established the procedure through which the U.S. would add new states as it expanded west. The weakness of the Articles of Confederation prompted American leaders to call the Constitutional Convention in 1787.

Judiciary Act

In 1789 Congress passed this Act which created the federal-court system. The act managed to quiet popular apprehensions by establishing in each state a federal district court that operated according to local procedures.

"Funding and Assumption"

In 1790, Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton had the federal government "assume" (i.e., take responsibility for paying off) the states' debts. The federal government raised money to pay off these debts by instating new taxes and tariffs. The plan was opposed by Thomas Jefferson and the Democratic- Republicans. They thought it gave the federal government too great a roll in the nation's economy. Nevertheless, the plan was successful.

Federalist Number 51

James Madison's explanation and defense of the three branch governmental system.

First Presidential Cabinet and the "unwritten constitution"

Jefferson-Dept. of State, Knox-Dept. of War, Hamilton-Treasury, Randolph-First attorney general, Jay-Chief justice. The cabinet and many other customs that Washington established (like 2-term presidencies) became known as the "unwritten constitution" until the 22nd amendment (1951-following FDR's four-term presidency) was ratified.

John Adams

John Adams was President of the United States from 1797 to 1801. A staunch Federalist, he favored a strong central government. He was president during the Quasi-War with France. During the Quasi-War, he cited the need to deal with "French spies" to justify his support for the Alien and Sedition Acts. These laws proved hugely unpopular, and contributed to Adams's loss in the presidential election of 1800.

King George III

King of England during the American Revolution

Boston Massacre

Many colonists resisted obeying the Townshend Acts of 1768, and British soldiers were sent to Massachusetts to help enforce the new laws. Some of these soldiers were still there in 1770; colonists like those who provoked the confrontation that led to the Boston Massacre resented their presence. The Boston Massacre was an incident in which British soldiers fired into a crowd of colonists, killing several. It took place in 1770. The soldiers had been stationed in Boston to enforce the extremely unpopular Townshend Acts of 1768. Many colonists resented the soldiers' presence. On the day of the Boston Massacre, a handful of colonists provoked a dispute with soldiers on duty in Boston. Eventually a crowd of colonists gathered and began taunting and physically harassing the soldiers. The soldier then fired into the crowd. The Boston Massacre proved to be highly effective anti-British propaganda in the hands of American Patriots.

Pennsylvania's Gradual Abolition Act

Most states in the North did not abolish slavery immediately. Instead, they passed "Gradual Emancipation" laws which called for a phasing out of slavery. With its statute of 1780, Pennsylvania became one of the first states to enact such legislation.

"Quasi-War" with France

The Quasi-War was a period of hostility between the U.S. and France that lasted from 1798 to 1800. This was during John Adams' presidency. Neither side ever declared war, and the only fighting consisted of some small naval engagements. The main source of conflict was that the French kept harassing American merchant ships and seizing goods that were bound for Britain (with whom France was at war). Another cause was the XYZ Affair: a French diplomat demanded bribes from an American official

Northwest Land Ordinance

A revision of the earlier Land Ordinance of 1785, the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 refined some of the earlier qualifications for statehood. It asserted that these were not second-class states and it further provided that a certain amount of land had to be reserved for public education, and that slavery was to be prohibited in this territory north of the Ohio River.

Treaty of Fort Stanwix

A treaty regarding land claims north of the Ohio river. It was negotiated with members of the Iroquois Confederacy, a group of Indians that did not, for the most part, occupy the lands in question. The main occupants of the region were not part of the negotiations and protested bitterly.

Quartering Act

After the French and Indian War ended in 1763, large numbers of British troops were still stationed in the colonies. The Quartering Act was an attempt to provide lodging for them. The Quartering Act of 1765 was a British law that required colonists to provide housing and provisions for British soldiers stationed in the colonies. If there wasn't enough room in public buildings, soldiers would stay in private homes, at the expense of their hosts. The law was extremely unpopular among colonists. It was cited as an example of British tyranny in the Declaration of Independence.

Pontiac's Rebellion

After the French and Indian War, British troops occupied French forts and in response the Ottawa chief, Pontiac, and other Indian leaders organized resistance to British troops stationed in areas near the Great Lakes. The rebellion ended in 1764 but smaller skirmishes continued.

Republicanism

After the US won its freedom there was widespread agreement that it would become a republic (power rests with the people rather than a monarch). There was debate over the definition of a republic. Some thought it was composed of people who embodied civic virtue, putting the values of the community above self-interest and leading industrious, simple lives. Others argued that the ideal republican citizens pursued their own self-interests, an understanding that drew inspiration from the economic ideas of Adam Smith. This view placed a focus on ambition and economic freedom.

Battle of Fallen Timbers and Treaty of Greenville

At this Fallen Timbers (1794), natives were defeated by Americans and in the Treaty (1795) Indians gave up most of Ohio to Americans.

Bill of Rights

Before the Bill of Rights was added, Anti-Federalists felt that the Constitution concentrated too much power in the hands of the central government, especially the President. They fear it would inevitably devolve into a tyranny. The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the Constitution. These amendments guarantee a number of individual rights to all Americans, including freedom of speech, the right to a fair trial, and prohibition against torture. Anti-Federalists such as Thomas Jefferson felt the Constitution gave the central government too much power, and refused to ratify it unless a Bill of Rights was added.

American Revolution

Before the mid-1700s, Britain didn't tax the colonies, or involve itself much in colonial affairs. However, after the French and Indian War (1754-1763), Britain was deeply in debt and tried to squeeze revenue out of the colonies. Britain established a series of taxes in the 1760s, despite growing protests from colonists. Colonists also resented continued British military presence in America following the French and Indian War. These grievances culminated in the American Revolution in 1775. The American Revolution was the transformation of the Thirteen Colonies into a new, independent nation. The first battles of the revolution were fought in 1775. In 1776, the colonies formally declared independence. Fighting continued until 1783. Britain had a well-trained and well-equipped army, while colonial forces consisted of local militias and the hastily-organized Continental Army. However,the British weren't used to the Americans' guerilla tactics, and were surprised by their refusal to surrender even when their cities had been captured. French naval intervention also helped the Americans win. The Continental Congress acted as a national government throughout the Revolution. In 1781, towards the end of the Revolutionary War, the Continental Congress officially adopted the Articles of Confederation as the founding documents of the new American nation. However, the Articles of Confederation proved ineffective; in 1787 they were replaced with the Constitution.

Constitutional Convention

By 1787, it was clear that the Articles of Confederation needed improvement. The central government could not conduct effective diplomacy (as evidenced by its failure to enforce the Treaty of Paris that ended the Revolutionary War). Nor could it maintain law and order (as evidenced by its failure to put down Shays' Rebellion in 1786). The Constitutional Convention was called to design a more effective central government. The delegates wound up writing a new Constitution instead. One major point of debate was whether to give more populous states more votes in Congress. The delegates compromised: one house of Congress gives equal say to each state (the Senate), while the other accepts more representatives from states with higher populations (the House of Representatives). Another point of debate was whether slaves would count towards a state's population when calculating how many representatives it gets in the House. The delegates compromised with the notorious Three-Fifths Clause. The Constitutional Convention produced the Constitution, which was ratified in 1788 and came into effect in 1789.

Common Sense

Common Sense was written when relations between the colonies and Britain had become openly hostile, but when there was still some question as to whether the colonies would go through with declaring independence. Common Sense was a pamphlet published by Thomas Paine in early 1776; it quickly became one of the best selling texts in the colonies. In it, Paine argued that Britain could no longer legitimately claim authority over the colonies, and the colonies had a right to rebel. Paine cited both practical reasons (e.g. an island shouldn't rule a continent) and more ideological reasons (e.g. Britain had broken the "social contract"). Note that Common Sense was published after the start of the Revolutionary War, but before the colonies had decided to formally declare independence. The great popularity of Common Sense in the colonies helped ensure that the colonies would pursue full independence.

Separation of Powers

Constitutional division of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, with the legislative branch making law, the executive applying and enforcing the law, and the judiciary interpreting the law.

Crispus Attucks

Crispus Attucks was a Black colonist killed by British soldiers in the Boston Massacre in 1770. The deaths caused by British soldiers in the Boston Massacre were used as propaganda by revolutionaries to stir up anti-British sentiment in the colonies. In the 1800s, abolitionists used Attucks's patriotic death to help argue against slavery.

Fugitive Slave Act of 1793

Enacted by Congress in 1793, the first Fugitive Slave Act authorized local governments to seize and return escaped slaves to their owners and imposed penalties on anyone who aided in their flight. Widespread resistance to the 1793 law later led to the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, which added further provisions regarding runaways and levied even harsher punishments for interfering in their capture.

George Washington

George Washington led the Continental Army in the Revolutionary War (1775-1783), and later was the nation's first President (1789-1797). He gained valuable experience in the French and Indian War. As President he often sided with the Federalist Party, but refused to join any party. In his Farewell Address, Washington urged Americans to avoid both foreign entanglements and political parties. By stepping down after two terms, Washington established the tradition of a two-term limit for the President (this wasn't made law till the 1950s). He also started the Presidential tradition of assembling a cabinet of advisors. The function of his first term was to set up the government (judiciary act)

State Constitutions

In 1776, the Second Continental Congress urged states to draft constitutions. By 1778, 8 states had drawn up constitutions and others updated their colonial charters. The constitutions affirmed the republican notion that government rests on the consent of the governed. Pennsylvania's constitution was the most radical due to the democratic-minded group of activists, including Thomas Paine, who gave voice to the artisan and lower-class communities of Philadelphia rather than the merchant elite class. It abolished property qualifications for voting and abolished the office of governor.

Three-fifths Clause

In 1787, when the framers of the Constitution were gathered at the Constitutional Convention, slaves comprised about 40% of the population of the United States. Most of these slaves were in the South. The Three-Fifths Clause is a section of the Constitution that deals with whether slaves count towards the overall population of a state. States with bigger populations get to send more representatives to the House of Representatives. So, Southern states with many slaves wanted to count their slaves as part of the population; that way they'd get to send more representatives the House. Likewise, Northern states with few slaves opposed counting slaves as part of the population. The Constitution compromised by counting slaves as 3/5 of a person for the purposes of determining how many representatives a state got. The Three-Fifths Clause was an early example of a compromise between the opposing interests of the North and the South. Contemporaries considered such compromises necessary to keep the states united. On the other hand, compromises like this did not address the actual incompatibility between the North and the South; as such they merely postponed the inevitable clash that would come of that incompatibility - the Civil War.

Whiskey Rebellion

In 1794, farmers in Pennsylvania rebelled against Hamilton's excise tax on whiskey (to raise revenues to pay for his plans), and several federal officers were killed in the riots caused by their attempts to serve arrest warrants on the offenders. In October, 1794, the army, led by Washington, put down the rebellion. The incident showed that the new government under the Constitution could react swiftly and effectively to such a problem, in contrast to the inability of the government under the Articles of Confederation to deal with Shay's Rebellion.

Patriots

In the wake of the French and Indian War, the colonies suffered an economic depression that many colonists blamed on new British taxes. In addition, many colonists were upset at losing the large degree of independence granted by Britain's former policy of "salutary neglect." Thanks in part to these conditions, Patriots became increasingly influential in the colonies. Patriots was a name that colonists who opposed British rule used to refer to themselves in the 1760s and '70s. Up through the start of the American Revolution, the majority of colonists did not identify themselves as Patriots.

Alien and Sedition Acts

Laws passed by a federalist-dominated congress, in order to limit criticism from the opposition Democratic-Republican party. The acts made it more difficult for aliens to achieve American citizenship and made it a crime to defame the president or congress. Anti-federalists (Jefferson and Madison) were concerned by this expansion of power.

Committees of Correspondence

Loose groups of Patriots such as the Sons of Liberty had existed since the 1760s. The Committees of Correspondence were an attempt to improve the organization and coordination of the independence movement. Committees of Correspondence were groups organized by Patriots in the early 1770s to help coordinate anti-British activism throughout the colonies. In 1774, Committees of Correspondence began to replace colonial governments, leading to the creation of new state governments. Committees of Correspondence had an important role in carrying out the transformation of the Thirteen Colonies into self-governing states in 1774-75. The Committees themselves often took over as interim state governments.

Federalist Number 10

Madison argued that a complex government, governing a large and diverse population was the best guarantee of liberty. With such a complex government, no one group could gain control and domination. Challenged the notion that republics had to be small to be democratic.

Shays' Rebellion

Many soldiers in the Continental Army had fought basically without payment in the Revolution. After the Revolutionary War ended, these soldiers found themselves burdened by debts they were unable to pay. Shays' Rebellion initially began as an organized effort in Massachusetts to prevent debtors' property from being seized and to prevent veterans from being thrown in debtors' prison. Shays' Rebellion was an attempt by impoverished Revolutionary War veterans in Massachusetts to avoid punishment for non-payment of debts. Led by Daniel Shays, the veterans took up arms in 1787, but didn't have much of a plan. The Confederation Congress (the national government) was unable to deal effectively with the uprising because it had no real way to enforce its laws - for example, it controlled no armed forces. The veterans were eventually subdued by a local, privately organized militia.

Agrarian Republic

The "agrarian republic" was Thomas Jefferson's vision for an America comprised mainly of self-reliant farmers. Jefferson supported policies that would help farmers prosper, rather than the manufacturers, merchants, and businesspeople of the urban North. For example, he supported low tariffs - low tariffs made foreign goods cheap, which was good for the farmers who bought them, but bad for American manufacturers who had to compete against foreign goods. Likewise, one motivation for the massive Louisiana Purchase in 1803 was to provide more land for farmers. Jefferson's vision of creating an agrarian republic was part of his motivation for supporting low tariffs, as well as for buying the Louisiana Territory in 1803.

Albany Plan

The Albany Plan was a proposal formulated by Benjamin Franklin in 1754. The plan called for the establishment of a central governing body that would be able to levy taxes and maintain armed forces. The Albany Plan was rejected by both the British and the colonial governments.

Boston Tea Party

The Boston Tea Party was a protest against the Tea Act of 1773. Staged in 1773, the Boston Tea Party was an act of public defiance against the Tea Act, and against British rule generally. The Tea Act had allowed the East India Company to sell tea cheaply in the colonies, driving local merchants out of business. In response, colonists raided East India Company ships in Boston Harbor and dumped their cargo of tea overboard. The raid was organized by the Sons of Liberty, a loosely structured group of Patriots. In response to the Boston Tea Party, Britain passed the Intolerable Acts in 1774. The Intolerable Acts shut down Boston Harbor and took away Massachusetts's right to self- government, among other things. The British hoped these punishment would put an end to unrest in the colonies, but they had the opposite effect, pushing the colonies to the brink of revolution.

Confederation Congress

The Confederation Congress was a direct continuation of the Second Continental Congress, in that it had the same structure and even the same delegates. It was designed to have very limited power because the Founding Fathers feared that any concentration of power in a central government might eventually evolve into tyranny. The Founding Fathers also wanted to ensure that the central government wouldn't eliminate the states' autonomy. The Confederation Congress was the central government established by the Articles of Confederation in 1781. It was a direct continuation of the Second Continental Congress, the temporary government that had guided the colonies through the Revolution. The Articles of Confederation established no judicial branch and no executive branch, so the Confederation Congress was the whole central government. It had no power to levy taxes or maintain an army, and proved unable to effectively govern the nation. Though mostly ineffective, the Confederation Congress did pass the Land Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance; these laws set the precedent for how the U.S. would organize western territories into states. The weakness of the Confederation Congress prompted the Constitution Convention of 1787. Originally intended only to modify the Articles of Confederation, the convention eventually produced the Constitution, which was adopted by the states in 1789.

Anti-Federalists

The Constitution was written specifically to give the federal government more power than the Articles of Confederation did, for example by establishing an executive branch. All the Founding Fathers were deeply suspicious of centralized power, but they split over the question of whether the Constitution centralized power too much. The Anti-Federalists argued that if the Constitution were ratified, the new president would inevitably become a tyrant. They also worried the new government would be controlled by members of the elite. Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, and George Mason were leading Anti-Federalists. The Bill of Rights was added to the Constitution as a concession to the Anti-Federalists. The Anti-Federalists successfully pushed to add the Bill of Rights to the Constitution, arguing that otherwise the newly- strengthened federal government would trample on individual liberties. After the Constitution was ratified, the Anti-Federalists' support for limiting federal power was carried on by the Democratic- Republican Party.

Constitution

The Constitution was written to replace the Articles of Confederation, America's first try at a set of founding documents. The Articles had established no executive or judicial branches. They also didn't give the government the authority to levy taxes or maintain armed forces. The government they created, the Confederation Congress, thus had neither the resources nor the power to enforce its laws and treaties. The Constituion was designed to fix those problems. The Constitution is the founding document of the U.S. government. It employs Separation of Powers in two ways. First, the central government is separated into legislative, judicial, and executive branches. Second, power is separated between the federal and state governments, with some powers delegated to the central government and others reserved to the states. The Constitution also uses "checks and balances" to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful-each branch has powers that allow it to keep the others in check. Nevertheless, the Constitution created a much stronger central government than the earlier Articles of Confederation had.

Continental Army

The Continental Army was the army organized by the Continental Congress to fight against Britain in the Revolutionary War. The Continental Army fought alongside local militias. Though it spent much of the war retreating from the British, the Continental Army wore them down simply by refusing to surrender. George Washington led the Continental Army and was revered as a hero after the war.

Declaration of Independence

The Continental Congress had been acting as a kind of central government for the Thirteen Colonies since 1774, and the first battles of the American Revolution had already taken place in 1775. Thus, the Declaration of Independence was in a sense a symbolic act to confirm that the colonies were, in fact, claiming independence. The Declaration of Independence was a formal claim to self-rule issued by the Continental Congress in 1776. It was written by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson was strongly influenced by the ideas of John Locke when writing the Declaration. Jefferson drew on Locke's idea of "natural rights" for the famous passage about people's right to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." He also drew on Locke's idea of the "social contract," arguing that because King George had failed in his obligations to the colonists, the colonists no longer owed him their loyalty.

Declaration of Rights and Grievances

The Declaration of Rights and Grievances was a formal complaint issued in 1765 by the members of the Stamp Act Congress. Though it did not call for a political break with Britain, it did list many of the same grievances that later appeared in the Declaration of Independence. The main grievance identified in the Declaration of Rights and Grievances was that Britain was taxing colonists without giving the colonists representation in Parliament.

Democratic Republicans

The Democratic-Republican Party was founded by Thomas Jefferson to oppose the Federalist Party. Early on, the party defined their platform in opposition to Hamilton's Financial Plan. he party opposed the Federalists throughout the 1790s, and then dominated American politics from 1800 to the mid-1820s. The Democratic- Republicans advocated strict construction and states' rights. They maintained bitter feelings towards Britain after the Revolution, and favored alliance with Britain's enemy, France. Under Jefferson's leadership, the party fought to prioritize the interests of the agrarian South and West over those of bankers and manufacturers in the urban Northeast (for example, by opposing protective tariffs). The Democratic-Republicans dominated American politics in the early 1800s. Presidents Thomas Jefferson (1801- 1809), James Madison (1809- 1817), and James Monroe (1817-1825) were Democratic- Republicans.

Elastic (necessary and proper) Clause

The Elastic Clause is a line in the Constitution that leaves the exact extent of federal power open-ended. While the Constitution carefully lists what matters Congress has authority over, the Elastic Clause adds that Congress can also pass laws that are "necessary and proper" to the fulfillment of duties. What counts as necessary and proper is open to interpretation. This clause was one reason Anti-Federalists thought the Constitution gave the central government too much power. Indeed, it is the basis for the many "implied powers" of Congress that have since been added to those specifically listed in the Constitution.

Federalists

The Federalists' support for a stronger central government was in large part motivated by the ineffectiveness of the Confederation Congress under the Articles of Confederation. The Federalists were Americans who favored ratifying the Constitution. After the Constitution was written at the Constitutional Convention of 1787, debate erupted over whether it should be adopted. Federalists argued that it struck a good balance between giving the government enough power to be effective and protecting the rights of state governments and individuals. Anti- Federalists argued that the Constitution gave the central government too much power. The Federalists won the debate, but compromised by adding the Bill of Rights to further prevent the new government from abusing its power. Key federalists were Alexander Hamilton, George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, and James Madison.

First Continental Congress

The First Continental Congress met in response to the Intolerable Acts. There had been earlier attempts at cooperation between colonies (most notably, the Stamp Act Congress of 1765), though none had been supported by so many of the colonies. The First Continental Congress was a meeting of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies (except Georgia) that was held in 1774. It was a major step towards unifying the Thirteen Colonies under one government. The Congress met to discuss how to respond to the recently-instituted Intolerable Acts. The delegates decided to boycott British goods and petition King George to undo the Intolerable Acts - and, if these measures failed, to convene a Second Continental Congress.

Checks and Balances

The Founding Fathers feared that if the central government (or any part of it) were given too much power, the government would inevitably evolve into a tyranny. This concern was reflected in the Articles of Confederation, which allowed the central government so little power that it could barely function. The Constitution gave the central government more power, but used checks and balances to ensure that each branch would keep the others in check. "Checks and balances" was a concept used by the framers of the Constitution to ensure that no individual branch of government would grow too powerful. The Constitution allows each branch certain authorities over the other branches, so that each branch balances the power of the others. For example, the Executive Branch gets to nominate Supreme Court justices and veto Congressional acts. The Legislative Branch votes on Supreme Court nominees and can impeach the President. The Judicial Branch can overturn Congress's laws.

French and Indian War

The French and Indian War (1754-763) was the American theater of a larger war between Britain and France called the Seven Years' War. In America, France held large territories to the west of the English colonies; they had also colonized Canada. Most of the fighting took place on or beyond the western frontier of the British colonies. While the Iroquois sided with the British, most of the Native American tribes who fought sided with the French. The French lost the war, and had to give up their North American territories to Britain. After the war, Britain was deeply in debt. Hoping to squeeze revenue out of the colonies, Britain passed a series of new taxes and trade laws (e.g. the Stamp Act of 1765). These laws ended Britain's old policy of "Salutary Neglect" (i.e., leaving the colonies alone). Colonists' backlash against the new taxes eventually led to the American Revolution. The French and Indian War proved a valuable source of experience for American soldiers in the Revolution.

Great Compromise

The Great Compromise was a compromise made at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 between the delegates from big states and the delegates from small states. Smaller states wanted each state to have equal say in Congress, while more populous states wanted each state to get a number of votes proportional to its population. The Compromise was to have a bicameral (two-house) Congress. One house (the Senate) would give each state two votes, regardless of population. The other (the House of Representatives) would give big states more votes than small states.

Coercive (intolerable) Acts

The Intolerable Acts were a series of British laws passed in 1774 in response to the Boston Tea Party. The laws were intended to punish the Massachusetts Colony and reinforce British control over the colonies. The Intolerable Acts closed Boston Harbor, brought the Massachusetts government more directly under royal control, allowed British officials who were accused of crimes in the colonies to be tried in England, and reformulated the Quartering Act. Rather than quelling unrest in the colonies, the Intolerable acts pushed colonists to the brink of revolution.

Land Ordinances

The Land Ordinance of 1784 called for the division of the west into 10 states, with the guarantee of self-government. The Land Ordinance of 1785 reduced the number from 10 to 3-5 and called for the area to be surveyed and divided into lots. A lot in every town would be set aside for education; the rest were sold. It was one of the few significant laws passed by the Confederation Congress. Along with the Northwest Ordinance, the Land Ordinance of 1785 helped determine how the U.S. would expand westward as it acquired new land. The main purpose of the law, however, was to raise funds. Under the Articles of Confederation, the central government couldn't institute taxes; the Land Ordinance was a step towards selling the frontier land to settlers. The Land Ordinance helped set the precedent for how the U.S. would deal with frontier territory as the nation pushed westward.

Second Continental Congress

The Second Continental Congress was a governing body that acted as a kind of national government for the Thirteen Colonies when they revolted against Britain. The Second Continental Congress met from 1775 to 1781, at which point the Articles of Confederation were adopted, and the Continental Congress became the Confederation Congress. Though its authority wasn't very clearly defined, the Second Continental Congress performed essential duties like printing currency and organizing the American war effort during the Revolution. It also issued the Declaration of Independence.

Sugar Act

The Seven Years' War (of which the French and Indian War was a part) left Britain with enormous debts. Britain attempted to address these debts by imposing new taxes on its colonies. The Sugar Act of 1764 was the first in a series of unpopular taxes that Britain passed in the 1760s. Britain was in debt because of the recent Seven Years' War (of which the French and Indian War was a part), and the new taxes were intended to help pay off that debt. The Sugar Act taxed sugar and molasses.

Sons of Liberty

The Sons of Liberty was a loose affiliation of the Patriots (that is, opponents of British rule) that formed in the American colonies in 1765. The group formed in response to unpopular new taxes such as the Sugar Act of 1764 and the Stamp Act of 1765. The Sons of Liberty were responsible for the Boston Tea Party.

Stamp Act Congress

The Stamp Act Congress was a meeting of delegates from nine of the Thirteen Colonies that convened in 1765. The purpose of the meeting was to discuss how to respond to the Stamp Act. The delegates' most concrete achievement was to issue the Declaration of the Stamp Act Congress, which outlined their complaints against the British government and called for an end to taxation without representation.

Stamp Act

The Stamp Act, passed in 1765, was the second in a series of unpopular taxes designed to address Britain's post-Seven Years' War debts. The Stamp Act imposed a tax on official papers such as legal documents and insurance documents. Stamp Act was so despised in the colonies that the British government repealed it in 1766.

Tea Act

The Tea Act, passed in 1773, was a law that allowed the East India Company to sell tea in the colonies cheaper than local merchants could sell it. The East India Company was a British corporation with close ties to the British government. The Tea Act outraged colonists, who felt they were being unfairly driven out of business.

Treaty of Paris (American Revolution)

The Treaty of Paris of 1783 was the treaty that ended the Revolutionary War. Britain gave up all claims of sovereignty over the U.S. Britain also agreed to remove all her troops from U.S. territory - a promise that Britain was slow to uphold. The treaty also stated that debts between the two countries would have to be paid. This was a controversial point, because many states owed debts to Britain that they did not want to pay.

Cotton Gin

The cotton gin was a machine used to process cotton. It was invented by Eli Whitney in 1793. Using a cotton gin was more efficient than working by hand. The invention made cotton plantations more profitable, which in turn increased demand for slaves to work the plantations. As a result, slavery became more entrenched in Southern life.

Thomas Jefferson

Thomas Jefferson was a politician from Virginia and a prominent Founding Father. He wrote the Declaration of Independence. Jefferson led the Anti- Federalist movement that opposed the adoption of the Constitution in 1787-89. (He thought the Constitution gave too much power to the central government.) In the 1790s, Jefferson founded the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose Alexander Hamilton's Federalist Party. Jefferson favored a narrow interpretation of the Constitution, friendship with France, and policies that benefitted farmers rather than northern manufacturers and financiers (Jeffersonian vision). As President (1801-1809), he bought the Louisiana Territory from France, hoping to provide farmland for the "agrarian republic" he envisioned.

Federalist Papers

Throughout the 1780s, the Articles of Confederation proved ineffective. In 1787, a Constitutional Convention was held to improve the Articles of Confederation; by the end of the convention, a new Constitution had been written. There followed a national debate concerning whether or not to ratify the new Constitution. The Federalist Papers were an attempt to sway that debate in favor of ratification. The Federalist Papers were a series of essays published in 1787-88 in support of ratifying the Constitution. The majority were written by Alexander Hamilton; some were written by James Madison, and a couple by John Jay. (All three were leading Federalists.)

Haitian Revolution

Toussaint l'Ouverture led this uprising, which in 1790 resulted in the successful overthrow of French colonial rule on this Caribbean island. This revolution set up the first black government in the Western Hemisphere and the world's second democratic republic (after the US). The US was reluctant to give full support to this republic led by former slaves. The revolution created Southern fears of a slave uprising in the US.

Writs of Assistance

Writs of Assistance were essentially search warrants that allowed British officers to search the homes and property of colonists. In the 1760s, the British government was concerned that colonists were disobeying trade laws such as the Navigation Acts of 1651. Hoping to cut down on smuggling, the British government began issuing writs of assistance freely, allowing British officers to arbitrarily search colonists' homes. Writs of Assistance inspired the Fourth Amendment to the Constitution, which prohibits illegal searches by the police. Writs of Assistance also caused resentment in the colonies, and were thus a step down the path to revolution.